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1952 
NEGRO  YEAR  BOOK 

»l 

A  Review  of  Events  Affecting  Negro  Life 


Jessie  Parkhurst  Guzman 

DIRECTOR,    DEPARTMENT   OF   RECORDS    AND   RESEARCH 
TUSKEGEE   INSTITUTE 

Editor 


Lewis  W.  Jones 

RESEARCH    ASSOCIATE,    RURAL   LIFE    COUNCIL 
TUSKEGEE   INSTITUTE 

Associate  Editor 


Woodrow  Hall 

Chief  Editorial  Assistant 


New  York 
WM.  H.  WISE  &  CO.,  ING. 


t. 

5 


Copyright,  1952 
Tuskegee  Institute 


10521 


PRINTED    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


•  '   «  '  '     ,  I  *  '  f  K       -  •«       »   » 

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Preface 


THE  NEGRO  YEAR  BOOK  dates  back  to  1912,  when  the  late  Booker  T. 
Washington,  founder  and  first  principal  of  Tuskegee  Institute,  gave 
$1,000  to  publish  the  first  edition  as  a  service  to  the  public.  This  sum 
was  the  residue  of  a  fund  donated  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and 
circulating  information  favorable  to  the  Negro.  It  was  expected  that 
there  would  be  only  one  edition;  however,  the  NEGRO  YEAR  BOOK  met 
a  wide  and  continued  demand.  This  volume  is  the  eleventh  edition  to  be 
issued  over  a  forty-year  period.  The  late  Monroe  N.  Work,  founder 
and  director  of  the  Tuskegee  Institute  Department  of  Records  and 
Research  from  1908  through  1938,  was  editor  of  the  first  nine  editions. 

For  the  forty  years  of  its  publication,  the  NEGRO  YEAR  BOOK  has 
been  extensively  used  as  a  reference  by  agencies,  educational  institu- 
tions, and  individuals  who  desired  readily  accessible  historical  and 
sociological  information  on  the  Negro.  It  is  specially  adapted  for  use 
in  schools,  libraries,  and  other  agencies  where  basic  and  current  infor- 
mation assembled  in  convenient  form  in  one  volume  is  desired. 

The  1952  edition  of  the  NEGRO  YEAR  BOOK  brings  together  facts 
about  various  aspects  of  Negro  life  and  about  the  participation  of 
Negroes  in  American  life.  Also  reported  are  facts  about  economic, 
social,  political,  and  educational  progress  of  Negroes  in  other  parts  of 
the  world.  Where  necessary,  information  covers  the  period  1947  to  1951, 
and  earlier.  Other  information  covers  only  1951.  It  will  be  noted  that 
in  some  tables  large  figures  are  rounded  off. 

The  chapters  of  the  NEGRO  YEAR  BOOK  have  been  prepared  by  con- 
tributors who  are  authorities  in  their  fields.  Users  of  this  volume  will 
find  it  well  organized  for  ready  reference.  A  new  feature  is  the  use  of 
pictures  to  highlight  newsworthy  events,  mainly  for  the  year  1951. 


111 


Contributors 


BRISCOE,  SHERMAN,  M.A. — Information  Specialist,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  Agri- 
culture. 

BROWN,  JOHN  S.,  JR.,  Ph.B.,  M.A. — Free-lance  writer,  historian;  Negro 
Actors  Guild  of  America,  Inc.,  New  York  City.  Contributed  the  chapter 
on.  The  Theatre,  Motion  Pictures,  the  Dance,  Radio,  Television. 

BROWN,  DR.  ROSCOE  C. — Health  Education  Consultant;  Chief,  Special  Pro- 
grams Branch,  Public  Health  Service,  Federal  Security  Agency,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  Health  and  Medical  Facilities. 

DAVIS,  ARTHUR  P.,  Ph.D. — Professor  of  English,  Howard  University,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  Negro  American  Literature. 

DAWSON,  CHARLES  C. — Free-lance  painter  and  illustrator;  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Contributed  the  original  chapter  on  Art. 

GOMILLION,  CHARLES  G.,  A.B.— Dean  of  Students,  Tuskegee  Institute, 
Tuskegee  Institute,  Alabama.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  Civil  Rights. 

HOUCHINS,  JOSEPH  R.,  Ph.D. — Specialist,  Negro  Statistics,  Bureau  of  the 
Census,  Washington,  D.C.  Consultant;  made  valuable  suggestions  on 
the  complete  outline  for  this  volume  and  on  source  materials,  supplied 

statistical  data  available  through  the  Bureau  of  the  Census. 

\ 

HOUSING  AND  HOME  FINANCE  AGENCY,  Washington,  D.C. — Contributed  the 
chapter  on  Housing. 

LOGAN,  RAYFORD  W.,  Ph.D. — Professor  of  History  and  Head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  History,  Howard  University;  Director,  Association  for  the  Study 
of  Negro  Life  and  History,  Washington,  D.C.  Contributed  the  chapter 
on  Trust  and  Non-Self -Governing  Territories. 

MITCHELL,  GEORGE  S.,  Ph.D. — Executive  Director,  Southern  Regional  Coun- 
cil, Atlanta,  Ga.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  Race  Relations  in  the 
Southern  States. 

MOON,  HENRY  LEE — Director  of  Public  Relations,  National  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Colored  People,  New  York  City.  Contributed 
article  on  Politics  and  Government. 

PRIDE,  ARMISTEAD  S.,  Ph.D. — Dean,  School  of  Journalism,  Lincoln  Uni- 
versity, Jefferson  City,  Mo.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  The  Negro  Press. 

RAULLERSON,  CALVIN  H.,  ]VLP.A. — Associate  Editor,  Who's  Who  in  the 
United  Nations,  New  York  City.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  The 
United  Nations  and  Human  Rights. 

SPRAGUE,  MORTEZA  D.,  M.A. — Librarian,  Tuskegee  Institute,  Tuskegee  Insti- 
tute, Alabama.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  Sports. 


CONTRIBUTORS 

SUTHERN,  ORRIN  CLAYTON,  II,  A.B. — Professor  of  Music,  Lincoln  University, 
Lincoln  University,  Pa.  Revised  the  chapter  previously  contributed  on 
Music. 

VALIEN,  PRESTON,  Ph.D. — Chairman,  Department  of  Social  Sciences,  Fisk 
University,  Nashville,  Tenn.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  Population. 

WASHINGTON,  FORRESTER  B.,  M.A.  LL.D. — Director,  the  Atlanta  University 
School  of  Social  Work,  Atlanta,  Ga.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  Social 
Welfare. 

WRIGHT,  R.  R.,  JR.,  Ph.D. — Bishop,  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
Little  Rock,  Ark.  Contributed  the  chapter  on  The  Church  and  Religious 
Work. 

Other  contributions  by  the  Editorial  Staff. 


Contents 


1.  POPULATION 1 

Definition  of  Negro,  1 
Population  Growth,  1 

Number  and  Rate  of  Increase,  1 

Regions,  Divisions,  and  States,  2 

Urban  and  Rural,  2 

Standard  Metropolitan  Areas  by  Color,  2 

Cities  of  50,000  or  More  by  Color,  4 
Population  Analysis,  11 

Migration,  11 

Ratio  of  Males  to  Females,  11 

Age  Composition,  12 

Occupation  and  Industry,  12 

Marital  Status,  15 

Population  of  Voting  Age,  16 

Illegitimacy,  16 

2.  SPORTS 18 

Baseball,  18 

Players  on  Major  League  Teams,  18 
Football,  22 

College  Players  and  Teams,  22 

Professional  Football,  24 

Outstanding  Individual  Performers,  25 
Boxing,  25 

Golden  Gloves,  27 
Basketball,  27 

College  Basketball,  27 

Professional  Basketball,  28 
Track  and  Field,  28 

Men,  28 

Women,  30 

Summary  Track  and  Field  Championships,  30 
Tennis,  30 
Other  Sports,  31 

3.  THE  NEGRO  PRESS 32 

Circulation,  32 

Circulation  of  Newspapers,  32 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

3.  THE  NEGRO  PRESS  (ContJ 

Circulation  of  Magazines,  35 
National  Newspaper  Publishers  Association,  35 
Negro  Press  Media  to  Negro  Market,  37 
Press  Clubs,  39 
Race  Tags  and  the  News,  40 
Negroes  Employed  by  General  Publications,  42 
White  Workers  on  Negro  Papers,  44 
Foreign  Correspondents,  45 
Congressional  Press  Galleries,  46 
Awards  and  Prizes,  48 

4.  MUSIC 52 

Concert  Artists,  52 

Educators,  Artists,  Arrangers,  Composers,  58 

Negroes  in  Opera,  64 

The  Negro  and  Popular  Music,  64 

5.  ART 66 

The  African  Heritage,  66 
Influence  of  Alain  L.  Locke,  68 
American  Negro  Artists,  68 

Early  Artists,  68 

1850  to  1880,  68 

1880  to  1910,  70 

Contemporary  Artists — 1910  to  1925,  72 

A  New  Era— 1925  to  1951,  75 
Art  in  Negro  Colleges,  78 

6.  NEGRO  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 79 

Limitation  of  Scope,  79 
General  Trends,  79 
Fiction,  80 
Poetry,  82 

Autobiography  and  Biography,  82 
Miscellaneous  Works,  85 
Summary,  87 

7.  THE  THEATRE,  MOTION  PICTURES,  THE 
DANCE,  RADIO,  TELEVISION     .    .    .    .    .    ,    ,    .    89 

The  Theatre,  89 
Motion  Pictures,  91 
The  Dance,  93 
Radio  and  Television,  93 


CONTENTS  ix 

7.  THE  THEATRE,  MOTION  PICTURES,  THE 
DANCE,  RADIO,  TELEVISION  (Cont.) 

Radio,  93 

Television,  93 

Programs  on  Which  Negroes  Appeared,  94 

8.  SCIENCE 96 

Negroes  Listed  in  American  Men  of  Science,  96 
The  Natural  Sciences  in  Colleges  and  Universities,  98 

The  Carver  Foundation,  99 
Negro  Natural  Scientists  in  Industry,  99 
Negro  Scientific  Organizations,  1QO 

Integration  in  Scientific  Organizations,  100 

9.  AGRICULTURE 101 

Employment,  101 

Farm  Operators,  101 

Farm  Ownership,  103 

Farm  Tenancy,  104 
Agricultural  Agencies  and  the  Negro  Farmer,  104 

The  Extension  Service,  104 

Extension  Service  Supervisors,  108 

Agricultural  Research,  109 

Farm  Credit  Administration,  110 

Farmers  Home  Administration,  110 

Insured  Mortgage  Loans,  110 

Other  Agencies,  110 
Vocational  Agriculture,  111 

New  Farmers  of  America,  111 

Negro  4-H  Club  Activities,  112 
Reports  on  Individual  Farmers,  113 

10.   EMPLOYMENT  AND  LABOR 114 

The  Labor  Force,  114 
Employment,  114 

By  Age  and  Sex,  114 

By  Industry,  115 

By  Occupations,  115 

Unemployment,  115 
Postwar  Trends  in  Employment,  115 

Employment  of  Women,  116 

New  York  City  Study,  118 

San  Francisco  Area,  118 

New  Occupations,  119 


CONTENTS 

10.   EMPLOYMENT  AND  LABOR  (Cont.) 

Integration  in  Industries,  120 

Social  Security  Act,  120 
Fair  Employment  Practices,  120 

Executive  Order  9908,  120 

Fair  Employment  Legislation,  120 
Organized  Labor,  121 

Union  Policies  in  the  San  Francisco  Area,  122 

CIO  Expulsion  of  Unions,  123 

New  Labor  Group,  123 

Negro  Labor  Leaders,  124 

National  Urban  League,  124 


11.  INCOME  AND  BUSINESS      125 

Income  Statistics,  125 
Insurance,  130 

The  National  Negro  Insurance  Association,  130 

Membership  List,  National  Negro  Insurance  Association — 
1951-52,  131 

Underwriters'  Associations — 1951-52,  134 
Banks,  135 
Savings  and  Loan  Associations,  136 

FHLB  System  Members,  136 

The  American  Savings  and  Loan  League,  136 
Credit  Unions,  137 

Credit  Unions  Serving  Negroes — 1951, 137 
Certified  Public  Accountants,  140 

Some  Negro  Certified  Public  Accountants,  140 
Some  Outstanding  Businesses  and  Businessmen,  141 
Integration  or  Segregation  in  Business,  144 

National  Negro  Business  League,  144 

Negro  Business  Associations — 1951,  145 

12.  THE  ARMED  FORCES 146 

Elimination  of  Segregation,  146 

Secretary  of  Defense  Johnson's  Directive,  147 
The  Army,  147 

The  Gillem  Report,  147 

The  Fahy  Committee  Report,  148 

Implementation  of  Policy,  148 

The  Korean  War,  148 

24th  Infantry  Regiment,  149 

Lt.  H.  E.  Sutton,  149 

The  Winstead  Amendment,  150 


CONTENTS  xi 


12.  THE  ARMED  FORCES  (Cont.) 

ROTC,  150 

WAGS,  150 

Nurses,  150 

The  National  Guard,  150 

Negroes  at  West  Point,  151 

The  Air  Force,  151 

Capt.  C.  A.  Hill,  Jr.,  151 

The  Navy,  152 

Number  of  Negroes  in  the  Navy,  152 
The  Fahy  Committee  Report,  152 
Negroes  at  the  Naval  Academy,  153 
The  Naval  ROTC  Program,  153 
Nurses  in  the  Navy,  154 

The  Marine  Corps,  154 

The  Merchant  Marine,  154 

Decorations  and  Citations,  155 


13.  HEALTH  AND  MEDICAL  FACILITIES 158 

Vital  Statistics,  158 

Birth  and  Death  Rate  Trends,  158 
Negroes  in  Allied  Medical  Professions,  163 

Physicians,  163 

Pharmacists,  165 

Dentists,  165 

Nurses,  165 
Hospitals,  166 

Partial  List  of  Negro  Hospitals  with  Fifty  Beds  or  More,  167 
Public  Health,  168 

National  Negro  Health  Movement,  168 

14.  HOUSING 170 

Problems  in  Housing  Minorities,  170 
Housing  Situation  among  Negroes,  171 
Federal  Housing  Aids,  174 

HHFA:  Racial  Relations  Services,  174 

Programs  of  HHFA,  176 

Relocating  Families  Displaced  by  Slum  Clearance,  180 
Federal  Policies  and  Provisions,  182 

The  PHA,  182 

Negro  Members  of  Local  Housing  Authorities,  183 

The  FHA,  185 

Changing  Attitude  of  Private  Enterprise,  186 
Some  Housing  Projects  for  Negroes,  186 


CONTENTS 

15.  SOCIAL  WELFARE 188 

Social  Security  Legislation,  188 

Unemployment  Insurance,  188 

Old-Age  and  Survivors  Insurance,  188 

Public  Assistance,  188 

Maternal  and  Child  Health;  Child  Welfare  Services,  189 
Welfare  of  Children,  189 

Child  Labor,  189 

Juvenile  Delinquency,  190 

White  House  Conference  on  Children  and  Youth,  190 
Public  Health,  190 
Social  Work  among  Negroes,  191 

Professional  Workers,  191 

YWCA,  Negro  Branches,  192 

YMCA,  Negro  Branches,  193 

National  Urban  League,  195 

Local  Urban  Leagues,  196 

Housing,  198 

Negro  Social  Workers,  198 

16.  EDUCATION 201 

Elementary  and  Secondary  Education,  201 

Separate  Schools  Maintained,  201 

Instructional  Staff,  204 

Educational  Attainment,  204 

Jeanes  Teachers,  208 

School  Lunch  Program,  208 

High  Schools,  208 

Integration  and  Public  Schools,  216 
Higher  Education,  217 

Enrollment,  218 

Degrees  Conferred,  218 

Faculty,  219 

Finances  and  Physical  Property,  220 

Negro  Colleges  in  the  U.S.,  221 

The  SACSC  and  Negro  Institutions,  228 

Interracial  Honor  Societies,  230 
Regional  Education,  230 

Out-of-State  Scholarships,  230 

Regional  Education  Summary,  231 

President's  Commission  on  Higher  Education,  235 
Integration  in  Education,  237 

The  New  York  Times  Survey,  237 

White  Institutions  in  South  Admitting  Negroes,  238 

Negro  Teachers  in  White  Institutions,  242 


CONTENTS 

16.  EDUCATION  (Cont.) 
Agencies  and  Foundations,  248 

17.  THE  CHURCH  AND  RELIGIOUS  WORK      ....  253 

Statistics  on  Negro  Churches,  253 

Denominations  Belonging  to  the  "Negro  Church,"  254 
Denominations  Having  White  and  Negro  Membership,  259 
Negroes  Connected  with  Auxiliary  Church  Organizations,  263 

Negro  Chaplains,  266 

The  Christian  Church  and  Integration,  267 

18.  CRIME  AND  VIOLENCE 269 

Arrests,  269 
Prison  Sentences,  271 
Execution  for  Capital  Offenses,  271 
Crimes  by  Negroes  against  Negroes,  271 
Crimes  by  Negroes  against  Whites,  272 
Crimes  by  Whites  against  Negroes,  273 
Police  Brutality  and  Killing  of  Negro  Prisoners,  274 
Negro  Policemen,  275 
Lynching,  275 

Difficulty  of  Definition,  275 
Detailed  Record  of  Lynchings,  276 
Lynchings  Prevented,  278 
Punishment  of  Lynchers,  279 

19.  CIVIL  RIGHTS 280 

President's  Committee  on  Civil  Rights,  280 

The  Report,  280 

Messages  of  President  Truman,  280 

Reaction  to  Report  and  Recommendations,  281 
Civil  Rights  Legislation,  282 

Proposed  Legislation,  282 

Enacted  Laws,  282 

Decisions  Involving  Rights  of  Negro  Citizens,  283 
Organizations  and  Civil  Rights,  290 

Program  of  the  NAACP,  290 

Civil  Rights  Congress,  291 

Civil  Liberties  Unions,  291 

Other  Civic  and  Religious  Groups,  291 

Role  of  Negro  Lawyers,  292 

20.    POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT    ...    *    v  :•    •    '-293 
The  Negro  and  Voting,  293 


20.    POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT  (ContJ 

The  Negro's  Right  to  Vote  a  Settled  Issue,  293 

The  Negro  "Bloc"  Vote,  293 
Legislation  Affecting  Negroes,  294 

The  Civil  Rights  Lobby,  296 
The  Negro  Voter  in  the  1948  Election,  297 

Why  Negroes  Voted  for  Truman,  298 

The  Democratic  Platform,  298 

The  Republican  Platform,  300 

The  Progressives'  Platform,  301 

The  Dixiecrats'  Platform,  301 

The  Socialist  Platform,  301 
The  Negro  Vote  in  1950  Elections,  301 

Senator  Taft  and  the  Negro  Vote,  301 

The  Left- Wing  Vote,  302 
The  Elections  of  1951,  303 
Un-American  Activities,  304 
The  Southern  Front,  304 

The  Negro  the  Issue  in  Southern  Politics,  305 

The  Poll  Tax,  305 

Registration  Laws,  306 

Qualified  Negro  Voters  in  the  South,  307 

Negro  Candidates  for  Office  in  the  South,  307 

Effect  of  Negro  Vote  on  Southern  Politics,  308 
Office  Holding,  308 

21.    RACE  RELATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES  .  312 

Public  Life,  312 

Suffrage,  312 

Office-Seeking,  314 

Non-Elective  Positions,  314 

Professional  Associations,  315 
Public  Services,  315 

Recreation,  316 

Housing,  316 

Health,  317 

Welfare,  318 
Safety  of  Person,  318 

Police  Brutality,  319 

Police  Training,  320 

Negro  Policemen,  320 

Discrimination  in  Legal  Penalties,  321 

Ku  Klux  Klan,  321 
Race  in  the  News,  322 
Religion,  324 
Organized  Labor,  326 


CONTENTS  xv 

22.  THE  UNITED  NATIONS  AND  HUMAN  RIGHTS      .  329 

An  International  Forum,  329 

The  Declaration  of  Human  Rights,  329 

The  Commission  on  Human  Rights,  330 

The  Human  Rights  Committee,  331 

Sub-Commissions  on  Minorities,  332 
Negroes  in  the  UN,  333 
Discrimination  Complaints  and  the  UN,  336 

The  NAACP  Appeal,  336 

23.  TRUST  AND  NON-SELF-GOVERNING 
TERRITORIES .338 

Non-Self-Governing  Territories,  338 

Political  Developments,  338 
UN  and  Non-Self-Governing  Territories,  346 

Education  and  Literacy,  346 

Policy  and  Programs,  348 

Economic  Development,  Labor,  Social  Welfare,  349 
Trust  Territories,  351 

Mandate  and  Trusteeship  Systems,  351 

Political  Developments,  353 

Education,  356 

Industry,  Labor,  Social  Welfare,  357 
Conclusion,  358 

24.  AWARDS,  HONORS  AND  OTHER 
DISTINCTIONS 359 

Persons  in  Who's  Who  in  America  1950-51,  359 

Doctors  of  Philosophy— 1947-51,  360 

Persons  elected  to  Phi  Beta  Kappa— 1947-51,  362 

General  Awards,  Honors  and  Distinctions — 1950-51,  362 

Special  Educational  Honors — 1950-51,  370 

Special  Medical  Honors— 1950-51,  371 

Provident  Medical  Associates  Fellowships,  372 

U.S.  Government  Awards— 1950-51,  373 

Negroes  Studying  under  Exchange  Program,  373 

Other  U.S.  Government  Awards,  374 

Some  Heroic  Deeds  and  Exploits— 1950,  374 

25.   NATIONAL  NEGRO  ORGANIZATIONS 375 

Educational  Organizations,  375 
Organizations  for  General  Advancement,  375 
Organizations  for  Economic  Advancement,  376 
Organizations  for  Professional  Advancement,  376 


xvi  CONTENTS 

25.  NATIONAL  NEGRO  ORGANIZATIONS  (Cont.) 

Secret  Fraternal  Orders,  377 
Organizations  in  the  Interest  of  Women,  377 
College  Fraternities,  377 
College  Sororities,  377 

26.  DEATHS:  1947-1951 378 

1947,  378 

1948,  379 

1949,  380 

1950,  381 

1951,  383 

27.  BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS  BY  OR  RELATING 

TO  NEGROES,  1947-1951 384 

References  Relating  to  the  U.S.,  384 
Agriculture,  384 
The  Armed  Forces,  384 
Art,  384 

Autobiography,  384 
Biography,  385 
Business,  386 
Children's  Literature,  387 
Civil  Rights,  387 
Civil  War,  388 
Drama,  388 
Education,  389 
Fiction,  390 
Folklore,  394 
Health,  395 

History  and  Travel,  395 
Housing,  396 

Labor  and  Employment,  396 
Literature,  397 
Music,  397 
Poetry,  398 

Politics  and  Suffrage,  399 
Race  Problem,  400 
Race  Relations,  402 
Reconstruction,  403 
Religion  and  the  Church,  403 
Slavery,  404 
Social  Conditions,  405 
Sports,  406 


CONTENTS  xvii 

27.   BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS  BY  OR  RELATING 
TO  NEGROES,  1947-1951  (Cont.) 

Books  and  Pamphlets  Relating  to  Africa,  406 

Art,  406 

Economic  Conditions,  406 

Fiction,  407 

Government,  407 

Liberia,  407 

Nigeria,  408 

Race  Problem,  408 

Social  Conditions,  408 

South  Africa,  409 

West  Africa,  409 
Books  and  Pamphlets  Relating  to  the  West  Indies,  410 

Art,  410 

Economic  Conditions,  410 

Fiction,  410 

Government  and  Politics,  411 

History,  411 

Poetry,  411 

Social  Conditions,  411 

INDEX          .  .  413 


ustrations 

Following  Page  72 

PLATE 

I.    Mai  Whitfield  receives  first-place  medal  from  Mrs.  Matthew 

Ridgway  at  Good-Will  Track  Meet  in  Tokyo 
Jesse  Owens 
Willie  Mays,  1951  "Rookie  of  the  Year" 

II.    Althea  Gibson  prepares  for  her  appearance  at  Wimbledon 
Mary  McNabb  led  Tuskegee  Institute  to  the  1951  National 
A.A.U.  Women's  Track  championship 

III.  "Jersey  Joe"  Walcott  became  World's  Heavyweight  Cham- 

pion in  1951 

Jimmy  Carter,  Lightweight  Champion,  knocks  challenger  Art 
Aragon  to  the  canvas 

IV.  President  Truman  welcomes  members  of  the  1948  Olympic 

Track  and  Field  Team  at  the  White  House:  Emma  Reed, 
Theresa  Manuel,  Audrey  Patterson,  Nell  Jackson,  Alice 
Coachman,  Nell  Walker 

"Sugar"  Ray  Robinson  signs  for  the  return  match  with  Randy 
Turpin,  1951 

V.  1951  University  of  Pennsylvania  football  players  receive 
watches  from  Coach  Munger:  George  Bosseler,  Bob  Evans, 
Ed  Bell,  Harry  Warren 

Junius  Kellogg  receives  commendation  scroll  from  N.Y.  City 
Police  Commissioner  Murphy  for  exposing  bribery  and 
racketeering  in  college  basketball 

VI.    Gwendolyn  Brooks,  winner  of  the  1950  Pulitzer  Prize  for 

Poetry 

Fred  Thomas,  winner  of  second  place  in  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  auditions,  is  congratulated  by  Rudolph  Bing,  gen- 
eral manager  of  the  Metropolitan  Opera 

VII.    Hattie  McDaniel,  veteran  screen  and  radio  actress 

Lillian  Randolph,  radio  actress,  with  Willard  Waterman  of 
"The  Great  Gildersleeve"  program 

VIII.    Ethel  Waters,  one  of  25  American  Women  of  Achievement 
selected  by  the  U.S.  Chamber  of  Commerce  in  1951 

IX.    Ethel  Waters  sings  with  two  members  of  the  cast  of  the  hit 

play,  "Member  of  the  Wedding" 
Mabel  Fairbanks,  ice  skater  and  dancer 

xviii 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


X.    WERD,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  is  the  only  radio  station  in  the  United 

States  completely  owned  and  operated  by  Negroes 
Pearl  Primus,  interpretative  dancer 

XI.    Janet  Collins,  premiere  danseuse  with  the  Metropolitan  Opera 

Company 

Maidie  Norman  as  the  distraught  mother  in  the  motion  pic- 
ture, "The  Well" 

XII.    Dorothy  Dandridge,  popular  night-club  entertainer 
The  city  room  of  the  Pittsburgh  Courier 

XIII.  The  new  Carver  Foundation  Laboratories  building  at  Tuske- 

gee  Institute 

Dr.  Percy  1%  Julian  receives  the  award  of  Chicago  lawyers' 
Decalogue  Society 

XIV.  Mechanization  of  agriculture  in  the  South 

Mrs.  Lea  Etta  Lusk,  home  demonstration  agent  and  award 
winner,  shows  4-H  girl  Mary  Lee  how  to  grade  eggs 

XV.    Raymond  Brown,  Alabama  farmer,  with  county  agent  F.  L. 

Jackson  and  state  extension  leader  W.  B.  Hill 
Otis  O'Neal,  Georgia  county  agent,  receives  the  USDA  Su- 
perior Service  award  from  Secretary  of  Agriculture  Charles 
F.  Brannan 

XVI.    Alabama  4-H  Club  boys  show  beef  animals  they  raised,  at 

Fat  Stock  Show,  Montgomery 

Negroes  now  represent  their  fellow  workers  in  labor-manage- 
ment affairs  in  many  industries 

Following  page  200 

XVII.    Dr.  Raymond  M.  Williams,  a  veteran  inspector  in  the  meat 
packing  industry  in  Chicago 

XVIII.    Edward  P.  Boyd,  assistant  sales  manager  of  the  Pepsi-Cola 

Co.,  with  other  members  of  the  staff 
Dr.  Frank  G.  Davis,  economic  adviser  to  Liberia  under  the 

Point  IV  program 
Mrs.  Mary  Tobias  Dean,  manager  of  Macy's  handkerchief 

department,  New  York  City 

XIX.    C.  C.  Spaulding,  well-known  financier  and  president  of  the 

North  Carolina  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Co. 
Lemuel  A.  Bowman,  owner-operator  of  the  Parkway  Hotel, 

Nashville,  Tenn. 
Mrs.  Mary  T.  Washington,  a  CPA,  has  her  own  firm  of  public 

accountants  in  Chicago 


ILLUSTKATlOJNb 


PLATE 

XX.    Miss  Dorothy  Williams  is  a  chemist  in  the  Bureau  of  Human 
Nutrition    and   Home   Economics,    U.S.    Department    of 
Agriculture 
Lemuel  E.  Graves,  appointed  Deputy  Chief  of  the  News  and 

Writing  Section,  EGA  headquarters,  Paris,  France 
XXI.    Midshipman  J.  L.  Brown,  Hattiesburg,  Miss.,  first  Negro 
naval  aviator,  is  sworn  in  aboard  U.S.S.  Leyte  in  1949 

XXII.    Thurgood  Marshall,  chief  NAACP  legal  counsel,  with  Colonel 
Darwin    Martin,    investigates    courts-martial    of    Negro 
soldiers  in  Korea  and  Japan 
Lt.  Laurene  Martin,  U.S.  Army  nurse  in  Tokyo 
Captain  Rosalie  Wiggins,  U.S.  Army  nurse  in  Tokyo 

XXIII.  Mrs.  Daisy  B.  Brown,  widow  of  Eisign  Brown,  with  Presi- 

dent Truman  and  Lt.  (jg)  Hudner,  at  the  presentation  of 
Congressional  Medal  of  Honor  to  Lt.  Hudner 

XXIV.  Dr.  John  W.  Chenault,  Dr.  Midian  0.  Bousfield,  and  Mr. 

Basil  O'Connor  visit  polio  patients  at  Tuskegee  Institute's 
John  A.  Andrew  Hospital 
Dr.  T.  K.  Lawless,  well-known  skin  specialist 

XXV.    A  low  cost,  experimental  farm  home  under  Tuskegee  Insti- 
tute's HHFA  farm-construction  research  project 
Ernest  E.  Neal,  co-director  of  Tuskegee  Institute's  HHFA 
project,  and  George  Williams,  project  construction  super- 
intendent, watch  progress  on  a  farm  building 

XXVI.  American  Red  Cross  workers  headed  for  Korea,  the  Misses 
Shirley  M.  Walton,  Gynell  White,  and  Jessie  S.  Abbott,  are 
bid  farewell  by  assistant  ARC  director  Jesse  0.  Thomas 

XXVII.  Girl  Scouts  Tommy  Anderson,  Gloria  Williams,  and  Joy  Rice 
present  cookies  to  Mrs.  Truman  at  Blair  House 

XXVIII.    Boy  Scouts  Harry  Harper,  Jake  Mathis,  Jack  Stempel,  and 
David  Meadow  returning  from  World  Scout  Jamboree 

XXIX.  Dr.  F.  D.  Patterson  and  Thomas  Morgan  with  John  D.  Rocke- 
feller, Jr.,  on  occasion  of  his  presenting  $5,000,000  to  the 
United  Negro  College  Fund 

XXX.    Washington  High  School,  Shreveport,  La.,  built  at  a  cost  of 
$1.5  million,  was  occupied  for  the  1950-51  school  term 

XXXI.    Inadequate  schools  for  Negroes  are  still  too  numerous 

Mrs.  Ethel  Butler  adopts  the  first  German  "brown  babies"  to 
reach  Chicago 

XXXII.  Bishops  W.  J.  Walls,  AMEZ  Church,  S.  L.  Greene,  AME 
Church,  and  B.  W.  Doyle,  CME  Church,  at  the  occasion  of 
signing  the  National  Council  of  Churches  charter 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


xxi 


XXXII.  Bishop  R.  R.  Wright,  Jr.,  R.  R.  Wright  III,  Phillip  Wright, 
and  R.  R.  Wright  IV  examine  White  House  photograph  of 
Major  R.  R.  Wright,  Sr. 

Following  page  328 

XXXIII.  Harvey  Clark,  Jr.,  and  his  family,  escorted  by  police  into  the 
Cicero  apartment  building  where  their  apartment  was  soon 
wrecked  by  a  mob 

The  Harvey  Clark  family  receives  a  check  from  NAACP  vice- 
president  Willard  S.  Townsend,  in  presence  of  Chicago 
NAACP  president  Nelson  M.  Willis  and  John  Rogers 

Waiting  to  cast  ballots  in  Atlanta,  Ga. 
A  line  of  voters  in  Columbia,  S.C. 


XXXIV 

XXXV 

XXXVI 


Negro  leaders  meet  with  President  Truman  to  discuss  civil 
rights:  Bishop  William  Y.  Bell,  Mrs.  Mary  McLeod 
Bethune,  J.  Robert  Booker,  Dowdal  Davis,  Lester  B. 
Granger,  Elmer  Henderson,  Dr.  Charles  S.  Johnson,  Dr. 
Benjamin  E.  Mays,  A.  Philip  Randolph,  Dr.  Channing  H. 
Tobias,  Willard  S.  Townsend,  Walter  White 

XXXVII.  New  York  City  Mayor  Impellitteri  congratulates  new  Deputy 
Police  Commissioner  William  L.  Rowe,  in  presence  of 
Police  Commissioner  Monaghan,  Mrs.  Josephine  Rowe, 
Mrs.  Rowe,  and  Joe  Louis 

XXXVIII.    Mayor    Impellitteri   with    municipal    appointees   Frederick 
Weaver,  Attorney  Ruth  W.  Whaley,  and  John  King 

XXXIX.  Prominent  political  figures:  Mrs.  Edith  Sampson,  Dr. 
Channing  Tobias,  Judge  Harold  Stevens,  Congressman 
Adam  C.  Powell,  Recorder  of  Deeds  Marshall  Shepard 

XL.    Dr.  Ernest  B.  Kalibala,  regional  adviser  on  Africa,  UN  Tech- 
nical Assistance  Administration 

Dr.  William  H.  Dean,  economist,  UN  Trusteeship  Division 
Ambrose  B.  Lewis,  agricultural  engineer,  assigned  to  Liberia 

under  the  Point  IV  program 

Sandy  J.  McCorvey,  agricultural  extension  specialist,  as- 
signed to  Liberia  under  Point  IV 

XLI.    Z.  Alexander  Looby,  elected  to  the  Nashville  City  Council 

Dr.  W.  P.  DeVane,  member  of  the  Fayetteville,  N.C.,  City 

Council 
William  L.  Dawson,  U.S.  Congressman  from  Illinois,  who 

successfully  fought  for  integration  in  the  Armed  Forces 
Mrs.    Elizabeth    Drewry,    elected    the    first    regular    Negro 

woman  delegate  to  the  West  Virginia  State  Legislature 


XX11 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


XLII.    Emperor  Haile  Selassie  of  Ethiopia  and  his  Empress  visit  the 
first  class  to  attend  the  modern  university  in  Addis  Ababa 
Liberian  miners  receive  weekly  wages 
A  chief  in  the  Cameroons  reads  a  petition  to  a  UN  mission 

XLIII.    Dr.  Rayford  W.  Logan,  director  of  the  Ass'n.  for  the  Study  of 

Negro  Life  and  History,  served  as  NAACP  representative 

to  the  1951  UN  Assembly 
Mrs.  Mabel  K.  Staupers,  winner  of  the  36th  Spingarn  Medal, 

for  leading  integration  of  Negro  nurses  into  the  American 

Nurses  Association 
Thurgood  Marshall,  chief  NAACP  counsel  and  winner  of  a 

1951  Russwurm  award  of  the  NNPA 
Julius  A.  Thomas,  of  the  National  Urban  League,  winner  of  a 

1951  Russwurm  award 

XLV.    An  American  missionary  nurse  trains  student  nurses  at  Cape 
A  UN  mission  to  Trust  Territories  in  West  Africa  visits  the 
secondary  school  in  the  Cameroons 

XLV.    An  American  missionary  nurse  trains  students  nurses  at  Cape 

Mount  Hospital,  Liberia 
Liberians  learning  to  read  and  write 

XL VI.  Dr.  Ralph  J.  Bunche  is  congratulated  by  Governor  Gunnar 
Jahn  at  the  presentation  of  the  1950  Nobel  Peace  Prize  to 
Dr.  Bunche  in  Oslo,  Norway 

XLVII.  Mrs.  Mary  McLeod  Bethune  with  Dr.  Dorothy  B.  Ferebee, 
her  successor  as  president  of  the  National  Council  of  Negro 
women 

J.  Finley  Wilson,  Grand  Exalted  Ruler,  welcomes  Guy 
Gabrielson  to  the  52nd  convention  of  the  Independent  and 
Benevolent  Order  of  Elks  of  the  World 

XLVIII.  Marian  Anderson  presents  the  Diamond  Cross  of  Malta  to 
Dr.  Ralph  Bunche  at  the  Christmas  Cotillion  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Cotillion  Society 


NEGRO  YEAR  BOOK 


T 

Population 


DEFINITION  OF  NEGRO1 

There  are  at  least  three  distinct  methods 
of  defining  the  Negro  in  the  United 
States:  (1)  legal  definition,  (2)  social 
definition,  and  (3)  the  Census  definition. 
The  legal  definition  of  "Negro"  varies 
widely  and  may  be  embodied  in  general 
statutes,  legislation  regulating  social  con- 
tacts in  specified  situations,  or  in  court 
interpretations.  The  legal  definition  may 
vary  within  a  state,  one  definition  being 
used  to  regulate  school  attendance  and 
another  to  regulate  intermarriage.  That 
this  does  not  result  in  more  confusion 
than  it  does  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that 
social  relationships  are  regulated  by  the 
social  definition,  without  reference  to  the 
legal  definition. 

The  social  definition  of  "Negro"  may 
be  expressed  as:  "Everyone  having  a 
known  trace  of  Negro  blood  in  his  veins," 
no  matter  how  far  back  it  was  acquired. 
Thus,  the  social  definition  is  dependent 
upon  community  knowledge  of  racial  an- 
cestry, with  or  without  physical  racial 
visibility. 

The  U.  S.  Census  employs  a  color  classi- 
fication of  white  and  nonwhite  for  pur- 
poses of  enumeration,  with  the  nonwhite 
category  sub-divided  into  Negroes,  In- 
dians (American),  Chinese,  Japanese, 
Filipinos,  Hindus,  and  "other"  nonwhite 
races.  The  Census  relies  heavily  upon  visi- 
bility and  community  definition  in  order 
to  determine  who  shall  be  enumerated  as 
a  Negro.  In  case  of  mixed  ancestry,  per- 
sons of  Negro  and  white  ancestry  are 
enumerated  as  Negroes ;  persons  of  Negro 
and  Indian,  Chinese,  or  Japanese  mixed 
ancestry  are  classified  as  Negroes,  except 


where  regarded  as  .Indian,  Chinese,  or 
Japanese  by  the  community.  The  great 
majority  of  the  nonwhite  population,  thus 
defined,  consists  of  Negroes,  except  in  the 
Pacific  states,  where  there  are  many  Chi- 
nese and  Japanese,  and  in  Oklahoma  and 
certain  Mountain  states,  where  many  of 
the  nonwhites  are  Indians.  Since  the  Cen- 
sus is  the  principal  source  of  data  regard- 
ing the  Negro  population,  the  definition 
used  therein  is  the  one  under  which  prac- 
tically all  the  information  in  this  section 
was  collected.  In  citing  1950  figures,  or  in 
comparing  1940  and  1950  figures,  "non- 
white"  will  be  used  interchangeably  with 
"Negro"  where  separate  data  for  Negroes 
are  not  yet  available.  In  the  1950  Census, 
there  were  15,482,000  nonwhites,  of  whom 
14,894,000  or  96.2%  were  Negroes. 

POPULATION  GROWTH 

Number  and  Rate  of  Increase 

In  the  60  years  between  1890  and  1950, 
the  Negro  population  has  doubled,  in- 
creasing from  7,488,676  to  approximately 

TABLE  1 

NUMBER  AND  RATE  OF  INCREASE  OF  NEGRO 
POPULATION,  1890-1950 


Census  Year    Number 


Per  Cent  of     Per  Cent 
Total  Pop.       Increase 


1890 

7,488,676 

11.9 

13.8 

1900 

8,333,940 

11.6 

18.0 

1910 

9,827,763 

10.7 

11.2 

1920 

10,463,131 

9.9 

6.5 

1930 

11,891,143 

9.7 

13.6 

1940 

12,865,518 

9.8 

8.2 

1950 

14,894,000 

9.8 

15.1 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census. 

14,894,000.  While  there  has  been  an  ab- 
solute increase   in   Negro   population  in 


1  This  section  was  prepared  in  collaboration  with  Carrell  Peterson,  Instructor  and  Research  Associate  in  Sociology, 
Fisk  University. 


POPULATION 


every  decade,  the  proportion  which  Ne- 
groes form  of  the  total  population  has 
declined  from  11.9%  in  1890  to  approxi- 
mately 9.8%  in  1950.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this 
declining  proportion  of  Negroes,  the  per- 
centage increase  of  Negroes  during  the 
1940-50  decade  was  almost  twice  that  of 
the  1930-40  decade  (15.1%  against 
8.2%),  and  was  greater  than  the  per- 
centage increase  of  the  total  population, 
which  was  14.5%.  This  was  the  largest 
percentage  increase  of  Negroes  since  the 
1890-1900  decade,  when  the  Negro  popu- 
lation increased  18%.  See  Table  1. 

Regions,  Divisions,  and  States 

During  the  1940-50  decade,  there  was  a 
definite  shift  of  Negro  population  away 
from  the  South  to  the  industrial  areas  of 
the  North  and  West.  The  white  popula- 
tion in  13  Southern  states1  increased  be- 
tween 1940  and  1950  by  approximately 
16%,  while  the  nonwhite  population  in- 
creased by  only  one-half  of  1%.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  eight  major  industrial 
states  outside  the  South2  the  white  popu- 
lation increased  approximately  14% 
while  the  nonwhite  population  increased 
by  almost  55%.  Seven  Southern  states 
(Mississippi,  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Geor- 
gia, Kentucky,  Oklahoma,  Texas)  had 
actual  declines  in  nonwhite  population, 
while  none  declined  in  white  population. 
In  1940,  the  southern  Negro  population 
was  about  33%  of  the  total  southern  pop- 
ulation, while  the  corresponding  per- 
centage for  1950  was  30%. 

The  number  of  nonwhites  in  the  North 
and  West  increased  about  50%  between 
1940  and  1950.  In  1950,  one-third  of  the 
nonwhite  population  of  the  United  States 
was  living  in  either  the  North  or  the  West. 
Growth  of  the  nonwhite  population  was 
particularly  marked  in  the  West.  Between 
1940  and  1950,  the  nonwhite  population 
increased  74.3%  in  the  West.  Whereas  in 
1900  almost  90%  of  the  Negro  population 
lived  in  the  South,  in  1940  this  was  true 


of  only  77%  of  the  Negro  population.  In 
1950,  only  slightly  more  than  two-thirds 
of  the  Negro  population  lived  in  the 
South.  See  Table  2. 

Urban  and  Rural 

Negroes  are  increasingly  becoming  city- 
dwellers.  Since  1900,  the  percentage  of 
Negro  urban  dwellers  has  increased  stead- 
ily in  every  decade  in  every  region  except 
the  West,  where  the  percentage  of  Ne- 
groes who  were  urban  decreased  between 
1910  and  1920.  Between  1900  and  1940, 
the  percentage  of  Negoes  who  were  urban 
dwellers  increased  from  about  16  to  36% 
in  the  South,  54  to  84%  in  the  West,  and 
62  to  90%  in  the  North.  In  1950,  approxi- 
mately 93%  of  northern  Negroes,  47%  of 
southern  Negroes,  and  92%  of  Negroes  in 
the  West  were  urban  dwellers.  Approxi- 
mately 61%  of  the  total  Negro  population 
was  urban  in  1950.  Part  of  this  increase 
may  be  due  to  changes  in  the  Census 
definition  of  "urban"  and  "rural,"  but 
there  has  undoubtedly  been  a  significant 
increase  in  the  proportion  of  Negro  urban 
dwellers. 

Standard  Metropolitan  Areas  by 
Color' 

The  total  population  of  standard  metro- 
politan areas  in  the  United  States  on  April  1, 
1950,  84,500,680,  represented  an  increase  of 
15,224,199,  or  22.0%,  over  the  69,276,481  in- 
habitants of  these  areas  in  1940,  according  to 
figures  from  the  Seventeenth  Decennial  Cen- 
sus released  (Dec.  16,  1951)  by  Roy  V.  Peel, 
Director,  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department 
of  Commerce.  The  white  population  of  these 
168  standard  metropolitan  areas  increased  at 
a  slightly  lower  rate  (20.0%)  than  the  total 
population.  For  the  nonwhite  population, 
however,  the  rate  of  increase  during  the 
decade  was  44.3%.  The  number  of  nonwhite 
persons  in  standard  metropolitan  areas, 
8,250,814,  represented  about  9.8%  of  all  per- 
sons in  these  areas  in  1950  as  compared  with 
8.3%  in  1940. 

Between  1940  and  1950,  the  nonwhite  popu- 
lation more  than  doubled  in  30  standard  met- 
ropolitan areas  in  the  Northeast,  North  Cen- 
tral states,  and  the  West.  The  high  rates  of 


1  Ala.,  Ark.,  Fla.,  Ga.,  Ky.,  La.,  Miss.,  Okla.,  Tenn.,  N.C.,  S.C.,  Va.,  Tex. 

2  Calif.,   111.,  Mich.,  Mo.,   N.J.,  N.Y.,   Ohio,  Pa. 

3  1950  Census  of  Population.  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-14,  No.  1.  Dec.  16,  1951. 


POPULATION  GROWTH 


TABLE  2 
WHITE  AND  NONWHITE  POPULATION,  BY  REGIONS,  DIVISIONS  AND  STATES,  1940  AND  1950 


Region,  Division 

White 

Nonwhite 

and  State 

1940 

1950 

1940 

1950 

North  

73,206,738 

79,671,283 

2,913,371 

4,267,196 

New  England  

8,329,146 

9,175,652 

108,144 

138,287 

Maine  , 

844,543 

910,847 

2,683 

2,927 

New  Hampshire  

490,989 

532,275 

535 

967 

Vermont  

358,806 

377,188 

425 

559 

Massachusetts  

4,257,596 

4,626,000 

59,125 

64,000 

Rhode  Island  

701,805 

777,015 

11,541 

14,881 

Connecticut  

1,675,407 

1,952,327 

33,835 

54,953 

Middle  Atlantic  

26,237,622 

28,303,000 

1,301,865 

1,860,000 

New  York  

.  .  .       12,879,546 

13,902,000 

599,596 

928,000 

New  Jersey  

3,931,087 

4,557,000 

229,078 

278,000 

Pennsylvania  

9,426,989 

9,844,000 

473,191 

654,000 

East  North  Central  

.  ...       15,528,451 

28,632,130 

1,097,891 

1,767,669 

Ohio  

6,566,531 

7,476,000 

341,081 

470,000 

Indiana  

3,305,323 

3,758,439 

122,473 

175,785 

Illinois  

7,504,202 

8,085,000 

393,039 

628,000 

Michigan  

5,039,643 

5,920,000 

216,463 

452,000 

Wisconsin  

3,112,752 

3,392,691 

24,835 

41,884 

West  North  Central  

...       13,111,519 

13,560,501 

405,471 

501,240 

Minnesota  

2,768,982 

2,953,678 

23,318 

28,805 

Iowa  

2,520,691 

2,599,566 

17,577 

21,507 

Missouri  

3,539,187 

3,640,000 

245,477 

315,000 

North  Dakota  

631,464 

608,448 

10,471 

11,188 

South  Dakota  

619,075 

628,504 

23,886 

24,236 

Nebraska  

1,297,624 

1,301,344 

18,210 

24,166 

Kansas  

1,734,496 

1,828,961 

66,532 

76,338 

South  

.  .  .       31,658,578 

36,877,791 

10,007,323 

10,249,103 

East  South  Central  

7,993,755 

8,700,109 

2,784,470 

2,707,072 

Kentucky  

2,631,425 

2,741,930 

214,202 

202,876 

Tennessee  

2,406,906 

2,760,250 

508,935 

531,468 

Alabama  

1,849,097 

2,079,500 

983,864 

982,243 

Mississippi  

1,106,327 

1,118,429 

1,077,469 

990,485 

South  Atlantic  

13,095,227 

16,042,071 

4,727,924 

5,140,264 

Delaware  

230,528 

273,878 

35,977 

44,207 

Maryland  

1,518,481 

1,954,987 

302,763 

388,014 

Dist.  of  Col  

474,326 

518,147 

188,765 

284,031 

Virginia  

2,015,583 

2,581,642 

662,190 

737,038 

West  Virginia  

1,784,102 

1,890,284 

117,872 

115,268 

North  Carolina  

2,567,635 

2,983,110 

1,003,988 

1,078,819 

South  Carolina  

1,084,308 

1,293,403 

815,496 

823,624 

Georgia  

2,038,278 

2,380,573 

1,085,445 

1,064,005 

Florida  

1,381,986 

2,166,047 

515,428 

605,258 

West  South  Central  

.  .  .       10,569,596 

12,135,611 

2,494,929 

2,401,767 

Arkansas  

1,466,084 

1,481,508 

483,303 

428,003 

Louisiana  

1,511,739 

1,796,548 

852,141 

886,968 

Oklahoma  

2,104,228 

2,032,555 

232,206 

200,796 

Texas  

5,487,545 

6,825,000 

927,279 

886,000 

West  

.  .  .       13,349,554 

18,606,256 

533,711 

955,046 

Mountain  

3,978,913 

4,845,633 

171,090 

229,365 

Montana  

540,468 

572,038 

18,988 

18,986 

Idaho  

519,292 

581,395 

5,581 

7,242 

Wyoming  

246,597 

284,009 

4,145 

6,520 

Colorado  

1,106,502 

1,296,653 

16,794 

28,436 

New  Mexico  

492,312 

630,211 

39,506 

50,976 

Arizona  

426,792 

654,511 

72,469 

95,076 

Utah  

542,920 

676,909 

7,390 

11,953 

Nevada  

104,030 

149,907 

6,217 

10,176 

Pacific  

9,370,641 

13,760,623 

362,621 

725,681 

Washington  

1,698,147 

2,316,495 

38,044 

62,468 

Oregon  

1,075,731 

1,497,128 

13,953 

24,213 

California  

6,596,763 

9,947,000 

310,624 

639,000 

TOTAL  

.  .  .     118,214,870 

135,155,330 

13,454,405 

15,471,345 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census. 


POPULATION 


increase  in  many  of  these  areas  involved,  of 
course,  only  a  relatively  small  number  of 
nonwhites.  Nevertheless,  the  nonwhite  popu- 
lation of  standard  metropolitan  areas  in  the 
North  (that  is,  the  Northeast  and  the  North 
Central  States  combined),  and  the  West  in- 
creased by  almost  2  million  during  the 
decade. 

In  all  regions  except  the  South,  the  per- 
centage increase  in  the  nonwhite  population 
of  standard  metropolitan  areas  exceeded  the 
percentage  increase  in  the  white  population. 
This  excess  was  greatest  in  the  standard  met- 
ropolitan areas  of  the  West,  where  the  per- 
centage increase  for  nonwhites  was  127.6% 
as  compared  with  48.9%  for  the  white  popu- 
lation. In  the  North,  the  nonwhite  population 
of  these  areas  increased  by  58.2%  and  the 
white  population  by  11.1%.  In  the  standard 
metropolitan  areas  of  the  South,  however, 
the  rate  of  increase  of  the  white  population 
exceeded  that  for  the  nonwhite  population, 
38.5  and  23.6%,  respectively.  These  figures 
reflect  the  very  substantial  movements  of  the 
nonwhite  population  out  of  rural  areas  and 
out  of  the  South  during  the  decade.  Table  3, 
which  follows,  shows  the  extent  of  this  migra- 


tion from  southern  states  to  the  North  and 
West. 

Cities  of  50,000  or  More  by  Color 

The  figures  for  cities  of  50,000  or  more, 
[Table  4]  indicate  greater  variation  in  nu- 
merical and  percentage  increases  for  both  the 
whites  and  nonwhites  in  the  pattern  of  growth 
comparable  figures  for  standard  metropolitan 
areas. . . .  Population  growth  has  been  rapid 
in  both  large  cities  and  in  their  standard 
metropolitan  areas  since  1940.  An  increased 
proportion  of  persons  living  in  these  areas, 
except  in  the'  South,  are  nonwhites. 

There  was  a  marked  difference  between 
whites  and  nonwhites  in  the  pattern  of  growth 
within  standard  metropolitan  areas  during 
the  decade.  The  white  population  of  the 
central  cities  in  these  areas  increased  from 
39,217,502  in  1940  to  43,179,174  in  1950,  an 
increase  of  3,961,672,  or  10.1%,  whereas  the 
increase  outside  of  these  cities  was  35.9%. 
For  the  nonwhite  population,  in  contrast,  the 
increase  within  central  cities  (from  4,329,636 
to  6,429,417,  or  48.5%)  exceeded  the  rate  of 
growth  in  the  remainder  of  the  standard 
metropolitan  areas  (31.3% ).1 


TABLE  3 

POPULATION  BY  COLOR  FOR  STANDARD  METROPOLITAN  AREAS,  1950  AND  1940 
(Minus  sign  denotes  decrease.  Per  cent  not  shown  where  base  is  less  than  100) 


White 

Nonwhite 

Standard  Metropolitan  Area 

1950 

1940      %  Change 

1950 

1940     %  Change 

TOTAL  

76,249,866 

63,559,944 

20.0 

8,250,814 

5,716,537 

44.3 

Akron,  Ohio  

383,503 

325,467 

17.8 

26,529 

13,938 

90.3 

Albany-Schenectady-Troy,  N.  Y.  . 

505,409 

460,668 

9.7 

9,081 

4,975 

82.5 

Albuquerque,  N.  Mex  

141,512 

66,881 

111.6 

4,161 

2,510 

65.8 

Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton,  Pa  . 

435,198 

394,612 

10.3 

2,626 

2,061 

27.4 

Altoona,  Pa  

138,364 

139,181 

-0.6 

1,150 

1,177 

-2.3 

Amarillo,  Texas  

83,465 

58,655 

42.3 

3,675 

2,795 

31.5 

Asheville,  N.C  

109,126 

92,598 

17.8 

15,277 

16,157 

-5.4 

Atlanta,  Ga  

505,983 

374,706 

35.0 

165,814 

143,394 

15.6 

Atlantic  City,  NJ  

110,785 

104,057 

6.5 

21,614 

20,009 

8.0 

Augusta,  Ga  

105,900 

77,489 

36.7 

56,113 

54,290 

3.4 

Austin,  Texas  

138,329 

91,458 

51.2 

22,651 

19,595 

15.6 

Baltimore,  Md  

.     1,070,712 

888,524 

20.5 

266,661 

194,776 

36.9 

Baton  Rouge,  La  

105,890 

54,774 

93.3 

52,346 

33,641 

55.6 

Bay  City,  Mich  

88,081 

74,734 

17.9 

380 

247 

53.8 

Beaumont-Port  Arthur,  Texas  .  .  . 

150,858 

111,452 

35.4 

44,225 

33,877 

30.5 

Binghamton,  N.Y  

183,799 

164,942 

11.4 

899 

807 

11.4 

Birmingham,  Ala  

350,223 

280,756 

24.7 

208,705 

179,174 

16.5 

Boston,  Mass.  

.     2,314,256 

2,140,294 

8.1 

55,730 

37,327 

49.3 

Bridgeport,  Conn  

250,051 

208,076 

20.2 

8,086 

4,493 

80.0 

Brockton,  Mass  

128,322 

118,388 

8.4 

1,106 

922 

20.0 

Buffalo,  N.Y  

.     1,041,437 

934,606 

11.4 

47,793 

23,881 

100.1 

Canton,  Ohio  

270,522 

227,665 

18.8 

12,672 

7,222 

75.5 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa  

103,454 

88,459 

17.0 

820 

683 

20.1 

Source:  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-14,  No.  1,  Dec.  16,  1951. 


1  "Except  in  New  England,  a  standard  metropolitan  area  is  a  county  or  group  of  contiguous  counties  which  contains 
at  least  one  city  of  50,000  inhabitants  or  more.  In  addition  to  the  county,  or  counties,  containing  such  a  city,  or  cities, 
contiguous  counties  are  included  in  a  standard  metropolitan  area  if  according  to  certain  criteria  they  are  essentially 
metropolitan  in  character  and  socially  and  economically  integrated  with  the  central  city.  In  New  England,  standard 
metropolitan  areas  have  been  defined  on  a  town  rather  than  a  county  basis."  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary 
Reports,  PC-H,  No.  1,  Dec.  16,  1951. 


POPULATION  GROWTH 


TABLE  3  (Continued) 


White 

Nonwhite 

Standard  Metropolitan  Area 

1950 

1940     %  Change 

1950 

1940 

%  Change 

Charleston,  S.C  :  .  .  . 

96,502 

61,487 

56.9 

68,354 

59,618 

14.7 

Charleston,  W.Va  

294,944 

250,756 

17.6 

27,128 

25,491 

6.4 

Charlotte,  N.C  

147,079 

108,507 

35.5 

49,973 

43,319 

15.4 

Chattanooga,  Tenn  

201,570 

169,634 

18.8 

44,883 

41,868 

7.2 

Chicago,  111  

4,890,018 

4,490,662 

8.9 

605,346 

334,865 

80.8 

Cincinnati,  Ohio  

808,746 

718,024 

12.6 

95,656 

69,020 

38.6 

Cleveland,  Ohio  

1,311,391 

1,179,041 

11.2 

154,120 

88,229 

74.7 

Columbia,  S.C  

92,071 

62,472 

47.4 

50,494 

42,371 

19.2 

Columbus,  Ga  

116,849 

76,262 

53.2 

53,692 

50,145 

7.1 

Columbus,  Ohio  

451,209 

349,619 

29.1 

52,201 

39,093 

33.5 

Corpus  Christi,  Texas  

157,399 

87,248 

80.4 

8,072 

5,413 

49.1 

Dallas,  Texas  

531,447 

336,851 

57.8 

83,352 

61,713 

35.1 

Davenport    (lowa)-Rock    Island- 

Moline  (111.)  

230,590 

195,583 

17.9 

3,666 

2,488 

47.3 

Dayton,  Ohio  

.    414,377 

305,843 

35.5 

42,956 

25,500 

68.5 

Decatur,  111  

95,335 

82,547 

15.5 

3,518 

2,146 

63.9 

Denver,  Colo  

543,642 

398,259 

36.5 

20,190 

9,509 

112.3 

Des  Moines,  Iowa  

217,476 

189,149 

15.0 

8,534 

6,686 

27.6 

Detroit,  Mich  

2,654,272 

2,204,551 

20.4 

361,925 

172,778 

109.5 

Duluth  (Minn.)-Superior  (Wis.)  .  . 

251,186 

252,816 

-0.7 

1,591 

1,220 

30.4 

Durham,  N.C  

67,812 

51,708 

31.1 

33,827 

28,536 

18.5 

El  Paso,  Texas  

190,274 

128,074 

48.6 

4,694 

2,993 

56.8 

Erie,  Pa  

215,761 

179,412 

20.3 

3,627 

1,477 

145.6 

Evansville,  Ind  

151,220 

123,216 

22.7 

9,202 

7,567 

21.6 

Fall  River,  Mass  

136,945 

134,573 

1.8 

353 

.    564 

-37.4 

Flint,  Mich  

256,686 

221,118 

16.1 

14,277 

6,826 

109.2 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind  

178,354 

152,511 

16.9 

5,368 

2,573 

108.6 

Fort  Worth,  Texas  

321,056 

196,966 

63.0 

40,197 

28,555 

40.8 

Fresno,  Cal  

257,350 

169,154 

52.1 

19,165 

9,411 

103.6 

Gadsden,  Ala  

80,350 

62,016 

29.6 

13,542 

10,564 

28.2 

Galveston,  Texas  

89,244 

63,378 

40.8 

23,822 

17,795 

33.9 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich  

281,066 

243,436 

15.5 

7,226 

2,902 

149.0 

Green  Bay,  Wis  

97,332 

82,261 

18.3 

982 

848 

15.8 

Greensboro-High  Point,  N.C  

153,735 

121,751 

26.3 

37,322 

32,165 

-    16.0 

Greenville,  S.C  

136,631 

106,142 

28.7 

31,521 

30,438 

3.6 

Hamilton-Middletown,  Ohio  

139,623 

114,243 

22.2 

7,580 

6,006 

26.2 

Harrisburg,  Pa  

275,839 

239,876 

15.0 

16,402 

12,340 

32.9 

Hartford,    Conn  

343,665 

287,507 

19.5 

14,416 

8,106 

77.8 

Houston,  Texas  

656,249 

424,819 

54.5 

150,452 

104,142 

44.5 

Huntington  (W.Va.)-Ashland 

(Ky.)  

238,594 

218,405 

9.2 

7,201 

7,263 

-0.9 

Indianapolis,  Ind  

486,503 

408,890 

19.0 

65,274 

52,036 

25.4 

Jackson,  Mich  

102,854 

90,193 

14.0 

5,071 

2,915 

74.0 

Jackson,  Miss  

78,247 

51,826 

51.0 

63,917 

55,447 

15.3 

Jacksonville,  Fla  

222,189 

141,571 

56.9 

81,840 

68,572 

19.3 

Johnstown,  Pa  

288,106 

295,872 

-2.6 

3,248 

2,544 

27.7 

Kalamazoo,  Mich  

123,913 

98,809 

25.4 

2,794 

1,276 

19.0 

Kansas  City,  Mo  

726,323 

618,941 

17.3 

88,034 

67,702 

30.0 

Kenosha,  Wis  

74,954 

63,297 

18.4 

284 

208 

36.5 

Knoxville,  Tenn  

310,926 

225,273 

38.0 

26,179 

20,815 

25.8 

Lancaster,  Pa  

231,868 

209,893 

10.5 

2,849 

2,611 

9.1 

Lansing,  Mich  

169,506 

128,847 

31.6 

3,435 

1,769 

94.2 

Laredo,  Texas  

56,027 

45,746 

22.5 

114 

170 

-32.9 

Lawrence,  Mass  

125,555 

124,557 

0.8 

380 

292 

30.1 

Lexington,  Ky  

83,276 

62,192 

33.9 

17,470 

16,707 

4.6 

Lima,  Ohio  

83,780 

71,372 

17.4 

4,403 

1,931 

128.0 

Lincoln,  Nebr  

118,079 

99,600 

18.6 

1,663 

985 

68.8 

Little    Rock-North    Little    Rock, 

Ark  

149,368 

112,877 

32.3 

47,317 

43,208 

9.5 

Lorain-Elyria,  Ohio  

141,160 

108,826 

29.7 

7,002 

3,564 

96.5 

Los  Angeles,  Cal  

4,091,606 

2,788,364 

46.7 

276,305 

128,039 

115.8 

Louisville,  Ky  

510,491 

397,120 

28.5 

66,409 

54,353 

22.2 

Lowell,  Mass  

133,604 

130,769 

2.2 

.    .    324 

230 

40.9 

Lubbock,  Texas  

93,111 

48,707 

91.2 

7,937 

3,075 

158.1 

Macon,  Ga  

86,790 

52,223 

66.2 

48,253 

42,863 

12.6 

Madison,  Wis  

168,298 

130,189 

29.3 

1,059 

471 

124.8 

Manchester,  N.H  

88,214 

81,881 

7.7 

156 

51 

Memphis,  Tenn  

302,208 

202,955 

48.9 

.180,185 

155,295 

16.0 

POPULATION 


TABLE  3  (Continued) 


White 

Nonwhite 

Standard  Metropolitan  Area 

1950 

1940      %  Change 

1950 

1940     %  Change 

Miami,  Fla  

429,688 

217,909 

97.2 

65,396 

49,830 

31.2 

Milwaukee,  Wis  

847,805 

757,267 

12.0 

23,242 

9,618 

141.7 

Minneapolis-St.  Paul,  Minn  

1,101,208 

931,070 

18.3 

15,301 

9,867 

55.1 

Mobile,  Ala  

153,078 

90,296 

69.5 

78,027 

51,678 

51.0 

Montgomery,  Ala  

78,339 

57,082 

37.2 

60,626 

57,338 

5.7 

Muncie,  Ind  

85,752 

71,907 

19.3 

4,500 

3,056 

47.3 

Nashville,  Tenn  

257,286 

200,454 

28.4 

64,472 

56,813 

13.5 

New  Bedford,  Mass  

134,019 

129,608 

3.4 

3,450 

4,827 

-28.5 

New  Britain-Bristol,  Conn  

145,434 

125,999 

15.4 

1,549 

710 

118.2 

New  Haven,  Conn  

253,690 

233,675 

8.6 

10,932 

7,075 

54.5 

New  Orleans,  La  

484,839 

392,463 

23.5 

200,566 

159,781 

25.5 

New  York-Northeastern  N.  J  

11,866,482 

10,991,985 

8.0 

1,045,512 

668,854 

56.3 

Norfolk-Portsmouth,  Va  

323,367 

171,571 

88.5 

122,833 

87,356 

40.6 

Ogden,  Utah  

81,281 

55,942 

45.3 

2,038 

772 

164.0 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla  

297,349 

220,875 

34.6 

28,003 

23,284 

20.3 

Omaha,  Nebr  

348,480 

312,309 

11.6 

17,915 

12,844 

39.5 

Orlando,  Fla  

92,184 

53,132 

73.5 

22,766 

16,942 

34.4 

Peoria,  111  

244,005 

208,546 

17.0 

6,507 

3,190 

104.0 

Philadelphia,  Pa  

3,186,404 

2,862,794 

11.3 

484,644 

336,843 

43.9 

Phoenix,  Ariz  

310,586 

173,661 

78.8 

21,184 

12,532 

69.0 

Pittsburgh,  Pa  

2,075,972 

1,969,667 

5.4 

137,264 

112,889 

21.6 

Pittsfield,  Mass  

65,817 

60,426 

8.9 

750 

570 

31.6 

Portland,  Maine  

119,477 

106,171 

12.5 

465 

395 

17.7 

Portland,  Ore  

688,880 

493,810 

39.5 

15,949 

7,465 

113.7 

Providence,  R.I  

725,718 

667,753 

8.7 

11,485 

9,013 

27.4 

Pueblo,  Colo  

88,276 

67,305 

31.2 

1,912 

1,565 

22.2 

Racine,  Wis  

107,705 

93,534 

15.2 

1,880 

513 

266.5 

Raleigh,  N.C  

96,409 

72,712 

32.6 

40,041 

36,832 

8.7 

Reading,  Pa  

252,336 

239,560 

5.3 

3,404 

2,324 

46.5 

Richmond,  Va  

240,835 

188,436 

27.8 

87,215 

74,555 

17.0 

Roanoke,  Va  ,  

115,308 

96,033 

20.1 

18,099 

16,151 

12.1 

Rochester,  N.Y  

479,385 

434,452 

10.3 

8,247 

3,778 

118.3 

Rockford,  111  

148,412 

119,715 

24.0 

3,973 

1,463 

171.6 

Sacramento,  Cal  

258,899 

156,793 

65.1 

18,241 

13,540 

34.7 

Saginaw,  Mich  

144,332 

126,855 

13.8 

9.183 

3,613 

154.2 

St.  Joseph,  Mo  

93,644 

90,992 

2.9 

3,182 

3,075 

3.5 

St.  Louis,  Mo  

1,464,826 

1,280,640 

14.4 

216,455 

151,448 

42.9 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  

271,024 

209,813 

29.2 

3,871 

1,810 

113.9 

San  Angelo,  Texas  

55,898 

37,174 

50.4 

3,031 

2,128 

42.4 

San  Antonio,  Texas  

466,909 

316,320 

47.6 

33,551 

21,856 

53.5 

San  Bernadino,  Cal  

273,001 

158,033 

72.7 

8,641 

3,075 

181.0 

San  Diego,  Cal  

532,958 

279,628 

90.6 

23,850 

9,720 

145.4 

San  Francisco-Oakland,  Cal  

2,030,225 

1,397,073 

45.3 

210,542 

64,731 

225.3 

San  Jose,  Cal  

280,433 

168,921 

66.0 

10,114 

6,028 

67.8 

Savannah,  Ga  

92,934 

65,027 

42.9 

58,547 

52,943 

10.6 

Scranton,  Pa  

256,578 

300,380 

-14.6 

818 

863 

-5.2 

Seattle,  Wash  

702,477 

486,970 

44.3 

30,515 

18,010 

69.4 

Shreveport,  La  

110,041 

86,363 

27.4 

66,506 

63,840 

4.2 

Sioux  City,  Iowa  

.102,715 

102,618 

0.1 

1,202 

1,009 

19.1 

Sioux  Falls,  S.Dak  

70,484 

57,463 

22.7 

426 

234 

82.1 

South  Bend,  Ind  

196,227 

158,042 

24.2 

8,831 

3,781 

133.6 

Spokane,  Wash  »  

218,504 

163,368 

33.7 

3,057 

1,284 

138.1 

Springfield,  111  

126,954 

114,274 

11.1 

4,530 

3,638 

24.5 

Springfield,  Mo  

102,620 

88,325 

16.2 

2,203 

2,216 

-0.6 

Springfield,  Ohio  

101,604 

86,938 

16.9 

10,057 

8,709 

15.5 

Springfield-Holyoke,  Mass  

399,794 

361,047 

10.7 

7.461 

3.633 

105.4 

Stamford-Norwalk,  Conn  ,  . 

188,333 

154,981 

21.5 

7,690 

5,293 

45.3 

Stockton,  Cal  

181,100 

121,294 

49.3 

19,650 

12,913 

52.2 

Syracuse,  N.Y  . 

335,445 

291,780 

15.0 

6,274 

3,328 

88.5 

Tacoma,  Wash  

267,378 

178,307 

50.0 

8,498 

3,774 

125.2 

Tampa-St.  Petersburg,  Fla.  ..... 

352,116 

224,200 

57.1 

57,027 

47,800 

19.3 

Terra-Haute,  Ind  

100,718 

95,651 

5.3 

4,442 

4,058 

*.5 

Toledo,  Ohio  

368,660 

329,180 

12.0 

26,891 

15,153 

77.5 

Topeka,  Kans  

97,656 

84,488 

15.6 

7,762 

6,759 

14.8 

Trenton,  N.J  

209,154 

183,379 

14.1 

20,627 

13,939 

48.0 

Tulsa,  Okla  

228,690 

173,752 

31.6 

22,996 

19,611 

17.3 

Utica-Rome,  N.Y  

281,667 

262,092 

7.5 

2,595 

1,071 

142.3 

POPULATION  GROWTH 


TABLE  3  (Continued) 


White 

Nonwhite 

Standard  Metropolitan  Area 

1950 

1940      % 

Change 

1950 

1940     %  Change 

Waco,  Texas  

107,813 
1,122,206 
150,814 
97,741 

342,355 
212,144 
92,144 
391,268 
236,298 
104,693 
274,401 
198,842 
493,319 

82,381 
737,158 
136,543 
78,406 

351,459 
137,355 
69,118 
440,554 
196,269 
85,310 
251,102 
175,043 
449,857 

30.9 
52.2 
10.5 
24.7 

-2.6 
54.4 
33.3 
-11.2 
20.4 
22.7 
9.3 
13.6 
9.7 

22,381 
341,883 
3,842 
2,707 

11,737 
10,146 
6,349 
973 
32,089 
41,442 
1,935 
3,895 
35,179 

19,517 
230,827 
2,236 
1,540 

12,673 
5,956 
4,486 
964 
25,567 
41,165 
1,650 
2,979 
23,748 

14.7 
48.1 
71.8 
75.8 

-7.4 
70.3 
41.5 
0.9 
25.5 
0.7 
17.3 
30.7 
48.1 

Washington,  D.C.          

Waterbury,  Conn  

Waterloo,  Iowa  

Wheeling      (W.Va.)-Steubenville 
(Ohio)  

Wichita,  Kans.  ... 

Wichita  Falls,  Texas  

Wilkes-Barre-Hazleton,  Pa.  .       .    . 

Wilmington,  Del  

Winston-Salem,  N.C  

Worcester,  Mass  

York,  Pa  

Youngstown,  Ohio  

TABLE  4 

POPULATION  BY  COLOR  FOR  CITIES  OF  50,000  OR  MORE,  1950  AND  1940 
(Minus  sign  denotes  decrease.  Per  cent  not  shown  where  base  is  less  than  100) 


White 

Nonwhite 

City 

1950 

1940 

%  Change 

1950 

1940 

%  Change 

TOTAL  

,  ...  46,573,330 

42,193,297 

10.4 

6,669,110 

4,470,666 

49.2 

Akron,  Ohio  

250,727 

232,482 

7.8 

23,878 

12,309 

94.0 

Alameda,  Cal  

58,104 

35,125 

65.4 

6,326 

1,131 

459.3 

Albany,  N.Y.  

129,114 

127,564 

1.2 

5,881 

3,013 

95.2 

Albuquerque,  N.Mex  

94,849 

34,571 

174.4 

1,966 

878 

123.9 

Alexandria,  Va  

54,121 

28,219 

91.8 

7,666 

5,304 

44.5 

Alhambra,  Cal  

51,129 

38,737 

32.0 

230 

198 

16.2 

Allentown,  Pa  

106,264 

96,524 

10.1 

492 

380 

29.5 

Altoona,  Pa  

76,479 

79,472 

-3.8 

698 

742 

-5.9 

Amarillo,  Texas  

70,591 

48,900 

44.4 

3,655 

2,786 

31.2 

Asheville,  N.C  

40,536 

37,873 

7.0 

12,464 

13,437 

-7.2 

Atlanta,  Ga  

209,898 

197,686 

6.2 

121,416 

104,602 

16.1 

Atlantic  City,  NJ  

44,795 

48,347 

-7.3 

16,862 

15,747 

7.1 

Augusta,  Ga  

41,990 

38,691 

8.5 

29,518 

27,228 

8.4 

Aurora,  111  

49,394 

46,168 

7.0 

1,182 

1,002 

18.0 

Austin,  Texas  

114,652 

73,025 

57.0 

17,807 

14,905 

19.5 

Baltimore,  Md  

723,655 

692,705 

4.5 

226,053 

166,395 

35.9 

Baton  Rouge,  La  

90,447 

23,092 

291.7 

35,182 

11,627 

202.6 

Bay  City,  Mich  

52,175 

47,784 

9.2 

348 

172 

102.3 

Bayonne,  NJ  

75,312 

77,419 

-2.7 

1,891 

1,779 

6.3 

Beaumont,  Texas  

66,389 

40,105 

65.5 

27,625 

18,956 

45.7 

Berkeley,  Cal  

96,268 

80,267 

19.9 

17,537 

5,280 

232.1 

Berwyn,  111  

51,255 

48,440 

5.8 

25 

11 

Bethlehem,  Pa  

65,600 

57,841 

13.4 

740 

649 

14.0 

Binghamton,  N.Y  

79,842 

77,559 

2.9 

832 

750 

10.9 

Birmingham,  Ala  

195,895 

158,622 

23.5 

130,142 

108,961 

19.4 

Boston,  Mass  

758,700 

745,466 

1.8 

42,744 

25,350 

68.6 

Bridgeport,  Conn  

151,853 

143,314 

6.0 

6,856 

3,807 

80.1 

Brockton,  Mass  

62,223 

61,795 

0.7 

637 

548 

16.2 

Buffalo,  N.Y  

542,432 

557,618 

-2.7 

37,700 

18,283 

106.2 

Burbank,  Cal  

78,436 

34,198 

129.4 

141 

139 

1.4 

Cambridge,  Mass  

115,068 

105,855 

8.7 

5,672 

5,024 

12.9 

Camden,  NJ  
Canton,  Ohio  

106,972 
109,756 

104,995 
104,319 

1.9 
5.2 

17,583 
7,156 

12,541 
4,082 

40.2 
75.3 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa  

71,512 

61,452 

16.4 

784 

668 

17.4 

Charleston,  S.C  

39,287 

39,488 

-0.5 

30,887 

31,787 

-2.8 

Charleston,  W.Va  

66,377 

60,887 

9.0 

7,124 

7,027 

1.4 

Source:  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-14,  No.  1,  Dec.  16,  1951. 


POPULATION 


TABLE  4  (Continued) 


White 

Nonwhite 

City 

1950 

1940 

%  Change 

1950 

1940 

%  Change 

Charlotte,  N.C  

96,531 

69,475 

38.9 

37,511 

31,424 

19.4 

Chattanooga,  Tenn  

91,720 

91,742 

39,321 

36,421 

8.0 

Chester,  Pa  

52,174 

49,102 

6.3 

13,865 

10,183 

36.2 

Chicago,  111  

.     3,111,525 

3,114,564 

-0.1 

509,437 

282,244 

80.5 

Cicero,  111  

67,489 

64,698 

4.3 

55 

14 

Cincinnati,  Ohio  

425,313 

399,853 

6.4 

78,685 

55,757 

41.1 

Cleveland,  Ohio  

765,261 

793,417 

-3.5 

149,547 

84,919 

76.1 

Cleveland  Heights,  Ohio  

58,649 

54,458 

7.7 

492 

534 

-7.9 

Clifton,  N.J  

64,338 

48,713 

32.1 

173 

114 

51.8 

Columbia,  S.C  

55,671 

40,191 

38.5 

31,243 

22,205 

40.7 

Columbus,  Ga  

54,767 

35,804 

53.0 

24,844 

17,476 

42.2 

Columbus,  Ohio  

328,770 

270,183 

21.7 

47,131 

35,904 

31.3 

Corpus  Christi,  Texas  

101,123 

52,742 

91.7 

7,164 

4,559 

57.1 

Covington,  Ky  

60,860 

58,858 

3.4 

3,592 

3,160 

13.7 

Cranston,  R.I  

54,835 

46,812 

17.1 

225 

273 

-17.6 

Dallas,  Texas  

377,199 

244,246 

54.4 

57,263 

50,488 

13.4 

Davenport,  Iowa  

73,430 

65,235 

12.6 

1,119 

804 

39.2 

Dayton,  Ohio  , 

209,599 

190,414 

10.1 

34,273 

20,304 

68.8 

Dearborn,  Mich  , 

94,897 

63,495 

49.5 

97 

89 

Decatur,  111  ,  

62,804 

57,205 

9.8 

3,465 

2,100 

65.0 

Denver,  Colo  

397,534 

313,810 

26.7 

18,252 

8,602 

112.2 

Des  Moines,  Iowa  

169,747 

153,426 

10.6 

8,218 

6,393 

28.5 

Detroit,  Mich  

.     1,545,847 

1,472,662 

5.0 

303,721 

150,790 

101.4 

Duluth,  Minn  

103,925 

100,659 

3.2 

586 

406 

44.3 

Durham,  N.C  

45,190 

36,840 

22.7 

26,121 

23,355 

11.8 

East  Chicago,  Ind  

44,015 

48,503 

-9.3 

10,248 

6,134 

67.1 

East  Orange,  N.J  , 

70,219 

62,973 

11.5 

9,121 

5,972 

52.7 

East  St.  Louis,  111  

54,725 

58,781 

-6.9 

27,570 

16,828 

63.8 

Elizabeth,  N.J  

105,350 

104,910 

0.4 

7,467 

5,002 

49.3 

El  Paso,  Texas  

127,033 

94,323 

34.7 

3,452 

2,487 

38.8 

Erie,  Pa  

127,366 

115,565 

10.2 

3,437 

1,390 

147.3 

Evanston,  111  , 

66,507 

59,298 

12.2 

7,134 

6,091 

17.1 

Evansville,  Ind  

120,121 

90,194 

33.2 

8,515 

6,868 

24.0 

Fall  River,  Mass  

111,641 

114,909 

-2.8 

322 

519 

-38.0 

Flint,  Mich  

149,100 

144,858 

2.9 

14,043 

6,685 

110.1 

Fort  Wayne,  

128,313 

115,877 

10.7 

5,294 

2,533 

109.0 

Fort  Worth,  Texas  

241,352 

152,345 

58.4 

37,426 

25,317 

47.8 

Fresno,  Cal  

84,561 

57,014 

48.3 

7,108 

3,671 

93.6 

Gadsden,  Ala  , 

44,895 

29,415 

52.6 

10,830 

7,560 

43.3 

Galveston,  Texas  

48,840 

45,353 

7.7 

17,728 

15,509 

14.3 

Gary,  Ind  

94,585 

91,246 

3.7 

39,326 

20,473 

92.1 

Glendale,  Cal  

95,426 

81,992 

16.4 

276 

590 

-53.2 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich  

169,578 

161,567 

5.0 

6,937 

2,725 

154.6 

Green  Bay,  Wis  

52,550 

46,094 

14.0 

185 

141 

31.2 

Greensboro,  N.C  

55,248 

42,968 

28.6 

19,141 

16,351 

17.1 

Greenville,  S.C.  .  

42,063 

20,750 

102.7 

16,098 

13,984 

15.1 

Hamilton,  Ohio  

55,044 

48,530 

13.4 

2,907 

2,062 

41.0 

Hammond,  Ind  

86,416 

69,524 

24.3 

1,178 

660 

78.5 

Harrisburg,  Pa  

79,389 

76,609 

3.6 

10,155 

7,284 

39.4 

Hartford,  Conn  

164,607 

159,119 

3.4 

12,790 

7,148 

78.9 

Hoboken,  N.J  

50,165 

49,819 

0.7 

511 

296 

72.6 

Holyoke,  Mass  

54,316 

53,646 

1.2 

345 

104 

231.7 

Houston,  Texas  

470,503 

297,959 

57.9 

125,660 

86,555 

45.2 

Huntington,  W.Va  

81,900 

74,322 

10.2 

4,453 

4,514 

-1.4 

Indianapolis,  Ind  

363,082 

335,755 

8.1 

64,091 

51,217 

25.1 

Irvington,  N.J  
Jackson,  Mich  

59,073 
48,327 

55,237 
48,131 

6.9 
0.4 

128 
2,761 

91 
1,525 

's'i.o 

Jackson,  Miss  , 

58,080 

37,851 

53.4 

40,191 

24,256 

65.7 

Jacksonville,  Fla  , 

131,988 

111,247 

18.6 

72,529 

61,818 

17.3 

Jersey  City,  N.J  

278,051 

287,598 

-3.3 

20,966 

13,575 

54.4 

Johnstown,  Pa  

61,014 

65,093 

-6.3 

2,218 

.     1,575 

40.8 

Joliet,  111  

49,636 

41,048 

20.9 

1,965 

1,317 

49.2 

Kalamazoo,  Mich  

55,182 

52,961 

4.2 

2,522 

1,136 

122.0 

Kansas  City,  Kans  

102,843 

100,390 

2.4 

26,710 

21,068 

26.8 

Kansas  City,  Mo  , 

400,599 

357,346 

12.1 

56,023 

41,832 

33.9 

Kenosha,  Wis  

54,113 

48,569 

11.4 

255 

196 

30.1 

Knoxville,  Tenn  

105,547 

95,474 

10.6 

19,222 

16,106 

19.3 

Lakewood,  Ohio  

67,963 

69,041 

-1.6 

108 

119 

-9.2 

POPULATION  GROWTH 


TABLE  4  (Continued) 


• 

White 

Nonwhite 

g              City 

1950 

1940 

%  Change 

1950 

1940 

%  Change 

Lancaster,  Pa  

61,951 

59,834 

3.5 

1,823 

1,511 

20.6 

Lansing,  Mich  

89,083 

77,087 

15.6 

3,046 

1,666 

82.8 

Laredo,  Texas  

51,801 

39,147 

32.3 

109 

127 

-14.2 

Lawrence,  Mass  

80,275 

84,173 

-4.6 

261 

150 

74.0 

Lexington,  Ky  

41,850 

36,372 

15.1 

13,684 

12,932 

5.8 

Lima,  Ohio  

46,964 

43,139 

8.9 

3,282 

1,572 

108.8 

Lincoln,  Nebr  

97,495 

81,163 

20.1 

1,389 

821 

69.2 

Little  Rock,  Ark  , 

78,654 

65,914 

19.3 

23,559 

22,125 

6.5 

Long  Beach,  Cal  , 

244,180 

162,582 

50.2 

6,587 

1,689 

290.0 

Lorain,  Ohio  , 

48,669 

42,974 

13.3 

2,533 

1,151 

120.1 

Los  Angeles,  Cal  , 

,  .     1,758,773 

1,406,430 

25.1 

211,585 

97,847 

116.2 

Louisville,  Ky  , 

311,357 

271,867 

14.5 

57,772 

47,210 

22.4 

Lowell,  Mass  

97,040 

101,252 

-4.2 

209 

137 

52.6 

Lubbock,  Texas  

65,489 

29,619 

121.1 

6,258 

2,234 

180.1 

Lynn,  Mass  

98,724 

97,314 

1.4 

1,014 

809 

25.3 

Macon,  Ga  

40,704 

32,253 

26.2 

29,548 

25,612 

15.4 

Madison,  Wis  

95,123 

67,04? 

41.9 

933 

400 

133.3 

Maiden,  Mass  , 

59,231 

57,51  ! 

3.0 

573 

496 

15.5 

Manchester,  N.H  

82,580 

77,635 

6.4 

152 

50 

McKeesport,  Pa  

48,818 

53,155 

-8.2 

2,684 

2,200 

22.0 

Medford,  Mass  

65,290 

62,420 

4.6 

823 

663 

24.1 

Memphis,  Tenn  , 

248,713 

171,406 

45.1 

147,287 

121,536 

21.2 

Miami,  Fla  

208,700 

135,192 

54.4 

40,576 

36,980 

9.7 

Milwaukee,  Wis  

614,650 

578,177 

6.3 

22,742 

9,295 

144.7 

Minneapolis,  Minn  

513,250 

487,099 

5.4 

8,468 

5,271 

60.7 

Mobile,  Ala  

83,095 

49,606 

67.5 

45,914 

29,114 

47.7 

Montgomery,  Ala  

63,965 

43,547 

46.9 

42,560 

34,537 

23.2 

Mt.  Vernon,  N.Y  

63,970 

62,189 

2.9 

7,929 

5,173 

53.3 

Muncie,  Ind  , 

54,039 

46,714 

15.7 

4,440 

3,006 

47.7 

Nashville,  Tenn  

119,581 

120,072 

-0.4 

54,726 

47,330 

15.6 

Newark,  N.J  

363,150 

383,534 

-5.3 

75,626 

46,226 

63.6 

New  Bedford,  Mass  

106,024 

105,927 

0.1 

3,165 

4,414 

-28.3 

New  Britain,  Conn  

72,686 

68,350 

6.3 

1,040 

335 

210.4 

New  Haven,  Conn  

154,618 

154,262 

0.2 

9,825 

6,343 

54.9 

New  Orleans,  La  , 

387,763 

344,775 

12.5 

182,682 

149,762 

22.0 

New  Rochelle,  N.Y  

52,224 

52,107 

0.2 

7,501 

6,301 

19.0 

Newton,  Mass  

81,435 

69,161 

17.7 

559 

712 

-21.5 

New  York  City,  N.Y  

,.     7,116,428 

6,977,501 

2.0 

775,529 

477,494 

62.4 

Bronx  borough  

.     1,351,662 

1,370,319 

-1.4 

99,615 

24,392 

308.4 

Brooklyn  borough  

.     2,525,107 

2,587,951 

-2.4 

213,068 

110,334 

93.1 

Queens  borpugh  

,  .     1,497,126 

1,270,731 

17.8 

53,723 

26,903 

99.7 

Manhattan  borough  .  .  . 

..     1,556,599 

1,577,625 

-1.3 

403,502 

312,299 

29.2 

Richmond  borough  .  .  .  . 

185,934 

170,875 

8.8 

5,621 

3,566 

57.6 

Niagara  Falls,  N.Y  

87,174 

76,940 

13.3 

3,698 

1,089 

239.6 

Norfolk,  Va  

150,057 

98,248 

52.7 

63,456 

46,084 

37.7 

Oakland,  Cal  

328,797 

287,936 

14.2 

55,778 

14,227 

292.1 

Oak  Park,  111  

63,382 

65,875 

-3.8 

147 

140 

5.0 

Ogden,  Utah  

55,509 

43,056 

28.9 

1,603 

632 

153.6 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla  , 

220,838 

184,715 

19.6 

22,666 

19,709 

15.0 

Omaha,  Nebr  

234,235 

211,640 

10.7 

16,882 

12,204 

38.3 

Orlando,  Fla  

38,980 

26,265 

48.4 

13,387 

10,471 

27.8 

Pasadena,  Cal  

94,799 

76,737 

23.5 

9,778 

5,127 

90.7 

Passaic,  N.J  

54,691 

59,365 

1     -7.9 

3,011 

2,029 

48.4 

Paterson,  N.J  , 

130,927 

135,300 

-3.2 

8,409 

4,356 

93.0 

Pawtucket,  R.I  

81,073 

75,482 

7.4 

363 

315 

15.2 

Peoria,  111  

105,941 

102,202 

3.7 

5,915 

2,885 

105.0 

Philadelphia,  Pa  

.     1,692,637 

1,678,577 

0.8 

378,968 

252,757 

49.9 

Phoenix,  Ariz  

100,197 

60,373 

66.0 

6,621 

5,041 

31.3 

Pittsburgh,  Pa  

593,823 

609,236 

-2.5 

82,983 

62,423 

32.9 

Pittsfield,  Mass  

52,672 

49,209 

7.0 

676 

475 

42.3 

Pontiac,  Mich  

66,704 

63,788 

4.6 

6,977 

2,838 

145.8 

Port  Arthur,  Texas  

43,579 

37,068 

17.6 

13,951 

9,072 

53.8 

Portland,  Maine  

77,246 

73,269 

5.4 

388 

374 

3.7 

Portland,  Ore  

360,388 

299,707 

20.2 

13,240 

5,687 

132.8 

Portsmouth,  Va  

49,322 

31,268 

57.7 

30,717 

19,477 

57.7 

Providence,  R.I  

239,993 

246,904 

-2.8 

8,681 

6,600 

31.5 

Pueblo,  Colo  

62,090 

50,659 

22.6 

1,595 

1,503 

6.1 

Quincy,  Mass  , 

83,762 

75,765 

10.6 

73 

45 

10 


POPULATION 


TABLE  4  (Continued) 


White 

Nonwhites 

City 

1950 

1940 

%  Change 

1950 

1940 

%  Change 

Racine,  Wis  

69,682 

66,741 

4.4 

1,511 

454 

232.8 

Raleigh,  N.C  

47,735 

31,061 

53.7 

17,944 

15,836 

13.3 

Reading,  Pa  

106,384 

108,646 

-2.1 

2,936 

1,922 

52.8 

Richmond,  Cal  

85,329 

23,234 

267.3 

14,216 

408 

3384.3 

Richmond,  Va  

157,223 

131,706 

19.4 

73,087 

61,336 

19.2 

Roanoke,  Va  

77,334 

56,472 

36.9 

14,587 

12,815 

13.8 

Rochester,  N.Y  

324,643 

321,554 

1.0 

7,845 

3,421 

129.3 

Rockford,  111  

90,359 

83,426 

8.3 

2,568 

1,211 

112.1 

Sacramento,  Cal  

126,889 

99,808 

27.1 

10,683 

6,150 

73.7 

Saginaw,  Mich  

84,247 

79,384 

6.1 

8,671 

3,410 

154.3 

St.  Joseph,  Mo  
St.  Louis,  Mo  

75,441 
702,348 

72,669 
706,794 

3.8 
-0.6 

3,147 
154,448 

3,042 
109,254 

3.5 

41.4 

St.  Paul,  Minn  

305,112 

283,399 

7.7 

6,237 

4,337 

43.8 

St.  Petersburg,  Fla  

82,725 

48,794 

69.5 

14,013 

12,018 

16.6 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  

179,019 

148,699 

20.4 

3,102 

1,235 

151.2 

San  Angelo,  Texas  

49,096 

24,041 

104'.2 

2,997 

1,761 

70.2 

San  Antonio,  Texas  

378,897 

234,022 

61.9 

29,545 

19,832 

49.0 

San  Bernardino,  Cal  

60,931 

42,683 

42.8 

2,127 

963 

120.9 

San  Diego,  Cal  

316,023 

196,946 

60.5 

18,364 

6,395 

187.2 

San  Francisco,  Cal  

693,888 

602,701 

15.1 

81,469 

31,835 

155.9 

San  Jose,  Cal  

93,231 

67,406 

38.3 

2,049 

1,051 

95.0 

Santa  Monica,  Cal  

67,955 

51,691 

31.5 

3,640 

1,809 

101.2 

Savannah,  Ga  

71,288 

52,700 

35.3 

48,350 

43,296 

11.7 

Schenectady,  N.Y  

90,309 

86,837 

4.0 

1,476 

712 

107.3 

Scranton,  Pa  

124,820 

139,647 

-10.6 

716 

757 

-5.4 

Seattle,  Wash  

440,424 

354,101 

24.4 

27,167 

14,201 

91.3 

Shreveport,  La  

84,958 

62,146 

36.7 

42,248 

36,021 

17.3 

Sioux  City,  Iowa  

82,793 

81,360 

1.8 

1,198 

1,004 

19.3 

Sioux  Falls,  S.D  

52,278 

40,605 

28.7 

418 

227 

84.1 

Somerville,  Mass  

101,957 

101,887 

0.1 

394 

290 

35.9 

South  Bend,  Ind  

107,684 

97,662 

10.3 

8,227 

3,606 

128.1 

South  Gate,  Cal  

51,074 

26,926 

89.7 

42 

19 

Spokane,  Wash  

159,022 

120,897 

31.5 

2,699 

'   1,104 

144.5 

Springfield,  111  

77,317 

72,122 

7.2 

4,311 

3,381 

27.5 

Springfield,  Mass  

156,128 

146,361 

6.7 

6,271 

3,193 

96.4 

Springfield,  Mo  

64,839 

59,432 

9.1 

1,892 

1,806 

4.8 

Springfield,  Ohio  

68,762 

62,352 

10.3 

9,746 

8,310 

17.3 

Stamford,  Conn  

70,314 

45,642 

54.1 

3,979 

2,296 

73.3 

Stockton,  Cal  

63,549 

49,632 

28.0 

7,304 

5,082 

43.7 

Syracuse,  N.Y  

215,525 

203,640 

5.8 

5,058 

2,327 

117.4 

Tacoma,  Wash  

139,246 

107,611 

29.4 

4,427 

1,797 

146.4 

Tampa,  Fla  

97,284 

85,043 

14.4 

27,397 

23,348 

17.3 

Terre  Haute,  Ind  

60,656 

59,292 

2.3 

3,558 

3,401 

4.6 

Toledo,  Ohio  

278,266 

267,589 

4.0 

25,350 

14,760 

71.7 

Topeka,  Kans  

72,248 

62,096 

16.3 

6,543 

5,737 

14.0 

Trenton,  N.J  

113,477 

115,357 

-1.6 

14,532 

9,340 

55.6 

Troy,  N.Y  

71,333 

69,678 

2.4 

978 

626 

56.2 

Tulsa,  Okla  

164,405 

126,352 

30.1 

18,335 

15,805 

16.0 

Union  City,  N.J  

55,466 

56,124 

-1.2 

71 

49 

Utica,  N.Y  

99,861 

99,989 

-0.1 

1,670 

529 

215.7 

Waco,  Texas  

70,094 

44,944 

56.0 

14,612 

11,038 

32.4 

Washington,  D.C.  

518,147 

474,326 

9.2 

284,031 

188,765 

50.5 

Waterbury,  Conn  

100,816 

97,259 

3.7 

3,661 

2,055 

78.2 

Waterloo,  Iowa  

62,545 

50,237 

24.5 

2,653 

1,506 

76.2 

Wheeling,  W.Va  

56,883 

59,186 

-3.9 

2,008 

1,913 

5.0 

Wichita,  Kans  

159,910 

109,186 

46.5 

8,369 

5,780 

44.8 

Wichita  Falls,  Texas  

62,074 

41,078 

51.1 

5,968 

4,034 

47.9 

Wilkes-Barre,  Pa  

76,064 

85,393 

-10.9 

762 

843 

-9.6 

Wilmington,  Del  

93,079 

98,175 

-5.2 

17,277 

14,329 

20.6 

Winston-Salem,  N.C  

51,051 

43,789 

16.6 

36,760 

36,026 

2.0 

Woonsocket,  R.I  

50,037 

49,220 

1.7 

174 

83 

109.6 

Worcester,  Mass  

201,767 

192,263 

4.9 

1,719 

1,431 

20.1 

Yonkers,  N.Y  

147,728 

138,441 

6.7 

5,070 

4,157 

22.0 

York,  Pa  

56,799 

54,280 

4.6 

3,154 

2,432 

29.7 

Youngstown,  Ohio  

146,783 

153,056 

-4.1 

21,547 

14,664 

46.9 

POPULATION  ANALYSIS 


11 


Migration 

In  the  southern  region,  the  net  gain  in 
Negro  population  between  1940  and  1950 
did  not  equal  the  natural  increase  that 
would  be  expected,  a  result  of  mi- 
gration. 

Between  1940  and  1947,  Negro  and 
white  groups  differed  sharply  in  the  dis- 
tance of  their  migration,  Negroes  gener- 
ally moving  longer  distances  than  whites. 
Migration  rates  for  whites  and  nonwhites 
were  very  similar  during  this  period,  but 
about  twice  as  many  migrants  among  non- 
whites,  moved  to  other  states  as  moved 
within  a  state,  while  more  white  migrants 
moved  within  a  state  than  moved  to  other 
states.  Nor  was  the  preponderance  of 
migrants  to  noncontiguous  states  as  great 
among  whites  as  among  nonwhites. 

Between  1935  and  1940,  the  nonwhite 
migration  rate  was  only  0.70  of  the  rate 
for  whites.  Between  1940  and  1947,  the 
corresponding  ratio  was  1.05.  In  the 
South,  however,  the  nonwhite  population 
was  less  mobile  than  its  white  counter- 
part. During  the  year  April  1948  to  April 
1949,  the  entire  nonwhite  population  was 
slightly  less  mobile  than  the  white  popu- 
lation. With  respect  to  distance  of  migra- 
tion, only  40%  of  nonwhite  migrants 
moved  between  states,  as  compared  with 
53%  of  white  migrants.  This  suggests  a 
return  to  the  1935-40  pattern  of  migration 
for  nonwhites.  See  Table  5. 


Ratio  of  Males  to  Females 

The  sex  ratio  (number  of  males  per 
100  females)  has  implications  for  mar- 
riage rates  as  well  as  for  the  reproduc- 
tive, social,  and  economic  functions  of  a 
society.  Males  have  been  outnumbered  by 
females  in  the  Negro  population  for  about 
100  years.  The  number  of  Negro  males 
per  100  females  decreased  from  97.0  in 
1930  to  95.0  in  1940.  Between  1930  and 
1940,  the  increase  in  the  number  of  Negro 
females  was  nearly  150,000  more  then  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  Negro  males. 
Population  estimates  for  the  periods  1940- 
42  and  1946-48  show  that  the  ratio  of 
Negro  males  per  100  females  was  ap- 
proximately 96.2  for  both  periods.  The 
1950  sex  ratio  among  the  Negro  popula- 
tion was  97.6.  This  was  only  slightly  less 
than  the  sex  ratio  for  the  total  popula- 
tion, which  was  98.1.  The  1950  sex  ratio 
for  the  total  population,  however,  repre- 
sented a  0.7  decline  from  1940,  while  the 
1950  sex  ratio  for  the  Negro  population 
represented  a  2.6  increase  over  1940. 
When  the  sex  ratio  is  considered  by  re- 
gions, Negro  males  outnumbered  Negro 
females  in  the  North-Central  and  Western 
regions.  The  number  of  Negro  males  per 
100  females  in  1950  was  90.8  in  the 
Northeast,  100.4  in  the  North-Central  re- 
gion, 97.9  in  the  South,  and  104.6  in  the 
West. 

Negro  males  in  the  age  groups  under  5 
years,  5-9,  60-64,  and  70-74  years  outnum- 
bered Negro  females  in  their  respective 


TABLE  5 
PER  CENT  DISTRIBUTION  BY  MIGRATION  STATUS  AND  TYPE  OF  MIGRATION  OF  POPULATION 

BORN  ON  OR  BEFORE  BEGINNING  OF  MIGRATION  PERIOD,  BY  COLOR 
(Civilian  Population,  April  1949  and  1947;  Total  Population,  April  1940) 


Migration-  Status 
and 
Type  of  Migration 

April  1948 
to 
April  1949 

April  1940 
to 
April  1947 

April  1935 
to 
April  1940 

White 

Nonwhite 

White 

Nonwhite 

White 

Nonwhite 

Nonmigrants  

93.8 

95.1 
4.7 
2.8 
1.9 
0.1 

78.9 
20.7 
11.0 
9.7 
0.4 

77.4 
21.8 
7.7 
14.1 
0.8 

86.2 
13.5 
7.9 
5.6 
0.3 

90.4 
9.5 
5.6 
3.9 
0.1 

Migrants  .  .              

5.9 

Within  a  state  

2.8 

Between  states  

3.1 

Abroad  

0.4 

Source:    Current  Population   Reports:    Population   Characteristics,   "Internal   Migration   in  the   United 
States:  April,  1948  to  April,  1949,"  Series  P-20,  No.  28,  Table  1. 


12 


POPULATION 


How  Negro  Population  Is  Spreading  Over  U.S. 


UP 

412% 


age  groups  in  1950.  In  line  with  the  trend 
for  the  total  population,  Negro  females 
outnumbered  males  in  the  urban  popula- 
tion, but  were  in  the  minority  in  the  rural 
population. 

Age  Composition 

The  median  age  of  the  nonwhite  popu- 
lation increased  from  25.2  years  in  1940 
to  25.5  years  in  1950,  while  the  corre- 
sponding medians  for  the  total  population 
were  29.0  and  30.1  years,  respectively.  In 
both  1940  and  1950,  approximately  57.6% 
of  the  nonwhite  population  was  over  21 
years  of  age.  The  median  age  of  nonwhite 
males  decreased  0.3  of  a  year  during  the 
1940-50  decade  (from  25.4  to  25.1  years), 
but  the  median  age  of  nonwhite  females 
increased  during  that  same  period  0.7  of 
a  year  (from  25.1  to  25.8  years).  Rela- 
tively more  nonwhite  females  were  over 
21  in  1950  than  in  1940,  while  the  reverse 
was  true  among  nonwhite  males. 

The  15-19  age  group  was  the  only  one 
among  nonwhites  to  show  a  percentage 
decrease  between  1940  and  1950.  Percent- 
age increases  among  nonwhites  ranged 
from  a  3%  increase  in  the  30-34  age 
group  to  a  48.9%  increase  in  the  youngest 
age  group,  under  5  years.  There  were  also 


©  1951,  U.S.  News  Publishing  Corp. 

relatively  large  increases  in  persons  over 
60.  See  Table  6.  The  Negro  birth  rate 
increased  from  21.6  per  1000  persons  in 
1940  to  29.5  per  1000  persons  in  1948. 


Occupation  and  Industry 

Traditionally  concentrated  in  agricul- 
ture and  domestic  and  personal  service,  it 
is  apparent  that  the  Negro  occupational 
distribution  is  slowly  approaching  that  of 
whites  when  classes  of  workers  are  com- 
pared. Table  7  shows  the  class  of  all 
workers  and  nonwhite  workers  in  1950 
and  1940.  It  is  worth  noting  that  in  the 
South  the  proportion  of  nonwhite  work- 
ers employed  by  governmental  agencies 
showed  a  sharp  increase  between  1940 
and  1950;  self-employed  nonwhite  work- 
ers showed  an  even  sharper  decrease. 

Table  8  shows  the  classifications  into 
major  occupation  groups  of  all  workers 
and  nonwhite  workers  for  the  last  two 
Census  years.  The  number  of  nonwhite 
clerical  workers  tripled  during  these  10 
years,  and  the  sales  workers,  craftsmen, 
and  operatives  groups  each  doubled  in 
size.  The  proportion  of  nonwhite  private 
household  workers  fell  from  21%  in  1940 
to  15%  in  1950. 


POPULATION  ANALYSIS 


13 


TABLE  6 
AGE  COMPOSITION  OF  NONWHITE  POPULATION  FOR  U.S.,  1950  AND   1940 


Per  Cent 

Age  Groups 

1950 

1940 

Change 

Number    Per  Gent 

Number     Per  Gent 

1940  to  1950 

Both  sexes  

.  ..     15,482,000 

100.0 

13,454,405 

100.0 

15.1 

Under  5  years  

1,953,000 

12.6 

1,312,019 

9.8 

48.9 

5  to    9  years  

1,564,000 

10.1 

1,355,671 

10.1 

15.4 

10  to  14  years  

1,503,000 

9.7 

1,393,240 

10.4 

7.9 

15  to  19  years  

1,300,000 

8.4 

1,369,476 

10.2 

-5.1 

20  to  24  years  

1,298,000 

8.4 

1,247,686 

9.3 

4.0 

25  to  29  years  

.  ..       1,295,000 

8.4 

1,192,368 

8.9 

8.6 

30  to  34  years  

1,067,000 

6.9 

1,035,910 

7.7 

3.0 

35  to  39  years  

.  ..       1,186,000 

7.7 

1,028,717 

7.6 

15.3 

40  to  44  years  

1,015,000 

6.6 

851,760 

6.3 

19.2 

45  to  49  years  

817,000 

5.3 

722,469 

5.4 

13.1 

50  to  54  years  

706,000 

4.6 

576,539 

4.3 

22.5 

55  to  59  years  

534,000 

3.4 

417,020 

3.1 

28.1 

60  to  64  years  

368,000 

2.4 

311,647 

2.3 

18.1 

65  to  69  years  

435,000 

2.8 

307,611 

2.3 

41.4 

70  to  74  years  

229,000 

1.5 

168,987 

1.2 

35.5 

75  years  and  over  

215,000 

1.4 

163,285 

1.2 

31.7 

Median  age:  years  

25.5 

— 

25.2 

— 

— 

21  years  and  over.  ... 

8,923,000 

57.6 

7,753,093 

57.6 

15.1 

Male  

.  .  .       7,672,000 

100.0 

6,613,044 

100.0 

16.0 

Under  5  years  

983,000 

12.8 

653,338 

9.9 

50.5 

5  to    9  years  

851,000 

11.1 

674,286 

10.2 

26.2 

10  to  14  years  

748,000 

9.7 

693,322 

10.5 

7.9 

15  to  19  years  

628,000 

8.2 

664,233 

10.0 

-5.5 

20  to  24  years  

617,000 

8.0 

578,750 

8.8 

6.6 

25  to  29  years  

621,000 

8.1 

558,649 

8.4 

11.2 

30  to  34  years  

515,000 

6.7 

496,996 

7.5 

3.6 

35  to  39  years  

575,000 

7.5 

491,291 

7.4 

17.0 

40  to  44  years  

499,000 

6.5 

423,945 

6.4 

17.7 

45  to  49  years  

389,000 

5.1 

366,656 

5.5 

6.1 

50  to  54  years  

350,000 

4.6 

301,033 

4.6 

16.3 

55  to  59  years  

264,000 

3.4 

221,318 

3.3 

19.3 

60  to  64  years  

199,000 

2.6 

165,363 

2.5 

20.3 

65  to  69  years  

209,000 

2.7 

159,151 

2.4 

31.3 

70  to  74  years  

122,000 

1.6 

87,684 

1.3 

39.1 

75  years  and  over  

101,000 

1.3 

77,029 

1.2 

31.1 

Median  age:  years  

25.1 

— 

25.4 

— 

— 

21  years  and  over  .  .  .  .  , 

4,355,000 

56.8 

3,807,250 

57.6 

14.4 

Female  

7,810,000 

100.0 

6,841,361 

100.0 

14.2 

Under  5  years  

970,000 

12.4 

658,681 

9.6 

47.3 

5  to    9  years  

713,000 

9.1 

681,385 

10.0 

4.6 

10  to  14  years  

755,000 

9.7 

699,918 

10.2 

7.9 

15  to  19  years  

672,000 

8.6 

705,243 

10.3 

4.7 

20  to  24  years  

681,000 

8.7 

668,936 

9.8 

1.8 

25  to  29  years  

674,000 

8.6 

633,719 

9.3 

6.4 

30  to  34  years  

552,000 

7.1 

538,914 

7.9 

2.4 

35  to  39  years  

611,000 

7.8 

537,426 

7.9 

13.7 

40  to  44  years  

516,000 

6.8 

427,815 

6.3 

20.6 

45  to  49  years  

428,000 

5.5 

355,813 

5.2 

20.3 

50  to  54  years  

356,000 

4.6 

275,506 

4.0 

29.2 

55  to  59  years  

269,000 

3.4 

195,702 

2.9 

37.5 

60  to  64  years  

168,000 

2.2 

146,284 

2.1 

14.8 

65  to  69  years  

225,000 

2.9 

148,460 

2.2 

51.6 

70  to  74  years  

106,000 

1.4 

81,303 

1.2 

30.4 

75  years  and  over  

114,000 

1.5 

86,256 

1.3 

32.2 

Median  age:  years  

25.8 

— 

25.1 

— 

— 

21  years  and  over  .... 

4,568,000 

58.5 

3,945,843 

57.7 

15.8 

Source:   Taken  from    1950   Census   of  Population,   Preliminary   Reports,   "General   Characteristics   of 
the  Population  of  the  United  States:  April  1,  1950,     Series  PC-7,  No.  1,  Table  1. 


14 


POPULATION 


TABLE  7 

PER  CENT  DISTRIBUTION  BY  CLASS  OF  WORKER  OF  EMPLOYED  PERSONS  FOR  U.S.  AND 

SOUTH,  1950  AND  1940 
(Figures  for  1940  revised) 


Year  and  Class  of 
Worker 

1950 

1940 

United  States 

South 

United  States 

South 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Private  wage  and 
salary  workers   .... 

70.7 
10.0 
17.1 
2.2 

73.9 
9.0 

12.8 
4.2 

64.6 
10.5 
21.0 
3.9 

68.9 
8.1 
16.9 
6.2 

67.1 
7.9 
21.7 
3.2 

J72.4 

20.8 
6.8 

58.4 

7.7 
27.9 
6.0 

64.1 
3.8 
23.7 
8.4 

Government  workers  .  .  . 
Self-employed  workers  .  . 
Unpaid  family  workers  . 

Source:   Adapted  from   1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  "Employment  and  Income 
in  the  United  States,  by  Regions:  1950,"  Series  PC-7,  No.  2,  Table  5. 


TABLE  8 

PER  CENT  DISTRIBUTION  BY  MAJOR  OCCUPATION  GROUP  OF  EMPLOYED  PERSONS  FOR  U.S. 

AND  SOUTH,  1950  AND  1940 


Year  and  Major 
Occupation  Group 

1950 

1940 

United  States 

South 

United  States 

South 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Professional,  technical,  and 
kindred  workers            .  .    . 

8.9 
8.0 

9.0 
12.1 
6.7 

13.7 

19.8 
2.6 

7.4 
2.8 

3.6 
9.5 

1.5 
3.6 
1.5 

5.3 

18.7 
15.2 

14.3 
6.4 

7.4 
12.7 

8.5 
9.7 
6.2 

11.6 

18.0 

3.7 

6.6 
4.3 

6.6 
1.5 

3.6 
13.9 

1.2 
1.6 

1.2 

4.5 

16.1 
14.7 

11.4 
9.0 

15.9 

1.1 

7.9 
11.5 

8.3 
9.8 
6.5 

11.4 

18.2 
4.6 

7.2 
4.3 
2.6 

6.9 
0.8 

2.7 
15.0 

1.4 
1.1 
0.8 

3.0 

10.4 
21.3 

11.6 
11.0 
6.6 

14.4 
0.6 

6.3 
18.9 

6.8 
6.5 
5.0 

8.3 

14.9 
6.7 

5.8 
7.1 
5.5 

7.5 
0.7 

2.5 
18.6 

0.8 
0.6 
0.5 

2.5 

8.9 
20.8 

8.5 
13.1 

8.3 

14.3 
0.6 

Farmers  and  farm  managers  . 
Managers,      officials,      and 
proprietors,  except  farm  .  . 
Clerical  and  kindred  workers. 
Sales  workers  

Craftsmen,     foremen     and 
kindred  workers  

Operatives      and      kindred 
workers  

Private  household  workers.  . 
Service      workers,      except 
private  household  

Farm  laborers,   except  un- 
paid and  foremen  

Farm       laborers,       unpaid 

Laborers,  except  farm  and 
mine  

6.0 
1.4 

15.4 
1.1 

Occupation  not  reported  .... 

Source:   Adapted  from  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  "Employment  and  Income 
in  the  United  States,  by  Regions,  1950,"  Series  PC-7,  No.  2,  Table  6. 


With  respect  to  the  number  of  Negroes 
in  the  labor  force,  the  proportion  has  de- 
creased from  65.7%  (of  total  Negro  popu- 
lation) in  1920,  to  55.2%  in  1950.  The 
proportion  of  Negroes  14  years  old  and 
over  in  the  civilian  labor  force  in  1950 
was  54.5%  as  compared  with  52.5%  for 
whites.  Approximately  4.6%  of  the  Ne- 
groes and  2.6%  of  the  whites  were  un- 
employed. For  the  South,  a  slightly 
greater  proportion  of  Negroes  than  of 
whites  in  the  labor  force  were  currently 
unemployed. 


Between  1940  and  1950,  there  were 
several  changes  in  the  distribution  of 
Negroes  by  major  industrial  groups.  There 
were  marked  decreases  in  the  proportion 
of  Negroes  in  agriculture  and  the  service 
industries  and  a  marked  increase  in  the 
number  of  Negroes  in  the  manufacturing 
industry.  The  largest  percentage  of  Ne- 
groes, however,  was  still  in  the  service 
industries,  while  the  largest  percentage  of 
white  industrial  workers  was  in  manu- 
facturing and  allied  skills  as  shown  in 
Table  9. 


POPULATION  ANALYSIS 


15 


TABLE  9 
PER  CENT  DISTRIBUTION  BY  MAJOR  INDUSTRY  GROUP  OF  EMPLOYED  PERSONS  FOR  U.S.  AND 

SOUTH,  1950  AND  1940 
(Statistics  /or  1940  revised) 


Year  and  Major 
Industry  Group 

1950 

1940 

Unit< 

:d  States 

South 

United  States 

South 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Nonwhite    Total 

Nonwhite 

Agriculture  

12.8 
1.7 
6.2 
25.3 
13.2 
11.8 
0.3 

7.6 
18.6 
21.6 
4.7 
1.5 

20.1 
0.7 
5.3 
17.9 
10.1 
7.6 
0.3 

6.0 
12.7 
32.4 
3.6 
1.2 

20.6 
2.8 
6.8 
18.4 
7.1 
11.1 
0.2 

6.8 
17.5 
20.4 
5.2 
1.5 

29.2 
1.0 
5.4 
14.4 
8.2 
6.1 
0.1 

4.9 
11.3 
29.9 
2.8 
1.1 

18.7 
2.0 
4.6 
23.6 
11.4 
11.8 
0.4 

6.9 
16.8 
22.5 
3.4 
1.5 

33.1 
1.2 
3.1 
11.4 
6.7 
4.5 
0.2 

4.4 
8.3 
35.6 
1.7 
1.3 

31.8 
2.8 
4.5 
16.0 
6.1 
9.8 
0.1 

5.5 
13.7 
20.9 
3.5 
1.3 

40.4 
1.3 
3.0 
10.1 
C) 
P) 

M 

3.7 
6.7 
32.2 
1.4 
1.2 

Construction  

Manufacturing          

Durable  goods 

Nondurable  goods    . 

Not  specified 

Transportation,     communi- 
cation and   other   public 
utilities  

Wholesale  and  retail  trade  .  . 
Service  industries 

All  other  industries  

Industry  not  reported 

Source:     1950    Census    of    Population,    Preliminary    Reports, 
United  States,  by  Regions:   1950,"  Series  PC-7,  No.  2,  Table  8. 
1  Not  available. 


: 'Employment    and    Income    in    the 


Marital  Status 

Between  1940  and  1950,  there  was  a 
16.9%  increase  in  the  number  of  married 
couples.1  For  the  total  U.S.  population, 
the  corresponding  percentage  change  was 
23.9.  There  were  2,815,000  nonwhite  mar- 
ried couples  in  1950  as  compared  with 
2,408,691  in  1940. 

For  both  1940  and  1930  data,  nonwhites 
tended  to  marry  at  younger  ages  than 
whites,  and  relatively  fewer  nonwhites 
stayed  single  during  the  childbearing 
period.  At  nearly  every  age,  however,  a 
greater  proportion  of  nonwhites  were 
widowed  than  were  whites.  Table  11  shows 
marital  status  for  1940,  with  totals  for 
1930. 

In  1947,  the  proportion  of  nonwhite 
married  couples  who  were  living  together 
was  smaller  than  the  corresponding  white 
proportion,  and  relatively  more  nonwhite 
persons  had  had  their  marriages  broken 
by  widowhood  or  separation.  There  was  a 
difference  of  approximately  10%  in  the 
percentage  of  white  and  nonwhite  women 
(62  and  52%,  respectively)  14  years  old 
and  over  who  were  married  and  living 
with  their  husbands.  The  nonwhite  popu- 
lation had  an  especially  large  proportion 


of  persons  who  were  married  but  living 
apart  from  their  spouses.  Approximately 
2.6%  of  white  women  14  years  and  over 
were  in  this  category  in  1947  as  compared 
with  8.3%  of  nonwhite  women  14  years 
and  over.  The  proportion  of  divorced  per- 
sons did  not  differ  significantly  for  whites 
and  nonwhites.  Table  10  shows  marital 
status  in  1947. 

Among  nonwhite  females,  the  percent- 
age of  divorced  persons  decreased  from 
2.1  in  1930  to  1.7  in  1940,  but  increased 
to  2.4  in  1947.  The  same  pattern  is  evident 
among  nonwhite  males,  the  percentage  of 
divorced  nonwhite  males  being  1.4,  1.0, 
and  1.7  in  1930,  1940,  and  1947,  respec- 
tively. Among  nonwhite  males,  the  great- 
est proportion  of  divorced  persons,  3.1%, 
was  in  the  35-44  age  group,  while  the 
greatest  proportion  of  divorced  persons 
among  nonwhite  females,  4.0%,  was  in 
the  25-34  age  group. 

There  was  very  little  relationship  be- 
tween urban-rural  residence  and  marital 
status  among  nonwhites  in  1947. 

Between  1940  and  1950,  there  was  a 
29.9%  increase  in  the  number  of  non- 
white  males  14  years  old  and  over  who 
were  widowed  and  divorced  (from  299,- 


1  A  married  couple  is  defined  as  a  husband  and  wife  living  together. 


16 


POPULATION 


TABLE  10 
PER  CENT  DISTRIBUTION  OF  MARITAL  STATUS  OF  PERSONS  14  YEARS  AND  OVER,  FOR  U.S. 

CIVILIAN  POPULATION,  APRIL  1947 
(Per  cent  not  shown  where  less  than  0.1) 


Ever  Married 

Sex,  Color  and  Age 

Single 

Tot. 
Ever 
Mar. 

Married 

Wid. 

Div. 

Tot. 
Mar. 

Spouse 
Present 

Spouse 
Absent 

Male 
White  

28.2 
27.8 

71.8 
72.2 
19.2 
78.5 
89.0 
90.9 
92.1 

67.7 
21.0 
74.1 
90.6 
91.1 
92.2 

78.0 
78.0 
37.1 
86.5 
90.8 
92.0 
90.6 

77.5 
40.5 
86.5 
93.3 
94.7 
95.8 

66.2 
66.7 
18.5 
76.4 
86.1 
84.0 
66.9 

61.5 
20.4 
70.6 
83.8 
81.0 
69.6 

64.2 
64.7 
35.7 
82.7 
84.0 
73.0 
35.4 

60.2 
37.4 
77.9 
78.6 
64.3 
25.2 

63.8 
64.7 
17.7 
74.6 
84.3 
81.1 
64.0 

55.5 
18.6 
62.5 
76.5 
73.4 
63.8 

61.0 
62.0 
33.5 
79.4 
81.4 
70.2 
33.6 

51.9 
30.9 
66.1 
68.4 
57.6 
22.4 

2.4 
2.0 
0.8 
1.8 
1.8 
2.9 
3.0 

5.9 
1.8 
8.0 
7.3 
7.6 
5.8 

3.2 
2.6 
2.2 
3.3 
2.7 
2.8 
1.8 

8.3 
6.5 
11.8 
10.1 
6.7 
2.8 

4.1 

4.0 

0.3 
0.9 
4.9 
24.0 

4.5 
0.6 
1.0 
3.7 
8.0 
21.7 

11.6 
11.3 
0.4 
1.2 
3.7 
16.8 
54.1 

14.8 
1.3 
4.5 
12.3 
28.7 
69.0 

1.6 
1.5 
0.6 
1.7 
2.0 
1.9 
1.2 

1.7 

2.6 
3.1 
2.1 
0.8 

2.1 
2.0 
1.0 
2.6 
3.0 
2.2 
1.0 

2.4 
1.9 
4.0 
2.5 
1.6 
1.7 

14  to  24  years  

80.8 

25  to  34  years  

21.5 

35  to  44  years  

11.0 

45  to  64  years  

9.1 

65  years  and  over  

7.9 

Nonwhite  

32.3 

14  to  24  years  

79.0 

25  to  34  years 

25  9 

35  to  44  years   

9.4 

45  to  64  years 

8.9 

65  years  and  over  

7.8 

Femalt 
White  

22.0 
22.0 

14  to  24  years  

62.9 

25  to  34  years     

13.5 

9  2 

45  to  64  years     

8.0 

65  years  and  over  . 

.    .           9.4 

Nonwhite  

22.5 

14  to  24  years       

59.5 

25  to  34  years 

13.5 

35  to  44  years          

6.7 

45  to  64  years  

5.3 

65  years  and  over  

4.2 

Source:      Current     Population     Reports,     Population     Characteristics,      "Characteristics 
Married,  Widowed,  and  Divorced  Persons  in  1947,"  Series  P-20,  No.   10,  Table  2. 


of     Single, 


443  in  1940  to  389,000  in  1950),  and  a 
10.9%  increase  for  nonwhite  females  in 
the  same  category  (from  842,059  in  1940 
to  934,000  in  1950).  The  corresponding 
percentage  increase  figures  for  white 
males  and  white  females  were  8.6  and  23.1 
respectively. 

Population  of  Voting  Age 

In  1940,  Negroes  made  up  8.8%  of  the 
total  population  of  voting  age  and  9.2% 
of  the  citizens  of  voting  age.  Between  1930 
and  1940,  the  total  number  of  Negroes 
of  voting  age  increased  13.7%  (from 
6,531,939  to  7,427,938),  although  the  pro- 
portion of  Negroes  in  the  total  population 
of  voting  age  declined  0.1%.  According 
to  age  distribution  of  Negroes  in  1950, 
57.6%  of  the  Negro  population  is  old 
enough  to  vote,  while  64.3%  of  the  total 


population  is  over  21.  These  figures  repre- 
sent a  slight  increase  in  the  proportion 
of  the  total  population  of  voting  age  be- 
tween 1940  and  1950,  but  the  proportion 
of  the  Negro  population  of  voting  age  re- 
mained stable  during  this  period. 

Illegitimacy 

Changing  methods  of  registering  births 
have,  in  recent  years,  made  reliable  sta- 
tistics on  illegitimacy  difficult  to  obtain. 

In  1949,  it  was  estimated  that  from  10 
to  20%  of  Negro  children  born  in  urban 
areas  were  born  out  of  wedlock,  with 
even  higher  rates  generally  prevailing  in 
rural  areas.  At  that  time,  the  illegitimacy 
rate  among  the  Negro  population  was  esti- 
mated to  be  from  5  to  10  times  as  high 
as  that  to  be  found  among  the  white 
population. 


POPULATION  ANALYSIS 


17 


TABLE  11 

PER  CENT  DISTRIBUTION  OF  MARITAL  STATUS  OF  POPULATION  15  YEARS  OLD  AND  OVER, 
FOR  U.S.,  1940    (WITH  TOTALS  FOR  1930) 


Age,  Color  and  Census 

Males  15 

Years  ( 

Did  and 

Over 

Females 

1  5  Years 

Old  anc 

lOver 

Year 

Sin. 

Mar. 

Wid. 

Div. 

Sin. 

Mar. 

Wid. 

Div. 

1940 

White  

33.2 

61.3 

4.2 

1.3 

26.0 

61.2 

11.1 

1.7 

15—19  years  

98.4 

1.5 

_ 

- 

89.1 

10.7 

0.1 

0.1 

20-24  years  

73.5 

26.1 

0.1 

0.3 

48.4 

50.3 

0.4 

0.9 

25-29  years  

36.7 

62.1 

0.3 

0.9 

23.2 

74.1 

0.9 

1.7 

30-34  years  

20.7 

77.3 

0.6 

1.4 

15.0 

80.7 

1.9 

2.4 

35-39  years  

15.1 

82.0 

1.1 

1.8 

11.5 

82.2 

3.6 

2.8 

40—44  years  

12.5 

83.6 

1.9 

2.0 

9.8 

81.5 

6.1 

2.7 

45-49  years  

11.2 

83.9 

2.9 

2.0 

8.9 

79.3 

9.4 

2.4 

50-54  years  

11.1 

82.2 

4.7 

2.0 

9.0 

74.3 

14.6 

2.1 

55-59  years  

10.9 

80.1 

7.0 

1.9 

9.0 

68.0 

21.3 

1.8 

60-64  years  

10.7 

76.8 

10.7 

1.8 

9.6 

58.7 

30.3 

1.4 

65-69  years  

10.6 

72.0 

15.8 

1.6 

9.8 

47.4 

41.8 

1.0 

70-74  years  

10.2 

65.1 

23.4 

1.3 

9.9 

34.9 

54.5 

0.7 

75—79  years  

9.6 

56.1 

33.2 

1.1 

9.5 

23.2 

66.8 

0.4 

80-84  years  

8.8 

45.7 

44.8 

0.8 

9.5 

13.6 

76.7 

0.3 

85  years  and  over  

8.1 

32.4 

58.9 

0.6 

8.5 

6.6 

84.7 

0.2 

Nonwhite  

33.5 

60.0 

5.5 

1.0 

23.9 

58.5 

15.8 

1.7 

1  5-1  9  years  

96.8 

3.1 

_ 

_ 

81.0 

18.3 

0.4 

0.3 

20-24  years  

60.4 

38.7 

0.5 

0.4 

37.2 

59.6 

2.0 

1.2 

25-29  years  

30.5 

67.6 

1.1 

0.8 

19.4 

74.3 

4.2 

2.1 

30-34  years  

21.3 

75.6 

1.9 

1.2 

12.6 

77.0 

7.7 

2.7 

35-39  years  

16.9 

78.7 

2.9 

1.5 

8.8 

76.0 

12.5 

2.7 

40—44  years  

13.9 

79.6 

4.8 

1.7 

6.8 

72.1 

18.6 

2.5 

45-49  years  , 

11.3 

80.3 

6.6 

1.7 

5.5 

68.3 

24.0 

2.2 

50-54  years  , 

10.1 

78.8 

9.5 

1.6 

4.9 

61.9 

31.5 

1.7 

55-59  years  , 

9.0 

77.3 

12.2 

1.4 

4.4 

56.3 

37.9 

1.4 

60-64  years  

8.2 

74.1 

16.4 

1.3 

4.6 

47.5 

46.8 

1.1 

65-69  years  

7.1 

70.4 

21.4 

1.1 

4.2 

36.2 

58.8 

0.8 

70-74  years  

6.8 

63.1 

29.2 

0.9 

4.1 

25.5 

70.0 

0.5 

75-79  years  

7.1 

56.2 

35.8 

0.9 

4.1 

18.6 

76.9 

0.4 

80-84  years  

7.1 

47.7 

44.6 

0.6 

4.0 

11.5 

84.2 

0.3 

85  years  and  over  , 

6.4 

38.7 

54.4 

0.5 

3.5 

7.2 

89.1 

0.2 

7930 

White  

.  .  34.2 

60.1 

4.5 

1.1 

26.7 

61.4 

10.5 

1.2 

Nonwhite  

33.1 

59.0 

6.2 

1.4 

23.2 

58.8 

15.7 

2.1 

Source:    Sixteenth    Census    of    the    United    States,    1940,    "Population    of    the    United    States    by 
Marital  Status  and  Age:   1940,"  Series  P-19,  No.  2,  Table  1. 


2 

Sports 


NEGRO  ATHLETES,  both  amateur  and  pro- 
fessional, enjoyed  many  splendid  achieve- 
ments and  triumphs  during  the  year  1951. 
Indeed,  their  achievements  were  so  numer- 
ous and  so  outstanding  that  one  may 
fairly  say  that  a  new  highwater  mark 
was  reached.  More  Negro  athletes  than 
ever  before  attained  stardom,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  the  trend  toward  integrated 
participation  in  sports  accelerated  con- 
siderably. There  were  more  Negroes  play- 
ing in  the  major  and  minor  baseball 
leagues,  and  playing  on  more  teams,  than 
in  1950;  more  Negro  basketball  players 
than  ever  before  starred  on  white  college 
teams;  there  were  significant  gains  in 
tennis,  a  definite  step  forward  in  bowling, 
notable  advances  in  college  and  profes- 
sional football,  continuing  achievements 
in  track  and  boxing,  and  scattered  gains 
elsewhere.  Without  a  doubt,  1951  was  the 
"big  year"  of  the  Negro  athlete. 

BASEBALL 

Players  on  Major  League  Teams 

In  organized  baseball  the  increasing 
stature  of  the  Negro  athlete  has  perhaps 
been  dramatized  more  spectacularly  than 
anywhere  else.  The  sport,  which  until 
1946  was  rigidly  barred  to  Negroes,  has 
become  the  setting  for  some  of  his  great- 
est exploits.  Six  of  the  16  major  league 
baseball  teams  employed  a  total  of  18 
Negro  players — 11  as  regular  and  seven 
as  utility  players  (as  compared  with  nine 
players  on  four  teams  in  1950). 

National  League 

Brooklyn  Dodgers :  Jackie  Robinson,  Roy 
Campanella,  Don  Newcombe,  Dan  Bank- 
head  (part  of  season) 

New  York  Giants :  Monte  Irvin,  Willie 
Mays,  Raphael  Noble,  Henry  Thompson. 

Boston  Braves :  Luis  Marques,  Sam  Jethroe. 


American  League 

Cleveland  Indians :  Larry  Doby,  Luke 
Easter,  Harry  Simpson,  Sam  Jones  (part 
of  season) 

Chicago  White  Sox :  Orestes  Minoso,  Sam- 
uel Hairston,  Bob  Boyd  (latter  two  for 
part  of  season) 

St.  Louis  Browns :  Satchel  Paige 

All  of  these  players  made  significant 
contributions  to  their  teams  and  most  of 
them  were  star  players.  It  is  clearly  signi- 
ficant of  the  important  roles  they  played 
that  five  of  these  six  teams  were  first  divi- 
sion teams  and  serious  pennant  contend- 
ers, and  that  one  of  them,  the  New  York 
Giants,  won  the  National  League  Cham- 
pionship. On  exactly  half  of  these  teams, 
the  clean-up  batter  was  a  Negro:  Irvin  on 
the  first-place  (National  League)  New 
York  Giants,  Robinson  on  the  second- 
place  (National  League)  Brooklyn  Dodg- 
ers, and  Easter  on  the  second-place 
(American  League)  Cleveland  Indians. 
With  respect  to  developing  integration,  it 
was  equally  significant  that  a  few  teams 
carried  Negro  utility  players.  Apparently 
it  is  no  longer  necessary  for  a  Negro  to 
be  a  super-star — a  Jackie  Robinson  or  a 
Roy  Campanella — to  make  the  team;  if 
he  is  as  good  as  other  players  he  may 
hope  to  make  the  squad  and  be  carried 
as  a  substitute  (utility)  player.  To  cap 
the  season,  the  Giants  played  an  all-Negro 
outfield  in  the  World  Series,  the  first  time 
this  has  ever  happened  in  either  series 
or  regular  season  play. 

Individual  exploits  by  these  players 
were  too  numerous  to  describe  in  detail. 
Jackie  Robinson  scaled  new  heights  of 
achievement  with  his  brilliant  clutch 
fielding  and  clutch  hitting,  especially  dur- 
ing the  last  two  weeks  of  what  turned 
out  to  be  the  most  thrilling  finale  in  Na- 
tional League  history.  He  led  the  League 


18 


BASEBALL 


19 


in  batting  during  the  first  third  of  the 
season,  finished  third  in  batting  with  .338 
(the  third  straight  year  in  which  he  has 
finished  among  the  first  five),  and,  in 
defying  a  series  of  injuries,  earned  from 
his  manager,  Chuck  Dressen,  the  soubri- 
quet "Old  Blood  and  Guts."  In  addition 
he  set  a  new  National  League  fielding 
mark  for  second  baseman  of  .992  (seven 
errors  in  832  chances)  and  another  record 
for  participation  in  double  plays  (137). 
At  the  end  of  five  full  seasons  of  play, 
Robinson  has  a  lifetime  major  league 
batting  average  of  .320,  preceded  among 
currently  active  players  only  by  the  great 
stars  Stan  Musial  and  Ted  Williams.  It 
is  now  generally  agreed  that  he  is  one  of 
the  greatest  second  basemen  in  history. 
He  was  chosen  to  lead  the  1951  University 
of  California  at  Los  Angeles  Homecoming 
Parade,  the  first  athlete  so  chosen. 

Roy  Campanella,  in  his  fourth  season, 
was  fourth  in  League  batting  with  a  .325 
average  and  second  in  runs  batted  in,  and 
became  the  first  catcher  of  all  time  to  hit 
20  or  more  home  runs  in  three  succes- 
sive seasons.  He  was  voted  the  National 
League's  Most  Valuable  Player  of  the 
Year  by  the  Baseball  Writers'  Association 
of  America,  the  second  Negro  to  win  this 
award  (Jackie  Robinson  received  it  in 
1949).  He,  too,  is  now  ranked  with  the 
game's  immortals  and,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  most  outstanding  experts,  enjoyed  the 
finest  single  year  any  catcher  has  ever 
known. 

The  splendid  showing  of  the  New  York 
Giants  in  the  last  phase  of  the  1950  sea- 
son led  many  experts  to  pick  them  for  the 
1951  championship — if  Monte  Irvin  de- 
livered. He  did,  and  the  Giants  won  their 
first  flag  since  1937.  He  was  their  clean- 
up batter,  led  the  League  in  runs  batted 
in  (121),  and  led  his  team  in  batting 
(.321).  The  comments  of  his  manager, 
Leo  Durocher,  reflect  Irvin's  great  team 
value:  "I  must  admit  that  the  one  guy 
who  picked  us  up  all  the  time  was  Monte 
Irvin.  Through  the  stretch,  he's  the  guy 
who  would  start  us  off,  would  get  us  the 
big  hit  and  come  through  in  the  clutch." 
(New  York  IF  or  Id-Telegram,  Sept.  29.) 


He  received  the  third  largest  number  of 
votes  in  the  National  League  Most  Valu- 
able Player  poll.  He  starred  in  the  World 
Series,  as  was  expected  of  him.  He  stole 
home  in  the  opening  game,  the  first  time 
this  has  occurred  in  30  years.  He  led  both 
teams  in  hitting  (.458)  and,  with  11  hits, 
came  within  one  hit  of  tying  the  record 
for  most  hits  in  a  World  Series. 

Two  other  Negroes,  both  first-year  play- 
ers in  the  major  leagues,  performed  sen- 
sationally. Willy  Mays,  a  brilliant  center- 
fielder  and  a  good  hitter,  helped  spark  the 
Giants  towards  the  pennant.  One  of  the 
most  colorful  players  of  recent  years,  his 
circus  catches  and  base-running  feats 
earned  him  the  Sporting  News  Rookie  of 
the  Year  Award  and  the  Baseball  Writers' 
Association  of  America  Rookie  of  the 
Year  Award.  No  other  National  League 
rookie  was  even  close  in  either  poll.  A 
brilliant  future  is  expected  for  him  in  the 
major  leagues. 

The  26-year-old  Cuban  Negro,  Orestes 
Minoso,  enjoyed  an  even  more  successful 
season  as  a  rookie  member  of  the  Chicago 
White  Sox.  He  led  the  American  League 
in  stolen  bases  (31),  was  second  in  bat- 
ting (.326),  and  led  the  League  in  triples 
(14)  ;  he  was  also  second  in  doubles  and 
runs  scored.  In  addition,  he  played  six 
different  positions  during  the  season,  thus 
proving  himself  the  game's  most  versatile 
player.  He  immediately  became  the  dar- 
ling of  White  Sox  fans,  whose  chant  "Go, 
Minnie,  Go"  rose  up  whenever  he  got  on 
base.  He  won  the  Sporting  News  Rookie 
of  the  Year  Award  and  was  voted  fourth 
in  the  Baseball  Writers'  Association  of 
America  poll  for  the  Most  Valuable 
Player  of  the  Year,  receiving  more  votes 
than  any  other  rookie.  He  was  nosed  out 
by  two  votes  (13-11)  in  the  Association 
vote  for  Rookie  of  the  Year,  an  action 
that  caused  many  a  lifted  eyebrow,  for 
the  winner,  Gil  MacDougald,  although  a 
splendid  player,  had  nothing  like  Min- 
oso's  brilliant  record.  For  example,  Joe 
Williams,  sports  editor-in-chief  of  the 
New  York  World-Telegram,  said  flatly 
(Nov.  10  issue),  "I  would  have  voted  for 
Orestes  Minoso  over  Gil  MacDougald  as 


20 


SPORTS 


the  AL's  Rookie  of  the  Year."  And  Frank 
Lane,  President  of  the  Chicago  White 
Sox,  has  demanded  that  this  award  be 
dropped  or  a  re-study  of  the  voting  cri- 
teria made. 

Don  Newcombe  became  the  first  Negro 
pitcher  to  win  20  games,  although  he  has 
yet  to  realize  his  enormous  potential.  His 
excellent  record  of  20  wins  against  nine 
losses,  third  best  pitching  average  in  the 
League,  still  fell  considerably  short  of 
what  his  fellow-players  in  the  National 
League  believe  him  capable  of.  However, 
his  great  pitching  during  the  last  week 
of  the  season,  during  which  he  pitched 
four  games  in  eight  days,  including  15 
scoreless  innings  on  two  successive  days, 
took  off  some  of  the  edge  of  the  disap- 
pointment experienced  by  his  many  fans. 
He  was  tied  for  the  lead  in  strike-outs 
(164). 

Sam  Jethroe  enjoyed  another  good  sea- 
son, especially  towards  the  end,  when  he 
was  playing  under  a  new  manager  who 
was  able  to  restore  a  great  deal  of  his 
self-confidence.  Jethroe  again  led  the  Na- 
tional League  in  stolen  bases  (35),  and 
was  terrific  at  the  plate  during  this  up- 
surge, hitting  .227  until  July  14  and  .327 
thereafter. 

Luke  Easter  (27  home  runs)  and  Larry 
Doby  (a  .289  average  and  20  home  runs) 
had  good  seasons  but  fell  far  short  of 
what  had  been  expected  of  them.  Henry 


Thompson,  after  a  brilliant  season  in 
1950,  was  the  year's  biggest  disappoint- 
ment. Ageless  Satchel  Paige  was  able  to 
pitch  winning  ball  for  the  poorest  team 
in  the  major  leagues,  both  as  starter  and 
in  relief. 

Negroes  have  been  in  the  major  leagues 
for  five  years  and  have  appeared  in  four 
World  Series.  In  each  of  these  four,  a 
Negro  has  led  in  Series  hitting:  1947 
(Jackie  Robinson,  .297)  ;  1948  (Larry 
Doby,  .318);  1949  (Robinson,  .306); 
1951  (Monte  Irvin,  .458). 

In  the  minor  leagues  so  many  Negroes 
won  jobs  that  it  is  no  longer  possible  to 
keep  up  with  them  all.  Here,  as  in  the 
major  leagues,  they  performed  well  and 
many  of  them  were  outstanding.  Two  of 
them — Hector  Rodriquez  and  Junior  Gil- 
liam — were  voted  first  and  second  in  the 
International  League  Rookie  of  the  Year 
Award.  Rodriquez  hit  .302,  batted  in  95 
runs,  was  fifth  in  League  batting,  and  led 
the  League  in. stolen  bases  (26).  Gilliam 
led  the  League  in  scoring  (117  runs). 
They  were  also  elected  to  the  League's 
all-star  team  by  the  International  League 
Baseball  Writers'  Association.  Charles 
Harmon  starred  for  Buffalo  in  the  Inter- 
national League.  George  Crowe  was 
named  Player  of  the  Year  in  another 
Class  AAA  league,  the  American  Asso- 
ciation, receiving  20  out  of  the  27  votes. 
His  team,  the  Milwaukee  Brewers,  won 


RECORDS  OF  MAJOR  LEAGUE  PLAYERS 


Robinson  

G 

,  ...   153 

AB 

548 

R 

106 

H 

185 

2B 
33 

3B 

7 

HR 

19 

RBI 

88 

SB 

25 

Pet. 

.338 

Minoso    , 

146 

530 

112 

173 

34 

14 

10 

76 

31 

.326 

Campanella    .  .  . 

.   143 

505 

90 

164 

33 

1 

33 

108 

1 

.325 

Irvin  . 

.  ...   151 

558 

94 

174 

19 

11 

24 

121 

12 

.312 

Doby       

134 

447 

84 

132 

27 

5 

20 

69 

4 

.295 

Jethroe  

148 

572 

101 

160 

29 

10 

18 

65 

35 

.290 

Klays       

121 

464 

59 

127 

22 

5 

20 

68 

7 

.274 

Easter  

128 

486 

65 

131 

12 

5 

27 

103 

0 

.270 

Thompson  

87 

264 

37 

62 

8 

4 

8 

33 

1 

.235 

Noble  

55 

141 

16 

33 

6 

0 

5 

26 

0 

.234 

Simpson      ... 

122 

332 

51 

76 

7 

0 

7 

24 

6 

.229 

Boyd  .  . 

12 

18 

3 

3 

0 

1 

0 

4 

0 

.167 

Newcombe . ; : ; ; 40 

Paige 23 


Pitchers 
IP         W        L 

272        20        9 
62          3        4 


Pet. 
.690 
.429 


H 

235 
67 


SO        ERA 

164        3.28 
48        4.79 


BASEBALL 


21 


the  League  championship  and  the  Little 
World  Series.  Crowe,  who  is  given  an 
excellent  chance  of  winning  the  first-base 
position  on  the  Boston  Braves  next  year, 
was  second  in  League  batting  with  a  .339 
average  and  led  the  League  in  number  of 
hits  (189),  total  bases  on  hits  (316), 
doubles  (41),  and,  most  important  of  all, 
runs  batted  in  (119).  In  the  same  League, 
Buzz  Clarkson  (Milwaukee)  hit  .343,  but 
was  not  eligible  for  the  batting  cham- 
pionship because  he  did  not  bat  400  times. 
Jim  Pendleton  (St.  Paul)  led  the  League 
in  runs  scored  and  batted  .301.  Ray  Dan- 
dridge  (Minneapolis)  batted  an  excellent 
.324.  Don  Black  (St.  Paul)  won  four  and 
lost  three,  and  had  the  best  earned-run 
average  (2.25)  in  the  League.  Dave  Barn- 
hill  (Minneapolis)  won  six  and  lost  four. 

In  the  third  Class  AAA  league,  the 
Pacific  Coast  League,  Sad  Sam  Jones  set 
a  new  strike-out  record  (246)  and  had  a 
16-13  record  with  the  sixth-place  San 
Diego  Padres,  pitched  the  most  complete 
games  (21)  and  the  most  innings  (267), 
and  had  a  very  impressive  earned-run 
average  of  2.76.  Bob  Boyd  was  second  in 
League  batting  with  a  .338  average.  Jones 
and  Boyd  were  regarded  as  having  excel- 
lent chances  of  winning  berths  on  the 
Cleveland  Indians  and  Chicago  White 
Sox,  respectively.  Other  Negro  players  in 
the  League  were  Roy  Welmaker,  Raul 
Lopez,  Lorenzo  Piper,  Gene  Baker,  Frank 
Austin,  Granville  Gladstone,  William 
Powell,  Bob  Thurman,  and  Artie  Wilson. 

Negroes  were  scattered  throughout  the 
lower  echelons  of  the  minor  leagues,  from 
Class  AA  through  Class  D.  Many  of  them 
were  the  property  of  major  league  clubs, 
including  some  clubs  which  have  not  yet 
tried  Negroes  out  on  the  major  league 
level.  The  New  York  Yankees,  the  Phila- 
delphia Athletics,  and  the  Chicago  Cubs 
are  known  to  have  Negroes  on  their  farm 
clubs.  Particularly  encouraging  is  the 
employment  of  Negroes  by  southern 
minor  league  teams.  For  example,  the 
Danville  (Va.)  team  of  the  Carolina 
League  hired  Percy  Miller  and  Berkeley 
Smith  last  mid-summer;  and  Granite 
Falls  of  the  Class  D  Western  League  (in 


North  Carolina)  signed  five  Negro  play- 
ers. It  is  freely  predicted  in  Texas  that 
within  the  next  four  or  five  years  Negroes 
will  be  playing  for  the  famous  Class  AA 
Texas  League.  An  Associated  Press  re- 
lease dated  Dec.  5  stated,  "It  is  appar- 
ently a  certainty  that  Negro  baseball 
players  will  be  on  next  season's  roster  of 
South  Atlantic  clubs."  The  Florida  Inter- 
national League  (Class  B)  took  on  its 
first  Negro  in  December,  George  Handy 
of  Memphis,  who  had  played  during  the 
1951  season  for  the  Ste.-Hyacinthe  of  the 
Canadian  Provincial  League.  Considered 
"a  fine  second  base  prospect,"  he  was 
signed  by  the  Miami  Beach  team. 

This  would  seem  to  answer  the  ques- 
tion: Where  are  the  future  Negro  stars 
coming  from?  With  the  weakening  of 
the  Negro  leagues  and  the  inevitable  dis- 
appearance of  the  current  crop  of  Negro 
stars,  this  has  loomed  as  a  serious  prob- 
lem to  those  interested  in  the  progress  of 
Negroes  in  organized  baseball.  The  real 
integration  of  Negroes  on  all  levels  seems 
to  constitute  the  answer,  and  integration 
seems  to  be  on  the  way.  In  this  connec- 
tion, one  other  achievement  is  worthy  of 
mention.  Grover  Jones,  17,  catcher  on  the 
White  Plains,  New  York,  Post  No.  135 
team,  was  voted  "player  of  the  year"  in 
the  25th  American  Legion  Junior  Base- 
ball Championship.  The  first  Negro  to  be 
so  honored,  he  was  team  captain,  hit  .408 
in  the  sectional  and  regional  champion- 
ships, and  led  the  tournament  with  20 
hits  and  20  runs  batted  in.  He  led  his 
team  to  second  place,  and  was  the  first 
member  of  a  non-championship  team  to 
be  chosen  "player  of  the  year." 

The  story  of  "Negro"  baseball  was  one 
of  continuing  difficulties  and  dwindling 
popular  support.  The  Negro  American 
League  dropped  two  of  its  teams  to 
become  an  eight-team  organization,  with 
an  Eastern  and  Western  Division.  This 
League  played  in  Indianapolis,  Chicago, 
Birmingham,  Philadelphia,  Kansas  City, 
Memphis,  New  Orleans,  and  Baltimore. 
Indianapolis  won  the  Eastern  Division 
Championship,  and  Chicago,  the  Western 
Division.  The  future  of  this  League  is 


22 


SPORTS 


obscure,  for  it  seems  to  lack  adequate 
basic  financing  as  well  as  adequate  ap- 
peal. Many  persons  interested  in  the 
Negro  in  baseball  hope  that  it  will  be- 
come a  part  of  organized  baseball  and 
serve  as  an  important  "feeder"  to  the 
major  leagues. 

The  East  defeated  the  West,  3-1,  in  the 
nineteenth  annual  East-West  Negro  Ail- 
Star  Game  before  21,312  in  Chicago. 

FOOTBALL 

College  Players  and  Teams 

In  regard  to  college  football,  1951 
was  important  for  two  reasons:  Negroes 
played  on  more  teams  than  ever  before, 
and  more  Negro  players  starred  and  made 
All-America  selections  than  ever  before 
in  one  season.  The  Negro  player  in  the 
East  and  Mid-West  has  been  "old  hat" 
for  a  number  of  years.  In  the  East  there 
were  far  fewer  than  usual.  Only  Ed  Bell 
and  Bob  Evans  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  Avatus  Stone  of  Syracuse 
were  outstanding  on  major  teams.  Bell 
and  Evans  earned  distinctions  aplenty. 
Bell  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  finest 
defensive  ends  in  the  country,  and  made 
the  first  team  on  two  All-America  selec- 
tions and  the  second  or  third  team  on 
several  others.  Evans  was  elected  captain 
of  the  1952  team,  an  unusual  distinction, 
for  no  Negroes  had  played  for  a  Penn- 
sylvania football  team  until  the  year 
1950.  Stone,  the  only  Negro  offensive 
quarterback  on  a  major  football  team, 
led  the  East  in  punting  (ave.  40.2  yards). 

Most  stellar  Negro  players  of  1951 
were  in  the  Mid-West,  and  most  of  them 
played  in  the  Western  Intercollegiate 
Conference,  the  Big  Ten,  where,  accord- 
ing to  most  students  of  the  game,  the 
finest  football  in  the  country  is  played. 
The  University  of  Iowa  had  seven  Ne- 
groes on  its  squad.  Among  others  partic- 
ularly outstanding  were  Don  Stevens  of 
Illinois,  Bob  Robertson  of  Indiana,  Ed 
Withers  of  Wisconsin,  Don  Commack  of 
Iowa,  Lowell  Perry  and  Tom  Johnson  of 
Michigan.  The  latter  two  made  several 
All-America  teams,  and  Lowell  Perry  was 


chosen  Associated  Press  Linesman  of  the 
Week  of  Oct.  22  after  scoring  three  touch- 
downs against  Minnesota.  Don  Stevens 
and  Claude  Taliaferro  (brother  of  George, 
the  All -American)  were  members  of  the 
backfield  of  the  undefeated  University  of 
Illinois  team,  which  won  the  Big  Ten 
Championship  and  played  Stanford  in 
the  Rose  Bowl  on  Jan.  1,  1952. 

By  a  rather  odd  arrangement,  Michigan 
State's  football  team,  which  was  unde- 
feated and  was  one  of  the  two  leading 
claimants  for  national  championship  hon- 
ors, is  not  officially  a  member  of  the  Big 
Ten  and  will  not  be  until  1953,  though 
other  teams  of  this  institution  are.  The 
outstanding  player  on  this  team  was  the 
great  Don  Coleman,  a  tackle  weighing 
only  180  pounds.  He  made  every  All- 
America  selection  of  the  year  and  was 
perhaps  best  described  by  the  New  York 
sportswriter  who  wrote,  "He  has  the 
heart  of  a  tiger  and  the  power  of  a  tank." 
Coleman  is  undoubtedly  the  finest  Negro 
linesman  of  recent  years.  Leroy  Bolden 
and  Jim  Ellis  were  two  of  the  outstanding 
backs  in  Michigan  State's  excellent  back- 
field.  Bolden  made  the  United  Press  All- 
Freshman  team  (the  first  such  team  ever 
chosen). 

Other  brilliant  Negro  players  in  the 
Mid-West  were  Veryl  Switzer  (Kansas 
State) ;  Al  Sanders  and  Billy  Bailey 
(Miami  of  Ohio) ;  Denny  Davis,  240-lb. 
tackle  and  the  first  Negro  to  play  for 
Xavier;  Jerry  Palmer,  co-captain  of  the 
Toledo  team;  and  Burrell  Shields  of  John 
Carroll. 

One  of  the  greatest  halfbacks  of  our 
time  was  the  much-touted  Johnny  Bright 
of  Drake  University,  who  made  a  new 
national  record  for  yards  gained  by  a  col- 
lege player  (5,903).  In  a  year  notable 
for  rough  playing,  he  became  the  center 
of  a  cause  celebre.  In  the  game  against 
Oklahoma  A.&M.,  at  Stillwater,  he  was 
injured,  apparently  deliberately,  by 
A.&M.  tackle  Wilbanks  Smith.  He  was 
struck  twice  early  in  the  game,  although 
he  was  neither  carrying  the  ball  nor 
running  interference,  and  his  jaw  was 
broken.  In  fact,  as  pictures  in  Life  (Nov. 


FOOTBALL 


23 


5)  and  Time  (Nov.  5)  clearly  show, 
he  was  completely  out  of  the  plays  being 
run  off.  Drake  asked  for  an  investigation 
by  the  Missouri  Valley  Conference,  of 
which  both  schools  were  members.  Upon 
the  failure  of  the  conference  to  investi- 
gate, Drake  dropped  its  membership.  A 
day  later  Bradley  also  withdrew,  citing 
the  Bright  incident  as  one  of  its  reasons 
for  withdrawal. 

In  spite  of  Bright's  holding  the  national 
record  for  yards  gained,  he  failed  to 
achieve  as  much  All-America  recognition 
as  he  probably  deserved,  largely  because 
Drake  University  is  not  one  of  the  major 
football  powers.  However,  professional 
football  teams  have  been  seriously  in- 
terested in  him  for  three  years,  and,  if 
his  jaw  heals  sufficiently,  he  will  un- 
doubtedly be  a  top  choice.  He  received  the 
Iowa  Amateur  Athletic  Union  award  as 
that  State's  "athlete  of  the  year." 

On  the  West  Coast,  Bill  Anderson  and 
Dave  Mann  starred  for  Oregon  State,  Al 
Carmichael  for  the  University  of  South- 
ern California,  Ike  Johnson  for  U.C.L.A., 
and  Luther  Keyes  and  Ollie  Matson  for 
San  Francisco.  These  constitute  a  part 
of  the  most  numerous  crop  of  Negro 
stars  in  West  Coast  history.  The  greatest 
of  them,  and  one  of  the  greatest  backs 
of  modern  times,  was  Ollie  Matson,  re- 
garded by  his  coach,  Joe  Kuharich,  as 
"the  finest  football  package  in  25  years." 
Matson  is  exceptionally  fast  (he  is  con- 
sidered a  great  track  prospect  for  the 
1952  Olympics)  and  powerful,  and  proved 
to  be  virtually  unstoppable.  Unusual  for 
this  day  of  two-platoon  football,  he 
played  offensively  and  defensively,  aver- 
aging 56  minutes  a  game,  He  led  San 
Francisco  to  its  first  undefeated  year, 
came  within  one  touchdown  (21)  of  ty- 
ing the  national  record,  was  the  nation's 
leading  ground-gainer  (1,566  yards), 
set  a  new  national  record  in  yards  gained 
by  rushing  in  three  years  (3,166),  led 
the  nation  in  scoring  (126  points),  and 
made  practically  every  All-America  se- 
lection. He  was  chosen  one  of  the  two 
Associated  Press  Backs  of  the  Week  of 
Oct.  29,  and  received  the  Glenn  (Pop) 


Warner    award    as    the    most    valuable 
senior  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Matson  and  Bright  played  on  the  West 
team  and  Coleman  on  the  East  team  in 
the  annual  East-West  game. 

Duke  Slater  (now  a  municipal  judge 
in  Chicago)  was  one  of  the  32  gridiron 
immortals  selected  for  the  Football  Hall 
of  Fame,  which  was  opened  in  November 
1951  at  Rutgers  University. 

Negro  college  football  saw  several  of 
its  long-dominant  powers  either  dethroned 
or  their  supremacy  seriously  challenged. 
One  national  weekly  headlined  the  situa- 
tion, at  the  end  of  the  season,  "State  of 
Confusion  Reigns  on  National  Grid 
Front."  Morgan  State  College  lost  four 
games,  more  than  it  usually  loses  in  four 
years.  Southern  University,  to  which  un- 
defeated seasons  have  not  been  unusual 
lately,  was  not  one  of  the  first  10  teams. 
There  were  no  undefeated  teams  among 
the  Negro  colleges.  Morris  Brown  won 
the  Southern  Inter-collegiate  A.A.  Cham- 
pionship; Prairie  View,  the  Southwestern 
Athletic  Conference  championship.  The 
Colored  Intercollegiate  A.A.  Champion- 
ship, was  won  by  West  Virginia  State 
College;  the  Midwestern  A.A.  champion- 
ship by  Central  State  College. 

Among  the  outstanding  players  were: 
backs — Alvin  Hepburn  and  Oscar  Nor- 
man (Florida  A.&M.),  Ray  Dillon  (P. 
V.),  William  Jackson  (N.C.A.&T.),  Ray- 
mond Thornton  (B.  Cookman),  Henry 
Mosely  (M.  Brown),  and  Willie  Smith 
(W.  Va.) ;  ends  Ernie  Warlick  (N.  C.) 
and  Lorinzer  Clark  (Central  S.) ;  tackles 
— James  Caldwell  (Tenn.),  Theodore 
Benson  (M.  Brown),  and  Robert  Hunter 
(Tuskegee)  ;  guards  —  Willie  Bloxton 
(Xavier)  and  Alphonso  Varner  (Fla.) ; 
center — James  Straughter  (Southern). 
The  leading  teams  were: 

Won  Lost  Tied 

Morris  Brown 9         1         0 

Florida  A.&M 7         1         1 

Tennessee  State 8         2         0 

Prairie  View 7         1         0 

Central  State 610 

N.  C.  A.  &  T 6         1         1 

N.  C.  College 6        2         1 

West  Virginia  State 6         2         1 

Xavier 7         1         0 

Lincoln  (Mo.) 7         2         0 


24 


SPORTS 


Results  of  games  of  traditional  rivalry 
were: 

Lincoln  (Pa.)       13 — Howard  0 

Tuskegee  26 — Alabama  State    13 

Hampton  20 — Virginia  Union  13 

Tennessee  State  13 — Kentucky  State     6 

West  Virginia  State  defeated  Morgan 
State,  20-13,  in  the  annual  "National 
Classic";  Florida  A.&M.  defeated  North 
Carolina  College,  67-6,  in  the  Orange 
Blossom  Classic;  and  Virginia  State  de- 
feated North  Carolina  A.&T.  College, 
13-9,  in  the  Capital  Classic. 

1951  Honors  Received 
In  College  Football 

Associated  Press  All- America 
First  offensive  team : 

Don  Coleman  (Mich.  State) 
First  defensive  team : 

Ollie  Matson  (San  Fran.) 
Second  defensive  team  : 

Ed  Bell   (Penna.),  Veryl  Switzer   (Kans. 

State) 
Look's  All-America  (picked  by  Grantland  Rice 

and  Football  Writers'  Ass.  of  America) 
Offensive  platoon : 

Don  Coleman  (Mich.  State) 
Defensive  platoon  : 

Ollie  Matson  (San  Fran.) 
Collier's  All-America 
First  team : 

Don  Coleman  (Mich.  State) 
Specialists : 

Offensive     backs :     Ollie     Matson     (San 

Fran. ) 

Pass  receivers:  Lowell  Perry  (Mich.) 

Punters :  Dave  Mann  (Ore.  State) 
United  Press  All-America 
First  team  : 

Don  Coleman  (Mich.  State) 
Second  team  : 

Johnny    Bright    (Drake),    Ollie    Matson 

(San  Fran.) 
Third  team : 

Lowell  Perry  (Mich.) 
International  News  Service  All-America 
Offensive  team : 

Ollie  Matson  (San  Fran.),  Don  Coleman 

(Mich.  State) 
Defensive  team : 

Ed  Bell  (Penna.) 
United  Press  Sectional  All-Star  Elevens 

Tom  Johnson  and  Lowell  Perry  (Mich.)  on 
first  All-Big  Ten 

Ed  Bell  (Penna.)  on  second  All-Eastern 
Bob  Evans  (Penna.)  on  third  All-Eastern 
Associated  Press  All-Ivy  Team 
First  team  :  Ed  Bell  (Penna.) 
Associated  Press  All-Mid-West 

Offensive    team :    Lowell    Perry    and    Tom 
Johnson  (Mich.) 
United  Press  All-Pacific 

First  team  :  Ollie  Matson  (San  Fran.) 
Second  team:  Burl  Toler  (San  Fran.) 
Third  team  :  Dave  Mann  (Ore.  State) 


United  Press  All-Mid-West 

First    team :    Lowell    Perry    (Mich.),    Don 
Coleman  (Mich.  State) 
Second  team  :  Tom  Johnson  (Mich.) 
Third  team:  Johnny  Bright  (Drake) 

Associated  Press  All-Missouri  Valley  Team 

First  team:  Johnny  Bright  (Drake) 
Weekly  Gridiron  Record  All- America 
Offensive  team : 

Don  Coleman  (Mich.  State) 
Defensive  team : 

Ed  Bell  (Penna.),  Ollie  Matson  (San 
Fran.)  Ed  Withers  (Wise.),  Tom  John- 
son (Mich.) 

Collier's  Regional  All-Star  Teams 

East 

First  team:  Ed  Bell  (Penna.) 

Honor.  Mention:  Bob  Evans  (Penna.) 

Mid-West 

First  team:  Don  Coleman  (Mich.  State), 
Lowell  Perry  (Mich.) 

Honor.  Mention:  Tom  Johnson  (Mich.), 
LeRoy  Bolden  (Mich.  State),  Johnny 
Bright  (Drake),  Don  Stevens  (111.) 

Far  West 

First  team  :  Ollie  Matson  (San  Fran.) 
Honor.  Mention  :  Dave  Mann  (Ore.  State) 

Professional  Football 

Negroes  continued  to  play  outstanding 
roles  in  professional  football.  Six  of  the 
12  teams  in  the  National  League  em- 
ployed Negro  players :  Los  Angeles  Rams 
(5),  San  Francisco  '49ers  (2),  Green 
Bay  Packers  (1),  Cleveland  Browns  (5), 
New  York  Giants  (2),  and  New  York 
Yanks  (3).  The  Green  Bay  Packers  were 
using  a  Negro  player  for  the  first  time; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Detroit  Lions  had 
none  this  year.  On  the  great  Cleveland 
team,  Horace  Gillom's  superb  punting 
(he  was  League  champion  in  this  field), 
Bill  Willis'  aggressive  line  play,  and  Len 
Ford's  great  defensive  end  play  were 
indispensible  to  the  team's  continuing 
success.  Marion  Motley,  nearing  the  end 
of  an  extraordinary  career,  ran  little  but 
was  of  great  value  in  protecting  the 
League's  best  passer,  Otto  Graham  (a 
white  player).  A  young  Negro,  Emerson 
Cole,  was  groomed  to  replace  Motley. 
George  Taliaferro  of  the  Yanks  (the 
team  with  the  poorest  1951  League  rec- 
ord) again  lived  up  to  his  All-America 
reputation  gained  at  Indiana;  he  ran, 
passed,  kicked,  and  defended,  and  proved 
to  be  one  of  the  two  or  three  best  of  all- 
around  backs  in  the  game.  Buddy  Young 
and  Sherman  Howard  also  starred  as 


BOXING 


25 


ballcarriers  for  the  Yanks.  Deacon  Dan 
Towler  (Rams)  was  the  League's  out- 
standing fullback.  Tank  Younger  starred 
on  defense  and  offense  for  the  same  team. 
One  of  the  most  amazing  players  in  the 
League  was  Emlen  Tunnell  of  the  Giants. 
A  member  of  that  team's  famed  "umbrella 
defense,"  Tunnell  was  so  successful  in 
pass  interception  and  so  sensational  in 
pass-interception  runbacks  and  punt  re- 
turns that  many  persons  wondered  why 
he  was  not  used  as  an  offensive  back. 
Stout  Steve  Owen,  the  astute  Giant  coach, 
pointed  out  in  reply  that  Tunnell,  on  de- 
fense, had  outgained  most  of  the 
League's  offensive  players.  Tunnell,  in- 
cidentally, is  a  highly  succesful  exponent 
of  the  present-day  approach;  he  keeps 
elaborate  and  extensive  "books"  on  the 
habits  of  opposing  players  and  gives 
considerable  thought  to  the  play  of  the 
game. 

Other  Negro  stars  were  Woodley  Lewis, 
Bob  Boyd,  and  Harry  Thompson  of  the 
Rams  and  Bob  Mann  of  the  Green  Bay 
Packers.  The  first  three,  plus  Towler  and 
Younger,  contributed  much  to  the  Rams's 
winning  the  world  professional  cham- 
pionship. 

In  the  Canadian  Football  League,  Ber- 
nie  Custis  was  voted  the  "most  valuable 
back."  Ulysses  Curtis,  Bill  Bass,  and 
Herbert  Trawick  made  the  Eastern  Ail- 
Star  team.  Tom  Casey  and  Robbie  Miles 
made  the  Western  All-Star  team. 

Outstanding  Individual  Performers 

New  York  Daily  News  Fifteenth  Annual  All- 
Professional  Team 

First  offensive  team  : 

Dan  Towler  (Los  Angeles  Rams) 

First  defensive  team : 

Len    Ford    and    Bill    Willis     (Cleveland 
Browns),  Emlen  Tunnell  (N.  Y.  Giants) 

United  Press  All-Professional  Team 

First  offensive  team  : 

Dan  Towler  (Los  Angeles  Rams) 

First  defensive  team : 

Len    Ford    and    Bill    Willis     (Cleveland 
Browns),  Emlen  Tunnell  (N.  Y.  Giants) 

Associated  Press  All-Pro-Team 
First  defensive  team : 

Bill    Willis,    Len    Ford,    Paul    Younger, 
Emlen  Tunnell 

Ground  gaining : 

Dan  Towler,  2nd  (6.8  yds  per  carry) 


Punting : 

Horace  Gillom,  1st  (45.5  yds  per  kick) 
Punt  returns : 

Buddy  Young,  1st  (19.3  yds  per  return) 
Pass  interceptions : 

Emlen  Tunnel,  3rd  (9) 
Pass  receiving : 

Bob  Mann,  4th  (50) 


BOXING 

In  no  sport  has  the  Negro  been  so  out- 
standing as  in  prize-fighting.  This  was 
as  true  in  1951  as  at  any  time  in  the 
past.  At  the  end  of  the  year  Negroes 
held  five  of  the  eight  major  titles,  as 
follows : 

Jersey  Joe  Walcott,  Heavyweight 

Division 
Sugar  Ray  Robinson,  Middleweight 

Division 

Kid  Gavilan,  Welterweight  Division 
Jimmy  Carter,  Lightweight  Division 
Sandy  Saddler,  Featherweight  Di- 

vison 

Nearly  all  the  important  bouts  of  the 
year  involved  at  least  one  Negro  fighter, 
and  four  of  the  most  important  ones  saw 
Negro  challengers  fighting  Negro  cham- 
pions. Jersey  Joe  Walcott  upset  favored 
Ezzard  Charles  for  the  Heavyweight 
title;  little-known  Jimmy  Carter  defeated 
Ike  Williams  for  the  Lightweight  Cham- 
pionship; and  Randy  Turpin,  a  British 
Negro,  scored  one  of  the  greatest  upsets 
in  modern  times  by  defeating  Ray  Robin- 
son in  London  in  July,  but  he  lost  the 
return  bout  in  New  York  in  September. 
This  was  only  the  second  defeat  in  Robin- 
son's long  career  (amateur  and  profes- 
sional) and  the  first  to  a  man  of  his  own 
weight.  In  February,  Robinson  had  won 
the  Middleweight  title  from  Jake  La- 
Motta  in  a  hair-raising  13  rounds.  Pre- 
viously he  had  won  the  world's  Light- 
weight Championship,  and  he  owned  the 
Welterweight  title  when  he  fought  La- 
Motta. 

Perhaps  the  most  distinctive  event  of 
the  year  was  Joe  Louis'  knockout  loss 
to  young  and  aggressive  Rocky  Marci- 
ano.  The  aging  and  balding  Brown 
Bomber  was  slightly  ahead  on  points  ac- 


26 


SPORTS 


cording  to  all  of  the  outstanding  sports 
writers  witnessing  the  fight  (although  the 
judges  and  referee  had  him  behind)  until 
the  eighth  round,  when  Marciano  knocked 
him  out.  It  was  the  third  loss  in  his  long 
and  honorable  professional  career,  and 
nearly  every  newspaper  in  the  country 
carried,  the  morning  after,  the  headline, 
"End  of  an  Era  in  Boxing."  However, 
before  leaving  for  an  exhibition  in  Japan, 
where  he  was  tumultuously  received, 
Louis  would  not  say  unequivocally  that 
he  was  through  with  fighting,  and  he  con- 
tinued to  state  his  belief  that  he  could 
beat  either  Ezzard  Charles  or  Jersey  Joe 
Walcott. 

Ray  Robinson,  who  has  established  him- 
self as  one  of  the  greatest  fighters  of  all 
time,  was  nearing  the  end  of  a  triumphant 
tour  of  Europe,  during  which  he  had 
defeated  all  the  available  and  willing 
fighters  of  his  weight,  when  he  was  de- 
feated for  the  world  Welterweight  crown 
soundly  and  unexpectedly  by  the  British 
fighter  Randy  Turpin.  It  was  believed 
that  not  being  in  prime  condition  and 
taking  Turpin  too  lightly  were  respon- 
sible. There  was  an  immediate  clamor 
for  a  return  bout.  In  the  second  bout 
between  the  two,  which  was  held  in  New 
York,  Robinson  regained  his  title  in  the 
first  million-dollar  fight  between  boxers 
who  were  not  in  the  heavyweight  division. 

This  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
fights  in  history.  No  other  bout  ever 
attracted  more  international  interest.  On 
the  continent,  Robinson  proved  to  be  im- 
mensely popular  and  was  feted  by  artists, 
politicians,  and  writers  as  well  as  by 
boxing  fans.  The  French  are  particularly 
fond  of  him,  for  he  won  his  Welterweight 
title  from  Jake  LaMotta,  who  had  earlier 
won  it  from  their  idol,  Marcel  Cerdan. 
There  were  also  political  implications  in 
the  fight.  The  British  rejoiced  not  only  in 
a  Briton's  winning  a  world  championship, 
but,  in  their  restivenes  over  increasing 
American  influence  in  world  affairs,  also 
in  the  defeat  of  America's  outstanding 
fighter  by  one  of  their  own.  English  pub- 
lications reported  a  momentary  upsurge, 
in  public-opinion  polls,  of  support  for 


the  Labor  Party,  which  was  just  about  to 
contest  a  national  election  with  the  Con- 
servative Party;  this  fluctuation  was  at- 
tributed to  Turpin's  victory. 

Robinson,  who  had  received  the  Ed- 
ward J.  Neil  Award  for  having  done  the 
most  for  boxing  in  1950,  received  the 
1951  Benny  Leonard  Good  Sportsmanship 
Trophy  and  Ring  Magazine's  Fighter  of 
the  Year  Award. 

Everyone  conceded  that  the  Light- 
weight champion,  Ike  Williams,  like  Ray 
Robinson  and  Joe  Louis,  was  nearing  the 
end  of  the  trail.  Williams  has  been  one 
of  the  good,  though  not  great,  Negro 
fighters  of  our  time.  His  bout  with  the 
young  Negro  Jimmy  Carter  in  May  was 
regarded  more  as  a  near  "farewell  ap- 
pearance" for  an  aging  champion  than 
a  fight  in  which  the  title  might  change 
hands.  Carter  won  and  immediately  be- 
came a  question  mark,  for  it  was  not 
clear  whether  Carter  was  good  or  Wil- 
liams simply  washed  up.  In  his  only  title 
defense  of  the  year,  against  the  flashy 
and  extremely  popular  Art  "Golden  Boy" 
Aragon  of  California,  Carter  established 
himself  as  a  good  but  rather  colorless 
fighter.  Apparently  he  has  the  equipment 
but  lacks  the  "killer"  instinct. 

Ezzard  Charles's  defense  of  his  Heavy- 
weight title  against  old  Jersey  Joe  Wal- 
cott. who  has  fought  in  more  champion- 
ship bouts  than  any  other  fighter  but  had 
always  lost,  was  considered  little  more 
than  a  money-making,  tune-up  match. 
Walcott  proved  again  that  perserverance 
pays  and,  to  the  surprise  of  everyone, 
possibly  including  himself,  won  the  title 
handily.  This  threw  the  Heavyweight 
situation  into  confusion,  for  Louis  had 
hoped  to  fight  Charles  again  for  the 
Championship.  Walcott  received  the  1951 
Edward  J.  Neil  Memorial  Plaque  (the 
most  coveted  award  in  boxing),  for  hav- 
ing done  the  most  for  boxing  during  the 
year. 

In  the  Heavyweight  class,  Clarence 
Henry  emerged  as  a  serious  title  possi- 
bility and  successor  to  Louis,  Charles, 
and  Walcott.  In  October,  Kid  Gavilan 
was  held  to  an  upset  draw  by  Johnny 


BASKETBALL 


27 


Bratton,  from  whom  he  had  won  the 
Welterweight  title  in  May. 

Sandy  Saddler  retained  the  world's 
Featherweight  title  in  the  third  of  three 
savage  and  brutal  matches  with  Willie 
Pep.  Saddler  won  on  a  TKO  when  Pep 
failed  to  come  out  for  the  tenth  round. 

Gil  Turner,  21-year-old  welterweight, 
with  22  knockouts  in  27  victories,  was 
named  1951 's  Rookie  Boxer  of  the  Year 
by  the  Eastern  Boxing  Writers'  Associa- 
tion. 

Golden  Gloves 

For  nearly  20  years,  young  Negroes 
have  featured  in  the  various  Golden  Glove 
tournaments  held  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe.  This  year  they  continued  to  win 
national  and  international  successes. 
Bobby  Jackson  was  captain  of  the  Chi- 
cago Golden  Gloves  team,  which  won  its 
fourteenth  international  match  with  a 
European  team.  There  were  six  Negroes 
on  the  squad  of  eight;  five  (Nate  Brooks, 
Willard  Henry,  Bobby  Jackson,  Ken 
Davis,  and  Bobby  Bickle)  won  their 
matches,  the  Chicago  team  winning  6-2. 

The  Washington,  D.C.,  Golden  Gloves 
team  lost  to  the  same  European  team,  5-3. 
Two  of  its  three  triumphs  were  won  by 
Melton  Ferguson  and  Willie  Davis. 

Three  Negroes  were  winners  on  the 
first  amateur  boxing  team  ever  to  defeat 
a  British  team  on  home  soil.  They  were 
James  Hackney,  Rudolph  Gwinn,  and 
Randolph  Sandy. 


BASKETBALL 

College  Basketball 

Negro  participation  in  collegiate  bas- 
ketball has  for  many  years  lagged  behind 
that  in  football.  This  is  still  true,  though 
the  achievements  of  a  few  Negroes  during 
the  past  four  or  five  years  indicated  a 
fast-developing  change.  The  playing  of 
Cliff  Barksdale,  first  Negro  to  make  the 
U.S.  Olympic  Basketball  Team  (1948), 
at  U.C.L.A.,  of  Chuck  Cooper  at  Du- 
quesne  in  the  1948-50  seasons,  and  of  Ed 
Warner  at  the  City  College  of  New  York 


in  the  1949-50  season  was  outstanding, 
and  all  three  made  All-America.  Warner, 
in  1950,  led  City  College  of  New  York  to 
the  first  double  victory  in  history  in  the 
National  Invitation  Tournament  and  the 
National  Collegiate  A.A.  Championship, 
and  was  voted  "the  most  valuable  player" 
of  the  former.  During  the  first  part  of  the 
1950-51  season  Warner's  play  continued 
strong,  though  somewhat  less  so  than 
expected. 

One  of  the  outstanding  stars  of  the 
season  was  Bill  Garret  of  Indiana,  the 
first  Negro  in  recent  years  to  star  in  the 
Big  Ten.  He  was  one  of  the  finest  players 
in  the  Conference,  and  was  voted  to  the 
All-Big  Ten  and  All-America  teams. 

The  greatest  player  of  the  year — in 
fact,  of  the  last  few  years — was  Sherman 
White  of  Long  Island  University.  He  was 
a  superb  shot,  play-maker,  and  rebound 
specialist.  Clearly  the  best  in  the  country, 
he  was  slated  to  make  every  important 
All-America  selection. 

Unfortunately,  he,  along  with  four 
other  celebrated  Negro  players,  became 
involved  in  amateur  sports'  most  notori- 
ous scandal.  Along  with  many  other  noted 
players,  he  was  charged  with  and  con- 
fessed to  the  crime  of  accepting  bribes  to 
"dump,"  that  is,  to  throw  games  and 
control  scores.  White,  Warner,  Leroy 
Smith,  Robert  MacDonald,  and  Floyd 
Layne  were  the  five  Negroes  involved 
(many  other  famous  players  were  in- 
volved too).  White  received  a  one-year 
term,  Warner  a  six-month  term,  and 
Smith  and  Layne  six-month  suspended 
sentences.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that, 
while  large-scale  bribing  and  "dumping" 
had  been  going  on  for  several  years,  it 
was  a  Negro  player,  Junius  Kellogg,  first 
Negro  to  play  for  Manhattan  University, 
whose  report  to  his  coach  that  he  was 
offered  $1,000  to  "throw"  a  game  against 
DePaul  University  broke  the  situation 
out  into  the  open.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  1951-52  season,  Kellogg  was  one  of 
the  leading  stars  of  Eastern  basketball. 
Other  extremely  promising  players  were 
Solly  Walker,  a  sophomore,  the  first 
Negro  to  play  for  St.  John's,  one  of  the 


28 


SPORTS 


consistently  strong  teams  in  basketball; 
Hardy  Williams,  the  first  Negro  to  play 
for  Pennsylvania  State  College  and  the 
captain  of  the  team  for  1951-52;  Walter 
Dukes,  six-foot-eleven-inch  captain  of  the 
Seton  Hall  team;  the  first  two  Negroes 
ever  to  play  as  regulars  for  a  Notre  Dame 
varsity,  Joe  Bertrand  and  Entee  Shine, 
members  of  the  starting  five;  and  Johnny 
Moore,  sensational  freshman  ("another 
Don  Barksdale")  on  the  University  of 
California  at  Los  Angeles  team. 

Professional  Basketball 

In  1950-51  two  Negroes  broke  into  or- 
ganized professional  basketball  for  the 
first  time;  they  were  Chuck  Cooper,  for- 
merly an  All-American  at  Duquesne,  who 
played  for  the  Boston  Celtics,  and 
Nathaniel  "Sweetwater"  Clifton,  former 
star  center  of  the  Harlem  Globetrotters, 
who  played  for  the  New  York  Knicker- 
bockers. Both  players  enjoyed  good  years. 
Cooper  played  a  sound  all-around  game. 
Clifton  was  only  a  fair  shot  but  was  out- 
standing on  defense,  especially  on  re- 
bounds. He  contributed  considerably  to 
the  Knicks'  successful  season,  in  which 
they  won  their  division  championship  and 
carried  the  Syracuse  Nationals  to  a  full 
seven-game  play-off  for  the  National 
Basketball  Association  Championship. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  1951-52  season, 
two  more  Negroes  were  in  the  National 
Basketball  Association:  Don  Barksdale 
and  Dave  Minor,  both  playing  for  the 
Baltimore  Bullets.  The  Bullets  had  made 
unusual  efforts  to  bring  Barksdale  from 
the  West  Coast,  and  he  is  reportedly  the 
highest-paid  player  in  the  Association. 
Both  Barksdale  and  Minor  were  playing 
outstandingly  at  the  season's  outset,  as 
was  Cooper  for  Boston.  The  surprise 
sensation  was  Clifton,  who,  in  addition  to 
playing  his  usual  brilliant  defensive  game, 
proved  to  be  a  great  shotmaker  as  well. 
One  Philadelphia  sportswriter  described 
him  as  "almost  a  team  in  himself." 

The  most  famous  team  in  professional 
basketball — and  the  most  widely  known 
athletic  team  of  any  kind  in  the  world — 
is  the  fabulous,  all-Negro  Harlem  Globe- 


trotters. Operating  on  practically  a  year- 
round  basis,  they  played  throughout  this 
country,  in  Canada,  Europe,  and  South 
America,  always  drawing  record-breaking 
crowds.  They  played  before  the  largest 
crowd  in  basketball  history  (50,041)  in 
Rio  de  Janerio  on  May  5.  In  Berlin,  in 
August,  the  team  broke  its  own  record 
by  playing  the  Boston  Whirlwinds  before 
75.000.  An  all-star  team,  its  most  famous 
players  are  Goose  Tatum,  the  game's 
best  ball-handler,  and  Marquez  Haynes, 
the  game's  greatest  dribbler.  The  Globe- 
trotters' 1950-51  record  was  334  victories 
and  six  losses. 

At  the  end  of  the  college  basketball 
season,  the  Globetrotters  made  their  sec- 
ond annual  tour  of  the  country  with  an 
all-star  college  team.  The  Trotters  won, 
14  games  to  4. 

TRACK  AND  FIELD 

Men 

There  were  many  Negro  champions  in 
track  and  field  in  1951.  At  the  National 
Collegiate  A.A.  meet  in  Seattle  in  June, 
George  Rhoden  of  Morgan  State  won  the 
440-yard  (0:46.5)  and  220-yard  (0:20.7) 
titles,  Arthur  Bragg  of  Morgan  State  the 
100-yard  dash  (0:9.6),  George  Brown  of 
U.C.L.A.  the  broad  jump  (24'  5%"),  and 
Meredith  Gourdine  of  Cornell  was  second 
in  the  220-yard  low  hurdles  and  placed  in 
the  broad  jump.  Morgan  State  College 
won  third  place  in  team  honors  with  38 
points,  just  behind  Cornell's  40  points  for 
second  place. 

At  the  Diamond  Jubilee  IC4A  (Inter- 
collegiate Amateur  Athletic  Association 
of  America)  meet,  Andy  Stanfield  of 
Seton  Hall  won  the  220-yard  dash  (0:20.6 
for  a  world  record  around  a  turn),  the 
100-yard  dash  (0:9.7)  for  the  third  year 
in  succession,  and  was  second  in  the 
broad  jump  (25'  9").  Meredith  Gourdine 
of  Cornell  won  the  broad  jump  (25'  9%") 
and  the  220-yard  low  hurdles  (0:23.7). 

At  the  National  A.A.U.  Track  and 
Field  Meet  in  Berkeley,  Cal.,  in  June, 
Rhoden  won  the  400-meter  race  (0:46  for 
the  second  straight  year),  with  Herbert 


TRACK  AND  FIELD 


29 


McKenley  second ;  Jim  Golliday  of  North- 
western the  100-meter  (0:10.3),  with 
Bragg  second;  Jim  Ford  of  Drake  the 
200-meter  (0:20.8)  ;  Mai  Whitfield,  1948 
Olympic  winner  of  the  800-meter  race 
(1:52.9),  with  Roscoe  Brown  of  the  New 
York  Pioneer  Club  second;  and  George 
Brown  (running  for  the  Los  Angeles 
A.C.)  the  broad  jump  (24'  8y2"),  with 
Jesse  Thomas  of  Michigan  State  third. 
Rhoden  and  Golliday  tied  meet  records. 

Roscoe  Brown,  Golliday,  and  Rhoden 
were  appointed  to  the  American  team  that 
competed  in  Europe;  and  Whitfield, 
George  Brown,  and  Thomas  were  ap- 
pointed to  the  12-man  team  that  toured 
all  of  Japan.  Mai  Whitfield  also  ran 
for  this  country  in  the  Pan-American 
Olympic  Games  in  Buenos  Aires,  Feb.  25- 
March  8. 

At  the  annual  A.A.U.  Relays,  held  at 
Morgan  State  for  the  second  straight 
year,  Morgan  won  the  400-meter  relays. 
Herbert  McKenley  anchored  the  Grand 
Street  Boys'  Association  to  victory  in  the 
1,600-meter  relays,  with  Morgan  second. 
Morgan  won  four  firsts  in  the  Fifth  An- 
nual South  Atlantic  A.A.U.  meet:  Lester 
Scott  won  the  70-yard  hurdles,  Arthur 
Bragg  the  70-yard  dash,  George  Rhoden 
the  600-yard  race  (1:10.4  for  a  new  meet 
record),  and  Morgan  State  the  mile  relay. 
Rhoden  was  voted  the  individual  star  of 
the  meet.  Jimmy  Bruce  of  Howard  won 
the  Collegiate  1,000-yard  race  (2:17.8  for 
a  meet  record) ,  and  Leon  Kess,  a  Morgan 
alumnus,  won  the  Chesapeake  1,000. 

In  the  Purdue  Relays,  Clifton  Ander- 
son of  Indiana  won  the  shot  put  (51' 
8%" ) ,  and  Jesse  Thomas  won  the  60-yard 
high  hurdles  and  was  second  in  the  60- 
yard  low  hurdles. 

In  the  Fifth  Annual  Seton  Hall  Relays, 
Morgan  State  won  the  mile  relay  for  the 
third  straight  year,  and  Andy  Stanfield, 
a  top  1952  Olympic  prospect,  won  the 
broad  jump  (23'  7V2"). 

In  the  famous  Penn  Relays,  Stanfield 
won  the  100-yard  race  (0:9.8)  and  the 
broad  jump  (25'  4"),  Clifton  Anderson 
the  shot  put  (54'  I1/*/'),  Armstrong  High 
of  Washington,  D.C.,  one  of  the  16  high 


school  mile  relays  in  the  fastest  time  of 
the  154  teams  competing  in  these  16 
events,  and  Cardozo  High  of  Washington, 
D.C.,  retained  its  title  in  the  400-meter 
relay  race.  Other  Negroes  who  distin- 
guished themselves  in  the  Penn  Relays 
were  Larry  Ellis,  who  led  New  York 
University  to  the  half-mile  college-sprint 
relay  title,  Bob  Carthy,  captain  of  Man- 
hattan's 1951-52  track  team  and  anchor 
man  on  the  winning  440-yard  relay  team, 
and  Meredith  Gourdine,  who  ran  on  Cor- 
nell's winning  480-yard  shuttle-hurdle 
relay  team  and  mile  relay  team.  Morgan 
State,  winner  in  1950,  ran  second  in  the 
quarter-mile  relay  race. 

In  the  Coliseum  Relays  in  Los  Angeles, 
Morgan  State  won  the  mile  relay,  Rhoden 
the  440-yard  race,  Stanfield  the  100-yard 
and  200-yard  low  hurdles,  and  George 
Brown  the  broad  jump.  Bob  Carty  anch- 
ored the  Manhattan  team  to  wins  in  the 
440-  and  880-yard  relays.  Arthur  Bragg 
won  the  New  Zealand  220-yard  title  in 
the  Canterbury  Centennial  games,  held  in 
January,  and  was  second  in  the  100-meter 
dash.  John  Carroll,  former  Tuskegee  star 
now  running  for  the  Baltimore  Olympics, 
won  the  fifth  Annual  Penn  A.C.  five-mile 
cross-country  race  (31:38)  in  December. 

Kentucky  State  won  the  Midwestern 
A.A.  Annual  Track  and  Field  Meet  with 
88  points  (Central  College  second  with 
47)  ;  and  Tuskegee  Institute  won  the  an- 
nual Tuskegee  Relays,  the  oldest  of  the 
relays  sponsored  by  Negro  colleges. 

George  Rhoden's  mark  of  0:45.8  in  the 
400-meter  (Aug.  22,  1950,  Sweden)  was 
recognized  as  a  new  world  record  in 
April  by  the  International  A.A.  Federa- 
tion, which  also  recognized  Mai  Whit- 
field's  1:49.2  for  the  half-mile  as  tying 
Sidney  Wooder son's  record  (the  second 
oldest  track  record  in  the  books). 

Ralph  Metcalfe,  one  of  the  great  sprint 
stars  of  the  1930's,  was  one  of  the  14 
athletes  named  to  Wisconsin's  Hall  of 
Fame.  Phil  Thigpen,  former  middle-dis- 
tance star  for  New  York  University  and 
former  national  indoor  1,000-yard  cham- 
pion and  IC4A  half-mile  title  holder,  was 
awarded  the  first  John  Marshall  College 


30 


SPORTS 


Scholarship  to  the  Seton  University  Law 
School. 

Women 

The  Tuskegee  Institute  Girls'  Track 
Team  won  the  National  A.A.U.  meet. 
Newest  star  on  this  team,  which  has  failed 
to  win  this  meet  only  once  since  1937,  is 
Mary  McNabb,  a  freshman  who,  in  the 
A.A.U.  meet  held  in  Waterbury,  Conn., 
in  August,  made  an  amazing  showing. 
She  won  three  junior  and  two  senior 
championships,  broke  one  American  rec- 
ord, and  tied  another.  She  won  the  50- 
meter,  100-meter,  and  200-meter  junior 
races,  and  the  50-meter  and  100-meter 
senior  races.  She  set  a  new  American 
record  of  0:24.3  for  the  200  and  tied  the 
American  mark  of  0:64  in  the  50-yard 
dash.  She  is  regarded  as  a  top  Olympic 
prospect. 

In. the  same  meet  Catherine  Hardy  of 
Fort  Valley  State  (Ga.)  was  second  in 
the  50-meter  and  100-meter  dashes;  Jean 
Patton  of  Tennessee  State  won  the  senior 
200-meter  dash  (0:25.4);  and  Evelyn 
Lawler  of  Tuskegee  was  second  in  the 
hurdles. 

Evelyn  Lawler  and  Nell  Jackson,  both 
of  Tuskegee,  were  two  of  the  three  Ne- 
groes on  the  American  team  that  com- 
peted in  the  Pan-American  Olympic 
Games  in  Buenos  Aires. 

Track  and  Field  News  in  its  world 
ranking  for  1951  listed  the  following: 

Summary 
Track  and  Field  Championships 

National  Collegiate  A. A.  Champions 
100-yard  dash  : 

Art  Bragg  (Morgan) 
220-yard  dash : 

George  Rhoden  (Morgan) 
440-yard  run  : 

George  Rhoden 
Broad  jump :  v 

George  Brown  (U.C.L.A.) 

Intercollegiate  A.A.A.  Outdoor  Champions 
100-yard  dash: 

Andy  Stanfield  (Seton  Hall) 
220-yard  dash : 

Andy  Stanfield 
220-yard  low  hurdles : 

Meredith  Gourdine  (Cornell) 
Broad  jump  : 

Meredith  Gourdine 


Men's  National  Senior  Outdoor  Champions 
100-meter  dash : 

Jim  Golliday  (Northwestern) 
200-meter  dash  : 

Jim  Ford  (Drake) 
400-meter  run : 

George  Rhoden  (Morgan) 
800-meter  run  : 

Mai  Whitfield  (Grand  Street  Boys) 
Broad  jump : 

George  Brown  (Circle  A.C.,  Los  Angeles) 

Men's  National  Senior  Indoor  Champions 
60-yard  dash : 

Edward  Conwell  (Pioneer  Club) 
1000-yard  run : 

Roscoe  Browne  (Pioneer  Club) 
60-yard  high  hurdles  : 

Harrison  Dillard  (Cleveland) 
Broad  jump : 

Andy  Stanfield  (Seton  Hall) 
Team : 

Pioneer  Club 

Women's  National  Outdoor  Champions 
50-meter  dash  : 

Mary  MacNabb  (Tuskegee) 
100-meter  dash  : 

Mary  McNabb 
200-meter  dash  : 

Jean  Patton  (Tennessee  State) 
400-meter  relay  : 

Tuskegee  Institute 
200-meter  shuttle  hurdle  relay  : 

Tuskegee  Institute 
Team: 

Tuskegee  Institute 


TENNIS 

The  story  of  Negro  progress  in  tennis 
in  1951  was  almost  wholly  the  story  of 
the  progress  of  young  Althea  Gibson. 
In  1950  she  broke  precedent  by  becoming 
the  first  Negro  to  play  at  Forest  Hills,  by 
the  end  of  the  year  she  had  established 
herself  as  one  of  the  nation's  leading 
players. 

Miss  Gibson  broke  two  more  prece- 
dents in  1951 :  she  played  in  Florida  and 
at  Wimbledon.  In  March  she  won  the 
Good  Neighbor  Tennis  Championship 
women's  singles,  defeating  Betty  Rosen- 
quest  (ranked  No.  8  nationally)  6-4,  6-2, 
in  the  finals;  won  the  mixed  doubles 
with  Tony  Vincent;  and  was  runner-up, 
with  Susan  Herr,  in  the  women's  doubles. 
She  was  the  first  Negro  to  play  in  a 
"white"  tournament  in  Florida. 

In  England  she  played  in  four  tourna- 
ments. She  went  to  the  semi-finals  in  the 
women's  singles  in  the  Northern  Tourney, 
held  in  Manchester,  and  was  runner-up, 


OTHER  SPORTS 


31 


with  Naresh  Kumar  of  India,  in  the  mixed 
doubles.  She  lost  again  in  the  semi-finals 
of  the  Kent  Championships  to  Betty 
Rosenquest.  In  the  London  Champion- 
ships she  lost  in  the  quarter-finals.  In  the 
historic  Wimbledon  tournament,  where 
she  was  the  cynosure,  she  played  well  but 
lost  in  the  quarter-finals  to  compatriot 
Beverly  Baker  (ranked  No.  6). 

On  the  continent,  after  Wimbledon, 
she  won  the  women's  singles  in  the  Dort- 
mund (Germany)  International  Tennis 
Championships,  defeating  Hannah  Koze- 
luh,  former  Czechoslovakian  champion, 
in  the  finals  6-3,  6-2.  At  Forest  Hills,  in 
the  national  tournament,  she  was  defeated 
in  the  second  round  by  16-year  old 
Maureen  Connolly,  who  went  on  to  win 
the  women's  title. 

Miss  Gibson  has  developed  the  most 
powerful  game  played  by  a  woman  today 
and  ranks  No.  11  nationally.  However, 
her  game  is  relatively  weak  in  control 
and  she  has  lacked  big  tournament  ex- 
perience. It  is  believed  she  will  continue 
to  improve.  Her  ambition  is  to  make  the 
American  Wightman  Cup  team,  which 
annually  plays  the  British  team  for  the 
two-nation  championship. 

In  the  American  Tennis  Association 
Tournament,  held  in  August  at  Central 
College  (Ohio),  George  Stewart  won  both 
the  men's  singles  and  the  national  inter- 
collegiate title,  defeating  Ronald  Charity 
of  North  Carolina  College  in  the  finals  of 


the  later.  Stewart,  who  is  enrolled  at 
South  Carolina  State  College,  played 
Normal  Appel  (white)  in  the  first  inter- 
racial finals  in  A.T.A.  history.  The  Peters 
Sisters  of  Tuskegee  again  won  the  wo- 
men's doubles.  Althea  Gibson,  of  course, 
won  the  women's  singles. 

OTHER  SPORTS 

Many  Negroes  achieved  distinction  in 
other  sports.  Among  them  were  Len 
Burgess  and  Carl  Barnes,  members  of 
the  New  York  University  fencing  team; 
John  Davis,  holder  of  the  national  and 
international  heavyweight  weight-lifting 
titles;  16-year  old  Hosea  Richardson,  the 
first  Negro  to  attain  real  prominence  as  a 
jockey  for  many  a  year;  and  Art  Dor- 
rington,  on  the  Washington  Lions  of  the 
Eastern  Hockey  League  and  first  Negro 
to  play  in  organized  hockey  in  the  U.S. 
For  the  second  straight  year  Howard 
Wheeler  participated  in  the  National 
Open  Golf  Championships,  but  failed  to 
qualify  as  one  of  the  50  finalists  (his 
score,  75-78-153). 

Among  the  most  encouraging  incidents 
was  the  participation  by  Negroes  for  the 
first  time  in  a  National  Bowling  Associa- 
tion tournament  (Baltimore,  April). 
There  is  every  indication  that  this  "peo- 
ple's" sport  will  soon  function  as  demo- 
cratically as  the  other  major  American 
sports. 


The  Negro  Press 


CIRCULATION  ARIZONA                                      arc. 

Phoenix 

„    .  T  Sun  (wkly) 2,000 

Since  the  beginning  of  1947,  27  Negro 
newspapers  have  been  established  in  the 

United  States.  Seven  were  born  in  1947,  California  Eagle  (wkly) 20,000 

six  in  1948,  four  in  1949,  seven  in  1950,  £ri.te,fL0 V"1,6  ^kly)/  Lu< 

.           .      Tf.r'i    TU                          J  •      if.     .  Neighborhood  News  (wkly) — 

three  m  1951.  1  hey  appeared  in  16  states  Sentinel  (wkly) 25,000 

and  the  District  of  Columbia,  one  in  each  Jribune  %W :•«•••; 10'000 

,                                 .-.,  .           ,  T.  ,.            •       i  •  i  Spotlight  (Th.  &  Sun.) 30,000 

location  except  Ohio  and  Missouri,  which  Star  Review  (Th.).                                 12  500 

had  three  each,  and  Alabama,  Georgia,  Oakland 

TII.       .        FT!                f,   vr        •               j     c      »i_  California  Voice  (wkly) 10.500 

Illinois,     lexas,    California,    and    bouth  Herald  (wkly)                                           — 

Carolina,    which   had  tWO  each.  San  Bernardino 

In  1951,  a  total  of  187  Negro  news-  San£fe°onty  Bulletin  (wkly) 

papers  were  functioning  in  35  states  and  Comet  (wkly) 10,000 

tVlP  District  ni  rnlnmhia    with  a  rnmViinprl  San  Francisco 

iCt  01  ^Olumma,  Wltn  a  combined  Sun-Reporter  (wkly) 24,480 

circulation  of  2,444,593,  and  there  were  Labor  Herald  (s-mo.) 85,567 

43   Negro   magazines,   with   a   combined  Tota/  228  047 

circulation  of  1,299,637.  COLORADO 

Denver 

Colorado  Statesman  (wkly) 2,700 

Circulation  of  Newspapers 1  _  St*f  (wkly)                               1»500 

Pueblo 

Western  Ideal  (wkly) 1,100 

ALABAMA  Circ. 

Birmingham  Total       5,300 

Baptist  Leader  (wkly) 3,500  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA 

Review  (wkly) 18,893  Washington 

World  (s-wkly) 10,500  ^tSmerican  (s-wkly)  (Tue.) 15,120 

Mirror  (wkly)    .........  ..  ... 21,106  Afro-American  (s-wkly)  (Fri.) 19  281 

Alabama  Weekly  Review  (wkly) 28,438  c     ital  Times  (Uly)                                 .   13  500 

M°b,lle      ,.    ,    . .  .  Gaily  News  (Fri.). 10,000 

Advocate  (wkly) Nite  Life  fFri  )                                                    5  000 

Gulf  Informer  (wkly) 12,643 

Montgomery  T  t  ,     62  o01 

Alabama  Tribune  (wkly) 1 ,500  J  M       ^'VU1 

Tuscaloosa  FLORIDA 

Alabama  Citizen  (wkly) 8,000  Jacf  onville 

Tuskegee2  Florida  Tattler  (wkly) 10,508 

Herald  (wkly) 2,740  Progressive  News  (wkly) 8,650 

_____  Florida  Star  (wkly) 5,000 

Total  107,320  Mj31™            .... 

Call,  The  (wkly) — 

ARKANSAS  Tropical  Dispatch  (wkly) — 

Little  Rock  Florida  Times 5,500 

Arkansas  Survey-Journal  (wkly) 12,550  Pensacola 

Arkansas  World  (wkly) 13,560  Colored  Citizen  (wkly) 1,100 

Baptist  Vanguard —  Courier  (wkly) 5,342 

State  Press  (wkly) 17,656  Tampa 

Arkansas  Flashlight  (wkly) 1,500  Bulletin  (wkly) 780 

Pine  Bluff  Courier  (Sat.) 1,500 

Negro  Spokesman  (wkly) 7,000  Florida  Sentinel  (Tues.) 9,400 


Total     52,266 


Total     47,780 


1  Circulation   figures   from   N.   Jf.   Ayer  &   Son's   Directory   Newspapers   and  Periodicals    (1950)    and   Editor   and 
Publisher  International  Yearbook  (1951). 

2  Owned  by  whites  and  edited  by  Negroes. 

32 


CIRCULATION 


33 


GEORGIA  Circ. 

Albany 

Enterprise  (wkly) 2,242 

Southwest  Georgian  (Sat.) 1,500 

Atlanta 

World  (dly) 29,500 

Augusta  Review 4,000 

Columbus 

World  (Sun.) 2,800 

Macon 

World 2,500 

Rome 

Enterprise  (ftntly) >. 

Savannah 

Tribune  (wkly) 3,992 

Herald .  .  — 


Total     46,534 

ILLINOIS 

Chicago 

Defender  (wkly) 155,074 

World  (wkly) 32,000 

Globe  (wkly) 35,000 

East  St.  Louis 

Crusader,  The  (wkly) 

Robbing 

Herald   (wkly) 3,800 

Views    and    Voices    of    Chicago    and 

Suburbs — • 

Springfield 

Illinois  Chronicle  (wkly) 1,200 

Illinois  Conservator  (s-mo.) 3,500 

Total  230,574 
INDIANA 
Evansville 

Consolidated  News  (bi-wkly) 7,000 

Gary 

American  (wkly) 5,500 

Lake  County  Observer  (wkly) 8,000 

Indianapolis 

Recorder  (wkly) 11,635 

Total    32,135 

IOWA 

Des  Moines 

Iowa  Bystander  (wkly) 1 ,863 

Iowa  Observer  (wkly) ; 1,100 

Total       2,863 
KANSAS 
Hutchinson 

Blade  (Fri.) 635 

Kansas  City 

Peoples  Elevator  (wkly) 

Plaindealer  (wkly) 15,000 

Wyandotte  Echo  (wkly) 1,000 

Wichita 

Negro  Star  (wkly) 1,000 

Total  17,635 

KENTUCKY 

Louisville 

American  Baptist,  (wkly) 1,500 

Defender  (wkly) 1 5,226 

Kentucky  Reporter  (wkly) 1 ,000 

Leader  (wkly) 15,296 

Total     33,022 

LOUISIANA 

New  Orleans 

Central  Christian  Advocate  (wkly) 23,000 

Informer  and  Sentinel  (wkly) 3,890 


LOUISIANA  (Cont.)  Circ. 

New  Orleans 

Louisiana  Weekly  (wkly) 12,678 

Sun  (wkly) 1,000 

Shreveport 

Sun  (wkly) 10,680 

Total  51,248 
MARYLAND 
Baltimore 

Afro-American   (wkly) 60,742 

(Tues.  local  issue) 31,511 

(Sat.  local  issue) 32,352 

Total  124,605 

MASSACHUSETTS 

Boston 

Chronicle  (wkly) 5,000 

Guardian  (wkly) 10,000 

Times  (wkly) 12,000 

Total     27,000 

MICHIGAN 

Detroit 

Michigan  Chronical  (wkly) 21,619 

Telegram  (wkly) 1,1*00 

Tribune  (wkly) 18,500 

Inkster 

Voice  (wkly) 1,600 

Total    42,719 

MINNESOTA 

Minneapolis 

Spokesman  (wkly) 4,318 

Twin  City  Observer  (wkly) 5,127 

St.  Paul 

Recorder  (wkly) 3,958 

Total     13,403 
MISSISSIPPI 
Greenville 

Delta  Leader  (Sun.) 3,000 

Jackson 

Advocate  (wkly) 5,500 

Mississippi  Enterprise  (wkly) 10,000 

Meridian 

Echo  (s-mo.) 7,500 

Mound  Bayou 

News-Digest  (s-mo.) 4,728 

New  Albany 

Community  Citizen  (s-mo.) 1,925 

Total     32,653 

MISSOURI 

Kansas  City 

Call  (wkly) 38,892 

St.  Louis 

American  (wkly) 18,374 

Argus  (wkly) 25,650 

News  (wkly) 3,000 

Total     85,916 

NEBRASKA 

Lincoln 

Voice  (wkly) 843 

Omaha 

Guide  (wkly) 15,965 

Star  (wkly) 25,575 

Total    42,383 
NEW  JERSEY 
Newark 

New  Jersey  Afro-American  (wkly) 14,609 


34 


THE  NEGRO  PRESS 


NEW  JERSEY  (Con/.)  Circ. 

Newark 

New  Jersey  Herald  News  (wkly) 28,371 

New  Jersey  Record  (wkly) — 

Patterson 

North  Jersey  Independent  (wkly) 26,498 

Total     69,478 

NEW  YORK 

Buffalo 

Criterion,  The  (wkly) 2,500 

Empire  Star  (wkly) 8,115 

New  York 

Age  (wkly) 32,750 

Amsterdam  News  (wkly) 59,849 

Westchester  County  Press  (wkly) 6,000 

Rochester 

Star  (wkly) 2,825 

Voice  (bi-wkly) 3,267 

Syracuse 

Progressive  Herald  (wkly) 5,500 

Total  120,806 
NORTH  CAROLINA 
Asheville 

Southern  News  (wkly) 2,700 

Charlotte 

Post  (wkly) 5,000 

Star  of  Zion  (wkly) 8,000 

Eagle 15,000 

Durham 

Carolina  Times  (wkly) 10,385 

Henderson 

Mountain  News  (wkly) 2,000 

Raleigh 

Carolinian,  The  (wkly) 1 5,000 

Wilmington 

Journal  (wkly) 10,000 

Total     68,085 

OHIO 

Cincinnati 

Independent  (wkly) 7,500 

Union  (wkly) 12,000 

Cleveland 

Call  and  Post  (wkly) v . . . .   23,530 

Guide  (wkly) — 

Herald  (wkly) ;     12,000 

Columbus 

Ohio  State  News  (wkly) 7,380 

Sentinel  (wkly) 6,232 

Dayton 

Ohio  Express  (dly) .' 7,500 

Citizen  (wkly) 5,000 

Hamilton 

Butler  County  American  (wkly) 1,600 

Youngstown 

Buckeye  Review,  The  (wkly) 2,100 

Toledo 

Script  (wkly) 25,000 

Total  109,842 

OKLAHOMA 

Muskogee 

Oklahoma  Independent  (wkly) 2,000 

Oklahoma  City 

Black  Dispatch  (wkly) 23,888 

Okmulgee 

Observer  (wkly) 1,800 

Tulsa 

Appeal  (wkly) 3,320 

Oklahoma  Eagle  (wkly) 5,000 

Total     36,008 


OREGON  Circ. 

Portland 

Northwest  Clarion  (wkly) . ; 15,000 

PENNSYLVANIA 

Philadelphia 

Afro-American  (wkly) 18,496 

Christian  Review  (wkly) 6,000 

Independent  (wkly) 24,213 

Tribune  (s-wkly) 20,916 

Pittsburgh 

Courier  (wkly) 268,447 

Triangle  Advocate  (wkly) 2,000 

Total  340,072 
RHODE  ISLAND 
Providence 

Chronicle  (wkly) 1,541 

SOUTH  CAROLINA 

Charleston 

New  Citizen  (wkly) 2,000 

Columbia 

Lighthouse  and  Informer  (wkly) 6,400 

Palmetto  Leader  (wkly) 4,680 

Greenville 

American  (wkly) 2,000 

Sumter 

Samaritan  Herald  and  Voice 1,000 

of  Job  (wkly) 


Total  16,080 


TENNESSEE 
Chattanooga 

Observer  (wkly) , 

Jackson 

Christian  Index,  The  (wkly) , 

Knoxville 

Flashlight  Herald  (wkly) 

Monitor  (wkly) 

Memphis 

World  (s-wkly)  (Tues.) 

(Fri.) 

Nashville 

Globe  and  Independent  (wkly) 

National  Baptist  Union  Review  (wkly) . 

Recorder  (wkly) •. 


4,000 
6,000 

6,500 
5,700 

16,000 
21,000 

26,000 

53,460 

8,000 


Total  146,660 


TEXAS 
Dallas 

Express  (wkly) 

Fort  Worth 

Defender  and  Baptist  Herald  (wkly)  .... 

Lake  Como  News  (wkly) 

Mind  (wkly) 

Houston 

Defender  (wkly) 

Houston  Informer  (wkly) 

Informer  and  Texas  Freeman,  The(wkly) 

Negro  Labor  News  (wkly) 

Marshall 

Traveler  (wkly) 

San  Antonio 

Register  (wkly) 

Waco 

Messenger  (wkly) 

Total    71,111 

VIRGINIA 
Charlottesville 

Tribune  (wkly) 3,000 

Norfolk 

Journal  and  Guide  (wkly) 63,428 


8,728 

3,860 
2,000 
2,000 

3,361 

7,803 

26,109 

2,000 

1,500 
9,750 
4,000 


NATIONAL  NEWSPAPER  PUBLISHERS 


35 


VIRGINIA  (Cont.) 
Richmond 

Afro-American  (wkly) 
Roanoke 

Tribune  (wkly) 


Circ. 

11,303 

15,000 


Circ. 


Total 


WASHINGTON 
Seattle 

Northwest  Enterprise  (wkly) 

WEST  VIRGINIA 
Bluefield 

Independent  Observer  (wkly) 

WISCONSIN 
Milwaukee 

Globe  (wkly) 

Wisconsin  Enterprise-Blade  (wkly) 


92,731 
10,500 

2,400 


975 
55,000 


Total     55,975 


Circulation  of  Magazines 1 


NEW  YORK 
New  York 

Crisis  (mo.) 40,000 

Interracial  Review  (mo.) 10,000 

Journal  of  the  National  Medical  Associa- 
tion (bi-mo.) 4,032 

Our  World  (mo.) 166,031 

Voice  of  Missions  (mo.) 2,300 

NORTH  CAROLINA 
Charlotte 

Quarterly  Review  of  Higher  Education 

Among  Negroes  (quar.) 2,000 

PENNSYLVANIA 
Philadelphia 

Bronze  Woman  (mo.) 5,700 

Kappa  Alpha  Psi  Journal  (mo.) 4,000 

TENNESSEE 
Memphis 

Sphinx  Magazine  (quar.) 14,000 

Whole  Truth,  The  (mo.) 2,000 

Nashville 

American  Negro  Mind  (mo.) 3,000 

Broadcaster,  The  (quar.) 2,791 

Message  Magazine  (mo.) 5,000 

ALABAMA  Circ.  Modern  Farmer,  The  (mo.) 32,^00 

Tuskegee  National  Baptist  Voice  (bi-mo.) 5,000 

Service  (mo.) 5,000  Review,  The  (quar.) 3,000 

CALIFORNIA  West'n  Christian  Recorder  (s-mo.) 2,000 

Berkeley  Union  City 

Ivy  Leaf  (quar.) 5,000  Cumberland  Flag,  The  (mo.) 500 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA  IEX,A,S    . 

Washington  Port  Worth 

Journal  of  Negro  Education,  (quar.)....     4,500  World's  Messenger  (mo.)    6,000 

Journal  of  Negro  History  (quar.) 1 ,450  NeSro  Aclnevements  (mo.) 4,000 

Negro  History  Bulletin  (mo.) 9,000       VIRGINIA 

Pulse  (mo.) 25,000       Manassas 

i^urMsr-TA  Bulletin   of  the   National   Dental  Assn. 

GEORGIA  (quar.)...  1,650 

Atlanta  D.  K         j 

Colored  Morticians  Bulletin,  The  (mo.)  1,500       ^^ke  Fraternal  Bulletin  (mo.) ....     1,400 

Foundation,  The  (quar.) 1,000 

Georgia  Baptist,  The  (s-mo.) 2,500       WEST  VIRGINIA 

Macon  Charleston 

Sunday  School  Worker  (bi-mo.).  ..?...  Color  (mo.) 100,483 

ILLINOIS 

ChECbogn°y(mo.) 379,000         NATIONAL  NEWSPAPER 

Negro  Digest  (mo.) 100,000          PUBLISHERS    ASSOCIATION 

Negro  Traveler 72,000 

Tan  Confessions 200,000        _,       ,.T  ,.,  r»   ui •  u  A  „„ 

peoria  The  Negro  Newspaper  Publishers  Asso- 

Bronze  Citizen  (mo.) 1,000  ciation,  which  recently  substituted  "Na- 

KENTUCKY  tional"  for  "Negro"  in  its  name,  ended  its 

LOKenmcky  Negro  Education  Assn.  Journal  eleventh  year  of  existence  in  1951  with 

(bi-mo.) ,1,400  the  announcement  of  a  venture  designed 

MARYLAND  to  raise  the  income  of  individual  member 

BaC±ed  Harvest,  The  (mo.) 46,000        PaP6rS    and    tO    &VG    the    organization    a 

MICHIGAN  greater  unity.  The  venture,  to  be  headed 

Detroit  by  Dowdal  H.  Davis,  general  manager  of 

Postal  Alliance,  The  (mo.) 10,000      the  Kansas  City  Call  and  former  NNPA 

MISSISSIPPI  president,  is   a  national   survey  of  con- 
Bay  St.  Louis  ,                  •       i       ^1  r  i  -ii- 
St.  Augustine's  Messenger  (mo.) 9,400      sumer  preferences  in  the  $15-billion  an- 

Mound  Bayou  nual   Negro   market.  •  Surveys  of  Negro- 

Taborian  Star  (mo.) 6,000                              ,          ,           t 

Yazoo  City  consumer   brand    preferences   were   con- 
Central  Voice,  The  (mo.) 2,500      ducted  earlier  by  individual  publications 


1  Circulation    figures    have    been    derived    in    the    main    from    N.    W.    Ayer    &    Son's    Directory    Newspapers    and 
Periodicals  (1950). 


36 


THE  NEGRO  PRESS 


— the  Pittsburgh  Courier,  Afro-American, 
Louisville  Defender,  Ebony  magazine — 
and  by  one  newspaper  representatives 
agency,  the  Interstate  United  News- 
papers, Inc.  Results  of  the  findings  have 
been  printed  for  distribution  mainly  to 
potential  advertisers.  The  Davis  survey 
marks  the  first  such  inquiry  by  an  organi- 
zation of  Negro  publishers. 

At  the  beginning  of  1947,  the  NNPA 
organized  within  itself  three  societies  de- 
voted to  editorial,  advertising,  and  circu- 
lation interests.  Every  year  these  societies 
meet  concurrently  with  the  parent  or- 
ganization. 

In  an  effort  to  strengthen  the  news 
service  for  Negro  newspapers  and  to  meet 
objections  to  the  costs  of  its  existing 
service,  the  NNPA,  in  its  eighth  annual 
session  in  Detroit  in  June  1947,  voted 
transference  of  its  news-service  opera- 
tions to  a  group  of  its  members  to  be 
incorporated.  P.  Bernard  Young,  Jr., 
editor-in-chief,  Journal  and  Guide,  served 
as  the  first  chairman  of  the  new  agency, 
which  kept  the  initials  NNPA,  signifying 
National  Negro  Press  Association.  News- 
papers subscribing  the  necessary  capital 
stock  were:  The  Call,  Journal  and  Guide, 
Kansas  City  Plaindealer,  Ohio  State 
News,  Afro-American,  Louisville  De- 
fender, Atlanta  Daily  World,  Cleveland 
Call  and  Post,  Houston  Informer.  Chicago 
Defender,  and  Detroit  Tribune. 

Thomas  W.  Young,  business  manager 
for  the  Journal  and  Guider  succeeded 
Frank  L.  Stanley,  editor-publisher  of  the 
Louisville  Defender,  as  president  of  the 
publishers'  organization.  Young,  a  jour- 
nalism and  law  graduate  of  Ohio  State 
University,  was  the  first  professionally 
trained  member  to  serve  as  the  leader  of 
NNPA.  Convention  resolutions  deplored 
the  end  of  National  Housing  Expediter's 
race-relations  service,  approved  the  pro- 
gram of  the  American  Heritage  Founda- 
tion, encouraged  Negro  business,  urged 
the  Senate  Sub-Committee  on  Appropria- 
tions to  restore  cuts  in  the  Farmers  Home 
Administration  Funds  for  1948,  supported 
the  Taft-Hartley  labor  legislation,  and 
pledged  unrelenting  vigilance  in  the 


Negro's  effort  to  gain  first-class  citizen- 
ship. Nnamdi  Azikiwe,  West  African 
newspaper  publisher,  who  addressed  the 
convention,  was  made  an  honorary  mem- 
ber. 

After  the  NNPA  news  service  had  been 
in  operation  for  a  period  of  25  weeks, 
servicing  20  newspapers  with  a  combined 
circulation  of  more  than  1,000,000  copies 
weekly,  the  new  incorporated  set-up  was 
announced  a  definite  success.  There  were 
prospects  that  foreign  publications  would 
soon  subscribe  to  the  service.  Louis 
Lautier  headed  the  news  staff  of  six 
workers. 

At  its  eleventh  annual  convention  in 
1950  in  Houston,  Texas,  the  publishers 
group,  which  now  consisted  of  48  papers, 
or  approximately  80%  of  Negro  news- 
paper circulation,  created  four  new  re- 
gional directors  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
moting closer  relations  among  the  news- 
papers in  each  division.  Dowdal  H.  Davis, 
general  manager,  Kansas  City  Call,  was 
re-elected  to  his  second  term  as  president. 

The  1951  NNPA  meeting  at  New  York 
City  witnessed  the  shift  in  name  from 
Negro  Newspaper  Publishers  Association 
to  National  Newspaper  Publishers  Asso- 
ciation. Declared  the  Louisville  Defender 
editorially.  June  30:  "The  change  in  the 
name  of  the  NNPA  will  enable  the  more 
democratic  thinking  publishers  to  elimi- 
nate some  of  the  glaring  inconsistencies 
in  their  papers  and  will  permit  them  to 
go  ahead  with  the  fight  for  full  integra- 
tion and  the  full  participation  of  Negroes 
in  the  American  way  of  life." 

Retiring  president  Dowdal  Davis  said 
at  the  opening  luncheon  session:  "There 
will  be  a  Negro  market  just  as  long 
as  the  word  'restricted'  appears  or  is 
implied  in  advertising  and  various  con- 
tracts [and]  just  as  long  as  there  is  an 
insensitivity  on  the  part  of  the  majority 
in  its  appraisal  of  the  minorities."  He 
said  that  there  is  a  Negro  press  because 
of  these  things,  and  because  mass  media 
do  not  adequately  picture  the  "depriva- 
tion of  civil  rights,  discrimination  in  em- 
ployment, exposure  to  personal  indignity, 
housing  problems  or  class  legislation." 


NEGRO  PRESS  AND  NEGRO  MARKET 


37 


David  Wasko,  of  Donahue  and  Com- 
pany, president  of  the  Media  Men's  Asso- 
ciation, offered  "constructive  criticism" 
which  might  get  the  publishers  more  na- 
tional advertising.  He  mentioned  some  of 
the  shortcomings  of  the  Negro  papers: 
insufficient  information  about  the  market ; 
failure  of  the  advertising  to  appear  in  the 
paper  after  the  copy  and  order  have  been 
sent;  delay  in  billing  and  sending  proofs 
of  publication,  and  inattention  to  corre- 
spondence. The  1951  convention  elected 
Louis  Martin,  Michigan  Chronicle  pub- 
lisher, its  new  president. 

Dateline,  the  first  official  publication  of 
NNPA,  made  its  bow  as  a  quarterly  in 
January  1949  under  the  direction  of 
Ernest  E.  Johnson,  New  York  City  public- 
relations  representative  for  NNPA.  It 
appeared  in  four  pages  of  S^'xll"  stock 
with  three  columns  to  a  page.  This  pub- 
lication was  succeeded  in  February  1951 
by  the  NNPA  Bulletin,  a  16-  to  24-page 
pocket-size  bi-monthly  magazine  pre- 
pared and  printed  at  Lincoln  University 
of  Missouri  under  the  guidance  of  its 
School  of  Journalism. 

National  Negro  Newspaper  Week, 
sponsored  by  NNPA  annually  since  1939, 
shifted  its  date  in  1951  from  the  last  week 
in  February  to  the  middle  of  March,  to 
fall  during  the  week  of  the  anniversary 
of  the  birth  of  the  first  Negro  newspaper, 
Freedom's  Journal,  which  is  March  16. 

During  the  winter  meeting  of  NNPA 
in  Chicago  in  January  1950,  the  delegates 
passed  a  resolution  asking  for  an  investi- 
gation by  the  Department  of  Justice  of 
the  threats  to  freedom  of  the  press  in- 
volved in  the  indictments  of  two  South 
Carolina  newspapermen  for  "criminal 
libel"  in  reporting  a  statement  of  a  Negro 
denying  an  attack  on  a  white  girl.  John 
H.  McCray,  editor,  Lighthouse  and  In- 
former, Columbia,  and  Darling  Booth,  AP 
writer,  were  indicted  because  they  re- 
ported the  denial-of-attack  statement  of 
Willie  Colbert,  who  has  since  been  elec- 
trocuted for  the  alleged  crime.  In  their 
complaint  the  publishers  said  that  prose- 
cution of  the  newsmen,  under  South  Caro- 
lina law,  was  a  violation  of  their  civil 


rights.  A  four-man  committee  was  named 
to  represent  the  Association  before  the 
Department  of  Justice:  John  H.  Seng- 
stacke,  publisher,  Chicago  Defender;  C. 
A.  Scott,  publisher,  Atlanta  Daily  World; 
Thomas  W.  Young,  business  manager, 
Journal  and  Guide,  and  D.  Arnett 
Murphy,  vice-president,  Afro-American 
newspapers.  NNPA  offered  McCray  finan- 
cial and  legal  assistance  for  his  court 
appearance. 

Late  in  June  1950,  at  his  trial,  McCray 
pleaded  guilty  and  was  fined  $5,000  with 
a  suspended  one-year  jail  term  and  a 
three-year  probation  by  Circuit  Judge 
Steve  C.  Griffin.  The  sentence  required 
that  the  editor  publish  both  his  plea  and 
sentence  in  his  paper  within  a  reasonable 
length  of  time. 

Early  in  May  1949,  Thomas  W.  Young, 
business  manager,  Journal  and  Guide, 
NNPA  president,  and  Dowdal  H.  Davis, 
general  manager,  Kansas  City  Call, 
NNPA  vice-president,  on  invitation,  ap- 
peared at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
American  Newspaper  Publishers  Associa- 
tion in  New  York  City.  In  his  address 
before  the  assemblage,  Young  said  that 
the  chief  aims  of  the  Negro  press  are  to 
maintain  a  united  front  "to  protest  and 
expose  every  condition  inconsistent  with 
the  democratic  concepts  we  all  treasure" 
and  to  give  coverage  to  that  news  of  the 
Negro  population  which  is  ignored  or 
distorted  by  the  white  papers.  He  stated 
that  the  Negro  press  serves  to  inspire  the 
race  to  greater  accomplishment  by  pub- 
lishing news  of  outstanding  achievements 
of  Negroes  in  all  fields  and  ranks  of  life 
and  strives  for  greater  cooperation  and 
unity  between  white  and  Negro  news- 
papers and  between  the  ANPA  and 
NNPA. 

NEGRO  PRESS  MEDIA  TO 
NEGRO  MARKET 

"The  Negro  Market:  15,000,000  strong, 
its  people  have  an  aggregate  income  of 
$14  billion— and  the  will  to  buy."  These 
lines,  below  a  group  picture  of  Chicago 
Negroes,  appeared  on  the  cover  of  the 


38 


THE  NEGRO  PRESS 


July  29,  1951,  issue  of  Tide  magazine, 
which  gave  over  13  pages  to  a  discussion 
— plus  media  ads — of  the  Negro  market. 
"Always  under-estimated,"  declared  the 
headline,  "it  is  rich,  ripe  and  ready 
today."  The  piece  opened  and  closed  on 
a  hot  current  issue:  the  "Amos  'n'  Andy" 
TV  show,  which  has  raised  the  displeas- 
ure of  the  NAACP  but  which  Blatz  Beer, 
sponsor,  defends.  Tide  told  about  the 
Negro  population,  the  Negro's  recent  mi- 
gratory record,  his  flare  for  learning,  and 
his  employment. 

The  brand-name  advertisers  have 
learned  of  this  lucrative  Negro  market, 
said  Tide,  and  have  angled  "ad"  copy  to 
Negro  newspapers  and  magazines.  These 
include  Lever  Brothers  Company,  Quaker 
Oats  Company,  Radio  Corporation  of 
America,  Best  Foods,  Inc.,  Carnation 
Company,  H.  J.  Heinz  Company,  Stand- 
ard Brands,  Inc.,  Pillsbury  Mills,  Armour 
and  Company,  Pet  Milk,  Rinso,  La  Palina 
cigars,  Jelke  Margarine,  Beech  Nut  gum, 
Hadacol,  Unicorn  Press,  Phillips  Soups, 
Park  &  Tilford,  Lucky  Strike  cigarettes, 
Lifebuoy,  El  Producto,  Pal  Blades,  Sin- 
clair Oil,  Coca-Cola,  Remington  Rand, 
Elgin  watches,  Zenith  radio,  Hunt's 
Foods,  to  mention  only  a  few. 

This  memo  from  Elinor  Zeigler,  Tide 
editor,  accompanied  the  report: 

I  think  a  major  point  of  the  story  could 
well  be  the  striking  change  that  has  taken 
place  in  advertisers'  and  agencies'  attitudes 
toward  Negro  media  since  our  last  story 
(March  15,  1947).  People  then  tended  to 
talk  as  though  we  were  researching  a  pretty 
obscure  topic  about  which  they  knew  little, 
and  they  seemed  to  have  only  a  rather  dutiful, 
somewhat  grudging,  interest. 

Now  that  is  sharply  changed,  not  in  all,  but 
in  an  impressive  number  of  cases.  Important 
executives  this  time  showed  great  interest, 
asked  me  what  we  had  found  out  about  the 
market,  went  far  out  of  their  way  to  stress 
their  personal  appreciation  of  the  importance 
of  the  subject  and — in  more  cases  than  I  can 
ever  remember — they  took  pains  to  compli- 
ment the  media  on  the  progress  they  had 
made. . . .  They  seem  to  feel  that  the  buyers 
and  sellers  are  learning  to  deal  with  each 
other  without  prejudice — and  that  the  sooner 
everybody  on  both  sides  achieves  a  fair,  ob- 
jective viewpoint,  the  sooner  an  important, 
neglected  potential  in  advertising  can  be 
developed. 


In  an  article  in  a  January  1950  issue  of 
Advertising  Age,  Marrine  Christopher 
stated  that  "expenditures  by  national  ad- 
vertisers in  Negro  media  may  reach 
$2,500,000,  a  gain  of  a  half-million  dol- 
lars. .  . ."  "No  matter  what  their  economic 
status,"  he  wrote,  "Negroes  have  made 
it  a  part  of  their  behavior  pattern  always 
to  buy  the  best  and  most  expensive  items 
they  can  afford." 

Working  for  more  than  ten  years  for 
the  various  Negro  newspapers  in  an  effort 
to  promote  the  Negro  market  in  the  eyes 
of  national  advertisers  have  been  two 
publishers'  representatives  groups,  both 
headquartered  in  New  York  City — Inter- 
state United  Newspapers,  Inc.,  William 
G.  Black,  sales  manager,  and  the  Associ- 
ated Publishers,  Inc.,  Joseph  B.  LaCour, 
general  manager.  Both  organizations  have 
been  active  in  collecting  details  about 
their  special  market,  publishing  and  dis- 
playing their  findings,  and  making  con- 
tact with  potential  space-buyer  agencies 
for  block  newspaper  accounts.  Interstate 
services  more  than  100  papers  while  API 
limits  itself  to  27  publications,  most  of 
which  are  members  of  the  Audit  Bureau 
of  Circulations  and  total  more  than  a 
million  in  combined  circulation. 

During  the  two-day  meeting  of  the 
American  Marketing  Association  at  the 
Hotel  Waldorf-Astoria  in  New  York  City 
in  December  1949,  API  set  up  an  exhibit 
designed  to  explain  to  the  country's  lead- 
ing manufacturers  the  11 -figure  buying 
power  of  the  Negro  people.  The  exhibit 
set  forth  data  on  the  Negro  population, 
their  living  places,  their  earnings,  and 
their  buying  preferences. 

The  API  message  was  prepared  by 
Harry  Evans,  API  sales  manager,  and 
Major  Homer  Roberts,  director  of  the 
firm's  Chicago  office.  It  was  built  around 
a  large  portrait  of  an  attractive  colored 
girl  on  horseback  with  horse  and  rider 
leaping  over  a  hurdle  in  perfect  coordina- 
tion. The  picture  was  an  actual  news  shot 
which  had  been  published  in  colored 
newspapers.  A  caption  labeled  "Concen- 
tration" emphasized  that  concentration  of 
the  colored  press  on  its  compact  market 


PRESS  CLUBS 


39 


offered  advertisers  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity to  overcome  sales  hurdles  in  their 
business  operations.  An  electronic  tape 
recorder,  featuring  the  voices  of  Evans 
and  one  of  his  sales  assistants,  told  the 
story  of  the  lucrative  colored  market. 

Potentialities  of  the  market  covered  by 
the  col&red  press  and  pointed  up  by  the 
tape  recorder  for  the  information  and 
education  of  AMA  representatives  were: 
1)  that  it  reaches  more  than  14  million 
people  whose  annual  income  increased 
greatly  over  the  past  20  years,  2)  that 
the  income  was  estimated  at  billions  of 
dollars,  3)  that  each  week  68%  of  urban 
colored  families  read  Negro  newspapers, 
which  alone  print  an  authentic  review  of 
the  important  events  in  their  daily  lives. 
The  API's  message  to  the  AMA  said 
further:  "Reaching  the  colored  market 
requires  no  foreign  language  and  no  spe- 
cial packaging  or  labelling.  Concentra- 
tion on  the  areas  where  colored  people 
live  and  spend  their  money — through 
media  which  reach  them  best,  and  exert 
the  greatest  influence  on  their  spending — 
is  the  most  simple  way  to  reach  such  a 
market." 

Perhaps  the  most  enterprising  publica- 
tion in  the  Negro  group  in  the  way  of 
increasing  advertising  volume  is  Ebony 
magazine,  an  ABC-audited  monthly  which 
regularly  tests  its  national  market,  pub- 
lishes the  results,  and  visibly  profits  by 
the  effort.  During  the  past  two  years  its 
page  size  and  advertising  volume  have 
doubled.  In  December  1950,  the  maga- 
zine's publisher  announced  that  the 
monthly  average  of  353,095  buyers  had 
been  surveyed  early  in  1950  by  a  market 
research  organization,  Daniel  Starch  and 
Staff.  Here  are  some  of  the  findings :  Four 
out  of  every  ten  Ebony  buyers  own  cars; 
one  out  of  five  has  a  television  set;  three 
out  of  ten  own  their  own  homes ;  nine  out 
of  ten  carry  life  insurance;  one  out  of 
five  has  a  piano;  four  out  of  ten  go  to 
movies  weekly;  and  more  than  one  out 
of  every  four  has  gone  to  college.  Data 
like  this,  made  by  an  impartial  researcher, 
has  acquainted  advertisers  with  the  Ne- 
gro's buying  power. 


PRESS  CLUBS 

Organization  of  Negro  journalists  on  a 
national  scale  has  been  the  case  for  many 
years,  but  the  coming-together  of  these 
journalists  on  a  local  scale  is  a  matter 
of  somewhat  recent  development.  Unfor- 
tunately, general  associations  of  a  na- 
tional and  local  variety  are  not  open  to 
Negro  membership,  and  colored  newsmen 
have  had  to  cultivate  their  own  profes- 
sional group  activity.  A  recent  case  in 
point  is  that  of  the  St.  Louis  Advertising 
Club,  which  voted  157  to  135  in  Septem- 
ber 1950  to  keep  its  constitutional  pro- 
vision that  "any  male  white  person  of 
good  moral  character,  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  20  or  more  years  of  age, 
interested  in  advertising,  shall  be  eligible 
to  membership."  The  American  News- 
paper Guild,  alone  among  national  or- 
ganizations, has  accorded  the  Negro  full- 
fledged  membership. 

Among  the  oldest  of  the  existing  Negro 
organizations  is  the  Capital  Press  Club  at 
Washington,  D.C.,  a  body  founded  by 
Alfred  E.  Smith  nine  years  ago.  This 
group  meets  at  luncheon  once  a  week, 
usually  with  a  prominent  personage  as 
guest  speaker,  and  observes  its  anni- 
versary regularly  with  a  week-end  of 
discussions  and  entertainment. 

In  1948,  the  New  York  Press  Club  was 
organized  "to  raise  professional  stand- 
ards through  the  promotion  of  lectures, 
seminars,  conferences  and  research  pro- 
jects." In  June  1951,  the  New  York 
organization  conducted  an  all-day  news- 
paper workshop  with  panel  discussions 
on  such  subjects  as  "The  Role  of  the 
Community  and  Class  Newspaper"  and 
"The  Responsibility  of  the  Newspaper  or 
Magazine  to  the  Advertiser  and  the  Com- 
munity." 

A  similar  activity,  carried  on  not  by  a 
press  club  but  by  a  college,  was  the  first 
annual  Seminar  in  Journalism  for  Florida 
newspapermen  held  at  the  Florida  A.  & 
M.  College  at  Tallahassee,  July  18-19, 
1947.  M.  R.  Kyler,  director  of  public 
relations  at  the  college,  stated  that  the 
purpose  of  the  seminar  was  to  bring 


40 


THE  NEGRO  PRESS 


members  of  the  working  press  together 
to  discuss  problems  facing  newspapers 
and  to  work  out  plans  for  an  annual 
seminar  that  would  serve  to  raise  the 
standards  of  journalism.  One  talk,  by 
Joseph  V.  Baker,  Philadelphia  publicist, 
dealt  with  the  subject;  "Can  the  Negro 
Press  be  an  Instrument  of  Public  Service 
and  at  the  Same  Time  Operate  as  a 
Business?"  "Editorial  and  Advertising 
Problems  Facing  Negro  Weeklies"  was 
the  subject  for  a  panel  discussion.  An 
outgrowth  of  the  1947  meeting  was  the 
formation  of  the  Florida  Newspaper  Insti- 
tute to  sponsor  future  workshops  at  the 
college.  Officers  of  the  Institute  were: 
Daniel  A.  Francis,  Miami  Tropical  Dis- 
patch, president;  Leroy  Washington, 
Jacksonville  Progressive  News,  vice- 
president;  Garth  Reeves,  Miami  Times, 
treasurer;  Calvin  E.  Adams,  chairman  of 
the  executive  committee. 

North  Carolina  College  at  Durham  de- 
signed a  1951  summer  Press  Institute  for 
the  discussion  of  newspaper  problems  on 
both  the  school  and  professional  level. 

In  July  1950,  the  Los  Angeles  Press 
Club  came  into  being,  and  a  year  later 
one  was  organized  in  St.  Louis  called  the 
Mound  City  Press  Club.  The  Durham 
Press  Club,  started  four  years  ago  for 
newspapermen  from  the  state  of  North 
Carolina,  gave  "Page  One  Awards"  to 
outstanding  Negroes  at  its  third  annual 
program  in  1950.  Other  clubs  have  been 
formed  in  Detroit,  Chicago,  and  New 
Orleans. 

RACE  TAGS  AND 

THE  NEWS 

Since  1947,  the  nation  has  witnessed  a 
remarkable  loosening  of  the  strings  that 
have  kept  tight  the  discriminatory  prac- 
tices among  general  newspapers  and 
magazines. 

Early  in  1947,  the  Times-Dispatch  and 
the  News-Leader,  dailies  at  Richmond, 
Va.,  abandoned  the  practice  of  identifying 
Negroes  by  race  and  directed  their  staffs 
to  use  race  names  only  when  they  are 
integral  parts  of  a  story  and  necessary 


for  news  purposes.  A  number  of  papers 
followed  this  practice.  The  Washington 
Evening  Star  modified  the  practice  to  the 
extent  that  if  the  person  written  about  is 
colored,  he  is  designated  "Negro"  in  the 
lead  if  the  news  is  good  and  in  the  last 
paragraph  if  the  news  is  bad.  In  the  late 
winter  of  1951,  Maxwell  Droke,  editor  of 
Quote,  a  bi-weekly  publication  devoted  to 
quotations  and  brief  humorous  stories, 
stated  in  his  reply  to  the  complaint  of  a 
reader  that  his  publication  would  no 
longer  use  the  term  "darky." 

To  show  the  absurdity  of  unnecessary 
racial  identification  in  news  stories,  the 
People's  Daily  World,  left-wing  labor 
paper  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  designated 
the  race  of  all  persons  mentioned  in  news 
stories  in  its  Aug.  1,  1947  issue,  and  came 
up  with  such  headlines  as  these:  "Cau- 
casian Confesses  Killing  His  Bride," 
"Police  Hold  Caucasian  Sailor."  In  a 
front-page  editorial,  the  World  stated: 
"We  offer  this  one-day  experiment,  for 
whatever  it  is  worth,  as  a  contribution  to 
eliminate  national  prejudices  and  oppres- 
sion in  minority  groups,  and  to  the  dis- 
couragement of  such  newspaper  practices 
as  reinforce  bigotry  and  inflame  preju- 
dice." 

During  the  Nov.  11,  1949,  meeting  in 
Chicago  of  the  Associated  Press  Manag- 
ing Editors  Association,  with  250  dele- 
gates in  attendance,  Ben  Reese,  editor  of 
the  St.  Louis  Post-Dispatch,  inquired 
what  the  AP  policy  was  in  the  designation 
of  Negroes  in  the  news.  Alan  Gould,  AP 
management  official,  explained  that  the 
identification  of  "Negro"  is  used  if  it  is 
pertinent  to  the  news.  He  explained  that 
it  would  slow  up  the  news  process  if  it 
were  a  fixed  rule  that  the  identification  be 
included  in  all  stories.  He  stated  that  the 
AP  intended  to  continue  to  handle  such 
identification  "on  the  basis  of  common 
sense." 

Meanwhile,  in  Alabama,  the  Mobile 
Press-Register*  refused  to  honor  a  request 
of  local  Negroes  to  print  the  title  "Mrs." 
or  "Miss"  before  the  names  of  Negro 
women  in  its  stories  and  paid  obituary  no- 
tices. The  group  sought  also  to  have  the 


RACE  TAGS  AND  THE  NEWS 


41 


newspaper  modify  its  policy  in  reporting 
news  about  Negroes. 

Early  in  1949,  a  Baltimore  journalist, 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  T.  Meijer,  wrote  The 
Ladies  Home  Journal  to  ascertain  why 
that  widely  circulated  publication  per- 
sisted in  using  a  small  'n'  for  Negro.  A 
reply  from  the  Journal  "editors"  stated: 
"When  this  procedure  became  Journal 
policy,  we  checked  with  a  number  of 
prominent  Negro  leaders.  There  was  dis- 
agreement among  them,  but  the  majority 
preferred  the  small  'n',  for  they  felt  that 
the  capital  drew  immediate  attention  to 
the  color."  These  "prominent  leaders" 
were  never  identified. 

In  an  article,  "Should  Race  Tags  Be 
Dropped  in  the  United  States  Press,"  in 
the  June  1949  Negro  Digest,  Roland  E. 
Wolseley,  professor  of  journalism  at  Syra- 
cuse University,  took  exception  to  the  de- 
cision announced  Jan.  15  by  the  editors 
of  The  Saturday  Review  of  Literature  to 
drop  the  mention  of  race  altogether  from 
its  pages.  Wrote  Wolseley:  "If  the  Satur- 
day Review  is  going  to  forego  mention  of 
race,  by  the  same  reasoning  it  should 
forget  the  fact  that  Evelyn  Waugh  and 
Vera  Britain  are  British  authors,  that 
Andre  Gide  and  Jean  Paul  Sartre  are 
French  writers,  and  that  Ernest  Heming- 
way and  William  Faulkner  are  American 
novelists."  He  suggested:  "Mention  race 
wherever  it  is  pertinent.  It  is  not  impor- 
tant to  note  that  a  street  car  conductor 
who  was  injured  in  an  accident  is  a 
Negro.  It  is  important  to  note  it  if  the 
conductor  saved  a  passenger's  life  in  the 
accident.  It  is  not  important  to  note  it 
if  the  conductor's  wife  bore  a  child  under 
ordinary  conditions  or  if  the  conductor 
dies  of  old  age.  It  is  important  to  note  it 
if  the  conductor  stole  the  company's 
money  or  if  he  becomes  a  policeman  and 
is  the  first  Negro  on  the  force." 

In  his  reporting  text,  The  Modern  Re- 
porter's Handbook,  John  Paul  Jones  re- 
viewed the  arguments  against  race  iden- 
tification and  offered  a  set  of  guides  for 
the  novice. 

Early  in  June  1950,  the  Mississippi 
Press  Association  in  its  eighty-fourth  an- 


nual session  discussed  the  matter  of  racial 
news  at  a  general  session  and  heard  a 
panel  discussion  of  it  by  Ira  Harkey, 
Pascagoula  Chronicle-Star,  and  James 
D.  Arrington,  Collins  News-Commercial. 
Harkey  reported  that  his  paper  had 
abandoned  the  South-wide  policy  of  iden- 
tifying by  race  the  subjects  in  news  stor- 
ies. Arrington  disagreed  slightly  with 
Harkey's  program.  He  believed  that  "we 
are  trying  to  raise  the  ideals  of  the  Negro 
but  that  identification  is  necessary  in  a 
news  story.  It  has  new  values,"  he  said. 
"The  Negro  likes  to  know  if  another 
Negro  has  done  something  be  it  good  or 
bad.  But  don't  play  up  the  story  only  if 
the  subject  is  in  trouble.  If  he  accom- 
plished something,  that's  news,  too."  . 

In  his  opening  message  to  the  general 
session,  J.  Oliver  Emmerich,  McComb 
Enterprise-Journal,  urged  the  newsmen  to 
"work  to  recognize  the  Negro  and  his 
achievements.  It  will  do  much  toward 
working  out  our  race  relations  problems." 

A  critical  examination  of  a  northern 
newspaper's  racial  practices  mid-way  in 
1950  produced  "John  Smith,  Negro,"  an 
eight-page  study  of  the  use  of  the  term 
"Negro"  in  the  Chicago  Tribune.  The 
Race  Relations  Committee  of  the  City 
Club  of  Chicago  engineered  the  study, 
which  extended  over  a  period  of  seven 
months.  The  pamphlet  stated  that  all 
other  dailies  in  Chicago  had  abandoned 
the  policy  of  race-labelling  in  the  news. 

The  publication  defined  "race  label- 
ling" as  the  persistent  repetition  of  a 
racial  designation,  particularly  in  the 
"John  Smith,  Negro"  form,  when  it  has 
no  indicated  relevancy.  The  Tribune's 
practice  is  illustrated  in  clippings  from 
a  test  period  in  January  1950.  The  pam- 
phlet listed  four  objections  to  the  Trib- 
une practice:  1)  "in  a  paper  that  em- 
phasizes crimes  of  violence  as  the  Tribune 
does  there  are  inevitably  many  news 
stories  connecting  Negroes  with  such 
crimes.  The  inference  is  drawn  by  read- 
ers that  Negroes  have  an  inherent  bio- 
logical tendency  toward  crime";  2)  "like 
third  degree,  race  labelling  is  selectively 
used  against  the  poor  and  the  friendless" ; 


42 


THE  NEGRO  PRESS 


3)  ".  .  .  even  the  items  which  are  not  as- 
sociated with  crime  tend  to  set  Negroes 
apart  as  second-class  citizens";  and  4) 
".  .  .  selection  of  the  Negro  group  for  this 
treatment  is  arbitrary."  The  report  urged 
public  protest  of  the  Tribune  policy. 

When  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
in  April  1951  reversed  the  conviction  of 
two  Negroes  sentenced  to  death  for  rap- 
ing a  17-year-old  Groveland,  Fla.  house- 
wife, Justice  Robert  Jackson  wrote  in  his 
concurring  opinion :  "even  if  Negroes  had 
not  been  excluded,  a  fair  trial  would 
have  been  impossible  because  of  the  in- 
flammatory newspaper  stories.  'The  trial 
was  but  a  legal  gesture  to  register  a  ver- 
dict already  dictated  by  the  press.'  While 
the  defendants  were  awaiting  trial,  one 
local  newspaper  published  a  cartoon  pic- 
turing vacant  electric  chairs,  captioned: 
'No  compromise — Supreme  Penalty.'  " 

Early  in  June  1951,  the  Illinois  Appel- 
late Court  rendered  a  decision  unusual 
in  a  race-labelling  case.  It  held  that  the 
identification  of  a  white  person  as  a 
Negro  is  not  libelous.  The  Court,  concur- 
ring with  an  earlier  Supreme  Court  rul- 
ing, dismissed  a  million-dollar  libel  suit 
against  the  Chicago  Tribune.  Isaiah 
Mitchell  III,  of  Chicago,  alleged  the 
Tribune  degraded  him  by  calling  him  a 
Negro  in  a  news  story  when  he  is  not  a 
Negro.  The  court  said  Mitchell  failed  "to 
state  a  cause  of  action  in  libel.  The  refer- 
ence to  plaintiff  was  not  libelous  per  se 
.  .  .  and  the  complaint  otherwise  is  insuffi- 
cient to  make  the  alleged  article  libelous 
where  no  special  damages  are  properly 
alleged."  The  case  was  the  first  of  its  kind 
submitted  in  the  northern  states,  J.  B. 
Marthineau,  Tribune  lawyer,  said.  Mar- 
thineau  declared  southern  courts  have 
held  such  misidentification  libelous. 

NEGROES  EMPLOYED  BY 
GENERAL  PUBLICATIONS 

Cities  and  communities  that  had  not  be- 
fore— or  at  least  not  in  the  recent  past — 
hired  Negro  newsmen  began  doing  so 
during  the  past  five  years.  Most  of  the 


individuals  chosen  to  join  all-white  staffs 
were  university-trained  journalists,  often 
equipped  with  advanced  degrees. 

More  than  a  dozen  Negroes  were  serv- 
ing full-time  on  general  publications 
when  this  period  opened.  They  were: 
Theodore  R.  Poston,  reporter,  New  York 
Evening  Post;  Larry  Douglas,  feature 
writer,  Long  Island  Daily  Press;  E. 
Simms  Campbell,  cartoonist,  Esquire 
magazine;  Wendell  Smith,  sports  re- 
porter, Chicago  Her  aid- American;  Wil- 
liam Hunter  Maxwell,  Sr.,  feature  writer, 
Newark  Star-Ledger;  George  Moore,  re- 
porter, Cleveland  Press;  Milton  Smith, 
copy  editor,  Brooklyn  Daily  Eagle;  Ed- 
gar T.  Rouzeau,  reporter,  New  York  Her- 
ald-Tribune; George  Streator,  reporter, 
New  York  Times;  Earl  Brown,  reporter, 
Life  magazine;  Hiram  Jackson,  staff  ar- 
tist, Illinois  State  Journal  and  Register; 
Gerald  Stewart,  layout  artist,  Fort  Wayne 
News-Sentinel;  James  Burr,  reporter, 
Chicago  Herald-American;  John  Hudson 
Jones,  reporter,  Daily  Worker  (New  York 
City) ;  John  Pittman,  associate  editor, 
Daily  Worker;  Abner  W.  Berry,  editorial- 
board  member  and  editor,  Harlem  edi- 
tion, Daily  Worker;  Benjamin  Davis,  edi- 
torial-board member,  Daily  Worker;  Roy 
L.  Gillespie,  reporter,  Cleveland  Plain- 
Dealer. 

Serving  in  part-time  capacities  were 
James  H.  L.  Peck,  for  Argosy  magazine; 
Joseph  Baker,  feature  writer,  Philadel- 
phia Inquirer;  Theophilus  Lewis,  drama 
editor,  America  magazine,  and  Randolph 
Chenault,  district  circulation  manager, 
Newark  Star-Ledger. 

Almost  as  many  Negroes  worked  on  the 
mechanical  side,  among  them,  William 
C.  Thomas,  compositor,  Logan  Banner 
(W.  Va.) ;  Edward  A.  Lewis,  photo- 
graphic technician,  New  York  Daily 
News;  Leslie  Parks,  make-up  man,  New 
York  World-Telegram  &  Sun;  Christo- 
pher Poussaint,  Jr.,  typographer,  Morn- 
ing Telegraph,  New  York  City;  G.  Tom 
Ireland,  pressman,  Sedalia  Democrat- 
Capital  (Mo.) ;  Norman  Webster,  lino- 
typist,  Galesburg  Mail  (111.) ;  the  late 
Julian  Thomas,  linotypist,  New  York 


NEGROES  ON  GENERAL  PUBLICATIONS 


43 


Times;  Emerson  Maxwell,  linotypist,  and 
Bernice  Maxwell,  librarian,  Newark  Star- 
Ledger.  Without  doubt,  numbers  of  other 
Negro  linotypists  and  backshop  workers 
were  working  in  1947. 

General  publications  are  extremely  re- 
luctant to  hire  Negroes  for  advertising 
work.  A  lone  instance,  that  of  Regiland 
Jackson,  advertising  solicitor  for  the 
Newport  News  Daily  Press  (Va.),  has 
been  found  by  the  editors.  James  Watson, 
street  circulation  manager  for  the  Cin- 
cinnati Post,  which  he  has  served  for  45 
years,  probably  has  like  company  else- 
where. 

Since  1947,  the  following  Negroes  have 
been  named  to  publication  staffs:  Luther 
P.  Jackson,  reporter,  Newark  Evening 
News;  Carl  T.  Rowan,  rim  man,  copy 
desk,  Minneapolis  Tribune;  John  H. 
Hicks,  reporter,  St.  Louis  Post-Dispatch; 
William  A.  Brower,  reporter,  Toledo 
Blade;  Arch  Parsons,  reporter,  New  York 
Herald-Tribune;  Gordon  Parks,  photog- 
rapher, Life  magazine;  Orrin  Evans, 
reporter,  Chester  Times  (Pa.)  ;  Lester 
Brownlee,  reporter,  Chicago  Daily  News; 
Marvel  Cooke,  reporter,  New  York  Daily 
Compass;  Hampton  McKinney,  police  re- 
porter, Cleveland  News;  George  Brown, 
reporter,  Denver  Post. 

In  the  South  several  Negro  journalists 
were  added  to  the  staffs  of  daily  and 
weekly  organs:  LeRoy  Davis  and  A.  A. 
Morrisey  as  reporters  for  the  Winston- 
Salem  Journal  and  Twin-City  Sentinel, 
Robert  Churchill  as  reporter  for  the 
Nashville  Banner,  and  Cleveland  Williams 
as  reporter-advertising  solicitor  for  the 
Bastrop  Clarion  (La.). 

Added  to  publications  in  non-news 
capacities  have  been:  Bertram  Wallace, 
linotypist,  New  York  Daily  News;  Jodie 
Lue,  stereotypist,  Mexico  Ledger  (Mo.)  ; 
Bernice  Vance,  secretarial  aid  to  Market 
Research  Division,  Toledo  Blade,  which 
added  also  Evelyn  Gordon,  business  office 
clerk,  George  H.  Thomas  and  Bedford 
Traynum,  proof  boys  in  the  dispatch  de- 
partment; Robert  Taylor,  research  staff 
member,  Minneapolis  Tribune;  William 
Jones,  circulation  manager,  and  Eugene 


Redding,  clerk,  Photo  Dealer,  a  trade 
magazine. 

Not  to  be  overlooked  are  a  group  of 
part-time  workers  who  serve  general  pub- 
lications. Walter  White  writes  a  weekly 
column  for  several  dailies,  including  the 
New  York  World-Telegram  &  Sun,  Chi- 
cago Daily  News,  Detroit  Free  Press. 
Roscoe  Simmons,  recently  deceased,  vet- 
eran journalist,  wrote  the  "Untold  Story," 
for  the  Chicago  Sunday  Tribune,  a  fea- 
ture which  was  used  by  the  Washington 
Times-Herald  during  the  past  year.  Hor- 
ace Cayton's  weekly  book-reviewing  stint 
disappeared  from  the  Tribune  after  the 
Chicago  welfare  worker  walked  out  of  a 
Robert  McCormick  -  sponsored  banquet 
where  Negro  guests  had  been  grouped 
together.  James  A.  Atkins,  former  college 
instructor  and  government  worker,  started 
a  weekly  series  of  articles  early  in  1951 
for  the  Denver  Post.  Following  a  tour 
through  the  South  in  1949,  Roi  Ottley 
sold  a  series  of  articles  on  his  observa- 
tions that  received  prominent  display  in 
several  daily  newspapers,  including  the 
St.  Louis  Globe-Democrat. 

The  South  has  long  had  an  unrecorded 
number  of  Negro  writers  who  provide  re- 
ports on  happenings  among  the  Negro 
population  for  columns  and  sometimes 
whole  pages  of  news  in  daily  organs.  The 
appointment  of  one  such  person  in 
Florida  late  in  1948  was  reported  in  this 
wise:  "Charles  C.  North  has  been  named 
correspondent  for  the  Miami  Daily  News, 
and  on  Sunday  of  each  week  his  column, 
summarizing  the  affairs  of  the  week  per- 
taining to  Negroes,  appears."  The  ap- 
pointment of  North  routed  the  long- 
established  practices  of  spelling  Negro 
with  a  small  letter  and  omitting  such  pre- 
fixes as  'Mr.'  and  'Mrs.'  when  referring  to 
Negroes.  Unlike  other  white  Florida 
dailies  which  employ  Negro  correspond- 
ents, the  News  publishes  North's  column 
in  all  its  editions,  thereby  making  it  pos- 
sible for  its  white  readers  to  acquaint 
themselves  with  many  of  the  achievements 
of  Negroes.  "The  Miami  Herald,  owned 
by  northern  capitalists,  .  .  .  some  months 
ago  [began]  spelling  Negro  with  a  cap- 


44 


THE  NEGRO  PRESS 


ital  letter,  but  it  also  adopted  the  policy 
of  spelling  white  with  a  capital  letter."  1 

Recently  Paul  A.  Schrader,  managing 
editor  of  the  Toledo  Blade,  wrote  the 
writer:  "It  has  been  the  policy  of  the 
Toledo  Blade  to  employ  Negroes  in  vari- 
ous phases  of  operations  for  many  years. 
For  instance,  Theodore  Spurlock  has 
filled  many  positions  in  more  than  30 
years  of  service  and  at  present  is  attached 
to  the  Circulation  Department.  Also  in 
the  Circulation  Department  we  have  a 
number  of  youngsters  of  the  Negro  race 
employed  as  house-to-house  newspaper 
carriers." 

Of  William  Brower,  1948  reporter 
addition,  Schrader  wrote  that  he  "was  the 
first  Negro  employed  by  the  Blade  in  an 
editorial  capacity.  ...  It  should  be  dis- 
tinctly understood  that  Mr.  Brower  is  a 
general  assignment  reporter  on  our  staff 
and  is  not  assigned  specifically  to  the 
news  of  his  race  as  is  the  practice  on  some 
papers  employing  Negroes  .  .  .  generally 
Mr.  Brower  takes  his  assignments  as  they 
come  off  the  City  Desk  and  has  drawn 
some  of  our  top  flight  stories.  For  in- 
stance, he  was  one  of  two  reporters  to 
cover  the  prolonged  and  technical  anti- 
trust suit  filed  against  the  Glass  Company 
in  the  Federal  District  Court.  Presently, 
he  is  covering  the  Federal  Building  beat. 
Occasionally,  he  sits  in  on  the  rewrite 
desk.  It  should  interest  you  to  know  that 
Mr.  Brower  has  been  cordially  received  as 
a  representative  of  the  Blade  in  all  circles 
and  on  all  types  of  stories." 

The  spring  and  summer  of  1951  wit- 
nessed page-one  treatment  of  two  series 
of  articles  on  Negro  subjects  by  Negro 
staff  members  in  Minneapolis  and  Denver. 
Following  a  6,000-mile  tour  of  the  South 
early  in  the  year,  Carl  T.  Rowan  wrote 
"How  Far  From  Slavery,"  a  series  of 
articles  that  ran  daily  in  the  Minneapolis 
Tribune  from  Feb.  26  through  March  17. 
The  articles,  soon  to  be  published  in  book 
form  by  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  Inc.,  drew  these 
words  from  Editor  &  Publisher,  trade 
magazine:  "A  Negro  reporter's  series  of 
articles  on  racial  conditions  in  the  South 

1  Chicago  Defender,  July  10,  1948. 


has  proved  one  of  the  hottest  locally 
written  to  hit  Minneapolis  Tribune  pages 
in  recent  years  ...  a  significant,  readable 
glimpse  into  the  American  race  problem 
as  only  a  Negro  sees  it." 

From  Sept.  24  through  Oct.  1, 1951,  the 
Denver  Post  ran,  mainly  on  the  front 
page,  George  Brown's  articles  on  the 
treatment  of  the  Negro  in  the  Colorado 
capital  city.  Brown's  photograph  accom- 
panied the  series,  as  did  Rowan's  in  the 
Minneapolis  series. 

At  the  eighteenth  annual  convention  of 
the  American  Newspaper  Guild  in  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  in  July  1951,  delegates  passed 
resolutions  directing  their  local  units  to 
step  up  their  efforts  to  fight  discrimina- 
tion in  the  hiring  of  Negro  newspapermen 
by  daily  papers.  "The  most  general  type 
of  discrimination,"  stated  one  resolution, 
"is  the  virtual  barring  of  Negroes  from 
white-collar  departments — editorial  and 
commercial — of  daily  newspapers,  despite 
an  occasional  single  Negro  reporter  on  a 
large  daily."  The  ANG  anti-discrimina- 
tion program  calls  for  a  survey  of  Guild 
locals  to  determine  the  number  of  Negro 
employees  working  in  white  newspaper 
offices,  their  job  classifications,  their 
salaries,  and  the  extent  of  newspaper 
experience  each  Negro  employee  has  had. 

WHITE  WORKERS  ON 
NEGRO  PAPERS 

The  flow  of  white  talent  onto  Negro 
organs  continued  at  a  token  pace.  Ben 
Burns  held  on  as  a  top  executive  editor 
for  the  Johnson  publications  (Ebony, 
Negro  Digest,  Tan  Confessions,  Jet)  in 
Chicago,  and  V.  P.  Bourne-Vanneck  re- 
mained owner  of  one  of  the  nation's  oldest 
Negro  weeklies,  the  New  York  Age.  Earl 
Conrad  disappeared  from  the  full-time 
payroll  of  the  New  York  office  of  the 
Chicago  Defender.  Ray  Sprigle,  a  white 
Pulitzer-Prize  winning  reporter  for  the 
Pittsburgh  Post-Gazette,  "passed"  as  a 
Negro  in  the  South  in  1948  and  came  up 
with  a  series  of  articles,  "I  Was  a  Negro 
in  the  South  for  30  Days,"  that  appeared 


FOREIGN  CORRESPONDENTS 


45 


not  only  in  his  own  but  also  in  a  number 
of  other  papers. 

"I  Worked  for  a  Negro  Newspaper,"  a 
Crisis  piece  in  the  January  1950  number, 
relates  the  life  of  a  white  man  from  the 
time  he  applied  for  a  job  with  a  Negro 
weekly  until  he  left  for  other  work.  Scott 
Saunders,  former  trade-paper  editor  now 
on  the  staff  of  the  Musical  Courier,  told 
his  Crisis  readers  that  "not  until  I  passed 
through  the  door  and  into  the  building 
did  I  realize  that  the  employment  agency 
had  sent  me  to  a  Negro  newspaper.  I  felt 
no  emotion  other  than  mild  surprise. 
People  scurried  between  desks  in  the 
usual  hustle  and  clamor  that  typifies  the 
newspaper  office."  The  advertising  man- 
ager of  the  New  York  Amsterdam  News 
offered  Saunders  the  job  of  production 
manager.  He  accepted  it. 

"How  would  I  fit  into  the  Negro 
world?"  was  a  question  that  bothered 
Saunders.  "Working  in  daily  contact  with 
Negroes  pointed  up  ever  so  clearly  that 
given  a  chance,"  declared  the  new  pro- 
duction manager,  "they  can  easily  dis- 
prove the  accepted  notions  that  they  are 
as  a  whole,  slothful,  lazy,  unintelligent, 
and  lacking  initiative.  .  .  .  When  I  left  to 
take  my  present  magazine  position,  there 
was  genuine  regret  on  both  sides.  I  had 
found  those  I  worked  with  to  be  stimulat- 
ing, interesting  and  extremely  likeable." 

Not  many  white  journalists  have  fol- 
lowed in  Saunders'  footsteps,  but  a  few 
who  have  done  so  have  also  chosen  the 
Amsterdam  News.  This  New  York  City 
weekly  made  national  late  news  in  1950 
when  it  hired  two  more  white  journalists. 
Time  magazine  reported  the  event  in  this 
way:  "In  New  York's  Harlem,  the  world's 
biggest  Negro  community,  the  weekly  Am- 
sterdam Neivs  speaks  with  a  loud  voice. 
But  when  the  Negro-owned-and-staffed 
News  hiked  its  price  from  10  cents  to  15 
cents  in  1946,  its  voice  began  to  quaver 
as  circulation  skipped  from  a  peak  of 
110,000  to  around  65,000.  In  an  effort  to 
get  the  frog  out  of  its  throat,  the  News 
made  a  drastic  change:  for  the  first  time 
in  its  40-year  history,  it  hired  a  white  man 
as  its  managing  editor.  The  News  boss: 


New  York-born  Stanley  Ross,  36,  one 
time  Latin  American  stringer  for  AP  and 
the  New  York  Times,  occasional  platform 
lecturer.  He  also  had  an  unsuccessful 
career  as  a  'doctor'  to  ailing  newspapers 
from  Lake  Charles,  Louisiana  to  Wilm- 
ington, Delaware  before  he  saw  the  Am- 
sterdam News  ad  in  Editor  &  Publisher 
and  got  the  job."  Along  with  Ross  the 
Amsterdam  News  hired  a  new  head  of  the 
circulation  department  in  the  person  of 
Robert  L.  Ellner,  former  assistant  circu- 
lation manager  of  the  New  York  Evening 
Post. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted 
that  two  white  journalists — one  a  veteran 
publisher,  the  other  a  photographer- 
photoengraver — joined  the  teaching  staff 
of  the  Lincoln  University  School  of 
Journalism  in  recent  years.  Lee  Smeeton 
Cole,  25-year  owner-publisher  of  Indiana 
weeklies  and  former  journalism  instruc- 
tor at  the  University  of  Kansas,  has 
become  a  permanent  staff  member  at 
Lincoln,  handling  advertising  and  man- 
agement courses.  John  V.  Eastwood, 
Kansas  City,  Mo.,  commercial  engraver, 
serves  in  a  part-time  capacity  on  the 
Lincoln  faculty  as  instructor  in  photog- 
raphy and  photoengraving. 

FOREIGN  CORRESPONDENTS 

Many  observers  believe  that  for  a  long 
time  to  come  there  will  be  a  Negro  angle 
to  the  news.  Perhaps  as  long  as  there  is 
a  group  of  people  classified  as  Negro. 
That  angle  is  the  life  blood  of  Negro 
newspapers.  If  there  is  a  train  wreck  in 
Utah,  these  papers  identify  the  porters, 
waiters,  and  passengers  who  fall  within 
the  purview  of  their  clientele.  Names  of 
whites  don't  figure  in  the  report  unless 
they  appear  as  individuals  involved  other 
than  as  casualties  in  the  accident.  If  there 
is  a  baseball  game  in  Chicago  and  Ne- 
groes participate  on  either  team,  that  gets 
space  in  the  Negro  organ.  If  the  Negro 
players  are  not  in  action,  there  is  no 
mention  of  the  game.  Similarly,  if  a  group 
of  4-H  Club  youngsters  from  Ohio  visits 
Washington,  D.C.,  the  accounts  tell  who 


46 


THE  NEGRO  PRESS 


the  colored  lads  are,  how  they  fared,  what 
discrimination,  if  any,  they  encountered, 
and  the  pictures  show  the  colored  4-H'ers. 
That  makes  news — most  often  front-page 
news — in  the  Negro  newspaper. 

The  Negro  inevitably  reads  about  the 
war,  but  that  war  Becomes  the  more  real 
— and  the  source  of  more  pride — to  him 
when  he  knows  that  the  American  Negro 
is  contributing  his  share.  Occasionally,  a 
few  lines,  such  as  the  capture  of  Yechon 
by  Negro  elements  of  the  25th  Infantry 
Division,  July  21,  1950,  creep  into  the 
daily  news  dispatches,  but  there  are  no 
names  there  and  there  is  no  story  of  in- 
dividual heroism.  That  coverage  becomes 
the  obligation  of  the  colored  press  of  the 
country.  To  bring  that  report  to  the 
American  Negro  readers,  there  were  36 
Negro  war  correspondents  operating  dur- 
ing World  War  II  on  all  fronts. 

Soon  after  the  fighting  started  in  Korea 
in  June  1950,  the  Negro  press  had  its  war 
correspondents  on  the  way  to  cover  the 
conflict.  Two  men  were  assigned  this  task, 
Albert  L.  Hinton,  managing  editor, 
Journal  and  Guide,  Norfolk,  Va.,  who 
represented  the  NNPA  group  of  papers, 
and  James  L.  Hicks,  Afro-American  staff 
member,  who  represented  the  Afro-Amer- 
ican chain.  Hinton  and  Hicks  traveled 
6,000  miles  together  as  far  as  Tokyo, 
where  they  took  separate  planes  to  the 
Korean  front.  However,  Hinton  never 
reached  his  destination,  for  his  plane,  a 
C-47  transport,  plunged  into  the  sea  on 
the  110-mile  jaunt  from  Tokyo  to  south- 
ern Korea. 

Hicks  went  on  to  fulfill  his  assignment 
and  was  later  joined  by  Frank  Whisonant, 
representing  the  Pittsburgh  Courier,  and 
L.  Alex  Wilson,  for  the  Chicago  Defender. 
Replacing  Hicks  later  were,  in  turn, 
Milton  Smith  and  Ralph  Mathews,  both 
of  the  Afro-American  staff. 

In  the  spring  of  1948,  eight  Negro 
newspaper  editors  and  publishers  took  a 
three-week  jaunt  through  Germany  and 
Austria  as  guests  of  the  U.S.  Department 
of  the  Army. 

Individual  Negro  newspapers  continue 
to  send  their  staff  members  abroad  on 


various  assignments.  To  Oslo,  Norway,  to 
cover  the  awarding  of  the  Nobel  Peace 
Prize  to  Dr.  Ralph  J.  Bunche  late  in  1950 
went  Mr.  Schuyler,  for  the  Pittsburgh 
Courier,  and  Arnold  DeMille,  New  York 
writer  for  the  Chicago  Defender.  On  hand 
for  the  inauguration  of  Haiti's  new  presi- 
dent, Paul  F.  Magliore,  were  Venice  T. 
Spraggs,  Chicago  Defender  Washington 
bureau  correspondent;  Roy  Garvin,  gen- 
eral manager,  Washington  Afro-Amer- 
ican; I.  J.  K.  Wells,  who  represented  the 
Pittsburgh  Courier  and  Color  magazine, 
of  which  he  is  publisher,  and  Claude 
Barnett,  director,  Associated  Negro  Press. 
From  time  to  time  journalists  from 
West  Africa,  Central  America,  and  the 
Carribean  countries  have  come  to  the 
United  States  on  various  missions.  Among 
these  have  been  Roland  T.  Dempster, 
editor,  the  Liberian  Age,  Monrovia,  Li- 
beria; Henry  B.  Cole,  editor  of  several 
West  African  organs,  and  Nnamdi  Azi- 
kiwe,  editor  and  publisher,  the  West 
African  Pilot,  Lagos,  Nigeria,  B.W.A. 

CONGRESSIONAL  PRESS 
GALLERIES 

Early  in  1947,  through  efforts  of  the 
Negro  Newspaper  Publishers  Association 
and  of  individual  newspaper  correspon- 
dents stationed  in  Washington,  D.C.,  the 
first  Negroes  were  accredited  to  the  Con- 
gressional Press  Galleries  and  to  the 
State  Department.  The  Negro  press  had 
had  representation  at  the  White  House 
press  conferences  since  Feb.  8,  1944, 
when  Harry  S.  McAlpin  was  accredited 
for  the  NNPA. 

After  agitation  for  admission  to  the 
Press  Galleries,  from  which  Negro  news- 
men had  been  barred  since  1871,  Louis 
Lautier,  NNPA  bureau  chief  in  Washing- 
ton, applied  to  the  Standing  Committee 
of  Newspaper  Correspondents  in  1946  for 
a  card  of  admission.  By  a  four-to-one  vote 
Lautier's  application  was  rejected  on  the 
grounds  that  "the  Negro  Newspaper  Pub- 
lishers Association,  which  he  represents, 
is  composed  of  papers  published  less  fre- 
quently than  daily,"  thus  rendering  him 


CONGRESSIONAL  PRESS  GALLERIES 


47 


ineligible  "for  admission  under  the  rules 
adopted  by  Congress  and  administered 
by  the  Standing  Committee  of  Corre- 
spondents." 

Lautier  declared  that  he  did  represent 
a  daily,  the  Atlanta  Daily  World,  itself  an 
NNPA  member,  along  with  the  publisher 
association,  and  appealed  the  decision  to 
the  Senate  Rules  Committee,  which,  after 
hearings,  on  March  18,  1947,  overrode 
the  Standing  Committee's  vote  and  or-, 
dered  the  committee  to  give  Lautier  a 
card  of  admission.  Lautier  was  then 
formally  accredited  to  both  the  Senate 
and  House  Press  Galleries.  Shortly  before 
Lautier's  admission,  Percival  L.  Prattis, 
Pittsburgh  Courier  executive  editor,  had 
been  unanimously  certified  for  admission 
to  the  Periodical  Gallery  of  the  House 
and  Senate  as  a  representative  for  Our 
World  magazine,  of  which  he  is  part 
owner. 

Prior  to  Prattis'  accreditation,  James 
L.  Hicks,  assistant  chief  of  NNPA  Wash- 
ington news  service,  on  March  5,  became 
the  lone  Negro  correspondent  accredited 
to  the  State  Department  as  a  member  of 
the  State  Department  Correspondents' 
Association,  consisting  of  130  Washington 
correspondents  for  major  press  services 
of  the  world. 

Following  the  Senate  Rules  Committee 
vote  ordering  Lautier's  admission  to  the 
Press  Galleries,  the  Standing  Committee 
issued  a  denial  that  its  action  was  based 
on  color  prejudice  and  recommended  an 
addition  to  Press  Gallery  rules  which 
would  permit  admission  of  correspond- 
ents representing  weekly-newspaper  press 
associations.  The  proposal  called  for 
certification  of  not  more  than  two  Wash- 
ington correspondents  for  news  associa- 
tions which  regularly  service  news  of 
national  affairs  to  a  substantial  number 
of  weekly  newspapers  entiled  to  second- 
class  mailing  privileges,  sold  regularly 
for  profit,  and  paying  the  association  for 
the  service  provided.  Speaker  Joseph 
Martin  approved  the  change  for  the 
House  Gallery  and  the  Senate  Rules  Com- 
mittee did  likewise.  Thereupon,  Mrs. 
Alice  A.  Dunnigan,  representing  the  As- 


sociated Negro  Press,  was  admitted  to  the 
Press  Galleries  by  the  Standing  Commit- 
tee and  became  the  first  Negro  woman 
so  accredited.  Mrs.  Dunnigan  joined 
Hicks  as  a  member  of  the  State  Depart- 
ment Correspondents'  Association. 

Until  early  in  1951,  the  count  of  Ne- 
groes accredited  to  the  Press  Galleries  of 
Congress  stood  at  three:  Louis  Lautier 
for  NNPA,  P.  L.  Prattis  for  Our  World, 
and  Mrs.  Dunnigan  for  ANP.  In  January 
1951,  the  first  Negro  representative  of  a 
white  daily  newspaper  was  admitted.  This 
was  Roscoe  Conklin  Simmons,  a  colum- 
nist for  the  Chicago  Tribune  and  the 
Washington  Times-Herald.  Simmons,  how- 
ever, died  four  months  later. 

In  his  volume,  Writing  for  the  Business 
Press  (1950),  Arthur  Wimer  relates  the 
early  struggle  of  Negro  papers  for  ad- 
mission to  White  House  news  conferences 
to  a  similar  effort  on  the  part  of  business 
paper  correspondents  and  cites  a  state  of 
mind  that  is  satisfied  as  long  as  there  is 
not  more  than  one  Negro  covering  White 
House  press  activities.  Wimer  writers: 

Business  paper  correspondents,  as  such, 
were  admitted  to  White  House  news  confer- 
ences from  1930  to  1944,  when  they  were 
jettisoned  to  help  win  the  Negro  vote  for 
Franklin  D.  Roosevelt.  Until  1944  no  Negro 
had  ever  been  admitted  regularly  to  the 
White  House  news  conferences.  It  has  long 
been  the  practice  to  permit  the  White  House 
correspondents  to  determine  the  admissibility 
of  reporters  to  the  White  House,  just  as  the 
Standing  Committee  of  Correspondents  ac- 
credits correspondents  to  the  House  and 
Senate  press  galleries.  This  relieves  the  White 
House  and  members  of  Congress  of  a  task 
which  sometimes  becomes  embarrassing  and 
permits  the  buck  to  be  passed  to  the  press. 

For  some  time  representative  Negro  report- 
ers have  been  knocking  at  the  White  House 
door,  but  the  color  line  continued  to  be 
drawn  by  the  news  correspondents,  despite 
some  clamor  by  a  minority  of  whites  for 
recognition  of  their  colored  brethren.  In  1944, 
Negro  publishers,  religious  and  other  leaders 
descended  upon  the  White  House  and  put 
pressure  on  Mr.  Roosevelt,  some  of  it  through 
Mrs.  R.,  for  admission  of  Negro  reporters. 
Something  had  to  be  done,  and  it  was.  The 
trade  paper  correspondents  were  told  that 
Presidential  Secretary  Stephen  T.  Early  had 
told  the  White  House  boys  that  if  they  per- 
sisted in  their  refusal  to  clear  Negroes,  the 
White  House  itself  would  have  to  act. 


48 


THE  NEGRO  PRESS 


The  boys  didn't  react  well  to  this,  so  a 
'compromise'  was  decided  upon.  This  was  to 
change  the  rule  of  admissibility  to  White 
House  news  conferences  to  permit  association 
and  daily  paper  correspondents  to  come  in. 
Since  there  was  only  one  Negro  daily  in  the 
United  States,  this  meant  that  only  one  col- 
ored man  could  come  to  the  news  conferences 
and  white  supremacy  would  continue  su- 
preme. The  reporters  of  the  important  Negro 
weeklies  thus  were  effectively  barred,  and  so 
were  the  business  paper  correspondents. 

Wimer  failed  to  learn  that  the  "one 
colored  man"  who  "could  come  to  the 
news  conferences"  doubled  as  a  Wash- 
ington correspondent  for  a  pool  of  Negro 
weeklies,  including  all  of  the  "important 
Negro  weeklies."  After  the  doors  of  the 
White  House  press  gatherings  were 
opened  to  Negro  personnel,  the  Negro 
Newspaper  Publishers  Association  gave 
birth  to  its  own  National  Negro  Press 
Association,  which  became  an  independ- 
ent organization  two  years  later. 

AWARDS  AND  PRIZES 

Lacking  membership  in  national,  state, 
and  regional  organizations,  Negro  pub- 
lications workers  have  been  denied  that 
incentive  to  excellent  performance  that 
comes  with  competition  for  journalistic 
awards.  In  1946,  the  void  was  in  a  meas- 
ure filled  by  the  introduction  of  the 
Wendell  Willkie  Awards  for  Journalism 
consisting  of  a  total  of  $750  annually 
contributed  by  Mrs.  Agnes  Meyer,  wife 
of  the  publisher  of  the  Washington  Post, 
Prizes  for  the  second  year  of  the  con- 
test were  awarded  during  National  Negro 
Newspaper  Week  at  a  Washington  ban- 
quet, Feb.  28,  1947,  as  follows:  Best 
Example  of  Public  Service — Journal  and 
Guide,  Norfolk,  Va.,  $250;  Honorable 
Mention  —  Louisville  Defender,  and 
Louisiana  Weekly,  New  Orleans,  La.; 
Best  Example  of  Objective  Reporting — 
Ralph  Mathews,  national  bureau  of  the 
Afro-American  newspapers,  Washington, 
B.C.,  $250;  Honorable  Mention — Louis 
Lautier,  chief  of  the  Washington  bureau, 
NNPA,  and  Enoc  P.  Walters,  Chicago 
Defender ;  Best  Example  of  Writing  other 
than  News  Reporting  —  William  0. 


Walker,  Cleveland  Call  and  Post,  $250; 
Honorable  Mention — Lewis  W.  Jones, 
Houston  Informer,  and  Robert  H.  Durr, 
editor,  Birmingham  Weekly  Review.  A 
special  certificate  of  merit  was  awarded 
to  the  Chicago  Defender  on  this  occasion 
and  to  radio  Station  WBBM  (CBS)  of 
Chicago  for  their  collaboration  in  pre- 
senting a  weekly  radio  program,  "Democ- 
racy U.S.A." 

In  early  February  1948,  the  board  of 
directors  of  the  Willkie  Awards  organiza- 
tion decided  not  to  make  any  awards  that 
year  but  to  turn  the  matter  of  selecting 
winners  over  to  one  of  the  universities  of 
the  land  with  a  view  to  operating  the 
competition  annually  somewhat  along  the 
lines  of  the  Pulitzer  awards.  The  com- 
mittee assigned  the  task  of  making  the 
arrangements  for  the  change-over  con- 
sisted of  Mrs.  Agnes  Meyer;  Dr.  Douglas 
Southall  Freeman,  editor,  Richmond 
News  Leader  (Va.) ;  Mark  Ethridge, 
editor,  Louisville  Courier- Journal,  and 
Marquis  Childs,  Washington  columnist.  In 
April  of  1948,  the  committee  announced 
that  the  Nieman  Fellows  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity would  conduct  the  judging  of  the 
Willkie  Awards  contest  for  a  trial  period 
of  three  years.  Entries  for  1948  were  to  be 
submitted  to  Louis  M.  Lyons,  chairman, 
Council  of  Nieman  Fellows. 

The  Nieman  Fellows  announced  their 
first  selections  in  May  1949.  The  winners 
were:  Best  Public  Service — the  Journal 
and  Guide,  Norfolk,  Va.,  "for  the  quality 
of  its  overall  performance,  based  on  a 
variety  of  entries  submitted  .  .  .  and 
particularly  for  the  high  calibre  of  its 
editorial  page."  Objective  Reporting — 
Louis  R.  Lautier,  Washington  correspon- 
dent for  NNPA  and  the  Atlanta  Daily 
World,  "for  distinguished  correspondence 
affording  member  newspapers  of  the 
NNPA  clear,  comprehensive,  and  objec- 
tive coverage  of  events  significant  to  their 
readers."  Writing  other  than  News — 
Simeon  Booker,  Jr.,  reporter,  the  Cleve- 
land Call  and  Post,  "for  a  searching 
series  of  feature  articles  exposing  dis- 
criminatory conditions  in  Cleveland's 
public  schools."  The  awards  were  $250  in 


AWARDS  AND  PRIZES 


49 


cash  to  each  winner  and  a  plaque  to  the 
Journal  and  Guide. 

The  judges  were  Louis  Lyons,  judging 
committee  chairman,  and  four  Nieman 
Fellows — Allan  Earth,  editorial  writer  on 
the  Washington  Post;  Grady  E.  Clay,  Jr., 
reporter  on  the  Louisville  Courier-Jour- 
nal; David  B.  Drieman,  science  writer  on 
the  Minneapolis  Star ;  and  E.  H.  Holland, 
Jr.,  editorial  writer  on  the  Birmingham 
News. 

Time  magazine  took  note  of  the  1949 
awards  in  its  March  14  issue  in  a  lengthy 
piece  on  the  Young  family,  which  pub- 
lishes the  Norfolk,  Va.,  weekly:  "The 
Guide  won  its  third  straight  Wendell 
Willkie  award — for  public  service  in 
Negro  journalism.  Said  Louis  M.  Lyons, 
curator  of  Harvard's  Nieman  Fellowships 
and  chairman  of  the  judges:  'For  the 
most  part,  the  Negro  press  has  a  long  way 
to  go  to  reach  the  highest  standards.  The 
Guide  is  a  first-class  paper,  by  any  stand- 
ard.' " 

In  1950,  only  two  awards  were  made  in 
the  Willkie  contest:  Best  Example  of 
Objective  Reporting — Richard  E.  Harris, 
reporter  Cleveland  Call  and  Post,  for 
creative  reporting  of  group  relations  and 
programs  dealing  with  juvenile  delin- 
quency among  Negroes  in  Cleveland ;  and 
Best  Example  of  Writing  other  than 
News  Reporting — L.  Alex  Wilson,  feature 
writer,  Chicago  Defender,  for  two  series 
of  articles,  "What  Causes  Crime?"  and 
"The  Making  of  a  Killer."  Each  winner 
received  $250.  No  award  was  given  to  a 
newspaper  for  public  service  because 
only  a  few  papers  entered  this  phase  of 
the  competition.  The  Journal  and  Guide 
was  disqualified  because  of  a  new  rule 
barring  any  paper  from  winning  the 
award  in  successive  years. 

The  Wilkie  Awards  were  discontinued 
soon  afterwards  for  apparent  lack  of 
interest  in  the  contest.  Mrs.  Meyer  an- 
nounced the  end  of  the  annual  competi- 
tion, which  had  reached  a  total  of  $3,500 
granted  to  Negro  newspapers  during  the 
five  years. 

Mixed  feelings  marked  the  end.  Said 
George  S.  Schuyler  in  his  Pittsburgh 


Courier  column,  June  17:  "No  floods  of 
tears  will  greet  the  news.  The  first  awards 
in  March  1946  were  disgraceful  examples 
of  journalistic  mediocrity.  Following  loud 
whoops  of  indignation  from  many  of  the 
Negro  newspaper  brethren,  the  committee 
was  reorganized  as  a  corporation  and 
three  Negroes  were  selected  as  officers." 
The  subsequent  awards,  according  to 
Schuyler,  "were  no  more  discerning  or 
fair  than  the  previous  ones,  and  indeed 
bordered  on  the  ridiculous."  Schuyler 
blamed  the  machinery  of  selection  for 
the  failure  of  the  Willkie  contest — the 
voluntary  submission  of  entries  by  indi- 
viduals and  publications.  He  recom- 
mended a  committee  of  trained  Negro 
journalists,  not  connected  with  any  pub- 
lications, to  handle  the  judging,  and 
complimentary  yearly  subscriptions  to 
all  the  papers  for  the  judging  staff. 

Dateline,  a  new  quarterly  organ  of 
NNPA,  stated  editorially  in  its  June  1950 
issue: 

What  degree  of  responsibility  the  NNPA  is 
willing  to  assume  for  the  unhappy  end  to 
which  the  competition  has  come  is  not  cer- 
tain. But  being  the  only  organized  group  in 
the  area  of  so-called  Negro  journalism,  and 
having  what  appears  to  be  a  logical  interest 
in  its  further  improvement,  it  would  seem 
that  a  greater  concern  might  have  been  shown 
to  avert  this  present  calamity.  The  editorial 
concluded  that  competition  with  prizes  as  a 
bait  is  needed  for  some  improvement  in 
Negro  organs  and  expressed  the  hope  that 
"somebody  or  some  group  will  come  to  feel 
that  there  are  few  alternatives  if  the  quality 
of  the  product  we  call  the  Negro  Press  is  to 
rise  ...  as  it  needs  to." 

NPA  itself  came  to  the  rescue  with  its 
announcement  late  in  1950  of  its  first 
newspaper  contest  with  an  April  1951 
deadline  for  submission  of  materials.  The 
judges  were  Theodore  R.  Poston,  re- 
porter, the  New  York  Evening  Post;  J. 
Saunders  Redding,  English  instructor, 
Hampton  Institute,  and  Dr.  Armistead  S. 
Pride,  dean,  School  of  Journalism,  Lin- 
coln University.  The  winners  of  awards 
were  announced  in  June:  Typography — 
Louisiana  Weekly,  first,  Cleveland  Call 
and  Post,  second,  and  Kansas  City  Call, 
third ;  Public  Service — Louisiana  Weekly, 
first,  Louisville  Defender,  second,  and 


50 


THE  NEGRO  PRESS 


Houston  Informer,  third;  Promoting  the 
Negro  Press — Louisville  Defender,  first, 
and  Pittsburgh  Courier,  second.  The 
NNPA  announced  that  an  additional  cate- 
gory, "best  example  of  objective  report- 
ing," to  be  known  as  the  Albert  L.  Hinton 
Memorial  Medal  in  honor  of  the  Journal 
and  Guide  managing  editor  and  war  cor- 
respondent lost  in  the  Korean  War,  would 
be  added  to  the  1952  competition. 

In  July  1951,  a  national  committee  of 
15  Negro  journalists  announced  the  for- 
mation of  the  Albert  L.  Hinton  Memorial 
Fund.  The  Fund,  with  Ernest  L.  Johnson, 
New  York  City  publicist,  serving  as  its 
chairman,  has  three  aims :  "To  perpetuate 
the  memory  of  a  good  reporter,  to  create 
a  symbol  that  all  members  of  the  craft 
might  recognize  .  .  .  that  they  share  a 
common  interest  and  serve  a  common 
cause;  to  provide  the  working  press  .  .  . 
with  a  vehicle  in  which  they  may  take 
personal  pride  by  being  the  backbone  for 
this  brief  and  intensive  appeal."  The  job 
of  the  national  committee  is  to  solicit 
funds  and  to  determine  the  best  way  to 
use  them  in  accordance  with  the  Fund's 
purpose. 

Another  impetus  to  sterling  perform- 
ance in  newspaper  work  has  been  the 
annual  competition  for  Nieman  Fellow- 
ships at  Harvard  University,  started  in 
1937.  Two  Negroes  have  received  fellow- 
ships. Fletcher  P.  Martin,  city  editor,  the 
Louisville  Defender,  finished  his  year  at 
Harvard  in  1947  and  wrote  during  the 
year:  "The  Nieman  year  is  wonderful.  I 
have  had  time  to  do  a  lot  of  research.  Last 
semester  I  took  a  course  called  'Group 
Prejudice  and  Conflict,'  which  should 
prove  valuable.  Also  I  have  taken  much 
history  —  history  of  the  reconstruction 
period  especially.  Seven  courses  last 
semester,  six  courses  the  current  one.  The 
reading  is  stupendous."  Martin  returned 
to  his  Louisville  post  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  year  in  Cambridge. 

Second  to  win  the  Harvard  fellowship 
was  Simeon  S.  Brooker,  Jr.,  for  six  years 
a  reporter  on  the  Cleveland  Call  and  Post, 
who  joined  11  other  journalists  in  Sep- 
tember 1950  for  a  year  of  study  at  Cam- 


bridge. Of  his  selection  Booker  stated: 
".  .  .  Irving  A.  Billiard,  editor  of  the 
editorial  page,  St.  Louis  Post-Dispatch, 
served  as  a  member  of  the  committee 
which  selected  me  as  a  Nieman  Fellow. 
I  think  he  is  due  a  lot  of  credit.  During 
my  appearance  before  the  selection  com- 
mittee, Mr.  Billiard  was  very  fair  and 
friendly." 

Individual  publications  like  the  Chi- 
cago Defender,  Ebony  magazine,  and  the 
Afro-American,  made  annual  merit  and 
achievement  awards  to  individuals  and 
organizations  for  their  part  in  improving 
human,  community,  and  international  re- 
lations. 

One  of  the  Cleveland  (Ohio)  News- 
paper Guild  Awards  for  1947  went  to  the 
Cleveland  Call  and  Post  reporter  Simeon 
Booker,  Jr.  for  showing  initiative  and 
enterprise  in  a  series  of  articles  exposing 
housing  conditions  in  Negro  tenement 
houses  in  Cleveland: 

In  March  1950,  Theodore  R.  Poston, 
reporter  for  the  New  York  Evening  Post, 
was  named,  along  with  Herbert  Block, 
Washington  Post  cartoonist,  joint  winner 
of  the  C.I.O.  Newspaper  Guild's  ninth 
annual  Heywood  Broun  Award.  Each  re- 
ceived $500  cash  and  a  citation  by  the 
Guild  for  outstanding  journalistic 
achievement  in  1949  "in  the  spirit  of 
Heywood  Broun,"  who  was  a  president 
of  the  Guild.  This  was  the  first  year  the 
prize  was  split.  Poston,  the  first  Negro 
to  win  the  prize,  won  on  the  basis  of  his 
coverage  of  a  Tavares,  Fla.,  case  in  which 
two  Negroes  were  sentenced  to  die  and  a 
third  was  sentenced  to  a  life  on  charges 
of  raping  a  white  woman. 

A  month  later  the  same  Florida  series 
of  articles  in  the  Post  won  Poston  an 
additional  $200  among  awards  by  the 
Irving  Geist  Foundation  for  contributions 
to  interracial  and  inter  faith  understand- 
ing. First  prize  of  $500  went  to  Mrs. 
Eleanor  Roosevelt  for  "exemplifying  the 
American  democratic  spirit  and  temper 
at  their  best"  in  her  newspaper  column. 
The  second-place  prize  of  $400  was  split 
between  Poston  and  Oliver  Pilar,  also  of 
the  Post  staff,  who  gained  the  honor  for 


AWARDS  AND  PRIZES 


51 


his  coverage  of  the  Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  riots 
surrounding  the  appearance  of  Paul 
Robeson  during  the  summer  of  1949. 

The  Broun  Award  backfired  on  Poston 
when  editor  Mabel  Norris  Reese,  of  the 
Mount  Dora  Topic  (Fla.),  filed  a  protest 
with  A.N.G.  with  testimony  from  public 
officials  that  Poston  had  not  been  chased 
along  the  highway  as  he  had  declared  in 
his  Post  series  and  a  statement  by  Peyton 
Ford,  assistant  to  the  Attorney-General 
of  Florida,  denying  that  the  Poston 
articles  were  sanctioned  by  that  office. 
In  a  letter  to  Editor  &  Publisher  early 
in  May  1950,  Poston  said  his  articles  on 
the  Tavares  case  were  published  in  Sep- 
tember 1949  and  copies  were  sent  to  the 
court  and  law  enforcement  officers.  "It  is 
fantastic,"  he  commented,  "to  believe  that 
the  state  highway  patrolmen  would  have 
remained  silent  for  more  than  seven 
months  if  they  really  knew  that  such  a 
case  was  'impossible'  because  of  their 
precautions  on  September  3,  1949.  And  it 
is  equally  fantastic,"  he  continued,  "to 
think  that  State's  Attorney  Jess  W. 
Hunter,  only  learned  of  the  precautions 
seven  months  later  and  had  to  gather 
sworn  testimony  from  such  officials  in 
April,  1950  to  disprove  published  charges 
made  in  September,  1949." 

After  the  American  Press  Institute  at 
Columbia  University  had  been  in  opera- 
tion for  a  few  years,  Negro  newsmen 


started  attending  the  three-to-six-weeks 
courses  offered  to  a  selected  number  of 
newspaper  workers.  First  to  go,  in  1946, 
was  Cliff  Mackay,  managing  editor,  Afro- 
American  newspapers.  Three  attended  in 
1947.  Two  were  from  the  Afro-American 
organization:  Ralph  W.  Mathews,  na- 
tional bureau  chief  at  Washington,  D.C., 
and  William  I.  Gibson,  editor,  in  October. 
Frank  H.  Gray,  managing  editor,  Louis- 
ville Defender,  attended  the  Institute 
seminar  for  Sunday  and  feature  editors 
in  November. 

In  1945,  the  Chicago  Defender  estab- 
lished at  the  Lincoln  University  School 
of  Journalism  an  annual  award  of  $400 
known  as  the  Robert  S.  Abbott  Memorial 
Scholarship  in  Journalism.  The  scholar- 
ship is  awarded  each  year  to  a  promising 
student  who  has  completed  two  years  of 
college  work  and  has  aptitude  for  the 
field  of  journalism.  The  scholarship, 
which  was  increased  in  1951  to  $500  a 
year  by  John  H.  Sengstacke,  Defender 
publisher,  has  been  awarded  to  six  in- 
dividuals, each  of  whom  is  now  working 
on  newspapers  here  and  abroad. 

For  recipients  of  Page  One  Awards 
given  by  the  Durham  Press  Club,  N.C., 
and  those  receiving  the  John  Russwurm 
Citation  Award,  given  by  the  Negro 
Newspaper  Publishers  Association,  see 
Chapter  24,  AWARDS,  HONORS  AND  OTHER 
DISTINCTIONS. 


4 
Music 


THE  STORY  of  the  Negro  in  music  at  the 
end  of  the  first  half  of  the  twentieth 
century  is  largely  that  of  the  Negro  in 
song  and  chorus.1  The  disparity  in  num- 
bers between  singers  and  instrumental- 
ists, composers,  conductors,  music  theor- 
ists, historians,  and  musicologists  is  great 
indeed.  Happily  this  situation  is  improv- 
ing. 

Any  survey  of  what  the  Negro  has  ac- 
complished must  bring  to  interpreter  and 
layman  alike  realization  that  in  most 
phases  of  music  the  Negro  has  made  a 
decided  contribution.  There  is  no  area  in 
the  vast  field  of  musical  endeavor  which 
cannot  boast  of  some  musician  of  color 
who  has  excelled,  and  this  area  extends 
from  the  territory  reserved  for  the  music- 
ally great  in  concert  life  to  the  more 
crowded  realms  of  popular  music.  There 
is  only  one  place  in  which  the  great 
artists  among  American  Negroes  may  not 
perform  and  that  is  the  famed  Metro- 
politan Opera.  While  it  is  true  that  one 
of  the  greatest  stars  of  the  concert  world, 
Marian  Anderson,  has  sung  at  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  neither  Miss  Ander- 
son nor  any  other  of  the  great  contem- 
porary voices  has  been  heard  there  in  an 
operatic  production. 

There  are  encouraging  signs  of  chang- 
ing policy  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
Company.  While  the  Negro  soloist  still 
waits  to  appear  there  in  regular  operatic 
roles,  a  dancer,  ballerina  Janet  Collins, 
has  been  signed  as  a  premiere  danseuse; 
and  a  number  of  well  known  Negro 
singers  participated  in  the  1951-52  open- 
ing performance  of  Aida.  Too  much  praise 
cannot  be  extended  the  New  York  City 
Opera  Company  for  using  available 


Negro  singers  continuously  and  with 
more  than  a  little  success.  While  radio 
and  television  use  a  few  talented  Negroes, 
they  have  yet  to  offer  Negro  artists  in 
general  steady  and  gainful  employment. 
In  spite  of  drawbacks,  however,  new  op- 
portunities are  beginning  to  present 
themselves. 

CONCERT  ARTISTS 

Under  this  section  will  be  found  musi- 
cians who  devote  all  their  time  and  talent 
to  concert  work  and  whose  musical 
careers  revolve  around  appearances  on 
the  concert  stage.2 

Anderson,  Marian:  contralto.  Born 
1908.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  attended 
public  schools  there.  Married  July  24, 
1943,  to  Orpheus  H.  Fisher.  Her  musical 
education  consisted  of  private  study  at 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  the  Chicago 
College  of  Music,  and  abroad.  In  Europe 
she  was  the  pupil  of  Giuseppe  Boghetti 
and  others.  As  a  child,  she  sang  in  the 
Union  Baptist  Church  choir.  A  fund 
raised  through  a  church  concert  enabled 
her  to  take  singing  lessons  under  an 
Italian  instructor.  Her  singing  career 
began  in  1924.  •  In  competition  with  300 
others,  she  won  first  prize  at  the  New 
York  Lewisohn  Stadium  in  1925.  In  1938, 
Howard  University  conferred  on  her  the 
honorary  degree,  Mus.  D. ;  the  same  de- 
gree was  conferred  by  Temple  University 
in  1941  and  by  Smith  College  in  1944. 
She  is  in  great  demand  on  both  the  radio 
and  the  concert  stage. 

In  1943,  Miss  Anderson  was  invited  by 
the  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion to  appear  in  Constitution  Hall,  the 


1  See  previous  editions  of  this  book  for  additional  historical  musical  data. 

2  Some  additional  names  will  be  found  in  previous  editions  of  this  book. 


52 


CONCERT  ARTISTS 


53 


same  concert  theatre  which  four  years 
previously  had  been  denied  to  her.  That 
original  action  resulted  in  the  resignation 
of  Mrs.  Eleanor  Roosevelt  from  the  or- 
ganization and  also  precipitated  the 
momentous  Easter  Sunday  open-air  con- 
cert in  front  of  the  Lincoln  Memorial, 
which  was  attended  by  75,000  persons. 
The  singer  donated  proceeds  from  her 
first  Constitution  Hall  recital  to  the 
United  China  Relief  Fund. 

She  is  the  first  Negro  singer  in  history 
to  appear  in  recital  in  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  New  York  City.  She  has  won 
many  honors  and  awards,  among  them: 
Citizens  Award  of  Brith  Sholem  Fra- 
ternity; the  Order  of  African  Redemption 
of  the  Republic  of  Liberia;  Spingarn 
Award,  1939;  Merit  Award  of  the  New 
York  Youth  Committee  for  conspicuous 
service  to  youth;  Bok  Award,  Philadel- 
phia 1940  ($10,000)  and  a  medallion 
for  outstanding  citizenship  and  meritori- 
ous achievement;  the  money  was  used  to 
establish  the  Marian  Anderson  Scholar- 
ships, given  each  year  to  young  musicians 
of  outstanding  promise;  the  Government 
of  Finland  decoration,  Probenignitate 
humana,  1940.  She  was  selected  by  the 
readers  of  the  Louisville  Times  as  one  of 
the  ten  leading  women  of  the  United 
States.  Her  1950  European  tour  included 
Paris,  London,  Belgium,  Italy,  Switzer- 
land, and  Germany.  In  that  year  she  also 
gave  concerts  in  South  America  and 
Haiti. 

Brice,  Carol:  contralto.  Born  in  North 
Carolina;  reared  at  Palmer  Memorial 
Institute,  Sedalia,  N.C.  Received  training 
at  Juilliard  School  of  Music.  Winner  of 
Naumburg  Award,  1944.  Debut  in  Town 
Hall,  March  1945.  At  the  request  of  con- 
ductor Fritz  Reiner,  she  recorded  De 
Falla's  El  Amor  Brujo  and  Mahler's 
Eines  Fahrenden  Gesellen.  Koussevitsky 
presented  her  to  a  Boston  audience  in 
1946,  and  she  was  guest  soloist  for  the 
annual  spring  concert  of  the  Yale  Uni- 
versity Glee  Club  the  same  year. 

For  three  consecutive  years  she  was 
soloist  with  the  Pittsburgh  Symphony 
Orchestra  under  Fritz  Reiner  and  has 


been  soloist  with  the  New  York  Phil- 
harmonic Orchestra,  the  Kansas  City 
Philharmonic,  the  Boston  Symphony,  and 
other  great  orchestras.  She  has  had  her 
own  radio  program,  "Carol  Brice,  Con- 
tralto," originating  in  New  York  City. 
She  toured  South  America  and  gave  con- 
certs in  Panama  during  1950. 

Brown,  Anne  Wiggins:  soprano.  Born 
Baltimore,  Md.  Education:  Institute  of 
Musical  Art,  Juilliard  Opera  School, 
Morgan  College,  Columbia  University. 
Pupil  of  Licia  Dunham,  of  the  Institute. 
Married  to  Norlof  Schelderup,  a  Nor- 
wegian. She  created  the  role  of  Bess  in 
Porgy  and  Bess ;  sang  the  leading  role  in 
Ravel's  L'Heure  Espagnole  at  Juilliard 
Opera  School,  1939.  Soloist  with  New 
York  Philharmonic  Orchestra  at  the 
Lewisohn  Stadium  1936,  1937,  1939, 
1940;  Hollywood  Bowl,  1937;  St.  Louis 
Municipal  Opera,  1938.  Radio:  Guest 
soloist  on  "General  Motors  Hour," 
"Magic  Key,"  and  Rudy  Vallee  program. 
Gave  full  European  season  of  recitals 
1946-47.  She  has  recently  appeared  as 
Mme.  Flora  in  The  Medium  and  as  Lucy 
in  The  Telephone,  both  by  the  American 
composer,  Menotti. 

Davis,  Ellabelle:  soprano.  Born  New 
Rochelle,  N.Y.  After  a  spectacular  con- 
cert tour  was  offered  the  title  role  of 
Aida  at  the  Opera  Nacionale,  Mexico 
City,  for  the  summer  of  1946.  Sang  with 
the  Indianapolis  Symphony  Orchestra 
under  Savitzky.  Sang  premier  perform- 
ance of  Lukas  Foss's  The  Song  of  Songs 
in  Boston  during  1947-48  season.  Since 
1948  she  has  toured  Europe,  Cuba,  Cen- 
tral and  South  America,  and  the  Carib- 
bean Islands.  Critics  acclaim  her  voice 
one  of  the  finest. 

De  Paur,  Leonard:  conductor.  The  De 
Paur  Infantry  Chorus  made  its  Carnegie 
Hall  debut  Dec.  7,  1947,  upon  leaving 
the  service.  It  was  instantly  acclaimed  one 
of  the  finest  choral  units  of  the  day  and 
since  then  has  sung  over  600  concerts.  It 
is  the  most  heavily  booked  attraction  of 
Columbia  Artists  Management,  Inc.,  and 
has  toured  both  North  and  South 
America. 


54 


MUSIC 


Dicker  son,  Nathaniel:  tenor.  In  1950 
was  given  a  year's  contract  with  National 
Concert  and  Artists  Corporation  (concert 
agency)  and  a  $250  gift  certificate  for  the 
most  outstanding  recital  in  either  Car- 
negie Hall  or  Carnegie  Recital  Hall  dur- 
ing 1949-50.  This  annual  award  was 
established  in  1949  to  give  practical  help 
to  young  musicians,  the  winner  being 
selected  by  a  careful  appraisal  of  all 
reviews. 

Dixon,  (Charles)  Dean:  conductor. 
Born  January  10,  1915,  New  York  City. 
Education:  Juilliard  School  of  Music; 
further  study  at  Columbia  University. 
Has  conducted  the  League  of  Music 
Lovers  Chamber  Orchestra  at  Town  Hall 
recital,  NBC  Symphony  Orchestra,  New 
York  Philharmonic  Symphony  Orchestra 
at  Lewisohn  Stadium,  N.Y.C.,  National 
Youth  Administration  Orchestra.  In  1939 
conducted  the  music  for  John  Henry,  by 
Roark  Bradford  and  Jacques  Wolfe, 
starring  Paul  Robeson,  and  was  musical 
director  of  the  Shoestring  Opera  Com- 
pany. Also  choral  conductor,  including 
American  Peoples  Chorus,  Long  Island 
University  Chorus,  Dean  Dixon  Chorus. 
During  the  war  was  member  of  the  Music 
War  Council,  which  judged  current  war 
songs.  Conducts  music  -  appreciation 
courses  for  children  and  adults.  Conduc- 
tor of  American  Youth  (Interracial) 
Orchestra,  which  made  successful  debut 
at  Carnegie  Hall,  Dec.  16,  1945,  and  gave 
first  performance  of  Ulysses  Kay's  Dance 
Calinda,  Jan.  10,  1946.  Lectures  exten- 
sively. Has  published  articles  in  The 
Musical  Courier,  Music  World  Almanac, 
and  The  Music  Educators  Journal.  On 
May  21,  1950,  directed  a  program  of 
symphonic  music  by  Negro  composers 
from  five  countries  in  Town  Hall,  N.Y.C. 

Dunbar,  Rudolph:  clarinetist.  Born 
1910,  British  Guiana.  Education:  Insti- 
tute of  Musical  Art,  N.Y.C. ;  Paris;  Leip- 
zig. Has  conducted  Liverpool  Symphony 
Orchestra;  National  Symphony  Orchestra 
in  Royal  Albert  Hall,  London,  presenting 
Willian  Grant  Still's,  Plain  Chant  JOT 
America;  previously  presented  Still's 
Afro-American  Symphony  to  British  con- 


cert-goers. Is  first  Negro  to  conduct  Lon- 
don Philharmonic  Orchestra  and  first 
since  Samuel  Coleridge-Taylor  to  conduct 
British  Symphony  Orchestra.  Guest  con- 
ductor, Hollywood  Bowl,  1946.  Has  pub- 
lished a  text  book  on  clarinet  playing. 
Makes  his  home  in  London. 

Duncan,  Todd:  baritone.  Born  1904, 
Danville,  Ky.  Education:  Butler  College; 
M.A.,  Columbia  University.  Pupil  of 
Frank  Bibb  and  others.  Has  made  concert 
tours  in  United  States,  Canada,  England, 
South  America,  Australia.  Created  the 
role  of  Porgy  in  Porgy  and  Bess;  sang  in 
Sun  Never  Sets  in  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
London,  and  appeared  in  the  operatic 
roles  Tanio  and  Escamillo  at  the  New 
York  City  Center.  Has  sung  with  the  New 
York  Philharmonic  Orchestra.  One  of  the 
crowning  events  of  the  1945-46  season 
was  Duncan's  rendition  of  the  baritone 
part  in  the  Beethoven  Ninth  Symphony, 
with  the  New  York  Philharmonic  Orches- 
tra. Took  the  leading  role  as  the  Rev. 
Stephen  Kumalo  in  the  Anderson-Weill 
musical  play,  Lost  in  the  Stars,  musical 
version  of  Cry  the  Beloved  Country,  for 
the  duration  of  its  lengthy  run  on  Broad- 
way. Received  D.  Litt.  from  Valparaiso 
University,  June  1950.  His  accompanist 
is  William  Duncan  Allen. 

Evanti,  Lillian:  soprano.  Born  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  Made  debut  in  opera  at  Nice, 
France.  Has  appeared  in  opera  and  con- 
cert in  the  United  States,  Europe,  South 
America,  Cuba.  Sang  role  of  Violetta  in 
the  Watergate  performance  of  the  Na- 
tional Negro  Opera  Company's  La  Tra- 
viata. 

Everett,  Charles:  tenor.  Native  of  New 
York  City.  Sings  widely  in  the  United 
States.  Has  had  successful  appearances  at 
Town  Hall,  Carnegie  Hall,  and  at  Colum- 
bia University,  N.Y.C. 

George,  Zelma  Watson:  soprano.  Cre- 
ated role  of  Mme.  Flora  in  Menotti's  The 
Medium  for  the  Karamu  House  (Cleve- 
land) production,  December  1949.  Re- 
peated her  success  in  the  first  TV  produc- 
tion in  Cleveland,  August  1950.  After  over 
100  performances  in  Cleveland,  the  pro- 
duction was  moved  to  The  Arena,  New 


CONCERT  ARTISTS 


55 


York  City,  where  it  enjoyed  tremendous 
success.  Awarded  the  Gold  Merit  Award 
by  the  National  Association  of  Negro 
Musicians,  1950. 

Hayes,  Roland:  tenor.  Born  June  3, 
1887,  Curryville,  Ga.  Education:  Fisk 
University;  extension  course,  Harvard 
University.  Pupil  of  W.  Arthur  Calhoun; 
Jennie  A.  Robinson,  Fisk  University; 
Arthur  J.  Hubbard,  Boston,  eight  and 
one-half  years.  Also  studied  in  Europe, 
1930,  under  Miss  Ira  Aldridge,  Victor 
Beigel,  Sir  George  Henschel,  Dr.  Theo. 
Lierhammer.  Mus.  D.,  Fisk  University, 
1932;  Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  Dela- 
ware, Ohio,  1939.  Conducted  own  concert 
tour  of  United  States,  1916-20;  went  to 
Europe,  1921  to  study  and  conduct  con- 
cert tours.  Command  performances  be- 
fore George  V  of  England,  April  1921, 
and  before  Queen  Mother  Maria  Christina 
of  Spain,  1925.  Soloist  with  orchestras  in 
Berlin,  Cologne,  Paris,  Amsterdam, 
Vienna.  Has  toured  United  States  singing 
with  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Detroit,  and 
New  York  Symphony  Orchestras.  Has 
won  wide  recognition  for  interpretation 
of  classics  and  of  traditional  Negro 
melodies. 

Hinderas,  Natalie:  pianist.  Graduate  of 
Oberlin  Conservatory  of  Music  at  18. 
Student  of  the  late  Olga  Samaroff ;  Rosen- 
wald  Fellow;  Samaroff  Scholarship  win- 
ner; Whitney  Fellow.  Soloist  with  the 
Lorain,  Ohio,  Symphony  Orchestra;  per- 
formed several  times  with  Cleveland 
Women's  Symphony. 

Jackson,  Rhea:  soprano.  Graduate  of 
High  School  of  Music  and  Art,  N.Y.C., 
and  Hunter  College;  student  of  Jacques 
Stickgold.  Has  toured  the  United  States 
and  made  successful  Town  Hall  debut. 
One  of  first  colored  singers  to  become 
part  of  Metropolitan  Opera  Chorus  for 
1951  opening  performance  of  Aida. 

Johnson,  Hall:  choral  conductor,  ar- 
ranger, composer.  Born  March  12,  1888, 
Athens,  Ga.  Education:  Knox  Institute, 
Athens,  Ga.;  Atlanta  University;  Allen 
University,  Columbia,  S.C. ;  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  musical  course,  1910; 
Hahn  School  of  Music,  Philadelphia;  In- 


stitute of  Musical  Art,  N.Y.C.,  1923; 
studied  theory  of  music,  violin,  piano, 
and  other  instruments;  specialized  in 
composition;  has  made  many  transcrip- 
tions of  Negro  spirituals.  Organized  Hall 
Johnson  Choir,  December  1925,  which  has 
toured  United  States  and  furnished  back- 
ground music  for  many  musical  comedies 
and  plays.  His  choir  represented  the 
United  States  at  the  Berlin  Arts  Festival, 
1951.  Composed  Coophered,  an  operetta 
portraying  Negro  life  in  the  Southland, 
and  has  arranged  many  spirituals  in 
novel  form  for  vocal  performance.  His 
chorus  has  also  appeared  at  Lewisohn 
Stadium  concerts  and  on  the  Columbia 
Broadcasting  System. 

Lafayette,  Leonora:  soprano.  Born 
Baton  Rouge,  La.  Graduate  of  Fisk  Uni- 
versity; Marian  Anderson  award  winner; 
Whitney  Foundation  Fellow.  During  1951 
she  sang  extensively  in  Basel,  Switzer- 
land. Chief  roles  are  in  Madame  Butterfly 
and  Aida. 

Lee,  Everett:  conductor,  violinist.  Na- 
tive of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Student  at  Cleve- 
land Institute  of  Music  and  soloist  with 
orchestra  under  Beryl  Rubinstein. 
Studied  violin  with  Joseph  Fuchs.  After 
discharge  from  Army  Air  Force,  became 
first  violinist  and  assistant  conductor,  for 
Carmen  Jones.  Has  served  on  the  Colum- 
bia Opera  Workshop  faculty,  and  as 
concert  master,  then  conductor,  for  the 
show,  On  the  Town.  Has  played  with 
Leopold  Stokowski's  New  York  City  Sym- 
phony. Received  a  personal  scholarship 
from  Koussevitsky  for  work  in  conducting 
at  the  Opera  Workshop  at  Tanglewood 
in  the  Berkshires.  Has  his  own  interracial 
orchestra. 

Maynor,  Dorothy:  soprano.  Born  Sept. 
3,  1910,  Norfolk,  Va.  Education:  B.S., 
Hampton  Institute,  1933.  Received  first 
vocal  lessons  from  R.  Nathaniel  Dett. 
Toured  Europe  as  member  of  Hampton 
Institute  Choir;  studied  voice  with  West- 
minster Choir,  Princeton,  N.J. ;  later 
under  Wilfred  Klamroth,  John  Alan 
Haughton,  and  others.  In  1939  made  in- 
formal debut  at  Berkshire  Festival  after 
which  Serge  Koussevitsky  proclaimed  her 


56 


MUSIC 


"one  of  the  finest  singers  I  have  ever 
heard."  After  New  York  debut,  critics 
placed  her  among  leading  concert  singers 
of  the  day.  Has  appeared  with  New  York 
Philharmonic,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Chi- 
cago, Cleveland,  San  Francisco,  and  Los 
Angeles  symphony  orchestras.  In  1940 
was  winner  of  Town  Hall  Endowment 
Series  Award  for  outstanding  perform- 
ance and  chosen  by  Library  of  Congress 
to  open  its  festival  commemorating  150th 
anniversary  of  the  Emancipation  Procla- 
mation; in  1941,  Hampton  Institute  gave 
her  its  annual  Alumni  Award  as  its  out- 
standing alumnus  for  1940;  in  1944  was 
soloist  at  Washington  Cathedral  in  cele- 
bration of  50th  anniversary  of  World 
Y.W.C.A. ;  in  1945  received  Mus.  D.  from 
Bennett  College.  Has  toured  Europe  and 
the  West  Indies  and  sung  series  of  con- 
certs with  Honolulu  Symphony  Orchestra. 
Was  presented  by  National  Symphony 
Orchestra  in  1950. 

Moten,  Etta:  soprano.  Integrated  as 
guest  star  in  Grant  Park  Concert's  Cole 
Porter  High  Program,  Chicago,  111.,  Aug. 
18-19,  1951,  with  three  white  artists.  Also 
featured  were  Albert  Yarborough  and 
John  Burdette,  tenors,  who  sang  with  the 
chorus  accompanying  the  four  stars.  This 
was  the  first  time  in  the  17-year  history 
of  these  concerts  that  Negroes  were  used 
in  the  choral  group. 

McFarlin,  Pruith:  tenor.  Native  of 
Florida.  Education:  Southern  University, 
Baton  Rouge,  La. ;  studied  with  La  Forge 
and  at  Rochester  School  of  Music.  Taught 
at  Piney  Woods,  Miss.  Sings  regularly  on 
Columbia  Broadcasting  System  and  has 
appeared  widely  in  concert  in  the  United 
States. 

McMechen,  June:  soprano.  Native  of 
Missouri.  Graduate  of  Howard  Univers- 
ity; student  of  Todd  Duncan.  Repre- 
sented Howard  University  on  a  Fred 
Allen  radio  program  as  its  "most  talented 
undergraduate."  Further  study  at  Juil- 
liard  and  Columbia  University,  receiving 
Master's  degree  in  music  education.  Has 
toured  extensively  and  had  tremendous 
success  at  Lewisohn  Stadium  appearances 
in  Gershwin  concerts. 


Pankey,  Aubrey:  baritone.  Reared  in 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Was  boy  soprano  soloist 
with  Holy  Cross  Choir.  Education:  Stu- 
died at  Hampton  Institute  with  R. 
Nathaniel  Dett;  Oberlin  Conservatory  of 
Music;  Hubbard  Studios;  Boston  College 
of  Music;  Neue  Wiener  Konzervatorium. 
Private  teachers  were  Thiedor  Lierham- 
mer  in  Vienna,  Oscar  Daniel  and  Charles 
Panzera  in  Paris,  John  Alan  Haughton  in 
New  York.  In  1930,  made  tour  of  prin- 
cipal cities  of  Europe  and  Africa  as  well 
as  United  States  and  South  American 
countries.  Was  sent  on  good-will  tour  of 
South  America  just  before  World  War  II 
and  was  so  successful  he  was  asked  to 
make  a  second  tour. 

Parker,  Louise:  contralto.  Graduate  of 
Curtis  Institute  in  Philadelphia.  Has  won 
two  Marian  Anderson  awards  and  en- 
joyed successful  debut  in  New  York  City, 
November  1947. 

Phillips,  Helen:  soprano.  Successful 
debut  at  Town  Hall,  March  1948.  Guest 
artist  for  National  Association  of  Negro 
Musicians,  Baltimore,  1950.  Soloist  for 
eight  concerts  of  Goldman  Band,  summer 
1950  (the  first  time  in  10  years  a  vocalist 
had  appeared  with  the  band). 

Rahn,  Muriel:  soprano.  Born  in  Boston, 
reared  in  New  York  City  and  at  Tuskegee 
Institute.  Education:  Tuskegee  Institute, 
Atlanta  University,  Conservatory  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska.  Has  taught  at 
several  schools  and  colleges.  Member  of 
opera  group  of  National  Orchestral  Asso- 
ciation of  New  York;  has  alternated  con- 
cert and  stage  careers.  Sang  leading  role 
in  Billy  Rose's  Carmen  Jones,  alternating 
with  Muriel  Smith.  Has  toured  United 
States  extensively.  Sang  in  Eva  Jessye's 
Choir,  Lew  Leslie's  Blackbirds,  Connie's 
Hot  Chocolates,  in  Paris  at  "Chez  La 
DuBarry."  Other  achievements  are:  suc- 
cessful concert  in  Carnegie  Chamber 
Music  Hall;  role  in  National  Orchestral 
Association  presentation  of  Mozart's 
Abduction  from  the  Seraglio;  featured 
role  in  the  Lunt-Fontaine  show,  The 
Pirate;  ovation  at  Grant  Park,  where 
15,000  people  heard  her  sing  with  Grant 
Park  Orchestra,  Aug.  12,  1943,  under 


CONCERT  ARTISTS 


57 


Leo  Bolognini.  For  the  February  1950 
Columbia  Opera  Workshop  production 
she  sang  the  leading  female  role  opposite 
Lawrence  Tibbett  in  The  Barrier,  a 
musical  drama  by  Meyerowitz  and  Lang- 
ston  Hughes,  which  was  repeated  in  abor- 
tive runs  in  Washington  and  New  York. 

Richardson,  Mayme:  soprano.  Born 
Saginaw,  Mich.  Education:  Detroit  Con- 
servatory of  Music.  Made  debut  at  Stein- 
way  Hall,  N.Y.C.  Studied  opera  under 
Pompolio  Maltestase,  coached  by  Julius 
Ronkeski.  Sang  title  role  of  Aida  under 
Fritz  Mahler,  August  1945. 

Robbs,  Mary:  soprano.  Made  concert 
debut  as  soloist  with  Chattanooga  Sym- 
phony Orchestra,  Chattanooga,  Tenn., 
April  4,  1951 ;  believed  to  be  first  time  in 
the  South  that  a  Negro  has  been  a  fea- 
tured performed  with  a  white  orchestra 
in  a  major  public  concert. 

Robeson,  Paul:  baritone.  Born  April  9, 
1898,  Princeton,  N.J.  A.B.,  Rutgers  Col- 
lege, 1919;  M.A.,  Rutgers  University, 
1932;  LL.B.,  Columbia  University,  1923; 
honorary  degree,  L.H.D.,  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, 1940,  Morehouse  College,  1943, 
Howard  University,  1945.  Phi  Beta 
Kappa,  Rutgers.  Toured  United  States 
and  Europe  as  stage  and  concert  artist. 
Is  equally  at  home  in  music  of  the  old 
masters,  songs  of  popular  composers,  and 
spirituals  of  the  Negro. 

Scott,  Hazel:  pianist.  Plays  programs 
divided  equally  between  classics  and 
popular  music.  Her  Carnegie  Hall  con- 
certs are  tremendously  popular.  Is  the 
only  Negro  woman  performer  doing  a 
solo  show  on  TV  (Station  WABD).  Dur- 
ing 1950-51  season  toured  British  Isles, 
Scandinavia,  Israel. 

Smith,  Muriel:  contralto.  Sang  one  of 
lead  roles  in  Carmen  Jones.  Played  role 
of  Ella  Hammer  in  the  Broadway  opera 
The  Cradle  Will  Rock,  by  Blitzstein, 
Mansfield  Theatre,  January  1948. 

Spearman,  Rawn:  tenor.  Native  of 
Tallahassee,  Fla.  Graduate  of  Florida 
A.&M.  College.  After  serving  in  Army, 
joined  Fisk  Jubilee  Singers.  Recipient  of 
Marian  Anderson  award,  fourth  annual 
award  of  American  Theatre  Wing,  1951 


Whitney  Award.  Town  Hall  debut,  May 
13,  1951. 

Thigpen,  Helen:  soprano.  Born  in 
Washington,  D.C.  Studied  at  Howard 
University,  with  teachers  in  New  York, 
with  Eva  Gauthier.  Participant  in  1950 
Festival  of  American  Contemporary 
Music  at  Columbia  University,  sponsored 
by  Alice  M.  Ditson  Fund  and  in  1951 
American  Music  Festival,  singing  songs 
by  composer  Howard  Swanson  on  both 
occasions.  Widely  known  and  well  re- 
ceived as  recitalist. 

Thomas,  Fred:  baritone.  Second-place 
tie  in  1951  "Metropolitan  Auditions  of 
the  Air";  received  $1,000  scholarship. 
Has  sung  in  Broadway  shows,  including 
Show  Boat  and  Call  Me  Mister.  Winner 
of  1951  National  Association  of  Negro 
Musicians  Award.  Debut  in  Town  Hall, 
March  18,  1950. 

Towles,  Lois:  pianist.  Born  in  Texar- 
kana,  Ark.  Attended  Wiley  College,  Uni- 
versity of  Iowa,  Juilliard  School  of 
Music;  studied  under  Robert  Casadesus 
at  Fontainebleau,  France.  Assistant  pro- 
fessor in  music  at  Fisk  University.  Her 
1951  American  concerts  were  followed 
by  a  European  tour.  Has  been  singled  out 
by  Arthur  Rubinstein  as  a  gifted  inter- 
preter and  was  given  fellowship  in  Master 
Coaching  at  his  Hollywood  studio. 

Walker,  George:  pianist.  Born  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  Education:  Oberlin  Conserv- 
atory of  Music;  scholarship  at  Curtis 
School  of  Music,  Philadelphia,  in  piano 
under  Serkin,  in  composition  under  Sca- 
lero;  studied  with  Piatigorsky,  Primrose, 
Menotti.  Debut  recital  in  Town  Hall. 
Soloist  with  Ormandy  and  Philadelphia 
Symphony  Orchestra  and  with  American 
Youth  Orchestra  under  Dean  Dixon. 

War  field  William:  baritone.  Studied 
at  Eastman  School  of  Music.  Served  in 
Army.  Made  sensational  debut  in  Town 
Hall,  March  19,  1950.  Toured  Australia, 
giving  concerts  in  six  cities  with  Goosens, 
Klemperer,  and  Galliera  conducting.  Ap- 
peared in  moving  picture,  Show  Boat;  on 
Broadway  in  Call  Me  Mister  and  Regina. 
Turned  down  role  in  Venice  production 
of  The  Rake's  Progress  for  film,  Huckle- 


58 


MUSIC 


berry  Finn.  Received  scroll  from  "Negro 
in  Arts"  for  outstanding  contributions  in 
music  and  theatre,  Town  Hall,  Jan.  28, 
1951. 

Williams,  Camilla:  soprano.  Born  in 
Danville,  Va.  Graduated  from  Virginia 
State  College.  Taught  in  public  schools 
of  Danville,  Va.  Twice  winner  of  Marian 
Anderson  award  of  $1,000;  also  won 
Philadelphia  Orchestra  Youth  Concert 
audition.  Signed  with  RCA  Victor  as  ex- 
clusive Victor  recording  artist.  Operatic 
debut  in  title  role  of  Madame  Butterfly 
with  New  York  City  Opera  Company, 
May  15,  1946,  and  has  been  on  its  regular 
roster  since  1947.  Is  in  demand  as  con- 
cert singer.  (See  also  NEGROES  IN  OPERA, 
below. ) 

Winters,  Lawrence:  baritone.  Graduate 
of  Howard  University.  Regular  member 
of  New  York  City  Opera  Company.  Has 
given  joint  recitals  with  Ellabelle  Davis. 
Has  toured  Europe  and  South  America. 
(See  also  NEGROES  IN  OPERA,  below.) 

EDUCATORS,  ARTISTS, 
ARRANGERS,  COMPOSERS 

A  large  number  of  competent  Negro 
musicians,  virtuosi,  and  composers  are 
most  noticeably  active  in  the  field  of 
education.  This  section  contains  that 
group.  After  each  individual's  name  his 
specialty  is  indicated.  Included  here  also 
are  persons  whose  whole  time  is  devoted 
to  composition.3 

Allen,  William  Duncan:  pianist-accom- 
pianist.  Born  Dec.  15,  1908,  Portland, 
Oreg.  Education:  Mus.  <B.,  Oberlin  Con- 
servatory of  Music,  1928;  Mus.  M.,  1936. 
Further  study  in  London  with  Egon 
Petri,  1936;  in  Zackopane,  Poland,  1937 
and  1939.  Instructor  in  piano  at  Howard 
University,  1929-35;  Fisk  University, 
1936-43.  Since  1936  has  been  accompanist 
to  Todd  Duncan.  Has  given  many  recitals 
in  United  States  and  abroad. 

Anderson,  Walter:  composer,  organist. 
Born  May  12,  1915,  Zanesville,  Ohio. 
Education:  Studied  organ,  piano  theory 
with  William  Bailey,  Capital  University, 


Columbus,  Ohio;  Mus.  B.,  Oberlin  Con- 
servatory of  Music.  In  1938  became  an 
Associate,  American  Guild  of  Organists. 
Member  of  Pi  Kappa  Lambda.  During 
1937-38  accompanied  Catherine  Van 
Buren,  soprano.  From  1939  to  1942  in- 
structor in  music,  Kentucky  State  College. 
In  1941  won  Bartol  Scholarship  for  study 
at  the  Berkshires.  In  1942  associated  with 
Karamu  House,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Head  of 
Music  Department,  Antioch  College,  Yel- 
low Springs,  Ohio.  Has  composed  cantata 
based  on  President  Roosevelt's  D-Day 
prayer. 

Blanton,  Carol:  pianist.  Native  of  Den- 
mark, S.C.  Education:  Spelman  College. 
Studied  piano  under  Kemper  Harreld, 
Morehouse  College,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  at 
Institute  of  Musical  Art;  also  under  Ep- 
stein for  three  years;  did  summer  work 
with  Gorodnitzki  and  Hazel  Harrison.  Re- 
ceived Mus.  M.  from  Institute  of  Musical 
Art  on  a  General  Education  Board  Fel- 
lowship; repeated,  under  Friedberg.  On 
faculty  of  Dillard  University,  1936-46. 
Became  member  of  faculty  of  Hampton 
Institute,  1946. 

Bonds,  Margaret:  pianist,  composer. 
Reared  in  Chicago,  111.  Mus.  B.  from 
Northwestern  University.  Guest  soloist  at 
Chicago  World's  Fair.  Member  of  a 
duo-piano  team  playing  concerts  through- 
out United  States.  Appeared  as  first 
Negro  pianist  with  the  75  piece  Scranton 
Philharmonic  Orchestra,  Dr.  Frieder 
Weissman  conducting  Jan.  31,  1950. 

Brown,  J.  Harold:  composer,  choral 
conductor.  Native  of  Florida.  Education: 
Florida  Normal  and  Industrial  School, 
St.  Augustine,  B.A.  in  Music,  Fisk  Uni- 
versity, 1923.  In  1926  attended  Kansas 
City  Conservatory.  Received  M.A.  in  com- 
position from  Indiana  University,  1931. 
Director  of  Music,  Attucks  High  School 
and  Florida  A.&M.  College,  Tallahassee, 
Fla.,  to  1946.  Director  of  Music,  Southern 
University.  Winner  of  Wanamaker  Mu- 
sical Composition  Contest,  1927,  1928, 
1930,  1931 ;  of  Harmon  Award,  1929.  In 
1926  won  $200  scholarship  from  National 
Association  of  Negro  Musicians. 


*  Some  additional  names  will  be  found  in  previous  editions  of  this  book. 


EDUCATORS,  ARRANGERS,  COMPOSERS 


59 


Charlton,  Melville:  organist,  composer. 
Born  Aug.  26,  1880,  N.Y.C.  Education: 
Studied  piano  under  Virginia  Hunt  Scott, 
later  under  E.  B.  Kinney,  a  pupil  of 
Antonin  Dvorak;  organ  and  composition 
under  Charles  Heinroth  at  National  Con- 
servatory of  Music  of  America;  musical 
history  under  Henry  T.  Finck;  work  at 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York.  Mus.  D. 
from  Howard  University,  1924.  Organist 
and  Musical  Director,  Temple  of  Coven- 
ant, 1914-24;  Temple  Eman-El,  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  1911  to  present. 
Became  Associate  of  American  Guild  of 
Organists,  1915.  Written  compositions  for 
piano  and  organ  include  Poems  Erotique. 

Charlton,  Rudolph  von:  pianist.  Born 
in  Norfolk,  Va.  Education:  Hampton  In- 
stitute with  R.  Nathaniel  Dett;  Juilliard 
School  of  Music ;  New  England  Conserva- 
tory; Mus.  M.  from  University  of  Michi- 
gan. Studied  with  Percy  Grainger,  Dett, 
John  Orth,  Alton  Jones,  Matthay,  and 
Joseph  Brinkman.  Member  of  faculty  of 
Florida  A.&M.  College,  Tallahassee,  Fla., 
until  1942.  Director  of  Music,  Prairie 
View  University,  Prairie  View,  Texas. 

Clark,  Edgar  Rogie:  composer,  singer. 
Education:  Clark  College,  Atlanta,  Ga.; 
DePaul  University,  Chicago,  111. ;  Chicago 
Musical  College;  M.A.,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. Studied  with  Charles  Hackett  of 
Juilliard  School  of  Music.  Member  of 
ASCAP.  Published  Anthology,  Negro  Art 
Songs,  first  volume  of  its  kind. 

Coston,  Jean:  pianist.  Graduate  of 
Oberlin  Conservatory;  student,  Juilliard 
School  of  Music,  Chicago  Musical  Col- 
lege; student  of  Friedberg,  Rudolph 
Ganz.  Soloist  with  New  Orleans  Sym- 
phony under  Massimo  Freccia.  Taught  at 
Howard  and  Dillard  Universities. 

Dawson,  William  Levi:  composer,  con- 
ductor. Born  Sept.  23,  1897,  Anniston, 
Ala.  Education:  Tuskegee  Institute; 
Washburn  Institute,  Topeka,  Kans. ;  Mus. 
B.,  Homer  Institute  of  Fine  Arts,  Kansas 
City,  Ohio;  Mus.  M.,  American  Con- 
servatory of  Music,  Chicago.  Was  director 
of  Music  in  the  public  schools  of  Topeka, 
Kansas,  and  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  for  three 
years  first  trombonist  with  Chicago  Civic 


Orchestra.  Conducted  a  band  at  Century 
of  Progress  Fair,  Chicago,  1933.  Since 
1931  has  been  Director  of  Music,  Tuske- 
gee Institute,  and  Director  of  Tuskegee 
Institute  Choir  (which  has  appeared  at 
International  Music  Hall,  New  York 
City;  at  Hall  of  Fame,  New  York 
City,  on  unveiling  of  bust  of  Booker  T. 
Washington,  May  23,  1946;  at  Constitu- 
tion Hall,  Washington,  D.C.,  in  benefit 
concert  for  United  Negro  College  Fund; 
in  concerts  in  the  East  and  South;  and 
is  also  frequently  heard  on  nation-wide 
radio  broadcasts).  His  compositions  in- 
clude: Negro  Folk  Symphony  No.  1,  1931, 
Scherzo,  1930,  for  orchestra;  Out  in  the 
Fields,  Ain'-a-That  Good  News,  (a  cap- 
pella)  ;  Break,  Break,  Break  (with  or- 
chestra) for  chorus;  Trio  in  A,  (violin, 
cello,  piano)  ;  Sonata  in  A,  (violin  and 
piano)  ;  chamber  music. 

DeBoise,  Tour  gee:  pianist.  Education: 
Fisk  University;  Oberlin  College;  Juil- 
liard School  of  Music;  L'Ecole  Normale 
de  Musique,  Paris.  Became  head  of  De- 
partment of  Music,  Talladega  College, 
1919.  Has  received  favorable  mention  as 
performer  by  Musical  America,  The 
Etude,  La  Monde  Musicale,  and  other 
periodicals.  Known  as  a  Chopin  inter- 
preter. Is  Dean  of  Department  of  Music, 
Southern  University,  Baton  Rouge,  La. 

DeRamus,  Anne:  pianist.  Mus.  M., 
Northwestern  University;  Rosenwald  Fel- 
low; student  of  Robert  Casadesus  and 
Nadia  Boulanger;  Grace  Moore  Scholar- 
ship at  Fontainebleau,  France;  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  Award.  Debut  at  Times  Hall, 
March  3,  1948. 

Diton,  Carl:  composer.  Born  Oct.  30, 
1886,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Protege  of  Azalia 
Hackley.  Education:  Studied  at  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  and  at  Munich. 
Taught  at  Paine  College,  1911-14;  Wiley 
College,  1914-15;  Talladega  College, 
1915-18.  Opened  own  studio  in  Philadel- 
phia and  later  in  New  York  City.  Won 
Harmon  Award,  1929.  In  1930  studied 
voice  in  Graduate  Department  of  Juilliard 
School  of  Music.  Songs  published  by 
Schirmer.  At  present  conducts  studio  in 
New  York  City. 


60 


MUSIC 


Francois,  Clarens:  pianist,  composer, 
Education:  Mus.  B.,  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity; graduate  study  at  University  of 
Southern  California  at  Los  Angeles.  Has 
taught  at  Palmer  Memorial  Institute, 
Sedalia,  N.C.;  in  public  schools,  Dayton, 
Ohio.  Served  as  bandmaster  for  U.S. 
Navy  at  Chapel  Hill,  N.C.,  during  World 
War  II. 

Fuller,  0.  Anderson,  Jr.:  composer, 
pianist.  Born  Sept.  20,  1904,  Bishop  Col- 
lege, Marshall,  Texas.  Education:  Bishop 
College;  New  England  Conservatory  of 
Music;  University  of  Iowa,  where  he  re- 
ceived M.A.  and  Ph.  D.  Has  been  Director 
of  Music  at  A.&T.  College,  Greensboro, 
N.C.;  Prairie  View,  Texas.  Is  Dean  of 
Music,  Lincoln  University,  Jefferson  City, 
Mo.  Under  his  direction,  the  Division  of 
Music  became  member  of  Association  of 
Schools  of  Music. 

Gamble,  Anne:  pianist.  Graduated  cum 
laude  from  Fisk  University;  studied  at 
Oberlin  Conservatory,  and  under  Ray  Lev 
in  New  York  City.  Taught  at  Tuskegee 
Institute,  was  Associate  Professor  of 
Music  at  Talladega  College. 

Gatlin,  F.  Nathaniel:  clarinetist.  Born 
at  Gary,  Ind.  Education:  Oberlin  Con- 
servatory of  Music;  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity, M.A. ;  studied  under  George 
Wain  and  DeCaprio.  Played  for  Enesco, 
Kryl,  Kinder,  Stokowski.  Has  taught  at 
Bennett  College,  Greensboro,  N.C.  Head 
of  Band  Department,  Lincoln  University, 
Jefferson  City,  Mo.,  1946. 

Hall,  Frederick  D.:  composer,  con- 
ductor, arranger.  Born  Dec.  14,  1896, 
Atlanta,  Ga.  Education:  Morehouse  Col- 
lege; Chicago  Musical  College,  Mus.  B. ; 
Columbia  University;  M.A.  Fellowship, 
Royal  Anthropological  Institute;  Licen- 
tiate, Royal  Academy  of  Music;  Rosen- 
wald  Fellow;  General  Education  Board 
Fellow;  Research  Grant  from  Phelps 
Stokes  Fund.  Formerly  Director  of  Music, 
Clark  College,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  Dillard 
University,  New  Orleans,  La.  Director  of 
Music,  Alabama  State  Teachers'  College, 
Montgomery,  Ala. 

Harreld,  Kemper:  violinist.  Born  Jan. 
31,  1885,  Muncie,  Ind.  Education:  Chi- 


cago Musical  College;  Sherwood  Music 
School;  Frederickson  Violin  School,  Chi- 
cago; Sterns  Conservatory,  Berlin,  1914. 
Serves  on  faculty  of  Morehouse  College 
and  of  Spelman  College,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
Conducted  Atlanta  University  chorus  on 
coast-to-coast  broadcast,  spring,  1946. 

Harris,  Charles  /.:  pianist.  Education: 
Chicago  College  of  Music;  New  England 
Conservatory  of  Music;  Boston  Univer- 
sity. Formerly  accompanist  for  Roland 
Hayes;  author  of  a  book  describing  ex- 
periences as  such.  Holds  position  on 
faculty  of  State  A.&M.  College,  Orange- 
burg,  S.C. 

Harrison,  Hazel:  pianist.  Born  in  La- 
Porte,  Ind.  Studied  with  Victor  Heinz  in 
Berlin;  then  with  Ferruccio  Busoni. 
Played  with  Berlin  Philharmonic  Orches- 
tra. Studied  with  Percy  Grainger  after 
another  year  in  Europe.  Taught  at  Tus- 
kegee Institute.  Is  member  of  faculty  of 
Howard  University,  Washington,  D.C. 

James,  Willis  Laurence:  composer, 
violinist,  singer,  conductor.  Born  in 
Montgomery,  Ala.  Has  held  positions  at 
Leland  College,  Baker,  La.;  Alabama 
State  Teachers  College,  Montgomery; 
Fort  Valley  State  College,  Fort  Valley, 
Ga.;  Spelman  College,  Atlanta,  Ga.  His 
compositions  for  voice  and  chorus  have 
been  performed  by  the  NBC  and  CBS 
networks;  on  the  Firestone  Hour,  Bell 
Telephone  Hour,  and  Contented  Hour.  Is 
an  authority  on  Negro  Folk  Music. 

Jones,  Louis  Vaughn:  violinist.  Born  in 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  Education:  Studied  with 
Joseph  Balas;  at  New  England  Conserva- 
tory with  Felix  Winternitz;  post-graduate 
work  at  University  of  Michigan.  Has 
given  numerous  concerts  in  United  States 
and  Europe.  Further  study  with  Solloway 
in  Budapest  and  Darrieux  in  Paris.  Since 
1930  has  been  head  of  Violin  Department, 
Howard  University. 

Kay,  Ulysses:  composer.  The  Quiet 
One,  first  performance  by  New  York 
Little  Symphony  Orchestra,  -November 
1948.  Suite  for  Orchestra,  performed  by 
New  York  Philharmonic  Music  Ensemble. 
During  1950-51  received  a  Fulbright  Fel- 
lowship for  creative  work  in  Italy,  in 


EDUCATORS,  ARRANGERS,  COMPOSERS 


61 


residence  at  American  Academy,  Rome. 
Commissioned  1950-51  by  Quincy  (111.) 
Society  of  Fine  Arts  to  compose  work  for 
baritone  voice  and  chamber  orchestra. 
First  performances  1951:  (1)  Sinfonia 
in  E,  for  orchestra,  May  2,  by  Dr.  Howard 
Hanson  and  Eastman-Rochester  Sym- 
phony Orchestra  in  Eastman  Schools' 
twenty-first  Festival  of  American  Music, 
Rochester,  N.Y.;  (2)  Song  of  Ahab, 
cantata  for  baritone  voice  and  chamber 
orchestra  after  Moby  Dick,  May  17,  by 
J.  Leslie  Pierce,  baritone,  with  members 
of  the  Quincy  Chamber  Music  Ensemble, 
George  Irwin,  conductor,  Quincy,  111.; 
(3)  Short  Suite,  for  concert  band,  May  8, 
by  Baylor  Golden  Wave  Band,  Donald  I. 
Moore,  director,  Waco,  Texas.  Publica- 
tions: Two  volumes  for  organ,  by  H.  W. 
Gray  Company,  N.Y.C. 

Kerry,  Thomas:  composer,  pianist.  As- 
sociate Professor  of  Music,  Howard  Uni- 
versity. With  Sylvia  Olden-Lee  forms 
popular  team  of  duo-pianists. 

Lawson,  Warner:  pianist,  choral  direc- 
tor. Born  in  Hartford,  Conn.  Education: 
Early  music  study  with  parents;  B.A., 
Fisk  University  and  Yale  University; 
M.A.,  Harvard  University;  piano  study 
with  Artur  Schnabel  in  Germany.  Has 
served  on  faculty  of  A.&T.  College, 
Greensboro,  N.C.,  and  at  Fisk  University. 
In  1942  was  called  to  Howard  University 
as  Dean  of  School  of  Music.  1943-44,  ad- 
visor to  Lilla  Belle  Pitts,  then  President 
of  Music  Educators  National  Conference, 
in  St.  Louis.  Under  Dean  Lawson  the 
Howard  University  School  of  Music  be- 
came member  of  Association  of  Schools 
of  Music,  the  first  Negro  group  so 
elected. 

Margetson,  Edward  H.:  composer,  or- 
ganist. Born  Dec.  31,  1891,  St.  Kitts, 
B.W.I.  Education:  Columbia  University. 
Associate  of  American  Guild  of  Organ- 
ists. Specialty  is  Caribbean  Sea  songs. 
Organist  and  choirmaster  of  Church  of 
the  Crucifixion,  N.Y.C.  Among  his  com- 
positions are:  Rondo  Caprice,  for  full 
orchestra;  Echoes  of  the  Caribbean; 
Ballade  Valse  Serenade,  for  cello;  pieces 
for  violin,  piano,  organ,  chorus. 


Mayo,  T.  Curtis:  organist.  Born  in 
Washington,  D.C.  Education:  Oberlin 
Conservatory  of  Music,  Mus.  M.  Associate 
of  American  Guild  of  Organists.  Taught 
at  LeMoyne  College,  Memphis,  Tenn.; 
St.  Augustine's  College,  Raleigh,  N.C. 
Recently  won  fellowship  in  American 
Guild  of  Organists. 

Miller,  James:  pianist,  arranger.  Born 
Aug.  30, 1907,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Education: 
Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  Mus. 
M.;  first  Negro  music  teacher  in  public 
schools  of  Pittsburgh.  Has  given  recitals 
in  United  States  and  published  arrange- 
ments for  spirituals.  Organist,  Bethesda 
Church,  Pittsburgh.  Member  of  Superin- 
tendent's Advisory  Committee  for  Inter- 
cultural  Education  in  public  schools  of 
Pittsburgh. 

Nicker  son,  Camille:  composer  and 
singer  of  Creole  songs.  Born  in  New  Or- 
leans, La.  Education:  Mus.  B.,  Oberlin 
Conservatory  of  Music ;  studied  at  Colum- 
bia University  and  Institute  of  Musical 
Art.  Instructor  at  Howard  University. 
Author  of  Five  Creole  Songs,  published 
by  Boston  Music  Company.  In  1944  gave 
recital  of  Creole  and  Negro  songs  at  New 
York  Times  Hall,  accompanying  herself 
on  piano  and  guitar  (the  Creole  songs 
were  sung  in  the  Louisiana  French  patois, 
after  being  explained  in  English).  Past- 
president  of  National  Association  of 
Negro  Musicians. 

Olden-Lee,  Sylvia:  pianist-accompanist, 
coach.  Education:  Studied  at  Howard 
University  with  Allen  and  Cohen;  at 
Oberlin  University  with  Frank  Shaw. 
Studied  with  Wittgenstein.  Taught  at 
Talladega  College  and  Dillard  University. 
Joint  recitals  with  Carol  Brice,  Paul 
Robeson ;  duo-piano  concerts  with  Thomas 
Kerr  of  Howard  University.  Married 
Everett  Lee,  whom  she  accompanies. 

Perry,  Julia:  composer.  Native  of  Ak- 
ron, Ohio.  Student  at  Akron  University. 
Through  John  Knight  Scholarship  was 
able  to  attend  Westminster  Choir  School. 
In  1948  won  first  place  in  vocal  contest; 
tied  for  first  place  in  composition  at 
Columbus  convention  of  the  National 
Association  of  Negro  Musicians.  Further 


62 


MUSIC 


study  at  Juilliard  School  of  Music  and 
the  Berkshires.  Has  M.A.  in  composition 
from  Westminster  Choir  College. 

Price,  Florence  B.:  composer,  pianist, 
born  1888,  Little  Rock,  Ark.  Education: 
Chicago  Teacher's  College;  University  of 
Chicago;  Chicago  Musical  College;  New 
England  Conservatory  of  Music;  Amer- 
ican Conservatory  of  Music.  Winner  of 
Wanamaker  prize  for  symphony  and 
piano  compositions.  Member  of  ASCAP, 
Chicago  Club  of  Women  Organists,  Chi- 
cago Music  Association,  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Negro  Musicians,  National 
Association  for  American  Composers  and 
Conductors. 

Savage,  Roena:  instructor  in  voice,  De- 
partment of  Music,  Lincoln  University, 
Jefferson  City,  Mo.  Under  management  of 
Dixie  Bureau-Southern  Town  Hall  Asso- 
ciation, 1950-51.  Her  repertoire  includes 
songs  from  German,  French,  Italian, 
English,  Spanish  schools  as  well  as 
spirituals.  Made  her  New  York  debut  in 
1948  and  was  acclaimed  for  "an  unusu- 
ally beautiful  voice,  even  throughout  its 
entire  range." 

Schuyler,  Philippa  Duke:  composer, 
pianist.  Born  Aug.  2,  1931,  N.Y.C.  Having 
won  eighth  consecutive  prize  in  New  York 
Philharmonic  Society's  notebook  contest 
for  young  people,  at  age  of  11  was  barred 
from  further  participation  (first  time  in 
history  of  the  contest  a  child  was  barred 
because  of  brilliance).  In  annual  tourna- 
ment for  piano  students  held  by  National 
Guild  of  Piano  Teachers,  Philippa  was 
awarded,  for  eighth  consecutive  time, 
the  highest  honors,  a  gold  star,  for  her 
repertoire  of  21  pieces,  and  the  mark  of 
"superior."  She  first  played  for  the  Guild 
when  four  years  old,  and  had  at  that  time 
composed  a  dozen  scales,  10  pieces,  and 
knew  by  memory  many  compositions.  Just 
before  her  fourth  birthday  she  played 
Schumann  and  Mozart  on  two  large  radio 
hook-ups.  Has  appeared  at  Lewisohn  Sta- 
dium with  New  York  Philharmonic  Or- 
chestra in  dual  role  of  composer-pianist. 
The  orchestra  played  one  of  her  compo- 
sitions and  then  accompanied  her  in  the 
Saint-Saens  Concerto  in  G  Minor.  A  child 


prodigy,  Miss  Schuyler  is  developing  into 
a  first  class  musician,  and  has  made  suc- 
cessful appearances  in  United  States  and 
West  Indies. 

Still,  William  Grant:  composer.  Born 
May  11,  1895,  Woodville,  Miss.  Educa- 
tion: Wilberforce  University;  Oberlin 
Conservatory  of  Music;  New  England 
Conservatory.  Honorary  degrees:  Mus. 
M.,  Wilberforce  University;  Mus.  D., 
Howard  University,  1936.  Played  violin, 
cello,  oboe  in  orchestra,  Columbus,  Ohio, 
1915.  Has  arranged  for  well  known  or- 
chestras and  arranged  and  directed  for 
"Deep  River  Hour,"  Station  WOR;  com- 
poser of  theme  song  for  New  York 
World's  Fair.  Conducted  own  composi- 
tions as  guest  conductor,  Los  Angeles 
Philharmonic  Orchestra,  1936.  Received 
second  Harmon  Award  for  year's  greatest 
contribution  to  American  Negro  culture; 
Guggenheim  Fellowship,  1934;  Rosen- 
wald  Fellowship,  1939. 

Compositions  include:  for  full  orches- 
tra, Darker  America;  Afro-American 
Symphony;  Symphony  in  G  Minor;  Dis- 
mal Swamp.  For  orchestra,  chorus,  nar- 
rator, and  contralto,  And  They  Lynched 
Him  on  a  Tree.  For  small  orchestra, 
Scherzo;  Summerland;  Blues;  From  the 
Black  Belt;  Rising  Tide.  For  piano  solo, 
Three  Visions;  Quit  Dot  Fool'nish;  A 
Deserted  Plantation;  Seven  Traceries. 
For  voice  and  piano,  Winter's  Approach; 
Breath  of  a  Rose;  Twelve  Negro  Spiritu- 
als; Rising  Tide.  For  chorus,  Three 
Negro  Spirituals.  For  orchestra  and  bari- 
tone soloist,  Plain-Chant  for  America. 
For  ballet,  La  Guiablesse;  Sahdji;  Lenox 
Avenue.  Ballet,  Miss  Sally's  Party. 
Operas,  Troubled  Island;  A  Bayou 
Legend;  A  Southern  Interlude.  On  May 
12,  1949,  Troubled  Island,  based  on 
Langston  Hughes'  book,  had  its  premiere 
at  the  New  York  City  Center  Opera 
House. 

Suthern,  Orrin  Clayton,  II:  organist- 
conductor.  Born  Oct.  11,  1912,  Renovo, 
Pa.  Education:  Western  Reserve  Univer- 
sity; Cleveland  Institute  of  Music; 
Northwestern  University;  Columbia  Uni- 
versity; student  of  Edwin  Arthur  Kraft 


EDUCATORS,  ARRANGERS,  COMPOSERS 


63 


and  of  Carl  Weinrich,  both  Fellows  of 
American  Guild  of  Organists;  history 
under  Lang,  Columbia  University.  Has 
given  concerts  in  all  parts  of  United 
States.  Taught  at  Tuskegee  Institute, 
1934-39;  head  of  Department  of  Music, 
Florida  A.&M.  College,  Tallahassee,  Fla., 
1940-42;  head  of  Department  of  Music, 
Bennett  College,  1942-45;  head  of  De- 
partment of  Music,  Dillard  University, 
1945-50.  Director  and  Associate  Professor 
of  Music,  Lincoln  University,  Lincoln 
University,  Pa. 

Suthern  first  began  to  attract  attention 
as  the  youthful  organist  of  St.  Andrew's 
Episcopal  Church  in  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
where  his  father  was  rector.  When  a  stu- 
dent at  Western  Reserve  University  he 
won  a  contest  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Northern  Ohio  Chapter  of  the  American 
Guild  of  Organists  for  which  he  was 
awarded  a  certificate  and  a  recital  at  the 
Youngstown,  Ohio  convention  of  the 
Guild.  No  Negro  organist  had  ever  been 
so  honored.  Through  his  affiliation  with 
Western  Reserve  University  many  other 
musical  honors  were  extended  to  him. 
Arthur  Quimby,  then  Curator  of  Music  at 
the  Cleveland  Museum  of  Art,  invited 
him  to  play  four  Sunday  evening  recitals 
on  the  great  museum  organ.  Later  the 
mighty  instrument  at  Severance  Hall, 
home  of  the  Cleveland  Orchestra,  was  to 
respond  to  his  touch.  When  the  family 
moved  to  Chicago  in  1933,  his  father 
became  rector  of  St.  Thomas'  Episcopal 
Church,  then  a  mission,  and  Suthern  took 
over  the  duties  of  organist  and  master  of 
the  choristers.  After  playing  a  number 
of  small  engagements,  Suthern's  big 
opportunity  came  when  an  invitation  to 
play  the  mammoth  Skinner  organ  in 
Rockefeller  Chapel  was  extended  him  by 
the  University  of  Chicago  officials.  As  a 
result  of  this  engagement,  succeeding 
years  brought  annual  invitations  to  play 
at  the  Chapel. 

During  the  1945-46  season,  two  new 
firsts  were  added  to  the  Suthern  record. 
In  December,  he  was  soloist  with  the  New 
Orleans  Symphony  Orchestra,  the  first 
time  a  Negro  instrumentalist  had  played 


with  a  white  southern  orchestra;  on  Feb. 
17,  he  was  the  first  Negro  organist  to 
perform  over  a  CBS  network. 

Swanson,  Howard:  composer.  The 
American  Music  Festival,  February  1951, 
featured  his  songs,  Second  Prelude  and 
The  Valley.  As  a  participant  in  Sixth 
Annual  Festival  of  Contemporary  Amer- 
ican Music  at  Columbia  University,  spon- 
sored by  Alice  M.  Ditson  Fund,  his  songs, 
Junk  Man,  Four  Preludes,  The  Valley, 
Night  Song,  were  sung  by  HelenThigpen, 
soprano.  His  Suites  for  Cello  and  Piano 
were  played  by  Bernard  Greenhouse, 
February  1951.  First  Negro  to  win  annual 
(1951 )  award  of  New  York  Music  Critics' 
Circle  for  orchestra  music,  for  his  com- 
position, Short  Symphony. 

Thomas,  Carlotta:  organist,  composer. 
Born  in  New  York  City.  Protegee  of 
Harry  Burleigh.  Education:  Languages 
and  music,  Columbia  University;  piano, 
Chatauqua  and  summer  school  under 
Arnet  Hutcherson;  also  studied  under 
many  private  teachers.  First  Negro  wo- 
man to  pass  academic  examination  to 
become  Associate  of  American  Guild  of 
Organists.  Composer  of  numerous  pub- 
lished choruses  and  a  recitalist  of  dis- 
tinction. 

White,  Clarence  Cameron:  composer, 
violinist.  Born  Aug.  10,  1880,  Clarkville, 
Tenn.  Education:  Howard  University, 
1894-95;  Oberlin  Conservatory  of  Music, 
1896-01.  Studied  in  London  under  Samuel 
Coleridge-Taylor,  1908-11;  in  Paris  under 
Raoul  Lapana,  on  Rosenwald  Fellowship, 
1930-33.  Student  at  Juilliard  School  of 
Music,  1940.  Played  in  String  Players 
Club  under  the  direction  of  Coleridge- 
Taylor.  M.A.  (Honorary),  Atlanta  Uni- 
versity, 1928;  Mus.  D.,  Wilberforce  Uni- 
versity, 1933.  Teacher  in  the  public 
schools,  Washington,  D.C.,  1902-05;  pri- 
vate studio,  Boston,  1912-23;  Director  of 
Music,  West  Virginia  State  College,  1924- 
30,  Hampton  Institute,  1932-35;  Music 
Specialist,  National  Recreation  Associa- 
tion, N.Y.C.,  1937-41.  Awarded  Harmon 
Foundation  Award,  1928;  Rosenwald 
Fellow  Award,  1930;  David  Bispham 
Award  for  Opera,  1933.  Among  his  com- 


64 


MUSIC 


positions  are  Quango  (opera  in  4  acts), 
1932;  numerous  pieces  for  violin  and 
pianoforte,  organ,  voice,  and  violin  tech- 
nique; many  Negro  spirituals,  including 
Bandanna  Sketches,  From  the  Cotton 
Fields,  Cabin  Memories. 

Winkfield,  Clyde:  pianist.  Born  June  9, 
1918.  Education:  Chicago  Musical  Col- 
lege; University  of  Chicago.  Pupil  of 
Treshansky.  Winner  of  Civic  Achieve- 
ment Award  of  City  of  Chicago.  Rosen- 
wald  Fellow,  1941.  Soloist  with  Detroit 
Civic  Orchestra,  Pennsylvania  Orchestra, 
American  Concert  Orchestra.  National 
Youth  Symphony  Orchestra. 

Work,  John  W .:  composer.  Education: 
Fisk  University;  Yale  University,  Mus. 
B.;  Columbia  University,  M.A. ;  Institute 
of  Musical  Art.  Published  compositions 
for  voice  (solos,  motets,  adaptations  from 
Negro  folksongs)  ;  piano  solo,  Sassafras; 
Appalachia  (suite  of  three  pieces) ; 
Scuppernong,  (suite  of  three  pieces) ; 
numerous  other  works.  Articles  pub- 
lished: "The  School  Chorus",  Neiv  Edu- 
cational Magazine;  "Sweet  Chariot  Goes 
to  Church,"  Eptvorth  Highroad;  "Modern 
Music  and  its  Implications  to  the  Lay 
Listener,"  The  Dillard  Arts  Quarterly; 
"Plantation  Meistersingers,"  The  Musical 
Quarterly,  January  1940;  "A  Significant 
New  Musical  Form,"  Motiv.  October 
1946;  "Changing  Patterns  in  Negro 
Folksongs,"  Journal  of  American  Folk- 
lore, October  1949.  Published  in  1940, 
American  Folk  Songs.  His  festival  chorus, 
The  Singers,  won  first  prize  in  competi- 
tion held  by  Fellowship  of  American 
Composers  when  performed  May  9,  1946, 
by  Michigan  State  Chorus  and  Detroit 
Symphony.  Commissioned  to  write  orches- 
tra suite  for  Saratoga  Music  Festival. 

NEGROES  IN  OPERA 

The  data  that  follow  give  the  operatic 
appearances  of  Negroes,  1948  to  1951.1 

Robert  McFerrin,  baritone 

1949— March  31,  Troubled  Island,  Still 


Muriel  Rahn,  soprano 

1950  —  February,   The  Barrier,  Meyerowitz, 

Columbia  University 
Muriel  Smith,  contralto 

1948—  January,     The     Cradle     Will    Rock, 

Blitzstein,   Mansfield  Theatre 
Dec.  12,  Carmen  Jones,  Town  Hall 
William  Warfield,  baritone 
1949  —  Nov.  1, 


Camilla  Williams,  soprano 

1948  —  March  26,  Madame  Butterfly,  Puccini 

Oct.  10,  Madame  Butterfly,  Puccini 
Oct.  28,  Aida,  Verdi 

1949  —  April  9,  Madame  Butterfly,  Puccini 

April  21,  Madame  Butterfly,  Puccini 
Oct.  1,  Madame  Butterfly,  Puccini 
Nov.  6,  Madame  Butterfly,  Puccini 
Nov.  12,  La  Bohcme,  Charpentier 

1950  —  Sept.  22,  Madame  Butterfly,  Puccini 
Camilla  Williams  and  Lawrence  Winters 

1948—  Nov.  5,  Aida,  Verdi 
Nov.  26,  Aida,  Verdi 

1949—  March  24,  Aida,  Verdi 
April  3,  Aida,  Verdi 

1950  —  April  16,  Madame  Butterfly,  Puccini 

1951  —  April  1,  Madame  Butterfly,  Puccini 

April  6,  Aida,  Verdi 
Lawrence  Winters,  baritone 

1948—  Oct.  28,  Aida,  Verdi 

Oct.  31,  Pagliacci,  Puccini 
Nov.  21,  Pagliacci,  Puccini 

1949—  April  10,  Troubled  Island,  Still 
Oct.  2,  Aida,  Verdi 

Oct.  16,  Pagliacci,  Puccini 

Oct.  19.  Tales  of  Hoffman,  Offenbach 

Oct.  20,  Aida,  Verdi 

Nov.    1,    Love    for    Three    Oranges, 

Prokofieff 
Nov.  10,  Carmen,  Bizet 

1950—  March  24,  Love  for  Three  Oranges, 

Prokofieff 

April  2,  Pagliacci,  Puccini 
April  6,  Turandot,  Puccini 
April  22,  Pagliacci,  Puccini 
April  23,   Tales  of  Hoffman,  Offen- 

bach 

April  31,  Turandot,  Puccini 
Oct.  19,  Aida,  Verdi 
Nov.  10,  Aida,  Verdi 
Nov.  13,  Die  Meistersinger,  Wagner 
1951  —  rMarch  14,  Die  Meistersinger,  Wagner 
March   17,  Love  for  Three  Oranges, 

Prokofieff 

March  25,  Pagliacci,  Puccini 
Oct.  4,  The  Dybbuk,  Tamkin 


THE  NEGRO  AND 
POPULAR  MUSIC 

In  the  field  of  popular  music,  Negro 
musicians  hold  a  prominent  place  as 
composers,  arrangers,  band  leaders,  and 
soloists,  both  vocal  and  instrumental.2  An 
article  in  Down  Beat,  Jan.  1,  1943,  states 


1  AH  appearances  were  with  the  New  York  City  Opera  Company,  N.Y.C.,  except  Miss  Rahn's.  For  appearances  of 
Negroes  in  operatic  roles  1872-1946,  see  Negro  Year  Book  1947. 

2  For  detailed  sketches  of  some  popular  musicians,  see  Negro   Year  Book  1947. 


POPULAR  MUSIC 


65 


that  colored  musicians  excel  on  all  solo 
instruments. 

Among  familiar  and  noted  popular 
artists  who  have  been  on  the  scene  for 
many  years  are  Duke  Ellington  (Edward 
Kennedy)  ;  William  C.  Handy,  of  the 
famous  "St.  Louis  Blues,"  who  is  now  in 
the  music  publishing  business ;  and  Eubie 
Blake,  composer,  who  has  "written  a  life- 
time of  melodies." 

Among  the  younger  group  currently  on 
the  scene  are  Valaida  Snow,  international 
singing  star;  Maxine  Sullivan,  song- 
stress; Mary  Lou  Williams,  pianist,  ar- 
ranger, and  composer;  Sarah  Vaughan, 
vocalist;  and  Nat  "King"  Cole,  and  many 
others. 

A  popular  singer  of  folk  songs  is  Josh 
White,  who  toured  Europe  in  1951.  Popu- 


lar gospel  singers  are  Sister  Rosetta 
Tharpe,  and  Mahalia  Jackson,  who  was 
recognized  in  1951  by  a  French  musical 
organization  for  the  recording  of  folk 
music. 

Among  band  leaders  and  other  leaders 
who  have  made  names  for  themselves  are: 
Louis  Armstrong,  Count  Basic,  Tiny 
Bradshaw,  Cab  Galloway,  Billy  Eckstine, 
Ella  Fitzgerald,  Lionel  Hampton,  Erskine 
Hawkins,  Benny  Carter,  Teddy  Wilson, 
Erroll  Garner,  Pearl  Bailey,  Lena  Home, 
Roy  Eldridge,  Billy  Daniels,  Louis 
Jordan. 

Winners  in  the  1951  Down  Beat  band 
poll  were  Duke  Ellington,  Miles  Davis, 
Dizzy  Gillespie,  Charlie  Parker,  Oscar 
Peterson,  Sarah  Vaughn,  and  the  Mills 
Brothers. 


5 
Art 


THE  AFRICAN  HERITAGE 

Contrary  to  popular  impression,  the  Ne- 
gro has  contributed  largely  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  fine  arts.1 

"Negro,"  the  accepted  term  for  desig- 
nating the  darker,  so-called  black,  races, 
is  very  ambiguously  and  arbitrarily  used 
today  to  sustain  certain  mythical  stereo- 
types, mainly  by  the  English-speaking 
peoples  and  particularly  by  those  of  the 
United  States.  A  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
word  merely  meaning  "black,"  the  earli- 
est occasion  of  its  present  usage,  accord- 
ing to  the  Oxford  English  Dictionary, 
was  in  1555.  Anciently  it  was  unknown. 
All  Africa  was  anciently  known  by  the 
Greeks  as  Ethiopia,  meaning  "land  of  the 
burnt  faces."  It  has  been  said  that  Em- 
peror Haile  Selassie  considers  himself  the 
spiritual  ruler  of  all  Africa  for  this  rea- 
son. Ethiopia  is  the  oldest  nation  on  earth 
and  was  the  mother  of  some  of  the  great 
civilizations. 

At  the  dawn  of  history,  the  most  highly 
developed  civilizations  were  in  ancient 
Ethiopia  and  Egypt,  whose  inhabitants 
had  a  common  origin.  In  these  civiliza- 
tions the  fundamentals  of  architecture 
were  developed  and,  concurrently,  the 
arts  of  painting  and  sculpture.  The  earli- 
est great  architectural  development  is 
found  in  the  Nile  Valley,  and  its  extra- 
ordinary ruins  still  remain  as  visible 
testimony.  "In  every  part  of  the  valley 
we  find  remnants  of  an  age  of  building 
the  like  of  which  cannot  be  paralleled 
in  the  richest  parts  of  Greece.  Here  it  was 
that  great  building  was  practiced  at  an 
age  when  all  of  the  rest  of  the  world  was 


in  midnight  darkness." 2  These  are  the 
works  of  the  people  known  today  as 
Negro  and  Negroid. 

In  the  rest  of  Africa  contemporary 
with  the  ancient  Negro  and  Negroid 
civilizations  of  East  Africa,  there  were 
outstanding,  though  more  primitive, 
civilizations.  It  is  claimed  that  the  famous 
ruins  of  Zimbabwe  in  Rhodesia  mark  the 
site  of  long-lost  Ophir,  a  previously  un- 
identified region  famous  in  the  Old 
Testament  for  its  fine  gold. 

During  the  past  45  years,  West  Africa 
has  given  us  works  of  art  that  have  made 
it  a  vast  influence  on  modern  art  and  the 
industrial  arts  of  the  world.  We  now  know 
more  than  ever  about  the  arts  of  West 
Africa  through  the  famous  Blondiau  Col- 
lection, which  was  brought  to  the  United 
States  about  1925.  Dr.  Albert  C.  Barnes 
of  the  Barnes  Foundation,  Merion,  Pa., 
writing  in  Opportunity,  May  1926,  on 
Negro  Art  Past  and  Present,  says: 

A  score  or  more  years  ago  most  of  those 
persons  who  watched  the  beginning  of  a  new 
era  in  art  were  profoundly  astonished  to  read 
that  its  source  of  inspiration  was  the  work  of 
a  race  for  centuries  despised  and  condemned 
to  a  servile  status.  The  greatest  of  all  sculp- 
tures, that  most  purely  classic  in  conception 
and  execution,  the  Egyptian,  was  itself 
African. 

Paul  Guillaume,  proprietor  and  editor 
of  the  magazine,  Les  Arts,  Paris,  in  the 
same  issue  of  Opportunity  says:  "These 
statues,  first  studied  by  anthropologists 
and  antiquarians,  have  in  the  short  space 
of  twenty  years  played  a  role  no  less  im- 
portant for  this  age  than  was  the  role  of 
classic  art  in  inspiring  the  Renaissance." 

The  influence  of  African  art  extends 
immeasurably  throughout  the  industrial 


1  Sources  include:  Porter,  James  A.,  "Progress  of  the  Negro  in  Art  During  the  Past  Fifty  Years,"  Pittsburgh 
Courier,  July  29,  1950.  For  awards  and  other  distinctions  in  art,  see  Chapter  24,  AWARDS,  HONORS  AND  OTHER 
DISTINCTIONS. 

8  Ridpath,  J.  C.,  With  the  World's  People,  Vol.  9.  Washington,  D.  C. :  Clark  Ridpath,  1916. 


66 


THE  AFRICAN  HERITAGE 


67 


arts.  This  was  strongly  affirmed  by 
Stewart  Culin,  curator  of  the  Brooklyn 
Museum: 

The  art  of  the  Negro  is  distinguished  from 
the  art  of  all  other  existing  art  of  more  or 
less  pre-literate  races  as  being  a  living  art  of 
a  living  people.  While  the  American  Indian 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  South  Pacific  have 
declined  in  contact  with  the  European  civili- 
zation, and  their  art  extinguished,  the  Negro 
exists  with  his  artistic  powers  and  percep- 
tions unimpaired,  capable  of  progressing 
along  lines  of  his  own  traditions  and  of  cre- 
ating for  himself  and  in  his  own  way.  The 
vitality  of  his  art  is  evidenced  by  the  influence 
it  has  exerted  upon  the  contemporary  art  of 
the  West,  known  and  fully  recognized  by 
many  painters  and  sculptors  and  by  their 
critics  and  followers.  Less  known  and  under- 
stood is  the  effect  it  has  had  upon  the  in- 
dustrial arts,  upon  pattern  making,  upon  so- 
called  decorative  art.  Mostly  occupied  with 
the  textile  patterns,  I  have  seen  their  adop- 
tion by  the  French  and  American  textile  in- 
dustries following  the  display  of  raffia  em- 
broideries at  the  Brooklyn  Museum  in  1923.1 

According  to  Dr.  Culin,  some  of  the 
results  of  this  adoption  formed  the  most 
conspicuous  of  all  exotic  influences  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1925.  He  gives  the 
Negro's  textiles  the  most  enduring  place 
in  their  influence  upon  the  art  of  the 
world. 

We  realize  from  the  arts  of  the  Negro 
that  the  beautiful  was  a  way  of  life  in 
African  civilizations  and  that  the  Amer- 
ican Negro  has  a  very  old  artistic  back- 
ground. During  the  long  years  of  slavery 
in  the  New  World,  the  American  Negro 
was  separated  from  many  of  his  gifts — 
to  which  he  is  now  abundantly  returning. 

From  Central  and  West  Africa  came 
the  gift  of  iron  and  smelting.  Franz  Boas 
states:  "It  seems  not  unlikely  that  the 
people  who  made  the  marvelous  discovery 
of  reducing  iron  ores  by  smelting  were 
the  African  Negroes.  Neither  ancient 
Europe,  nor  ancient  Western  Asia,  nor 
ancient  China  knew  iron."  Torday,  writ- 
ing in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Anthropo- 
logical Institute,  says:  "We  are  indebted 
to  the  Negro  for  the  very  keystone  of  our 
modern  civilization  ...  we  owe  him  the 
discovery  of  iron."  This  was  a  contribu- 
tion of  West  Africa,  the  section  from 

1  Opportunity,    May    1927. 


which  most  of  the  slaves  who  were 
brought  to  the  Americas  came.  Thus  we 
know  that  many  of  the  slaves  brought  to 
the  Americas  were  from  cultures  skilled 
for  centuries  in  the  use  of  iron.  So  it  is 
understandable  how  and  why  the  Negro's 
first  outstanding  aesthetic  contribution  to 
New  World  culture  was  the  fashioning  of 
iron  in  many  artistic  ways.  Old  balconies, 
grilles,  and  doorways  of  New  Orleans 
and  surrounding  Gulf  areas,  of  Savannah, 
Georgia,  of  Charleston  and  Beaufort, 
South  Carolina,  and  of  other  parts  of  the 
South  Atlantic  area  are  eloquent  tributes 
to  the  skilled  craftsmanship  of  slaves, 
heritages  of  their  ancient  cultures  and 
civilizations.  They  worked  at  the  anvil 
without  direction  from  the  white  group. 
These  gracious  balconies,  intricate  grilles, 
and  charmingly  designed  lunettes  wrought 
by  slave  labor  have  won  their  place  in 
the  world  of  dealers  and  connoisseurs  as 
works  of  master  craftsmen. 

Notwithstanding  the  more  than  justifi- 
able claim  of  the  Negro  to  the  indigenous 
cultures  of  the  African  continent  and  the 
world  renown  of  the  vast  works  in  the 
Nile  Valley  of  Ethiopia  and  Egypt,  recog- 
nized Negro  writers  on  Negro  art  have 
failed  to  take  the  East  African  phase  into 
proper  consideration.  Indeed,  white 
American  writers  generally  have  given 
more  thought  to  the  fact  that  ancient 
Ethiopia  and  Egypt  were  Negro  than  have 
Negro  writers.  Outstanding  among  them 
has  been  Dr.  Albert  C.  Barnes  of  the 
Barnes  Foundation,  Merion,  Pa.  However, 
two  distinguished  Negro  historians  and 
scholars  have  ably  and  authentically 
documented  the  ancient  Negro  connec- 
tions of  the  great  nations  of  East  Africa, 
as  well  as  the  equally  ancient,  though 
more  primitive,  nations  of  the  West  and 
South.  These  scholars  are  Dr.  W.  E.  B. 
DuBois,  in  his  Black  Folk  Then  and  Now 
and  his  more  recent  The  World  and 
Africa,  and  Joel  A.  Rogers,  in  his  works 
in  general  but  particularly  in  the  three 
volumes  entitled  Sex  and  Race  and  a 
pamphlet,  World's  Greatest  Men  and 
Women  of  African  Descent.  It  is  the 


68 


ART 


existing  remnants  and  ruins  of  the  fine 
arts  that  have  made  our  knowledge  of 
ancient  history  possible,  and  the  story  of 
the  Negro's  contributions  to  the  fine  arts 
generally  is  inseparably  interwoven  with 
that  history,  as  well  as  with  modern 
history. 

INFLUENCE  OF 
ALAIN  L.  LOCKE 

There  are  only  two  Negro  writers  of  con- 
sequence in  the  field  of  Negro  art,  Alain 
L.  Locke,  Professor  of  Philosophy  at 
Howard  University,  and  James  A.  Porter, 
Assistant  Professor  of  Art  at  the  same 
university,  whose  Modern  Negro  Art 
covers  its  subject  more  thoroughly  than 
any  other  work  so  far. 

Dr.  Alain  L.  Locke  is  one  of  the  recog- 
nized authorities  on  the  Negro  in  art.  It 
is  reasonable  to  state  that  he  has  been  a 
greater  inspirational  influence  upon  the 
development  of  Negro  artists  and  in  cre- 
ating appreciation  for  the  Negro's  art 
than  any  other  person  or  group  during 
the  past  30  years.  He  has  been  appropri- 
ately called  "the  father  of  the  Negro 
Renaissance."  The  appearance  of  the 
Harlem  edition  of  Survey  Graphic  in 
March  1925  and  The  New  Negro  later  in 
the  same  year  had  the  effect  of  an  atomic 
bomb  on  the  public  in  general  and  Negro 
youth  in  particular.  Prior  to  1925,  the 
known  Negro  professionals  and  students 
in  the  art  schools  of  the  country  could 
almost  have  been  counted  on  the  fingers. 
Because  of  Locke's  influence,  ambitious 
aspirants  in  the  field  of  art  were  greatly 
stimulated  in  their  efforts.  From  1925  to 
1951,  in  the  short  span  of  26  years,  more 
Negro  artists  and  craftsmen  have  devel- 
oped and  achieved  outstanding  recogni- 
tion in  American  life  than  in  all  the 
previous  years  of  American  history.  Those 
who  pioneered  played  their  part,  but  it 
remained  for  Locke  to  dramatize  and 
accelerate  the  movement,  building  high 
on  the  earlier  foundations.  Other  groups, 
individuals,  and  organizations  followed 
and  aided  in  movement. 


AMERICAN  NEGRO  ARTISTS 

Early  Artists 

In  spite  of  the  handicaps  of  slavery, 
Negroes  have  followed  along  with  Amer- 
ican art  developments  from  the  begin- 
ning. They  managed  to  achieve  their  own 
commensurate  results  in  every  phase  of 
the  arts  practiced.  James  A.  Porter's 
Modern  Negro  Art  sustains  this  conclu- 
sion, and  undoubtedly  as  interest  and 
available  funds  increase,  making  possible 
more  extensive  research,  much  more  evi- 
dence will  be  discovered.  The  foremost 
of  the  known  artists  of  the  earliest 
period,  according  to  Locke's  The  Negro 
in  Art  was: 

Joshua  Johnston:  painter,  1770-1830. 
From  a  legendary  figure  known  as  "the 
painter  slave  of  General  Strieker,"  Dr. 
J.  Hall  Pleasants  of  the  Maryland  His- 
torical Society  has  reconstructed  Joshua 
Johnston,  undoubtedly  the  first  authenti- 
cated Negro  artist  in  America.  He  was  a 
portraitist,  and  was  probably  manumit- 
ted. He  is  listed  in  the  Baltimore  direc- 
tories between  1769  and  1824  as  a  free- 
holder of  colour  and  a  portrait  painter. 
According  to  Porter,  "the  source  of  his 
instruction  or  training  is  not  yet  estab- 
lished," but  to  use  Dr.  Pleasant's  own 
words:  "There  appears  in  his  paintings  a 
striking  generic  resemblance  to  the  work 
of  three  members  of  the  Peale  family. 
These  three  artists  were  Charles  Wilson 
Peale,  Charles  Peale  Polk  and  Rem- 
brandt Peale." 

In  this  period  there  were  others  who 
attained  some  proficiency  of  fair  note. 
Porter  gives  the  foremost  mention  of 
those  known  to  Robert  Douglass,  portrait 
and  ornamental  painter,  1809-87;  Pat- 
rick Reason,  portrait  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  about  1817;  and  William 
Simpson,  portrait  painter,  who  died  about 
1872. 

1850  to  1880 

During  this  period  there  were  several 
Negro  artists  who  distinguished  them- 
selves favorably  in  comparison  with  other 


AMERICAN  NEGRO  ARTISTS 


69 


contemporary  talents.  The  first  and  fore- 
most up  to  1870  was: 

Robert  S.  Duncanson:  painter,  1821- 
1871.  Born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  He  at- 
tained distinction  in  Cincinnati  and 
abroad  as  a  painter.  One  of  his  paintings, 
"The  Trial  of  Shakespeare,"  was  recently 
presented  to  the  Douglass  Center  in 
Toledo.  "Blue  Hole"  is  owned  by  the 
Cincinnati  Art  Museum.  Another  of  his 
works,  purchased  by  Queen  Victoria,  is 
said  to  hang  in  Windsor  Castle.  His  tal- 
ents, especially  shown  in  "The  Trial  of 
Shakespeare,"  attracted  the  attention  of 
prominent  artists  in  Cincinnati  in  1840, 
and  he  was  sent  to  Scotland  to  study  by 
the  Freedmen's  Aid  Society.  He  returned 
in  1843  to  become  a  respected  member 
of  the  Cincinnati  group  of  artists.  He  is 
mentioned  in  a  history  of  Cincinnati 
written  by  Charles  Gist  in  1851  as  being 
a  noted  artist,  a  painter  of  fruit,  fancy 
and  historical  paintings,  and  landscapes. 
He  executed  numerous  portrait  and  mural 
commissions  for  prominent  families  of  the 
city.  The  portrait  of  "William  Carey"  at 
the  Ohio  Military  Institute,  of  "Nicholas 
Longworth"  at  the  Ohio  Mechanics'  In- 
stitute, and  mural  panels  for  the  hall  and 
reception  room  of  the  Taft  family  resi- 
dence are  of  this  period.  His  only  known 
painting  of  a  Negro  subject,  a  portrait  of 
Bishop  Payne  and  his  family  (1848),  is 
now  in  the  possession  of  Wilberforce 
University.  Duncanson  returned  to  Eng- 
land and  achieved  considerable  fame 
exhibiting  in  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and 
London. 

Other  artists  to  achieve  some  note 
about  the  same  time  were  Edward  Stid- 
ham,  portrait  painter,  and  William  Dor- 
sey,  landscape  painter,  both  of  Phila- 
delphia. 

From  1865  to  1880,  the  two  most  out- 
standing Negro  artists  in  American  his- 
tory, who  reached  their  peak  at  the  time 
of  the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Exposition 
in  1876,  were  Edward  M.  Bannister  and 
Edmonia  Lewis. 

Edward  M.  Bannister:  painter,  1828- 
1901.  Born  in  Nova  Scotia,  Canada.  He 
received  private  instruction  in  painting 


from  Dr.  Runner  of  Boston,  and  attained 
considerable  recognition  there  in  1854. 
In  1870,  he  moved  to  Providence,  R.I., 
residing  there  until  his  death.  He  was 
challenged  to  a  professional  career  by  a 
statement  in  the  New  York  Herald  in 
1867  to  the  effect  that  "the  Negro  seems 
to  have  an  appreciation  of  art,  while 
manifestly  unable  to  produce  it."  The 
Providence  Art  Club  was  organized  in  his 
studio  in  1880.  This  became  the  nucleus 
of  the  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design. 
Bannister's  most  noted  painting  "Under 
the  Oaks"  was  exhibited  in  the  group 
representing  the  Massachusetts  artists  at 
the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Exposition 
in  1876.  It  was  awarded  a  Gold  Medal 
and  was  bought  for  $1,500  by  James 
Duffe  of  New  York.  Bannister  is  repre- 
sented in  the  Providence  Club,  the  Rhode 
Island  School  of  Design,  Howard  Univer- 
sity Art  Gallery,  and  the  John  Hope 
Collection,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Edmonia  Lewis,  painter,  1845-1890. 
Born  near  Albany,  N.Y.  Of  mixed  Negro 
and  Indian  parentage,  Edmonia  Lewis 
was  adopted  from  an  orphanage  and  edu- 
cated at  Oberlin,  Ohio,  1859-63,  by  aboli- 
tionists. As  far  as  is  known,  she  was  the 
pioneer  Negro  sculptor.  She  showed 
artistic  talent  at  an  early  age  and  was 
trained  in  the  studio  of  Edmund  Brackett 
of  Boston.  Her  first  exhibited  works  were 
"Medallion  Head  of  John  Brown"  and 
"Bust  of  Robert  Gould  Shaw,"  shown  at 
Soldiers  Aid  Fair,  Boston,  in  1864.  She 
was  sent  by  her  patrons,  the  Story  family, 
to  Rome,  Italy,  where  she  became  pro- 
ficient in  the  fashionable  neoclassical 
style  of  the  day.  Here  she  produced  many 
figures,  portraits,  and  symbolic  groups 
directly  in  marble.  On  her  return  to  the 
United  States,  she  executed,  mostly  in 
plaster,  a  number  of  portrait  commis- 
sions. Among  these  were  "Wendell 
Phillips,"  "Charles  Sumner,"  "Harriet 
Hosmer,"  "Charlotte  Cushman,"  and 
"Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow,"  which 
was  done  for  the  Harvard  College  Li- 
brary. Her  symbolic  groups,  usually 
under  life  size,  show  a  competent  mastery 
of  technique.  Best  known  among  these 


70 


ART 


works  are  "Hagar"  (1866),  "Hiawatha" 
(1865),  "The  Marriage  of  Hiawatha," 
"The  Departure  of  Hiawatha"  (1867), 
"Madonna  and  Child"  (collection  of  the 
Marquis  of  Bute),  "Forever  Free,"  eman- 
cipation group  (1867),  and  the  Harriet 
Hunt  Mausoleum,  Mt.  Auburn  Cemetery, 
Massachusetts.  She  exhibited  in  Rome  in 
1871,  at  the  Philadelphia  Centennial  in 
1876,  and  at  Farwell  Hall  Exhibit,  Chi- 
cago, 1870. 

1880  to  1910 

For  the  next  twenty  years  no  known 
artists  of  consequence  were  produced. 
Yet  the  works  of  those  of  the  approxi- 
mately five  preceding  generations  set  a 
background  for  Henry  Ossawa  Tanner, 
who  became  the  greatest  of  all,  even  to 
the  present  time.  He  became  one  of  the 
outstanding  artists  of  the  world  and  per- 
haps the  greatest  painter  of  scriptural 
subjects  of  this  age. 

Henry  Ossawa  Tanner:  painter,  1859- 
1937.  Born  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  He  was  the 
son  of  Bishop  Benjamin  T.  Tanner  of 
the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
He  lived  in  Paris  from  1891  to  his  death 
there  on  May  25,  1937.  He  studied  at  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
1884-88,  and  came  particularly  under  the 
influence  of  Thomas  Eakins.  After  gradu- 
ation, he  taught  art,  part-time,  at  Clark 
University,  Atlanta,  Ga.  Through  the  aid 
of  Bishop  J.  C.  Hartzell  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  who  had  been  at- 
tracted to  his  works,  he  was  enabled  to 
go  to  Paris.  He  studied  at  the  Academic 
Julian  and  under  Jean  Paul  Laurens  and 
Benjamin  Constant.  "The  Music  Lesson" 
brought  his  first  Salon  Honorable  Men- 
tion in  1896.  In  1897,  his  original,  re- 
ligious and  mystical  attitude  broke 
through  his  early  realism.  "The  Raising 
of  Lazarus"  was  awarded  the  Salon  Gold 
Medal  and  was  purchased  by  the  French 
government  for  the  Luxembourg  Gal- 
leries. Tanner  instantly  became  an  inter- 
national figure.  "The  Annunciation"  ex- 
hibited in  1898  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  was  purchased  for  the  Wilstach 
Collection.  "Judas"  was  purchased  for 


the  Carnegie  Institute  in  1899,  and 
"Nicodemus"  (Walter  Lippincott  Prize) 
for  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  in  1899. 
Among  subsequent  awards  were:  Silver 
Medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1900;  Silver 
Medal,  Pan-American  Exposition,  1901; 
Silver  Medal,  St.  Louis  Exposition,  1904; 
Medal  of  Second  Class,  Paris  Salon, 
1906;  Harris  Prize,  Art  Institute  of  Chi- 
cago, 1906;  Gold  Medal,  San  Francisco 
Exposition,  1915;  Clark  Prize,  Grand 
Central  Galleries,  New  York,  1930.  Tan- 
ner was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  in  1909  and  a  member 
in  1927.  He  was  also  made  a  Chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor.'  He  is  represented 
in  some  of  the  foremost  public  and  pri- 
vate galleries  here  and  abroad. 

The  stirring  achievements  of  Tanner 
were  of  inestimable  value  as  sources  of 
inspiration  to  a  large  number  of  indi- 
viduals. Though  beginning  in  small  num- 
bers, they  were  destined  to  grow  exceed- 
ingly during  the  next  25  years.  The  first 
important  artist  to  appear  achieved  and 
held  an  outstanding  place  in  the  field  of 
sculpture  for  nearly  40  years.  This  artist 
was: 

Meta  Vaux  Warrick  Fuller:  sculptress, 
b.  1877.  Born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  She 
studied  at  the  School  of  Industrial  Art 
and  the  Pennsylvania  Academy,  was  a 
pupil  of  Charles  Grafly,  and  of  Rodin  in 
Paris,  and  attended  the  Academic  Cola- 
rossi.  She  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Salon  of 
1903  and  1904  a  group  entitled  "The 
Wretched,"  which  is  considered  her 
masterpiece.  She  executed  symbolic 
groups  on  the  Negro  for  the  Jamestown 
Tercentenary,  1907;  Harmon  Exhibits, 

1930,  1933;  and  frequent  later  showings 
at  the  Boston  Art  Club  and  the  Guild  of 
Arts  and  Crafts.  Her  work  is  represented 
in  the  Cleveland  Museum,  in  the  Schom- 
burg  Collection,  Countee  Cullen  Branch, 
New   York   Public   Library,   and   at  the 
Y.M.C.A.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Contemporary  with  Mrs.  Fuller  and 
also  a  sculptress  was: 

May  Howard  Jackson:  sculptress,  1877- 

1931.  Born  in  Philadelphia.  She  studied 
at  J.  Liberty  Tadd's  Art  School,  Phila- 


AMERICAN  NEGRO  ARTISTS 


71 


delphia,  and  the  Pennsylvania  Academy. 
She  maintained  a  private  studio  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  from  1902  to  her  death, 
specializing  until  1912  on  portrait  busts. 
About  1914  she  began  to  be  intrigued  by 
the  Negro  theme.  Exhibits:  Corcoran  Art 
Gallery,  1915;  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign, 1916;  Harmon  Exhibits,  1927,  1928 
(Bronze  Medal  in  sculpture) ;  New  York 
Emancipation  Exposition,  1913.  Her 
memorial  bust  of  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar 
is  at  Dunbar  High  School,  Washington, 
D.C. 

John  Henry  Adams,  Jr.,  a  teacher  at 
Morris  Brown  College,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  in 
the  early  1900's  is  also  exceedingly 
worthy  of  mention.  It  is  not  known  where 
he  received  his  training,  but  the  rare 
quality  of  his  drawings  in  pen  and  ink — 
portrait  studies  and  illustrations — docu- 
ment him  as  being  one  of  the  most  gifted 
users  of  this  medium  the  race  has  pro- 
duced. Practically  all  writers  on  the 
Negro  in  art  except  James  A.  Porter  have 
overlooked  him.  His  works  appeared 
mainly  in  the  Voice  of  the  Negro,  a 
periodical  published  in  Atlanta  from 
1904  to  1906,  and  later  in  The  Crisis. 

George  Washington  Carver,  painter, 
18647-1943.  All  the  world  knows  George 
Washington  Carver  as  a  great  agricul- 
tural chemist,  but  not  many  are  aware 
that  he  also  produced  paintings  of  recog- 
nized merit.  A  career  as  an  artist  seems  to 
have  been  his  intent  more  than  55  years 
ago  in  the  Simpson  College  School  of 
Art,  Indianola,  Iowa.  He  continued  to 
paint,  and  in  later  years  used  his  own 
pigments  made  from  the  clays  of  Ala- 
bama. There  was  a  Carver  Collection  of 
Art,  consisting  of  paintings  he  had  exe- 
cuted, located  in  the  George  Washington 
Carver  Museum  at  Tuskegee  Institute 
until  a  fire  in  1947.  In  this  collection 
were  four  paintings  which  had  been 
selected  for  exhibition  at  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  1893. 


One  of  these,  "Yucca  Angustifolia  and 
Cactus,"  was  awarded  an  Honorable 
Mention.  There  was  also  from  a  later 
period  a  beautiful  small  painting  of  a 
cluster  of  peaches.1 

An  interesting  and  generally  over- 
looked fact  is  the  appearance  about  this 
period  of  the  first  known  Negro  male 
sculptor: 

Isaac  Hathaway:  sculptor  and  ceramist, 
b.  1871.  Born  in  Lexington,  Ky.  He 
studied  at  the  Art  Department  of  the  New 
England  Conservatory  of  Music;  the  Cin- 
cinnati Museum  Art  Academy;  the  Cer- 
amics Department,  Pittsburg  Normal 
College,  Pittsburg,  Kansas;  and  the 
Chandler  Normal  College.  He  maintained 
a  studio  in  Washington,  D.C.,  during 
1910.  His  works  are  principally  portrait 
busts,  the  best  known  of  which  are  of 
Frederick  Douglass,  Booker  T.  Washing- 
ton, and  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar.  His  more 
recent  works  include  designs  for  the 
Booker  T.  Washington  memorial  coin  and 
for  the  coin  to  memorialize  both  Booker 
T.  Washington  and  George  Washington 
Carver,  minted  by  the  U.S.Governmcnt. 
He  is  one  of  the  outstanding  ceramists  in 
the  country  and  is  head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Ceramics,  Alabama  State  Teach- 
ers College,  Montgomery. 

The  next  well-known  painter  to  follow 
Tanner  also  achieved  outstanding  success. 
He  was: 

William  A.  Harper,  painter,  1873-1910. 
Born  near  Cayuga,  Canada,  Dec.  27, 
1873;  died  in  Mexico  City,  March  27, 
1910.  He  studied  at  the  Art  Institute  of 
Chicago,  taught  drawing  in  the  public 
schools  of  Houston,  Texas,  and  studied 
in  Paris  on  a  fellowship  from  1903-05. 
He  painted  landscapes  extensively  in 
Brittany,  Provence,  and  southern  England 
and  then  again  studied  in  Europe,  1907- 
08.  He  was  closely  associated  with  Tanner 
as  an  informal  pupil.  He  returned  to 
Chicago  and  lived  as  a  free-lance  painter. 


1  In  addition  to  housing  the  relics  of  Dr.  Carver's  activities,  the  George  Washington  Carver  Museum  also  houses 
»n  exhibit  of  Negro  art  and  culture  and  Tuskegeeana.  Most  of  the  paintings  by  Dr.  Carver  were  destroyed  in  the  fire 
of  Nov.  24,  1947,  which  almost  gutted  the  interior  of  the  building.  The  "Yucca  Angustifolia  and  Cactus"  was  badly 
damaged,  though  not  completely  destroyed.  The  "peaches"  were  blackened  by  smoke  and  acid.  However,  these  two 
are  still  exhibited.  Restored  during  1948-51,  most  of  the  original  exhibits  are  displayed,  with  the  exception  of  the 
paintings  as  indicated. 


72 


ART 


His  premature  death  was  a  major  loss  to 
Negro  art,  for  critics  judged  him  of  great 
promise,  and  many  thought  him  more 
creatively  original  than  Tanner.  He  was 
considered  one  of  the  leading  landscape 
painters  in  the  West.  It  is  reasonably 
certain  that  longer  life  would  have  lifted 
him  to  national  and  perhaps  international 
fame.  Exhibits:  Art  Institute  of  Chicago, 
1905;  Fortnightly  Club  (1st  Prize), 
1908;  Municipal  Art  League,  Chicago, 
1905,  1908;  Art  Institute  of  Chicago, 
1910.  Member  of  Society  of  Western 
Artists  and  Associated  Chicago  Artists. 
Works  hang  in  Provident  Hospital,  Chi- 
cago; Art  Institute  of  Chicago;  Wabash 
Avenue  Y.M.C.A.,  Chicago;  Museum  of 
Negro  Art  and  Culture,  Tuskegee  Insti- 
tute, Ala. 

Contemporary  Artists, 
1910  to  1925 

An  artist  who  so  closely  followed 
Harper  that  he  could  almost  be  consid- 
ered as  his  contemporary  was: 

William  Edouard  Scott:  painter,  b. 
1884.  Born  in  Indianapolis,  Ind.  He 
studied  at  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago 
and  was  considered  one  of  its  very  bril- 
liant students.  He  also  studied  privately 
in  Paris  with  Tanner  and  at  the  Julian 
and  Colarossi  Academies.  He  won  the 
Magnus  Brand  Prize  in  the  school  of  the 
Art  Institute  of  Chicago  twice  and  was 
awarded  a  Special  Harmon  Gold  Medal 
in  Fine  Arts,  1927,  and  a  Julius  Rosen- 
wald  Fellowship  to  study  Negro  types  in 
Haiti  in  1931.  He  also  won  the  Jesse 
Binga  Popularity  Prize  and  the  Eames 
McVeagh  Prize,  Chicago  Art  League, 
1929.  He  painted  murals  for  several  pub- 
lic buildings  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
West  Virginia.  "La  Pauvre  Voisin,"  ex- 
hibited in  the  Paris  Salon,  1912,  was 
purchased  by  the  Argentine  Republic. 
Twelve  of  his  paintings  were  purchased 
by  the  Haitian  government  at  his  one- 
man  show  in  Port-au-Prince,  1931.  Ex- 
hibits: 1928,  1931,  1933;  Harmon  Ex- 
hibits to  Johannesburg  and  Pretoria, 
Africa;  one-man  traveling  show,  1935; 
Harmon  College  Art  Association  Travel- 


ing Exhibition,  1934-35;  Findlay  Gal- 
leries, Chicago,  1935;  American  Negro 
Exposition,  1940. 

During  the  period  1907  to  1912,  there 
were  only  five  known  Negro  art  students 
in  New  York:  Charles  C.  Dawson  at  the 
Art  Students  League;  William  Ernest 
Braxton  at  the  Adelphi  Academy  in 
Brooklyn;  Winifred  Russell  at  the  Na- 
tional Academy;  Clinton  DeVillis  and  a 
late  arrival,  Richard  Lonsdale  Brown,  a 
promising  landscapist  from  West  Vir- 
ginia, who  studied  independently  after 
being  refused  admittance  to  the  Art  Stu- 
dents League  because  of  race,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  Dawson  was  already  a  stu- 
dent there. 

The  situation  was  not  much  better  in 
Chicago,  though  for  many  years  the 
liberal  Chicago  Art  Institute,  with  its 
memories  of  Harper  and  Scott,  was  in- 
strumental in  inspiring  other  Negro  stu- 
dents, among  whom  was: 

William  McKnight  Farrow:  painter, 
etcher,  b.  1885.  Born  in  Dayton,  Ohio. 
Educated  at  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago, 
he  is  one  of  the  earliest  Negro  etchers. 
He  was  awarded  the  Eames  McVeagh 
Prize,  for  etching,  and  the  Peterson  Prize, 
Chicago  Art  League,  1929.  Exhibits: 
Chicago  Art  League,  since  1928;  Harmon 
Exhibits,  1928,  1930,  1931,  1935.  He  has 
been  an  instructor  at  Carl  Schurz  Evening 
High  School  and  Technical  Museum 
Staff,  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  from  1908 
to  the  present. 

Charles  C.  Daivson:  painter,  illustrator, 
designer,  engraver,  b.  1889.  Born  in 
Brunswick,  Ga.,  June  12, 1889.  He  studied 
at  Tuskegee  Institute,  Ala.,  and  at  the 
Art  Students  League  of  New  York.  1907- 
12  (Honorable  Mention  Annual  School 
Exhibition,  1911).  Dawson  reversed  the 
usual  order  of  student  movement,  leaving 
the  Art  Students  League  and  New  York 
for  Chicago  late  in  1912,  where  he  at- 
tended the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago  from 
1912  to  1917,  graduating  with  special 
honors.  He  was  with  the  American  Ex- 
peditionary Forces,  World  War  I,  as  1st 
Lieutenant  of  Infantry,  later  being  pro- 
moted to  Captain  of  Infantry.  Staff  artist, 


Mai  Whitfield,  world's  most  traveled  track  star,  receives  a  first-place  medal  from 
Mrs.    Matthew    Ridgway    at    the    recent    Good-Will    Track    Meet    in    Tokyo,    Japan. 

European  Photo 


Jesse  Owens  (left),  former  Olympic  star,  is  an  inspiration  to  the  1952  team.  Willie 
Mays,  now  in  the  U.S.  Army,  won  the  1951  "Rookie  of  the  Year"  award  while  play- 
ing center  field  for  the  New  York  Giants.  Liggett  &  Myers  Tobacco  Co.  and  N.Y. 

Giants  Photos 


PLATE  I 


Tennis  star  Althea  Gibson  (left)  is 
shown  preparing  for  her  appear- 
ance in  England's  famed  Wimble- 
don championships.  In  the  Northern 
Tournament  at  Manchester,  she 
reached  the  singles  semi-finals  and, 
with  Naresh  Kumar  of  India,  the 
mixed  doubles  finals.  Afro-Ameri- 
can Photo 


Mary  McNabb,  a  freshman,  led  Tus- 
kegee  Institute  to  the  1951  National 
A.A.U.  Women's  Track  champion- 
ship by  winning  all  sixteen  running 
events  she  entered.  Reese  Photo 


PLATE  II 


"Jersey  Joe"  Walcott  (right),  in 
his  fifth  attempt,  became  World's 
Heavyweight  Champion  by  knock- 
ing out  Ezzard  Charles  in  the  seventh 
round  on  July  18,  1951,  at  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.  International  News  Photo 


Jimmy  Carter,  who  defeated  Ike 
Williams  for  the  Lightweight  Cham- 
pionship in  1951,  knocks  challenger 
Art  Aragon  to  the  canvas  with  a 
hard  left  during  their  recent  title 
bout.  Wide  World  Photo 


PLATE  III 


President  Truman  welcomes  members  of  the  1948  Olympic  Track  and  Field  Team 
at  the  White  House.  Left  to  right:  Emma  Reed,  Tennessee  A&I ;  Theresa  Manuel, 
Tuskegee;  Audrey  Patterson,  Tennessee  A&I;  Nell  Jackson,  Tuskegee;  Alice 
Coachman,  Tuskegee  and  Albany  State  College  (an  Olympic  high  jump  champion)  ; 

Nell  Walker,   Tuskegee. 


"Sugar"  Ray  Robinson  signs  for  the  return  match  which  regained  his  middleweight 
title  from  Britain's  Randy  Turpin  at  New  York's  Polo  Grounds  in  September  1951, 
as  New  York  boxing  commissioners  Dr.  C.  B.  Powell  (seated)  and  Leon  Swears 

look  on.  Acme  Photo 


PLATE  IV 


Following  a   successful    1951    season,  University   of   Pennsylvania   football   players 

receive  watches  from  Coach  George  Munger.  Left  to  right:  George  Bosseler;   Bob 

Evans,  1952  team  captain;  Ed  Bell,  1951  All-American  end;  Harry  Warren,   1951 

team  captain.  Philadelphia  Inquirer  Photo 


Junius  Kellogg,  Manhattan  College  basketball  star,  receives  a  commendation  scroll 

from  N.Y.  City  Police  Commissioner  Murphy  for  exposing  bribery  and  racketeering 

in   college   basketball.   N.Y.    Times   Photo 


PLATE  V 


Gwendolyn  Brooks'  volume  of  verse, 

Annie     Allen,    won    her     the     1950 

Pulitzer  Prize  for  Poetry. 


Fred  Thomas,  baritone,  is  congratu- 
lated (below)  by  Rudolph  Bing 
(right),  general  manager,  Metro- 
politan Opera,  for  taking  second 
place  in  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
Auditions.  Maria  Leone,  soprano, 
won  first  place.  TV.  Y.  Times  Photo 


PLATE  VI 


Hattie     McDaniel,     veteran     screen 
and  radio  actress  and  radio's  origi- 
nal  Beulah,   has  retired   because   of 
illness.  A  fro- American  Photo 


Lillian  Randolph,  Birdie  of  "The 
Great  Gildersleeve"  program,  now 
plays  the  radio  role  vacated  by  Miss 
McDaniel.  With  her  is  Willard  Wa- 
terman, who  plays  Gildersleeve. 
Afro-American  Photo 


PLATE  VII 


PLATE  VIII 


Ethel  Waters  (above)  sings 
with  two  youthful  members  of 
the  cast  of  "Member  of  the 
Wedding,"  the  hit  Broadway 
play.  (Chicago  Tribune 
Photo)  During  1951,  Miss 
Waters  published  her  highly 
successful  autobiography,  His 
Eye  is  on  the  Sparrow,  and 
became  the  star  of  the  tele- 
vision "Beulah"  show.  In  the 
picture  to  the  left,  by  Life 
magazine  photographer  Yale 
Joel,  Miss  Waters  (rear  row, 
center)  •was  among  25  Ameri- 
can Women  of  Achievement 
selected  by  the  U.S.  Chamber 
of  Commerce  in  1951.  Time, 
Inc. 


The  unusual  ballet  and  jungle 
dance  interpretations  of  ice 
skater  Mabel  Fairbanks  have 
attracted  the  attention  of  Hol- 
lywood. Pittsburgh  Courier 
Photo 


PLATE  IX 


WERD,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  is 
the  only  radio  station  in  the 
United  States  that  is  com- 
pletely owned  and  operated 
by  Negroes.  Liggett  &  Myers 
Tobacco  Co. 


Pearl  Primus,  interpretative 
dancer,  expresses  exotic  rhy- 
thms (left)  gathered  on  her 
trips  to  Africa.  Consolidated 
Concerts  Corp. 


PLATE  X 


Janet  Collins  (above),  first 
Negro  to  be  regularly  em- 
ployed by  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  Co.,  appeared  last  sea- 
son as  the  premiere  danseuse 
in  "Aida."  Wide  World  Photo 


Her  performance  as  the  dis- 
traught mother  of  a  lost  child, 
in  the  motion  picture,  "The 
Well,"  brought  Maidie  Nor- 
man (right)  much  acclaim  by 
critics  throughout  the  nation. 
Afro-American  Photo 


PLATE  XI 


Achieving   great   popularity    with    her    stylized    singing    during    her    1951    European 
tour,   beautiful   Dorothy  Dandridge  has   become    one   of   the  nation's  leading   night- 
club entertainers.  Time,  Inc. 

From  this  city  room  of  the  Pittsburgh  Courier  conies  the  news  which   makes   it  the 
largest  Negro   newspaper  in  the   country,   with   a   circulation   over   300,000.   Liggett 

&   Myers   Tobacco  Co. 


PLATE  XII 


mm 


The    Carver    Foundation    Laboratories    occupied    this    new    building    at    Tuskegee 

Institute  in   1951. 


Dr.    Percy   L.    Julian    (left),    distinguished    chemist    and    research    director    of    the 
Glidden    Company,    receives    the    annual    award    of    Chicago    lawyers'    Decalogue 

Society.  //.  S.  Roden  Photo 


PLATE  XIII 


Mechanization  in  the  South 
has  put  many  Negroes  to  oper- 
ating agricultural  tractors  and 
power  machinery  (above). 
USDA  Photo 


Mrs.  Lea  Etta  Lusk  (at  left), 
Washington  County,  Texas, 
first  Negro  home  demonstra- 
tion agent  to  receive  a  USDA 
Superior  Service  award, 
shows  a  4-H  girl,  Mary  Lee, 
how  to  grade  eggs.  USDA 
Photo 


PLATE  XIV 


Raymond  Brown  (center  left) 
has  successfully  switched 
from  cotton  to  cattle  in  Ala- 
bama's Black  Belt.  County 
agent  F.  L.  Jackson  (far  left) 
and  state  extension  leader  W. 
B.  Hill  (center  right)  survey 
his  progress.  USDA  Photo 


For  promoting  diversified 
farming  in  the  South,  Otis 
O'Neal  (right),  a  Georgia 
county  agent,  receives  the 
USDA  Superior  Service 
award  from  Secretary  of  Ag- 
riculture Charles  F.  Brannan. 
USDA  Photo 


PLATE  XV 


Alabama  4-H   Club  boys  show  beef   animals   they  raised,  at  the  Fat  Stock  Show  in 

Montgomery.  USDA  Photo 


In  labor-management  affairs,  Negroes  now  represent  their  fellow  •workers  in  meet- 
ings -with  company  executives   of   many  industries.   Liggett  &  Myers   Tobacco  Co. 


PLATE  XVI 


AMERICAN  NEGRO  ARTISTS 


73 


Chicago  Engravers,  1919-22;  free-lance 
painter,  illustrator,  designer,  1922-35; 
Public  Works  of  Art  Project  (Class  "A") 
1935;  Art  Consultant  to  the  State  Office 
NYA  of  Illinois  and  Co-Administrator  of 
NYA  Works  Program  for  Chicago,  1936- 
40;  free-lance  painter,  1941  to  present. 
Since  1922  he  has  produced  most  of  the 
advertising  illustrations  for  the  majority 
of  the  leading  Negro  businesses  as  well 
as  national  advertising  for  a  white  clien- 
tele. Works:  Murals  and  Exhibits  of  the 
National  Urban  League  at  A  Century  of 
Progress  Exposition,  Chicago,  1933, 
1934;  illustrated  literature  of  the  De 
Saible  Exhibit,  A  Century  of  Progress 
Exposition;  Official  Poster,  Pageant  of 
Negro  Music,  A  Century  Progress  Expo- 
sition, 1934;  basic  interior  designs  of  the 
American  Negro  Exposition,  as  a  whole, 
Chicago,  1940,  including  plans  and 
themes  for  the  historical  dioramas  of  the 
Court  of  Honor,  1944-46;  Curator,  re- 
storation of  series  of  (20)  historical 
dioramas  on  the  Negro  historical  back- 
ground from  the  American  Negro  Exposi- 
tion, 1940,  presented  to  Tuskegee  Institute 
by  the  State  of  Illinois;  installation  and 
development  of  the  new  Museum  of  Negro 
Art  and  Culture  for  Tuskegee  Institute. 
Awarded  the  Eames  McVeagh  Prize 
(First  Prize)  for  best  portrait;  Jesse 
Binga  Popularity  Prize  for  "Quadroon 
Madonna."  Chicago  Art  League,  1928; 
Charles  S.  Peterson  Prize  (First  Prize) 
for  th«  best  portrait,  Chicago  Art  League, 
1929;  Honorable  Mention,  Harmon 
Award  1929,  for  distinguished  achieve- 
ment in  the  fine  arts.  Exhibits:  Art  Insti- 
tute of  Chicago  1917,  1919,  1927;  Negro 
in  Art  Week  Exposition,  1927,  and  Chair- 
man of  its  Fine  Arts  Committee;  Harmon 
Traveling  Exhibit,  1929;  Harmon  Exposi- 
tion to  Johannesburg  and  Pretoria, 
Africa,  1930;  Studio  Gallery,  Chicago, 
1931;  Findlay  Galleries,  Chicago,  1933; 
Texas  Centennial  (National  Urban 
League  Mural),  1936;  American  Negro 
Exposition,  1940.  Works:  "Quadroon 
Madonna,"  and  "Brother,"  and  "Sister," 
Roosevelt  High  School,  Gary,  Ind. ;  "Evo- 
lution of  Negro  Music,"  Risley  High 


School,  Brunswick,  Ga. ;  series  of  Negro 
historical  dioramas,  Tuskegee  Institute. 
On  Nov.  26,  1946,  two  murals  by  Dawson 
depicting  the  work  and  career  of  Dr. 
George  Washington  Carver  were  hung 
permanently  in  the  lobby  of  the  Carver 
Theatre  in  Waycross,  Ga.  Dawson  also 
supervised  the  restoration  of  the  George 
Washington  Carver  Museum  and  its  ex- 
hibits, and  was  its  Curator  until  May  31, 
1951. 

During  this  period  the  Art  Institute  of 
Chicago  produced  another  brilliant  stu- 
dent: 

Archibald  J.  Motley,  Jr.:  painter,  b. 
1891.  Born  in  New  Orleans,  La.  He 
studied  at  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago. 
Honors:  Frank  G.  Logan  Medal,  1925; 
J.  N.  Eisendrath  Prize,  Art  Institute  of 
Chicago,  1925;  Harmon  Gold  Award, 
1928;  Guggenheim  Fellowship,  1929,  for 
study  in  Europe;  Illinois  Federal  Art 
Project,  Mural  and  Easel  Divisions,  1935- 
39.  Exhibits:  Harmon  Exhibits,  1929, 
1931;  Guggenheim  Fellows  Exhibits, 
1931,  1933;  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  A 
Century  of  Progress  Fine  Arts  Exhibit, 
1933,  1934;  Toledo  Museum,  1934;  Texas 
Centennial,  1936 ;  Howard  University  Art 
Gallery,  1937,  1938;  Baltimore  Museum, 
1939;  American  Negro  Exposition,  1940. 
Works:  Wood  River,  Illinois  Post  Office 
(Treasury  Art  Project)  ;  Evansville,  Illi- 
nois State  Hospital;  Chicago  Public 
Library;  Ryerson  School.  One-man  show, 
New  Galleries,  New  York,  1928.  He  is  a 
painter  of  portraits,  in  which  he  demon- 
strates considerable  mastery  of  drawing 
and  figure  composition.  Works  entirely 
with  Negro  types  treated  in  the  composi- 
tions in  semi-grotesque  style. 

During  this  period  the  South  produced 
Boston-trained : 

Edward  A.  Harleston:  portrait  and 
figure  painter,  1882-1931.  Born  in 
Charleston,  S.C.,  he  died  there  May  5, 
1931.  One  of  the  pioneers  in  Negro  por- 
traiture, he  was  educated  at  Atlanta  Uni- 
versity and  Boston  Museum  School  of 
Art,  1906-12.  Exhibits:  Negro  in  Art 
Week  Exposition,  Art  Institute  of  Chi- 
cago, 1927;  Harmon  Show,  1931  (Locke 


74 


ART 


Portrait  Prize) ;  Texas  Centennial,  1936; 
Howard  University,  1935,  1937.  Works 
hang  in  many  private  collections  and  in 
Howard  University  Collection. 

Philadelphia  produced  the  only  Negro 
woman  to  become  distinguished  in  Amer- 
ican history  as  a  painter  up  to  this 
period: 

Laura  Wheeler  Waring:  painter  and 
illustrator,  b.  1887.  Born  in  Hartford, 
Conn.  She  studied  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  1918-24;  awarded 
the  Cresson  Traveling  Scholarship  and 
studied  at  Grand  Chaumiere,  Paris,  1924, 
1925.  Works:  Portraits,  race  types,  and 
illustrations.  Instructor  in  Art,  Cheyney 
State  Teachers  College,  Cheyney,  Pa., 
since  1926.  Exhibits:  Harmon  Exhibit, 
1927  (Gold  Award),  1928,  1930,  1931; 
Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  1933;  Pennsyl- 
vania Academy  1925-38;  Howard  Univer- 
sity Gallery,  1937-39;  American  Negro 
Exposition,  1940. 

A  distinguished  product  of  the  East 
and  the  Far  West  who  is  foremost  in  the 
fields  of  sculpture  and  ceramics  is: 

Sargent  Johnson:  sculptor,  ceramist,  b. 
1888.  Born  in  Boston,  Mass.  He  studied 
art  for  five  years  at  the  California  School 
of  Fine  Arts,  San  Francisco,  Calif.  Re- 
ceived the  San  Francisco  Art  Association 
Medals  for  Sculpture  1925,  1931,  1935. 
Exhibits:  San  Francisco  Art  Association, 
1925,  1926,  1927,  1928,  1929,  1930,  1931; 
San  Diego  Gallery,  1930;  Art  Institute, 
Chicago,  1930;  Harmon  Exhibits,  1928 
(Otto  H.  Kahn  Prize),  1929  (Bronze 
Award),  1930,  1931,  1933  (Robert  C. 
Ogden  Prize) ;  Howard  University  Gal- 
lery, 1937,  1939;  Baltimore  Museum, 
1939;  American  Negro  Exposition,  Chi- 
cago (3rd  Sculpture  Award).  Works: 
"Sammy,"  Mrs.  E.  R.Alexander  Collection, 
New  York;  "Chester;"  Adolph  Loewi  and 
Alan  Bement,  New  York;  "Esther,"  San 
Diego  Fine  Arts  Gallery.  He  designed 
murals  for  Aquatic  Park,  Golden  Gate 
Exposition,  1939-40,  San  Francisco.  He 
is  heavily  influenced  by  African  forms  in 
sculpture. 

Elizabeth  Prophet:  sculptress,  b.  1890. 
A  native  of  Providence,  R.I.,  and  edu- 


cated at  the  Rhode  Island  School  of 
Design,  this  artist  uses  wood  as  her  me- 
dium of  expression.  Her  subjects  have 
all  been  Negroes.  Her  "Congolaise"  is  per- 
manently exhibited  in  the  Whitney  Mu- 
seum of  American  Art  and  her  "Head  of  a 
"Negro"  has  been  reproduced  many  times 
in  periodicals  and  catalogues.  Exhibits: 
Paris  Salon  and  American  art  shows. 

The  Mid-west  brought  forth  two  other 
brilliant  artists  who  are  making  outstand- 
ing contributions: 

Hale  Woodruff:  painter  and  engraver, 
b.  1900.  Born  in  Cairo,  111.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools  of  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  and  at  John  Herron  Art  Institute, 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  (Graduate).  He  spent 
four  years  on  the  staff  of  the  Indianapolis 
Y.M.C.A.  and  painted  prolifically  at  the 
same  time.  He  was  encouraged  by  a 
Bronze  Award  of  the  Harmon  contest  of 
1926  to  further  study  and  went  to  Paris 
in  1927,  studying  at  Academic  Scan- 
dinave,  Academic  Moderne,  and  with 
Tanner,  1927-30.  He  also  sketched  in 
Normandy  and  Cagnes  sur  Mer.  He  ex- 
hibited in  the  Pacquereau  Gallery,  Paris, 
1930.  In  1931  he  was  invited  to  become 
art  instructor  at  Atlanta  University  and 
there  developed  an  important  group  of 
younger  artists,  and  in  1936  was  invited 
to  become  instructor  in  art  at  New  York 
University.  In  1938  he  was  commissioned 
to  do  the  Amistad  Murals  for  the  Savery 
Library,  Talladega  College.  Exhibits: 
John  Herron  Art  Institute,  1923,  1924, 
1926;  Chicago  Art  Institute  (Negro  in 
Art  Week  Exposition),  1927;  Harmon 
Exhibits,  1928,  1929,  1931,  1933,  1935; 
Downtown  Gallery,  New  York,  1929, 
1931;  Valentine  Gallery,  1931;  Ferragil 
Gallery,  1931;  Texas  Centennial,  1936; 
High  Museum,  Atlanta,  1935;  American 
Negro  Exposition,  1940. 

Aaron  Douglass:  painter  and  illustra- 
tor, b.  1899.  Born  in  Topeka,  Kans.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Kansas 
(A.B.  in  Fine  Arts,  1923) ;  and  taught  in 
Lincoln  High  School,  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
1923-25.  He  studied  under  Winold  Reiss, 
New  York  City,  1925-27;  Barnes  Founda- 
tion Fellowship,  1928-29;  Rosenwald 


AMERICAN  NEGRO  ARTISTS 


75 


Grant  for  study  in  Paris,  1931 ;  Academic 
Scandinave  and  under  Despiau,  Waro- 
quier,  and  Othon  Frieze;  Rosenwald 
Travel  Grant  touring  the  South  and 
Haiti,  1938.  He  has  been  instructor  in 
Art,  Fisk  University,  since  1937.  Exhibits: 
Harmon  Exhibits,  1928,  1935;  College 
Art,  1935;  Texas  Centennial,  1936;  How- 
ard University  Gallery,  1937;  Baltimore 
Museum,  1939.  One-man  shows:  Caz- 
Delbos  Gallery,  New  York,  1933;  A.C.A. 
Gallery,  New  York,  1938;  St.  Louis  Mu- 
seum of  Art,  1948.  His  murals,  usually 
allegorical  scenes  of  the  historical  life  or 
cultural  background  of  the  Negro,  are 
found  in  the  Fisk  University  Library,  at 
Bennett  College,  and  in  the  Countee  Cul- 
len  Branch,  New  York  Public  Library. 

To  this  small  group  of  ten  artists,  from 
William  Edouard  Scott  to  Aaron  Doug- 
lass, should  be  added  Henry  B.  Jones  and 
Allan  R.  Freelon. 

Henry  B.  Jones:  painter,  b.  1889.  Born 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Educated  in  the 
Philadelphia  public  schools  and  in  the 
School  of  Pedagogy,  Philadelphia,  Jones 
studied  art  for  four  years  at  the  Penn- 
sylvania Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  was  a 
student  of  Anschutz  and  Breckenridge. 
Exhibits:  Harmon  Exhibits,  1929,  1930, 
1931,  1933;  135th  Street  Branch,  New 
York  Public  Library,  1933;  Print  Club, 
Philadelphia,  1932,  1934,  1935;  Warwick 
Galleries,  1930,  1931,  1933,  1934;  Reed 
Galleries,  1934;  A.C.A.  Gallery,  Phila- 
delphia, 1938. 

Allan  R.  Freelon:  painter,  b.  1895. 
Born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  and  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Pupil  in  etching  of  Eral  Horter. 
Assistant  Director  of  Art,  Philadelphia' 
public  schools.  Exhibits:  Harmon  Ex- 
hibits, 1928,  1929,  1930,  1931;  Newton 
Galleries,  New  York,  1935;  College  Art, 
1935;  Texas  Centennial,  1936;  Howard 
University,  1937,  1939;  Lincoln  Univer- 
sity, 1937;  Regional  Show,  Whitney 
Museum,  1934;  American  Negro  Exposi- 
tion, 1940. 

These  represent  nearly  all  the  Negro 
students  known  to  have  been  seriously 


studying  art  during  the  period  1907  to 
1920.  Their  achievements  have  been  a 
great  source  of  inspiration  to  large  num- 
bers of  younger  artists.  The  influence  of 
these  artists  along  with  that  exerted  by 
The  Crisis  and  Opportunity,  by  Alain  L. 
Locke,  by  the  Harmon  Awards  and 
Shows,  and  by  the  United  States  Treasury 
Federal  Art  Projects  of  the  1930's  paved 
the  way  for  the  remarkable  group  of 
young  Negro  artists  since  1925. 

A  New  Era,  1925  to  1951 

It  is  impossible  to  include  all  the  artists 
which  go  to  make  up  this  younger  group. 
Only  a  few  outstanding  ones  can  be 
mentioned  in  detail.  The  honor  of  being 
not  only  the  most  distinguished  Negro 
artist  since  Tanner  but  among  the  leading 
artists  of  America,  as  indicated  by  the 
acclaim  of  the  country's  leading  critics, 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  honors,  prizes 
and  commissions  awarded  him,  goes  to: 

Richmond  Barthe:  sculptor,  painter,  b. 
1901.  Born  in  Bay  St.  Louis,  Miss.  He 
was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of 
New  Orleans,  and  at  the  Art  Institute  of 
Chicago,  1924-28.  He  studied  painting 
and  experimented  with  sculpture  in  1926 
and  1927.  In  1927,  Charles  C.  Dawson 
was  serving  as  Chairman  of  the  Fine  Arts 
Committee  of  the  Negro  in  Art  Week, 
sponsored  by  the  Chicago  Woman's  Club, 
and  his  attention  was  drawn  to  Barthe's 
experiments  by  William  M.  Farrow,  a 
member  of  the  Committee.  Dawson  imme- 
diately recommended  acceptance  of  all 
pieces.  They  were  exhibited.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  Barthe's  career  as  a  sculp- 
tor. His  first  commission  came  from  a 
recommendation  by  Dawson  and  con- 
sisted of  two  busts,  one  of  Henry  0. 
Tanner  and  one  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture, 
for  the  Lake  County  Children's  Home  of 
Gary,  Indiana.  These  works  and  the  re- 
sulting contacts  and  publicity  lead  to  his 
first  one-man  show  at  the  Women's  City 
Club,  Chicago,  and  to  the  Rosenwald 
Fellowship  Awards  for  study  in  New 
York,  1927,  1928.  He  also  studied  at  the 
Art  Students  League,  New  York,  1931. 
He  received  the  Eames  McVeagh  Prize 


76 


ART 


for  Sculpture,  Chicago  Art  League,  1928; 
Guggenheim  Fellowship,  1940.  Exhibits: 
Women's  City  Club,  Chicago,  1927;  Chi- 
cago Woman's  Club  (Negro  in  Art 
Week),  1927;  Harmon  Exhibits,  1929, 
1931,  1933;  A  Century  of  Progress  Fine 
Arts  Exhibition  (Official),  Chicago  Art 
Institute,  1933,  1934;  Whitney  Museum, 
1933,  1935,  1939;  Howard  University 
Gallery,  1934;  Pennsylvania  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  1940;  Artists  for  Victory  Ex- 
hibit at  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York  ($500  prize  for  sculpture),  1942; 
fourth  Annual  Exposition  of  Audubon 
Artists  (Gold  Medal  of  Honor),  1945. 
One-man  shows:  Caz-Delbos  Gallery, 
New  York,  1933;  Delphic  Studios,  New 
York,  1935;  Arden  Gallery,  New  York, 
1938;  World's  Fair,  New  York,  1939.  He 
executed  large  bas-reliefs  on  themes  from 
Green  Pastures  for  Harlem  River  Houses, 
Federal  Art  Project,  New  York,  1937-38. 
Works:  Whitney  Museum,  "Blackberry 
Woman,"  "Harmonica  Player,"  "African 
Dancer";  Oberlin  College  Museum;  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  Museum;  busts  of 
Paul  Laurence  Dunbar  and  Booker  T. 
Washington,  Armstrong  High  School, 
Richmond,  Va.  Barthe  is  known  for  his 
portrayal  of  race  types  and  rhythm 
groups.  A  highlight  of  his  career  was  the 
commission  in  1946  to  make  the  bust  of 
Booker  T.  Washington  for  the  Hall  of 
Fame  on  the  campus  of  New  York  Uni- 
versity; he  is  the  only  Negro  artist  so 
commissioned.  It  is  also  of  interest  to 
note  that  he  is  the  only  Negro  artist  listed 
in  Who's  Who  in  America,  1946-1947.  In 
1947,  Barthe  was  one  of  15  sculptors 
chosen  from  all  over  the  country  to  im- 
prove the  sculpture  in  Catholic  churches 
and  to  set  up  and  create  new  and  more 
acceptable  designs.  He  was  selected  to 
do  the  designs  of  Christ. 

In  1949,  Barthe  received  a  commission 
from  the  Haitian  government  to  do  sculp- 
tures of  Dessalines  and  Toussaint 
L'Ouverture  which  carried  a  fee  of 
$40,000.  He  was  recently  elected  to  the 
National  Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters. 

All  great  periods  of  development  in  the 
fine  arts  have  been  made  possible  largely 


by  great  patrons — the  state,  the  nobility, 
the  Church.  The  great  patron  of  this  age 
is  business.  It  is  using,  for  the  enhance- 
ment of  advertising  and  incidentally  for 
mass  dissemination  of  culture,  the  very 
best  of  fine  arts  production.  The  most 
successful  of  those  who  have  the  good 
fortune  and  the  vision  to  meet  the  de- 
mands is: 

E.  Simms  Campbell:  illustrator,  b. 
1906.  Born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago. 
He  is  an  illustrator  for  the  magazines, 
The  New  Yorker  and  Esquire,  and  also 
does  advertising  illustrations  for  some  of 
the  leading  nationally  advertised  prod- 
ucts, among  which  are  Barbasol  Shaving 
Cream  and  Hart  Schaffner  and  Marx 
quality  clothing  for  men  and  women.  He 
works  in  the  various  black  and  white 
mediums  and  in  water  color.  His  cartoons 
and  illustrations  for  Esquire  made  him 
phenomenally  successful  and  placed  him 
high  in  the  ranks  of  the  best  in  these 
fields.  Campbell  was  Pulitzer  Prize  win- 
ner on  the  St.  Louis  Post  Dispatch  in 

1928.  His  works  have  also  appeared  in 
The  New  York  Journal,  The  New  York 
American,  The  Mirror,  Judge,  The  Satur- 
day Evening  Post  and  The  London  Spec- 
tator. Exhibits:  Minneapolis  Artists  Ex- 
hibits,   1924,    1925;    Harmon    Exhibits, 

1929,  1935;  American  Negro  Exposition, 
1940   (Honorable  Mention). 

In  the  very  front  rank  of  so-called 
primitive  artists,  classified  as  "the  most 
important  Negro  artist  of  the  era"  by  the 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  Collection  of 
Contemporary  American  Painting,  1946, 
is: 

Horace  Pippin:  primitive  painter,  1888- 
1946.  Born  in  W.  Chester,  Pa.  He  was  self- 
taught,  and  painted  steadily  from  1920  to 
1946.  Exhibits:  One-man  shows,  Chester 
County  Art  Association,  1937;  Carlen 
Galleries,  Philadelphia,  1940,  1941;  Big- 
nou  Gallery,  1940;  American  Negro 
Exhibition,  1940;  Arts  Club,  Chicago, 
1941;  San  Francisco  Museum,  1942. 
Paintings  found  in  the  following  collec- 
tions: Albright  Gallery,  Barnes  Founda- 
tion, Pennsylvania  Academy,  Philadel- 


AMERICAN  NEGRO  ARTISTS 


77 


phia  Museum,  Phillips  Memorial  Gallery, 
Whitney  Museum,  Rhode  Island  School 
of  Design,  Wichita  Art  Museum.  Before 
his  death  he  won  a  coveted  Carnegie  Ex- 
hibition Annual  prize. 

Judged  as  one  of  the  leading  Negro 
artists  and  the  leading  Negro  woman 
painter  of  the  present  is: 

Lois  Mailou  Jones:  painter,  b.  1906. 
Born  in  Boston,  Mass.  She  was  educated 
in  the  Boston  public  schools;  at  the  Bos- 
ton Museum  School  of  Fine  Arts,  1923- 
27;  Designers  Art  School;  Massachusetts 
Normal  Art  School;  and  Beaux  Arts  and 
Academic  Julian,  Paris,  1937-38.  She  has 
been  Instructor  in  Design  at  Howard 
University  since  1929.  Exhibits:  Harmon 
Exhibits,  1930,  1931,  1933;  Water  Color 
Exhibition,  Philadelphia  Academy,  1933- 
34;  National  Gallery  of  Art,  1934;  How- 
ard University  Gallery,  1933,  1937;  Salon 
des  Artistes  Francais,  1938;  Baltimore 
Museum,  1939;  American  Negro  Exposi- 
tion (Honorable  Mention),  1940;  Robert 
Vose  Gallery,  Boston,  1938;  Robert  Bliss 
Award,  annual  exhibition  of  the  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  Society  of  Fine  Arts,  1941. 

Next  to  Horace  Pippin  in  the  field  of 
painting,  the  public  and  leading  critics 
have  acclaimed: 

Jacob  Lawrence:  painter,  of  New  York 
City,  b.  1917.  Born  in  Aalantic  City, 
NJ.  He  was  educated  in  the  Philadelphia 
public  schools  and  studied  under  Charles 
Alston  and  Henry  Bannarn,  1934-38,  at 
the  Harlem  Art  Center  and  the  American 
Artist  School,  1937-38.  Exhibits:  One-man 
shows  at  Downtown  Gallery,  New  York, 
1941,  1942;  Museum  of  Modern  Art, 
1944.  In  1938,  he  was  awarded  the  second 
prize  of  the  Federal  Art  Project,  in  1941- 
43  a  Rosenwald  Fellowship,  and  in  1943, 
Purchase  Prize,  Artists  for  Victory 


Exhibit,  Metropolitan  Museum,  N.Y.  Has 
executed  brilliantly  original  series  in  tem- 
pera panels  on  Negro  historical  themes: 
"The  Life  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture" 
(41  panels),  1937;  "The  Life  of  Freder- 
ick Douglass"  (40  panels),  1938;  "The 
Life  of  Harriet  Tubman"  (40  panels), 
1939;  "The  Negro  Migration  Northward 
in  World  War"  (60  panels),  published  in 


Fortune  in  1942.  He  is  represented  in  the 
Albright  Art  Gallery,  Howard  University 
Art  Gallery,  Museum  of  Modern  Art, 
Metropolitan  Museum,  N.Y.,  Whitney 
Museum,  Phillips  Memorial  Gallery, 
Portland  Museum,  Providence  Museum, 
Worcester  Museum,  Virginia  Museum. 
James  A.  Porter  writes  of  him  in  the 
Pittsburgh  Courier,  July  29,  1950:  "Jacob 
Lawrence,  now  generally  regarded  as  the 
most  outstanding  American  Negro  artist, 
was  in  1942  rated  by  the  famous  Mexican 
painter,  Orozco,  as  one  of  the  few  creative 
American  artists." 

James  A.  Porter:  painter,  historian,  b. 
1905.  Born  in  Washington,  D.C.  He  was 
educated  in  public  schools  and  at  Howard 
University,  where  he  was  graduated,  cum 
laude,  in  1927.  Later  study  included  work 
at  Columbia  University,  The  Art  League 
of  New  York,  L'Instit  d'Art  et  D'Archeo- 
logie,  Paris,  and  New  York  University. 
In  1936,  he  received  an  M.A.  in  the  his- 
tory of  art.  Author  of  numerous  articles, 
his  book,  Modern  Negro  Art,  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Dryden  Press  in  1943.  His 
paintings  have  been  seen  in  more  than 
forty  groups  and  one-man  exhibitions; 
his  illustrations  in  several  books  and 
pamphlets,  among  them  W.  D.  Hambly's 
Talking  Animals.  His  knowledge  of  the 
historical  background  of  Negro  artists 
and  the  art  of  the  Negro  causes  him  to 
be  in  constant  demand  as  a  lecturer. 

Others  who  have  achieved  distinction  in 
this  era  are :  James  L.  Wells,  Washington, 
D.C.,  b.  1902;  Dox  Thrash,  Philadelphia, 
b.  1893;  Albert  A.  Smith,  1895-1940; 
William  H.  Johnson,  New  York  City,  b. 
1902;  Malvin  Gray  Johnson,  New  York 
City,  1896-1934;  Palmer  Hayden,  New 
York  City,  b.  1893;  Fred  Flemister,  At- 
lanta, Ga.,  b.  1916;  Allan  Rohan  Crite, 
Boston,  b.  1910;  Gwendolyn  Bennett, 
New  York  City,  b.  1902;  Charles  H. 
Alston,  New  York  City,  b.  1907 ;  Eldzier 
Conor,  Chicago,  b.  1915,  won  Guggen- 
heim Fellowship  to  paint  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  1950  was  one  of  19  artists  whom 
Life  magazine  presented  in  a  selection 
from  the  country's  best  artists  under  36: 
Charles  White,  Chicago  and  New  York 


78 


ART 


City,  b.  1918;  Rex  Goreleigh,  Chicago,  b. 
1902;  Vertis  Hayes,  Memphis,  Tenn.,  b.' 
1911;  Zell  Ingraham,  Cleveland,  Ohio; 
WUmer  Jennings,  William  E.  Smith, 
Charles  Bailee,  and  Georgette  Seabrooks, 
New  York  City;  and  Robert  Blackburn, 
first  Negro  artist  to  receive  a  Guggenheim 
Fellowship.  These  are  mostly  painters, 
some  also  skilled  in  other  graphic  arts. 

Other  names  that  loom  large  in  the 
illustrating  and  cartooning  field  besides 
E.  Simms  Campbell  are  Elmer  Stoner, 
New  York  City,  "Ollie"  Harrington  and 
Francis  (Nick)  Cardozo  of  Washington, 
D.C.,  and  Charles  Sebree  of  Chicago. 

Other  sculptors  include  Augusta  Sav- 
age, New  York  City,  b.  1900,  who  is  ex- 
tremely gifted  and  did  a  sculpture  for 
the  New  York  World's  Fair;  William 
Artis,  New  York  City,  b.  1914,  sculptor 
and  ceramist,  who  is  very  promising; 
Elizabeth  Catlett  White,  New  York  City, 
b.  1915;  Clarence  Lawson,  Chicago,  b. 
1919;  Selma  Burke,  New  York  City,  win- 
ner of  a  Rosenwald  Fellowship,  who  has 
had  several  one-man  shows;  Henry  Ban- 

1  Porter,  James  A.,  op.  cit. 


narn,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  b.  1910;  Joseph 
Kersey,  Chicago,  b.  1918;  Leslie  G.  Boll- 
ing,  Richmond,  Va.,  b.  1898. 

ART  IN  NEGRO  COLLEGES 

In  the  1930's,  Howard,  Fisk,  Wilberforce, 
and  Atlanta  Universities  were  among  the 
first  institutions  to  increase  their  facilities 
in  art.  "At  Howard,  the  first  art  gallery 
completely  under  supervision  of  a  trained 
Negro  staff  was  established  in  1930," 1 
with  Professor  James  V.  Herring  as  direc- 
tor. Since  1942,  Atlanta  University  has 
held  an  annual  competition  in  painting, 
sculpture,  and  the  graphic  arts  exclu- 
sively for  Negro  artists.  This  brings  out 
some  of  the  best  available  talent  and 
provides  a  permanent  collection  of  art  at 
that  university.  Fisk  University  was  pre- 
sented, through  gift,  with  a  part  of  the 
paintings  collected  by  the  late  Alfred 
Stieglitz,  and  these  form  a  fine  nucleus 
for  an  art  center.  Lincoln  University, 
Jefferson  City,  Mo.,  has  developed  re- 
gional leadership  in  art. 


'  •':•  il       6     |   || 

Negro  American  Literature  1951 


MARKING  as  it  does  the  halfway  point  in 
the  century,  the  past  year  brought  forth 
a  number  of  evaluations  of  the  Negro 
writer  and  his  achievements  during  the 
first  50  years  of  this  era.  A  reader  of  these 
appraisals  is  struck  by  the  note  of  opti- 
mism and  confidence  which  runs  through 
practically  all  of  them.  Whatever  else 
they  may  say,  the  authors  of  these  half- 
century  evaluations  seem  convinced  that 
the  Negro  writer,  having  passed  all  ap- 
prentice and  journeyman  stages,  now 
definitely  approaches  his  majority  as  a 
full-fledged  American  man  of  letters.  If 
we  accept  the  view  of  these  critics,  we 
must  consider  the  books  examined  in  this 
article  simply  as  part  of  that  stream  of 
American  literary  development,  regret- 
ting as  we  do  so,  that  the  pattern  of 
segregated  living  still  makes  a  special 
treatment  of  these  works  advisable  and 
worthwhile. 

Limitation  of  Scope 

The  present  review  will  cover  the  out- 
standing works  by  Negro  American  au- 
thors for  the  period  Aug.  1,  1950,  to  Aug. 
1,  1951.  This  resume  will  deal  only  with 
the  printed  books  published  during  the 
period,  not  articles  or  pamphlets.  It  is 
necessary  to  stress  the  time  limits  of  this 
review;  otherwise  many  persons  may 
wonder  why  certain  outstanding  books  of 
1950  have  not  been  included.  Such  works 
as  Demby's  Beetlecreek,  Hughes'  Simple 
Speaks  His  Mind,  Redding's  Stranger 
and  Alone,  and  Foner's  edition  of  the 
Life  and  Writings  of  Frederick  Douglass 
are  all  1950  publications,  but  as  they 
appeared  before  August  1,  they  will  not 
be  considered  here. 

This  appraisal  will  be  restricted  pri- 
marily to  the  following  main  fields: 
fiction,  poetry,  autobiography,  and  biog- 


raphy. For  convenience,  we  have  labeled 
another  section  "Miscellaneous  writings." 
Obviously  a  catchall,  this  grouping  makes 
no  attempt  at  completeness ;  it  will  simply 
try  to  give  a  representative  sampling  of 
the  outstanding  works  produced  during 
the  past  year  in  fields  other  than  those 
mentioned  above. 

GENERAL  TRENDS 

The  most  encouraging  trend  in  current 
Negro  American  literature  has  been  its 
tendency  to  slough  off  racial  provincial- 
ism, which  has  characterized  it  for  so 
long.  There  are,  of  course,  reasons  for 
this  change.  For  one  thing  the  Negro,  in 
some  respects,  is  a  freer  man  than  he  has 
been  at  any  time  since  the  days  of  Recon- 
struction. He  has  seen  barriers  which  he 
felt  were  permanently  fixed  fall;  this 
experience  has  given  him  new  hope  and 
confidence.  For  the  first  time,  perhaps,  in 
his  history,  the  Negro  believes  that  inte- 
gration is  a  realizable  ideal.  Although  he 
doesn't  expect  immediate  miracles  he 
knows  that,  in  spite  of  all  humiliating 
evidences  to  the  contrary,  the  old  order, 
the  old  way  of  life  is  doomed.  And  this 
belief  is  naturally  reflected  in  the  Negro 
American's  literature. 

As  a  result,  the  present  day  writer  has 
learned  to  view  the  Negro  problem  in  its 
broader  aspects.  And  what  is  more  im- 
portant, he  has  learned  that  his  problem 
is  just  one  of  many  themes  for  creative 
art.  It  is  this  lesson  which  has  done  most 
for  the  Negro  writer,  because  it  has  trans- 
formed him  from  a  special  pleader  into 
an  objective  artist. 

In  an  effort  to  avoid  the  race  problem 
and  to  find  new  subject  matter,  several 
current  writers  have  abandoned  the  Negro 
theme  entirely,  placing  the  background 


79 


80 


NEGRO  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


of  their  works  and  all  their  principal 
characters  in  the  white  world.  There  is 
some  risk  in  this  conscious  avoidance  of 
race  on  the  part  of  the  Negro  writer.  It 
could  lose  for  him  a  certain  intensity,  a 
certain  deeper-than-surface  knowledge  of 
his  material.  But  of  the  two  evils — an 
unswerving  allegiance  to  the  Negro  theme 
as  opposed  to  conscious  avoidance — the 
latter  is  probably  the  lesser.  Taken  by 
and  large,  the  tendency  to  discard  the 
racial  tag,  though  a  mixed  blessing,  is 
essentially  healthy;  it  is  symptomatic  of 
the  Negro  literary  artist's  general  broad- 
ening and  ripening. 

Coupled  with  this  new  attitude  towards 
his  material,  the  Negro  writer  has  ac- 
quired a  new  interest  in  the  technique  of 
his  craft  and  a  new  mastery  of  its  form. 
This  concern  with  style  is  one  of  the  most 
heartening  signs  of  the  Negro  writer's 
maturity. 

Another  evidence  of  maturity  is  the 
growing  importance  of  criticism.  At  the 
present  time  there  is  a  small  but  highly 
articulate  group  of  critics  among  us,  and 
their  influence  is  slowly  but  definitely  be- 
ginning to  bear  fruit.  The  midcentury 
issue  of  Phylon  (Vol.  11,  No.  4,  1950)  — 
one  that  was  devoted  to  an  evaluation  of 
Negro  literature  during  the  '30's  and  '40's 
— was  made  up  almost  entirely  of  articles 
by  these  critics.  In  all  likelihood,  the  issue 
will  become  a  landmark  of  some  signifi- 
cance, because  these  scholars,  looking  at 
the  Negro  writer  with  refreshing  objec- 
tivity, have  not  only  pointed  out  his  weak- 
nesses, but  have  just  as  definitely  encour- 
aged, motivated,  and  charted  his  future 
course  as  a  mature  American  writer. 

FICTION 

During  the  1940-50  decade,  the  Negro 
writer  did  his  best  work  in  the  field  of 
the  novel.  Unfortunately  for  this  review, 
the  fiction  published  in  the  period  under 
Consideration  tends  to  fall  slightly  below 
the  standard  set  in  the  40's.  Of  the  five 
important  works  examined  here,  two  are 
first  novels  with  many  of  the  shortcomings 
which  often  characterize  initial  efforts. 


The  others,  two  by  Yerby  and  one  by 
Smith,  are  decidedly  inferior  to  their 
earlier  works. 

It  is  fascinating  to  note  that  the  novels 
written  by  Yerby  were  published  during 
a  12-month  period.  That  both  of  them 
rode  high  on  the  best  seller  list  proves 
not  only  his  craftsmanship,  but  also  his 
ability  to  gauge  the  taste  of  the  American 
public. 

In  Floodtide  (1950),  Yerby  surrounds 
his  story  with  the  colorful  Natchez  of 
1850,  weaving  in  Cuban  insurrections  and 
pre-Civil  War  secession  hysteria  in  Mis- 
sissippi. The  plot  is  a  witch's  brew  of 
high  adventure,  sensational  violence,  tor- 
rid love-making,  romantic  sadism,  and 
abolitionist  sentiment.  Taking  a  super- 
attractive  hero  and  heroine,  and  a  super- 
evil  "other"  woman,  Yerby  heaps  thrill 
upon  thrill  to  tell  an  entertaining  but 
utterly  unbelievable  story. 

In  A  Woman  Called  Fancy  (1951),  the 
author  chose  his  native  region — Augusta, 
Georgia — as  a  backdrop  for  his  story.  The 
plot  concerns  the  rise  of  a  beautiful  but 
too  perfect  hillbilly  girl  from  share- 
cropper status  to  her  marriage  into  one 
of  the  aristocratic  but  decadent  Augusta 
families.  As  the  action  takes  place  in  the 
80's,  Yerby  touches  lightly  on  Reconstruc- 
tion politics.  He  has  a  carpet-bagger's 
daughter,  a  tragic  mulatto,  a  decayed 
southern  family,  a  new  mill,  a  crooked 
southern  politician,  and  the  inevitable 
conflict  between  rising  poor  whites  and 
decaying  artistocrats — in  short,  he  uses 
all  the  ingredients  for  a  highly  readable 
version  of  this  stock  type  of  novel. 

In  both  works,  Yerby  makes  an  inter- 
esting concession  to  race.  Although  he 
adopts  the  southern  viewpoint  for  his 
novels,  he  makes  one  or  more  of  his  prin- 
cipal characters  unusually  liberal  on  the 
race  issue.  Knowing  that  too  much  propa- 
ganda will  spoil  his  story,  Yerby  plots  a 
fascinating  middle  course  between  blatant 
pro-Negro  sentiment  on  the  one  hand  and 
all-out  anti-Negro  sentiment  on  the  other. 
He  is  actually  doing  a  subtle  but  definite 
job  of  indoctrination  and  is  probably 
reaching  hosts  of  readers  who  normally 


FICTION 


81 


would  never  see  a  so-called  Negro  book. 

In  his  first  work,  The  Last  of  the  Con- 
querors, William  Gardner  Smith  wrote  a 
most  convincing  story  of  Negro  GIs  in 
Germany.  Because  of  the  promise  in  this 
first  attempt,  critics  looked  forward  to 
the  second  work  of  this  talented  young 
writer.  But  Anger  at  Innocence  (1950),  1 
an  unrealistic  story  of  slum  life  in  Phila- 
delphia, has  neither  the  strong  message 
nor  the  appealing  characters  of  his  first 
novel.  Smith  tries  to  show  the  corrosive 
action  of  slum  living  on  sensitive  souls,  but 
his  characters  fail  to  achieve  reality.  The 
book,  incidentally,  has  no  Negro  racial 
tag.  Instead  of  using  a  Negro,  Smith  tries 
to  delineate  the  sufferings  and  frustration 
of  a  Mexican  in  the  white  world  of  Amer- 
ica. One  feels  that  he  would  have  drawn 
a  much  truer  picture  if  the  character  had 
been  colored.  In  this,  particular  case, 
avoidance  of  his  own  race  probably  lost 
for  the  author  that  deeper-than-surface 
knowledge  so  necessary  in  effective 
writing. 

Owen  Dodson's  Boy  at  the  Window 
(1951)  is  a  first  novel  which  deals  with 
the  life  of  a  sensitive  Negro  lad  seeking 
affection  and  security  in  a  world  sud- 
denly upset  by  his  mother's  death.  In  the 
first  part  of  the  work,  Dodson  describes 
with  great  understanding  the  religious 
gropings  of  the  lad.  He  also  gives  a  con- 
vincing picture  of  life  in  an  average  urban 
Negro  home.  This  type  of  household  is 
not  frequently  drawn  in  novels  dealing 
with  Negroes ;  the  Bigger  Thomas  type  of 
home  life  is  far  more  popular.  The  novel 
contains  two  superby  effective  episodes: 
the  description  of  the  mother's  funeral 
with  all  the  pageantry  and  mumbo-jumbo 
put  on  by  the  fraternal  orders;  and  the 
hilarious  delineation  of  a  righteously  in- 
dignant colored  lady  getting  the  white 
folks  "told"  on  a  Pennsylvania  train.  As 
a  whole,  the  book  seems  to  lack  a  certain 
fullness,  a  certain  completeness.  The 
reader — at  least,  the  old-fashioned  reader 
— is  left  slightly  puzzled. 

Taffy  (1950),  a  first  novel  by  Philip  B. 
Kaye  (pseud.),  is  an  uneven  work  con- 
taining some  highly  effective  writing  and 


much  that  is  amateurish  and  faulty.  The 
book  has  many  glaring  technical  weak- 
nesses, of  which  the  worst  is  perhaps  a 
tendency  to  use  the  flashback  too  often 
and  too  awkwardly.  It  also  contains,  as 
do  all  the  works  in  this  hard-boiled  Big- 
ger Thomas-Nick  Romano  tradition,  too 
much  gratuitous  and  pointless  sex  and 
violence.  The  title-character  (who  is  not 
the  main  character)  is  never  fully  de- 
veloped; as  a  result,  his  actions  are  occa- 
sionally forced  and  unconvincing.  But  in 
spite  of  these  all-too-obvious  shortcom- 
ings, the  book  holds  the  reader.  The  au- 
thor intimately  knows  the  life  of  Harlem 
and  of  Negro  Brooklyn,  and  his  analysis 
and  delineation  of  both  are  often  pene- 
trating and  powerful.  Though  he  has  not 
yet  mastered  his  craft,  the  author  of  Taffy 
could  be  great. 

In  recent  years,  the  Negro  fiction  writer 
has  tended  to  neglect  the  short  story  be- 
cause of  the  difficulty  of  getting  his  work 
published,  particularly  if  he  stresses  a 
racial  theme.  With  the  passing  of  Oppor- 
tunity and  the  full-sized  Crisis,  we  have 
no  Negro  periodical  with  space  enough 
to  "encourage"  short-story  writing.  White 
magazines,  of  course,  will  take  an  occa- 
sional "Negro  story,"  but  they  are  usually 
very  definite  about  the  type  of  story 
wanted.  All  this  means  that  the  only  popu- 
lar medium  now  left  to  the  beginning  and 
to  the  average  Negro  short-story  writer  is 
the  magazine  sections  of  our  large  week- 
lies. Needless  to  say,  this  medium  is  by 
no  means  adequate. 

The  A  fro- American  has  been  featuring 
"race"  stories  for  a  long  time  and  has 
probably  published  more  of  them  than 
any  other  paper.  During  the  past  year, 
Nick  Aaron  Ford  and  H.  L.  Faggett,  pro- 
fessors at  Morgan  State  College,  selected 
from  the  Afro  files  The  Best  Short  Stories 
by  Afro-American  Writers  (1925-50). 
According  to  their  preface,  the  editors 
had  two  purposes  in  mind:  first,  to  an- 
thologize a  people's  literature  whose  ap- 
peal would  lie  midway  between  T.  S. 
Eliot  on  the  sophisticated  level  and  the 
comic  book  on  the  popular  level;  and, 
second,  to  give  a  non-sterotyped  picture 


82 


NEGRO  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


of  Negro  character.  Both  objectives  are 
reasonable  enough,  but  unfortunately 
most  of  the  stories  selected  are  not  good 
on  any  level.  Not  all  are  bad  by  any 
means,  but  the  major  portion  are  of  the 
race-praising,  race-asserting,  race-pro- 
testing type,  "dated"  in  theme  and  tech- 
nique. The  idea  of  anthologizing  news- 
paper short  stories  is  an  excellent  one, 
and  it  could  serve  a  very  fine  purpose. 
It  could  easily  spur  the  great  Negro  week- 
lies not  only  to  feature  more  stories  but 
to  improve  this  kind  of  writing  by  de- 
manding a  higher  level  of  performance 
from  their  contributors. 

POETRY 

Writing  in  a  recent  issue  of  Phylon 
(Vol.  11,  No.  4),  Margaret  Walker  points 
out  that  the  "younger"  Negro  poet  dur- 
ing the  40's  tended  to  look  beyond  the 
narrow  limits  of  his  usual  social  protest 
and  to  acquire  a  "global"  rather  than  a 
racial  or  national  point  of  view.  Along 
with  this  "global  perspective,"  which 
Miss  Walker  considers  an  important  new 
note  in  our  poetry,  there  has  come  a  new 
interest  in  craftsmanship  and  a  new  atti- 
tude towards  form.  Poets  of  the  late  40's 
are  inclined  to  stress  technique  rather 
than  subject  matter;  and  while  they  are 
moving  towards  "intellectual  themes  of 
psychological  and  philosophical  implica- 
tions bordering  on  obscurantism,"  their 
poems  are  "never  primitive,  simple,  and 
commonplace."  Outstanding  among  this 
group  are  Myron  O'Higgins,  Robert  Hay- 
den,  Bruce  McWright,  Carl  Holman,  and 
the  1949  Pulitzer  Prize  winner,  Gwen- 
dolyn Brooks. 

Unfortunately  for  us,  none  of  these 
poets  has  published  a  volume  of  verse 
during  the  period  to  which  this  article 
is  limited.  And  just  as  unfortunate,  there 
has  been  no  publication  by  any  one  of 
that  "slightly  older"  group  of  Negro 
poets,  which  includes  Frank  Marshall 
Davis,  Melvin  B.  Tolson,  Owen  Dodson, 
and  Margaret  Walker.  The  only  major 
Negro  poet  to  publish  during  the  past 
year  has  been  Langston  Hughes. 


In  Montage  of  a  Dream  Deferred 
(1951),  Hughes  has  recaptured  some  of 
the  magic  of  phrase  and  tone  which  char- 
acterized Weary  Blues,  his  first  publica- 
tion. Decidedly  superior  to  Shakespeare 
in  Harlem  (1942),  a  work  on  the  same 
theme,  the  new  volume  is  a  sensitive  and 
fascinating  series  of  poems.  The  theme 
of  the  present  work  is  Harlem's  frustra- 
tion, driven  home  again  and  again  by 
the  fugue-like  structure  of  the  poem.  Al- 
ways an  experimenter,  Langston  Hughes 
on  this  occasion  has  made  use  of  a  "jam 
session"  technique.  According  to  this 
scheme,  we  are  to  consider  the  whole  book 
of  ninety-odd  pieces  as  really  one  long 
poem,  marked  by  the  conflicting  changes, 
broken  rhythms,  and  sudden  interjections 
characteristic  of  a  jam  session.  Mr. 
Hughes  knows  Harlem  as  few  others  know 
it,  and  he  gives  a  picture  of  that  tragic 
city  which  in  sympathy,  depth,  and  under- 
standing has  rarely  been  equalled. 

Among  the  minor  poets,  there  are 
works  by  Virginia  Simmons  Nyabongo, 
William  Henry  Huff,  leda  Mai  Toney, 
Homer  Preston  Johnson,  John  Robert 
Jackson,  and  Robert  Milum  Baker.  Mrs. 
Nyabongo's  work,  Les  palmier s  (1951),  is 
written  in  French  and  consists  of  twenty 
poems  giving  her  impressions  of  Haiti. 
A  professor  of  modern  languages  at  Ten- 
nessee Agricultural  and  Industrial  State 
College,  Mrs.  Nyabongo  is  also  the  author 
of  White  Caps  (1942),  a  volume  of  verse. 

Although  it  may  seem  cavalier  to  do  so, 
one  may  easily  cover  the  other  volumes 
of  minor  poems  with  a  general  comment. 
Miss  Toney's  The  Young  Scholar  and 
Other  Poems  (1951),  William  Henry 
Huff's  From  Deep  Within  (1951),  and 
Messrs.  Johnson's,  Jackson's  and  Baker's 
Twilight  Dreams  (1950)  are  immature 
verse  on  highly  conventional  themes. 

AUTOBIOGRAPHY  AND 
BIOGRAPHY 

The  field  of  autobiography  has  always 
been  popular  with  the  Negro  writer,  and 
he  has  done  much  of  his  best  work  in  it. 
The  past  year  has  been  an  unusually  good 


AUTOBIOGRAPHY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


83 


one  for  this  type  of  writing.  During  the 
period  there  appeared  autobiographies  of 
two  great  Negro  actresses  and  enter- 
tainers, the  life  stories  of  two  clergymen, 
the  spiritual  autobiography  of  a  sensitive 
and  intelligent  convert  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  and  the  powerful  delineation  of  a 
Scottsboro  boy's  18  years  in  Alabama 
prisons.  The  only  unpleasant  feature  in 
this  picture  is  that  the  three  most  popular 
and  significant  works  of  this  group  were 
the  result  of  collaboration  or  "ghosted" 
autobiographies.  Negro  celebrities,  even 
those  who  are  perfectly  capable  of  writ- 
ing their  own  books,  have  a  regrettable 
tendency  to  employ  "ghosts." 

His  Eye  is  on  the  Sparrow  (1951), 
written  by  actress  Ethel  Waters,  with 
Charles  Samuels,  is  the  most  sensational 
autobiography  of  the  period  and  the  most 
popular  since  Black  Boy.  And  yet,  it  is  a 
work  which',  has  antagonized  hosts  of 
Negro  readers  because  of  its  flagrant  anti- 
upper  class,  anti-educated,  and  anti-light 
colored  sentiments.  Miss  Waters  has  used 
almost  every  cliche,  every  stereotype,  and 
every  generalization  about  the  Negro 
which  the  average  American  white  likes 
to  find  in  works  dealing  with  the  colored 
group.  And  these  cliches,  stereotypes, 
and  generalizations  are  so  persistently 
paraded  that  one  gets  the  impression  the 
book  was  written  primarily  with  a  white 
public  in  mind.  This  autobiography,  how- 
ever, is  by  no  means  without  merit.  The 
success  story  which  it  tells — the  story  of 
the  rugged  climb  of  Ethel  Waters  from 
the  slums  of  Philadelphia  to  international 
fame — is,  to  say  the  least,  highly  exciting. 
The  work  is  also  valuable  in  that  it  gives 
us  a  new  insight  into  the  workings  of  the 
provincial  Negro  circuits  and  of  the  lives 
of  early  Negro  entertainers.  It  is  in  this 
segment  of  the  book  that  Miss  Waters 
makes  a  most  important  contribution  to 
the  history  of  the  Negro  in  the  theatre. 
That  the  work  became  a  best  seller  is 
proof  of  its  power  to  entertain.  The  aver- 
age Negro  reader,  however,  tends  to  look 
upon  it  as  another  great  Waters  presen- 
tation, superbly  staged,  excellent  "the- 
atre," but  not  autobiographic  reality. 


Although  both  writers  are  in  the  same 
profession,  it  would  be  hard  to  find  two 
books  as  different  in  outlook  as  those  by 
Miss  Waters  and  Miss  Home.  In  Person: 
Lena  Home,  as  Told  to  Helen  Arstein  and 
Carlton  Moss  (1951)  is  a  highly  forth- 
right and  militant  work.  Besides  telling 
the  charming  story  of  her  personal  and 
theatrical  life,  Lena  Home's  autobiog- 
raphy lashes  out  time  and  time  again  at 
the  prejudice  and  injustice  to  be  found 
in  the  American  theatrical  world  from 
Broadway  to  Hollywood.  As  a  light-col- 
ored Negro  actress,  Miss  Home  has  had 
two  hurdles  to  leap  rather  than  one;  and 
her  uncompromising  insistence  on  being 
herself,  her  refusal  to  be  stereotyped,  has 
been  therapeutic  for  the  American  stage. 
It  is  exhilarating  to  find  a  crusading  work 
of  this  sort  coming  from  a  first  lady  of 
the  theatre.  With  but  few  exceptions,  the 
Negro  performer  has  either  been  on  the 
wrong  side  or  taken  no  side  at  all  in  the 
perennial  fight  waged  by  the  NAACP 
and  other  organizations  against  Negro 
stereotypes  in  the  theatre,  on  the  air, 
and  in  the  movies.  Lena  Home  leaves  us 
in  no  doubt  concerning  her  position.  She 
has  devoted  almost  as  much  space  to  the 
fight  against  injustice  and  prejudice  as 
she  has  to  her  own  spectacular  success  in 
the  theatre.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Miss 
Home,  in  her  enthusiasm,  has  allowed  the 
polemic  to  encroach  dangerously  on  the 
purely  autobiogaphical  element  in  her 
book,  but  this  kind  of  unselfishness  and 
militancy  is  most  heartening.  In  Person: 
Lena  Home  will  never  have  the  popularity 
of  His  Eye  is  on  the  Sparrow,  not  even 
among  Negroes,  but  in  several  respects 
it  is  a  far  more  honest  and  revealing 
work. 

Scottsboro  Boy  (1950),  by  Hey  wood 
Patterson  and  Earl  Conrad,  is  the  most 
devastating  attack  on  southern  injustice 
to  be  found  in  recent  literature.  It  is  not 
only  an  indictment  of  the  Alabama  penal 
system  but  of  the  whole  regional  pattern. 
Making  use  of  Patterson's  speech  rhythms 
and,  supposedly,  Patterson's  ideas,  Con- 
rad describes  in  all  its  starkness  and 
brutality  the  utter  degradation  of  prison 


84 


NEGRO  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


life  in  Alabama.  Spelling  it  out  in  sicken- 
ing detail,  he  shows  how  the  depravity, 
the  sadism,  and  the  bestiality  inherent  in 
prejudice  and  segregation  become  ac- 
centuated in  prison  life,  demoralizing 
alike  both  black  prisoners  and  white 
guards  and  officials.  Although  one  may 
object  to,  or  even  suspect,  certain  social 
views  given  to  Patterson  by  Conrad,  he 
will  still  be  moved  by  the  bare  recital 
of  facts.  Brilliantly  written,  the  work  is 
far  more  effective  "Scottsboro  propa- 
ganda" than  any  put  out  by  the  various 
groups  during  the  heyday  of  that  famous 
controversy. 

Road  Without  Turning  (1950),  an 
autobiography  by  James  H.  Robinson,  the 
pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Master  in 
New  York  City,  though  not  a  sensational 
work,  has  a  very  good  story  to  tell.  A 
sensitive  and  intelligent  boy,  young  Rob- 
inson forced  his  way  up  from  the  slums 
of  Knoxville  and  Cleveland,  and  through 
hard  work  and  sheer  brass  got  himself 
an  education.  The  book  gives  the  details 
of  this  climb,  but  it  also  tells  much  more. 
It  paints  several  unforgettable  pictures  of 
Negro  urban  living  and  of  college  life 
at  Lincoln  University  and  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  Above  all  else,  it  is  a 
forthright  and  passionate  attack  on  the 
injustice  and  hypocrisy  of  America's  race 
attitude.  A  modern  social-minded  min- 
ister in  every  sense  of  that  phrase,  Rob- 
inson is  a  realist  who  knows  that  people 
need  more  than  mere  theology  and  pious 
cliches  for  their  daily  religious  bread.  He 
is  a  realist  in  yet  another  way.  Though 
he  founded  the  interracial  church  of 
which  he  is  now  pastor,  he  is  not  guilty 
of  that  spurious  "good  will"  which  so 
often  characterizes  the  writings  of  inter- 
racially-minded  persons.  The  autobiog- 
raphy is  written  in  a  plain,  not-too-pleas- 
ing style,  but  it  has  something  to  say. 

Helen  Caldwell  Day's  Color  Ebony 
(1951)  is  the  intriguing  life  story  of  a 
twenty-three-old  Negro  nurse  who  found 
a  solution  for  her  religious  problems  in 
the  Catholic  Church.  The  work  is  largely 
a  spiritual  autobiography,  but  Mrs.  Day 
manages  to  keep  a  nice  balance  between 


the  discussion  of  her  religious  convic- 
tions and  the  telling  of  her  life  story.  Al- 
though a  deeply  religious  person,  Mrs. 
Day  is  also  a  keen  observer  of  all  aspects 
of  daily  life,  and  her  strictures  on  jim 
crowism  and  prejudice,  whether  in  her 
native  Mississippi  or  in  New  York, 
whether  in  the  sanatorium  to  which  she 
was  sent  or  in  the  Catholic  Church  itself, 
are  forthright  and  uncompromising.  A 
well-written  little  work,  Color  Ebony  is  a 
type  rarely  produced  by  Negro  writers — 
a  book  stressing  the  spiritual  conflicts  of 
the  autobiographer.  A  similar  work, 
Elizabeth  Adams'  Dark  Symphony,  ap- 
peared in  1942.  One  notes  that  both  of 
these  young  ladies  found  in  Catholicism 
not  only  an  answer  to  their  personal  re- 
ligious problems  but  a  motivation  for 
literary  expression. 

In  one  sense,  Amos  H.  Carnegie's  Faith 
Moves  Mountains  (1950)  is  also  a  spir- 
itual autobiography,  but  it  is  not  as  con- 
vincing as  Mrs.  Day's  work.  The  Rev- 
erend Mr.  Carnegie  has  lived  a  most  in- 
teresting life,  but  he  lacks  the  ability  to 
record  it  to  best  advantage.  His  main 
difficulty  is  a  tendency  to  overlook  all 
autobiographical  details  except  religious 
ones.  For  example,  he  spent  one  full  year 
at  Virginia  Union  University,  and  all  that 
he  records  of  this  experience  is  that  he 
"converted"  his  roommate.  The  author  has 
labeled  this  work  "Volume  I."  Presum- 
ably other  volumes  are  to  follow.  Since 
he  has  lived  so  fully,  one  hopes  that  Mr. 
Carnegie  in  subsequent  installments  will 
give  a  picture  of  his  whole  life,  not  just 
those  episodes  connected  with  moral  and 
religious  uplift. 

The  only  major  biography  in  this  sec- 
tion, William  Stanley  Braithwaite's  The 
Bewitched  Parsonage  (1950),  retells  the 
story  of  the  Brontes.  Believing  that  the 
novels  of  this  gifted  group  "are  as  im- 
portant biographically  as  they  are  his- 
torically," he  has  devoted  a  considerable 
portion  of  his  book  to  an  analysis  of  these 
works.  Neither  a  critical  nor  a  "modern" 
biography,  the  study  attempts,  as  the 
author  has  expressed  it,  "to  take  a  straight 
course,"  avoiding  the  subtleties  and  the 


MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS 


85 


controversies  which  have  been  injected 
into  the  Bronte  story.  Mr.  Braithwaite's 
over-all  aim  has  been  simply  to  write  an 
entertaining  narrative  of  this  tragic  York- 
shire family.  Because  the  lives  of  the 
Brontes,  especially  those  of  Emily  and 
Branwell,  are  so  definitely  "controver- 
sial," it  is  regrettable  that  Braithwaite 
should  have  chosen  to  ignore  this  aspect 
in  his  biography. 

MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS 

One  of  the  greatest  literary  "finds"  in 
recent  years  was  the  discovery  in  1938  of 
the  Johnson  Papers,  the  diary  and  mis- 
cellaneous manuscripts  of  a  free  Negro 
in  pre-Civil  War  Mississippi.  Edited  by 
William  Ransom  Hogan  and  Edwin 
Adams  Davis,  these  papers  were  published 
in  1951  by  the  Louisiana  State  University 
Press  under  the  title:  William  Johnson's 
Natchez  (The  Ante-Bellum  Diary  of  a 
Free  Negro).  A  prosperous  barber  in  old 
Natchez,  Johnson,  though  not  formally 
educated,  was  a  highly  intelligent  person 
and  a  keen  observer  of  his  fellow  man. 
In  the  collection  which  he  left  there  are 
over  2,000  manuscript  pages  of  diary 
covering  the  years  from  1835  to  1851, 
several  hundred  pages  of  legal  and  finan- 
cial documents,  a  few  score  letters,  six- 
teen volumes  of  account  books,  four 
bound  volumes  of  rare  newspapers,  four 
hundred  pieces  of  Nineteenth  Century 
music,  and  miscellaneous  family  papers. 
A  good  business  man  who  rented  property 
and  lent  money  to  his  white  fellow  citi- 
zens, including  a  former  governor  of 
Mississippi,  Johnson  owned  two  planta- 
tions and,  at  one  time,  15  slaves.  At  his 
death,  he  left  an  estate  of  over  $25,000. 
Johnson  knew  everybody  in  Natchez 
worth  knowing,  and  his  diary  gives  in- 
valuable detailed  information  about  the 
actual  life  both  on  the  Hill  and  under- 
the-Hill  in  that  city.  As  to  be  expected, 
his  work  clears  away  some  of  the  glamor 
which  the  romanticizing  fiction  writers 
have  bestowed  on  that  fabulous  city.  It 
also  gives  a  new  and  valuable  first- 
hand account  of  the  lives  and  attitudes 


of  free  Negroes  in  the  Deep  South,  infor- 
mation which  many  fiction  writers  could 
well  use.  Measured  by  any  standards, 
Johnson's  diary  is  one  of  the  important 
books  of  the  year. 

Joel  Chandler  Harris  —  Folklorist 
(1950),  by  Stella  Brewer  Brookes,  is,  as 
one  critic  puts  it,  the  first  "comprehen- 
sive statement  of  the  relationship  between 
Harris'  sources  and  the  Uncle  Remus 
tales  as  the  American  people  have  come 
to  know  and  love  them."  The  work  is  in 
two  parts.  Part  I  deals  with  the  writing 
and  publication  of  the  Uncle  Remus 
stories  and  paints  a  delightful  portrait 
of  Harris,  the  man  and  the  folklorist. 
Part  II  analyzes  by  types  the  famous 
tales.  Appealingly  written  and  yet  scholar- 
ly, the  work  is  a  significant  contribution 
in  the  field  of  American  folklore.  It  is 
highly  appropriate  that  a  Negro  and  a 
fellow  Atlantan — Dr.  Brookes  is  Professor 
of  English  at  Clark — should  publish  a 
study  showing  the  importance  of  the 
black  man's  folklore  to  the  work  of  Joel 
Chandler  Harris. 

During  the  past  decade,  Arna  Bon- 
temps  has  become  the  best  known  and,  in 
all  probability,  the  most  prolific  writer 
of  children's  books  among  Negroes.  His 
impressive  list  in  this  field  includes, 
among  others,  Golden  Slippers  (1941), 
We  Have  Tomorrow  (1945),  and,  with 
Jack  Conroy,  The  Fast  Sooner  Hound 
(1942).  In  the  past  year  he  has  added 
two  more  works  to  the  list.  5am  Patch 
(1951),  written  in  collaboration  with 
Jack  Conroy  and  illustrated  by  Paul 
Brown,  is  the  delightful  tall  tale  of  young 
Sam  Patch,  that  "high,  wide  and  hand- 
some jumper"  who  defeated  Hurricane 
Hank,  the  Kaskaskia  Snapping  Turtle, 
and  alienated  the  affections  of  Chuckle- 
head,  Hank's  trained  bear.  The  second 
work,  Chariot  in  the  Sky  (1951),  illus- 
trated by  Cyrus  Leroy  Baldridge,  is  a 
full-length  book  which  retells  for  younger 
readers  the  wonderful  story  of  the  Fisk 
Jubilee  Singers.  Making  use  of  Caleb 
Williams,  an  appealing  fictional  char- 
acter, Bontemps  weaves  around  him  the 
whole  historical  background  of  the  found- 


86 


NEGRO  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


ing  of  Fisk  University  and  the  heart- 
warming adventures  of  the  famous 
singers.  Presenting  wholesome  characters 
and  a  relatively  new  theme  in  children's 
literature,  this  work  is  another  milestone 
in  the  journey  away  from  the  L'il  Han- 
nibal and  Black  Sambo  tradition  in  ju- 
venile fiction. 

Ellen  Tarry's  The  Runaway  Elephant 
(1950),  with  pictures  by  Oliver  Harring- 
ton, continues  the  adventures  of  Hezekiah 
Horton,  a  very  young  and  very  likable 
Harlem  citizen.  In  this  little  work,  Heze- 
kiah is  instrumental  in  capturing  Modoc, 
the  escaped  bull  elephant  who  has  been 
terrorizing  the  community.  Earlier  chil- 
dren's books  by  Ellen  Tarry  are  Hezekiah 
Horton  (1942)  and,  with  Marie  Hall  Ets, 
My  Dog  Rinty  (1946). 

The  periodical  appearance  of  new  an- 
thologies of  Negro  literature,  all  of  them 
under  the  imprint  of  highly  reputable 
publishing  houses,  shows  the  continuing 
interest  in  Negro  writing.  During  the  40's, 
three  significant  anthologies  came  out: 
The  Negro  Caravan  (1942),  edited  by 
Sterling  A.  Brown,  Arthur  P.  Davis,  and 
Ulysses  Lee;  Anthology  of  American 
Negro  Literature  (1944),  edited  by  Syl- 
vestre  C.  Watkins ;  and  The  Poetry  of  the 
Negro  (1949),  edited  by  Langston 
Hughes  and  Arna  Bontemps.  In  1950, 
Harman  Dreer  brought  out  American 
Literature  by  Negro  Authors,  an  anthol- 
ogy designed  "to  present  representative 
authors  ...  in  order  to  show  how  Negro 
writers  have  treated  each  type  of  Amer- 
ican literature."  The  work  is  divided  into 
nine  sections — folklore,  poetry,  letters, 
biography  and  autobiography,  essays,  ad- 
dresses, short  stories,  novels,  and  plays — 
with  an  introduction  to  each.  It  contains 
many  of  the  classic  Negro  authors  and 
a  number  of  practically  unknown  writers. 
By  cutting  out  certain  difficult  passages 
in  his  selections  and  by  avoiding  certain 
themes,  Mr.  Dreer  has  made  the  anthol- 
ogy a  text  suitable  for  high  school  study. 
Two  works  of  a  religious  nature  con- 
cern us  here.  The  first,  Say  Amen, 
Brother!  is,  as  its  sub-title  informs  us,  an 
account  of  "old-time  Negro  preaching;  a 


study  in  American  frustration,"  written 
by  William  Harrison  Pipes.  Dr.  Pipes  has 
printed  the  texts  of  eight  typical  Sunday 
sermons  preached  by  the  Negro  ministers 
in  Macon  County,  Georgia.  Macon  County 
was  chosen  for  the  experiment  because 
the  preaching  there  is  still  the  old-time 
variety.  The  sermons  were  taken  down  on 
recording  machines  and  transcribed  for 
the  present  work.  Pipes  analyzes  their 
content,  style,  and  delivery.  He  points  out 
that  this  type  of  preaching  is  a  direct 
result  of  Negro  frustration  and  is  funda- 
mentally escapist  in  nature.  Aside  from 
its  religious  and  sociological  value,  this 
study  will  be  a  boon  for  the  folklorist. 
There  are  very  few  old-time  Negro  ser- 
mons in  print,  and  Dr.  Pipes  has  rendered 
a  real  service  in  making  this  valuable 
material  available. 

The  second  work,  Howard  Thurman's 
book  of  devotions,  Deep  is  the  Hunger 
(1951),  is  a  type  quite  rare  in  Negro 
American  literature.  It  is  a  volume  of 
"meditations  for  apostles  of  sensitivity," 
which  Dr.  Thurman  first  issued  as  a  series 
of  weekly  bulletins  for  the  members  of 
his  famous  San  Francisco  church.  Though 
written  at  times  in  a  moving  and  poetic 
style,  these  meditations  are  surprisingly 
down  to  earth  in  their  realistic  applica- 
tion of  the  fundamentals  of  religion  to 
modern  living. 

Prepared  for  Louis  Adamic's  "People 
of  America"  series,  They  Came  in  Chains: 
Americans  from  Africa  (1950),  is,  like 
most  of  Jay  Saunders  Redding's  works, 
a  brilliantly  written  book.  Taking  the 
dry  bones  of  historical  fact,  Redding  has 
clothed  them  with  flesh  and  blood.  He 
makes  the  history  of  the  Negro  in  Amer- 
ica read  like  an  exciting  novel.  Historians 
have  found  minor  errors  in  the  work, 
they  have  noted  its  lack  of  adequate 
documentation,  and  they  have  objected 
strongly  to  several  of  the  book's  many 
sweeping  generalizations.  But  even  the 
historians  have  been  impressed  with  Red- 
ding's  vivid  and  dramatic  presentation  of 
the  material,  and  they  readily  admit  that 
a  work  of  this  kind  will  have  a  stronger 
appeal  for  the  ordinary  reader  than  a 


SUMMARY 


87 


more  scholarly  and  conventional  study. 
This  is  to  say  that  Redding's  version  of 
the  Negro  story  suits  admirably  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  intended. 

Helen  G.  Edmonds'  The  Negro  and 
Fusion  Politics  in  North  Carolina,  1894- 
1901  (1951)  is  a  new  and  provocative 
study  of  the  most  highly  chaotic  period 
in  North  Carolina  politics.  Dr.  Edmonds 
investigates  the  basis  of  Fusion  during 
the  period  in  question  and  examines  the 
Negro's  place  in  the  movement.  Her  work 
shows  that  the  charge  of  "Negro  domina- 
tion," which  was  so  often  given  as  a 
reason  for  the  southern  Democrat's  un- 
democratic actions,  had  no  basis  in  fact. 
She  concludes  that  the  hatred  of  Fusion 
plus  the  coalition  of  the  Democrats  and 
the  industrialists,  rather  than  Negro  dom- 
ination, brought  about  the  disfranchise- 
ment  of  the  black  man  and  made  North 
Carolina  a  one-party  state.  Her  chapters 
on  the  White  Supremacy  Campaign  of 
1898  and  on  the  Wilmington  Riot  are  of 
special  interest  to  the  layman  as  well  as 
to  the  historian. 

The  Negro  in  American  Business 
(1950) ,  by  Robert  H.  Kinzer  and  Edward 
Sagarin,  is  a  study  of  "the  conflict  be- 
tween separatism  and  integration"  in  the 
Negro's  approach  to  his  business  acti- 
vities. Should  the  Negro  stress  the  build- 
ing up  of  a  racial  business,  or  should  he 
emphasize  the  merging  of  his  interests 
with  those  of  the  white  world?  Are  there 
advantages  on  both  sides?  If  so,  what 
are  they?  These  are  the  questions  which 
the  two  authors  of  this  work  try  to  answer. 
After  pointing  out  that  the  present  day 
Negro  business  man  is  compelled  to  fol- 
low both  paths,  they  insist  that  his  "major 
emphasis  must  be  on  integration." 

Pauli  Murray's  States'  Laws  on  Race 
and  Color  (1951)  is  a  timely  and  most 
fascinating  handbook  of  America's  demo- 
cratic shortcomings.  The  women  of  the 
Methodist  Church,  finding  that  there  was 
no  single  volume  which  gave  information 
on  the  laws  concerning  race  and  color  in 
America,  commissioned  Pauli  Murray  to 
compile  and  edit  such  a  work.  Giving  the 
actual  texts  of  the  various  racial  and 


color  laws,  the  book  is  a  valuable  guide 
for  lawyer,  scholar,  and  layman  alike.  In 
the  appendix  there  are  excerpts  from 
pertinent  international  documents  such  as 
the  Charter  of  UNESCO  and  the  Uni- 
versal Declaration  of  Human  Rights.  The 
Negro  reader  of  Miss  Murray's  compila- 
tion will  be  surprised  not  only  at  his  own 
unenviable  status  in  so  many  states  but 
also  at  the  many  companions  in  misery 
he  has  among  Indian,  Mexican,  Chinese, 
Japanese,  and  other  "alien"  groups.  To 
see  all  these  insulting  laws  presented  in 
one  volume  should  be  a  therapeutic  and 
chastening  experience  for  any  American. 
After  a  lapse  of  six  years,  the  seventh 
edition  of  Who's  Who  in  Colored  America 
(1950)  was  published  under  new  editor- 
ship and  in  a  new  format.  Its  principal 
editor  is  G.  James  Fleming.  Christian  E. 
Burckel  is  co-editor.  The  seventh  edition 
in  almost  every  respect  is  an  improve- 
ment on  its  predecessors.  A  new  feature 
in  this  edition  is  the  inclusion  of  two 
tables  showing  the  geographical  and  vo- 
cational distribution  of  the  persons  in- 
cluded. Containing,  with  its  recently 
published  supplement,  over  3,000  biog- 
raphies and  over  800  photographs,  the 
work  is  a  much  needed  reference  tool 
that  takes  its  place  alongside  similar 
"segmental"  biographical  dictionaries. 

SUMMARY 

The  1950  to  1951  period  covered  by  this 
article,  taken  as  a  whole,  has  been  a 
fruitful  one  for  the  Negro  American 
writer.  He  has  produced  three  best 
sellers,  two  novels  and  one  autobiog- 
raphy; he  has  made  significant  scholarly 
contributions  in  literature  and  in  history; 
and  most  important  of  all,  he  has  broad- 
ened considerably  the  range  of  his  inter- 
ests and  improved  generally  in  the  tech- 
niques of  his  profession. 

In  an  appraisal  of  this  kind,  it  is  just 
as  important  to  point  out  the  shortcom- 
ings as  it  is  to  praise  the  advances.  There 
are,  for  example,  several  areas  which  the 
Negro  writer,  year  after  year,  seems  to 
overlook,  among  them  biography  and 


88 


NEGRO  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


drama,  including  radio  and  television 
dramatic  productions.  And  for  some  un- 
known reason,  there  are  few,  if  any, 
Negro  authors  to  be  found  in  two  of  the 
most  popular  and  lucrative  fields  of  minor 
contemporary  writing,  the  detective  story 
and  science-fiction.  Most  tragic  of  all,  the 
Negro  rarely  attempts  humor  of  any  kind, 
poetic,  dramatic,  or  fictional. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  why  the  Negro 
writer  has  done  relatively  little  as  a  play- 
wright. To  state  it  simply,  he  has  never 
had  the  opportunity  to  experience  ade- 
quately the  kind  of  apprenticeship  in  the 
theatre  and  on  the  networks  which  suc- 
cessful dramatic  writing  seems  to  require. 
It  is  also  easy  to  understand,  though  not 
to  accept,  his  reason  for  avoiding  humor. 
Subjected  to  caricatures  and  stereotypes 
in  American  fiction  for  so  many  genera- 
tions, he  hesitates  to  write  humorously  for 


fear  that  he  will  inadvertently  add  to  the 
ridicule  already  heaped  upon  colored 
Americans.  One  can  appreciate  the  pecul- 
iar problem  in  each  of  these  cases.  But 
is  there  a  similar  problem  in  the  field  of 
biography  and  in  the  other  areas  which 
the  Negro  writer  seems  to  avoid? 

Perhaps  the  real  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  the  surprisingly 
small  number  of  professional  writers 
among  us.  When  the  number  becomes  pro- 
portionate to  the  Negro  population,  these 
barren  areas  will  tend  to  disappear.  Dur- 
ing the  first  half  of  the  present  century, 
the  Negro  author  made  remarkable  prog- 
ress in  improving  the  quality  of  his  work. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  he 
will  develop  in  the  second  half  a  group  of 
professional  men  of  letters  large  and 
versatile  enough  to  cover  all  areas  of 
American  writing. 


7  - 

The  Theatre,  Motion  Pictures, 
the  Dance,  Radio,  Television 


SINCE  WORLD  WAR  II,  the  legitimate  the- 
atre and  motion  pictures  have  presented 
a  number  of  productions  centered  about 
the  race  problem  and  have  with  more  or 
less  effect  exploited  the  drama  in  this 
theme.  The  reception  of  the  following  by 
audiences  and  critics  attests  the  popu- 
larity of  this  subject:  Our  Lan',  Lost  in 
the  Stars,  Set  My  People  Free,  Forward 
the  Heart,  The  Well,  Intruder  in  the  Dust, 
Lost  Boundaries,  No  Way  Out,  The  Jackie 
Robinson  Story,  Home  of  the  Brave, 
Lights  Out,  Show  Boat,  Native  Son, 
Pinky,  and  The  Breaking  Point. 

The  shift  in  audience  appeal  has  been 
reflected  in  the  failure  of  revivals  of  old 
favorites  like  All  God's  Chillun  Got 
Wings  and  Green  Pastures  to  get  favor- 
able reception.  The  former  closed  after 
16  performances  and  the  latter  lasted 
only  a  few  weeks  as  against  640  original 
performances.  In  the  meantime,  another 
phase  in  the  development  of  the  Negro  on 
the  stage  is  evident.  Television  has 
achieved  wide  popularity  as  a  medium  of 
entertainment.  The  Negro,  because  of  his 
color,  shows  to  better  advantage  on  the 
TV  screen  than  whites.  By  1950,  the 
Negro  had  been  accepted  in  this  medium 
and  the  number  of  acts  starring  Negro 
performers  was  growing. 

THE  THEATRE 

South  Pacific,  a  musical  by  Richard 
Rodgers  and  Oscar  Hammerstein  adapted 
from  James  Michener's  Tales  of  the  South 
Pacific,  provided  the  role  of  Bloody  Mary 
for  Juanita  Hall.  Miss  Hall's  songs  "Bali 
Ha'i"  and  "Happy  Talk"  were  show  stop- 
pers. Fred  Norman,  well-known  arranger, 


and  Langston  Hughes,  lyricist,  listen  as 
she  sings  "Love  Can't  Hurt  You."  Others 
in  the  cast:  Earl  Sydnor,  Alonzo  Bazon, 
Frank  Wilson,  Ossie  Davis,  and  William 
Veasey. 

The  two  plots  in  the  play  are  concerned 
with  the  folly  of  race  prejudice.  During 
World  War  II  a  Navy  nurse  from  Arkan- 
sas (Mary  Martin)  falls  in  love  with  a 
French  planter  (Ezio  Pinza)  but  dis- 
covers that  he  has  fathered  two  Tonkinese 
children.  This  gives  the  nurse  a  serious 
bout  with  her  conscience,  but  the  play 
has  a  happy  ending.  In  the  subplot,  a 
young  Marine  lieutenant  from  America 
falls  in  love  with  a  beautiful  Tonkinese 
girl  but  is  killed.  The  English  presenta- 
tion of  South  Pacific  at  London's  Drury 
Lane  Theatre  featured  Muriel  Smith  as 
Bloody  Mary. 

Street  Scene,  a  musical  adaptation  of 
Elmer  Rice's  famous  play,  with  music  by 
Kurt  Weill  and  lyrics  by  Langston 
Hughes,  opened  Jan.  9,  1947,  and  ran  for 
148  performances.  Creighton  Thompson 
as  a  Negro  janitor  and  Juanita  Hall  as 
his  wife  had  roles  in  the  play,  and  Mr. 
Thompson  had  a  solo,  "  I  got  a  Marble 
and  a  Star."  There  was  also  a  colored 
school  girl  who  sang  "Wrapped  in  a 
Ribbon"  with  a  mixed  group  of  children. 

Call  Me  Mister  closed  on  Jan.  10,  1948, 
after  a  two-year  run  of  734  performances. 
Lawrence  Winters,  an  ex-army  lieutenant, 
and  Bruce  Howard  were  in  the  cast. 
Winters  sang  "Face  on  a  Dime"  and  "Red 
Ball  Express."  He  was  later  replaced  by 
James  Young. 

Kiss  Me  Kate  opened  on  Dec.  30,  1948, 
with  Annabella  Hill,  a  maid  with  a  bari- 
tone voice,  and  dancers  Fred  Davis,  Eddie 


89 


90 


THEATRE,  MOTION  PICTURES,  TELEVISION 


Sledge,  and  Lorenzo  Fuller.  This  smash 
hit  was  by  Cole  Porter  and  Bella  and 
Samuel  Spewack. 

The  Member  of  the  Wedding  opened  at 
the  Empire  Theatre  Jan.  5,  1950.  The 
persons  in  the  play  lead  a  commonplace 
life  but  as  free  individuals.  Brooks  Atkin- 
son says,  "As  a  play,  it  is  elusive  and 
intangible."  It  concerns  three  lonely 
people,  a  motherless  12-year-old  girl,  a 
kind-hearted  cook,  and  a  small  boy.  Ethel 
Waters  plays  the  family  servant  and 
her  hymn,  "His  Eye  is  on  the  Sparrow," 
is  used  at  the  end  of  the  second  act  and 
at  the  final  curtain.  Her  skillful  artistry 
helped  wonderfully  in  winning  the  Don- 
aldson Award  for  outstanding  achieve- 
ment in  the  theatre  during  the  season  and 
also  won  the  1950  Sojourner  Truth 
Award  for  "symbolizing  the  great  strength 
of  Negro  women"  made  by  the  National 
Association  of  Negro  Business  and  Pro- 
fessional Women's  Club,  Inc. 

Arms  and  the  Girl  was  produced  by  the 
Theatre  Guild  at  the  46th  Street  Theatre 
in  1950.  Pearl  Bailey  was  the  co-star. 
New  York  critics  said  her  outstanding 
performance  assured  the  play's  success. 
She  sang  two  songs  in  her  husky  voice, 
using  her  expressive  hands  to  accent  her 
emotions.  The  audience  went  wild  and 
stopped  the  show  with  their  applause. 
She  has  won  the  title  of  the  foremost 
comedienne  of  this  era.  She  plays  a  fugi- 
tive slave  girl,  who  becomes  the  personal 
servant  of  the  star,  Nanette  Fabray.  Her 
song,  "There  Must  be  Something  Better 
than  Love,"  became  a  hit. 

Seventeen,  which  opened  at  the  Broad- 
hurst  Theatre,  June  21, 1951,  is  a  musical 
comedy  based  on  the  Booth  Tarkington 
story  of  the  same  name.  It  is  concerned 
with  teenagers  and  love.  In  the  musical 
are  Alonzo  Bazon  as  Mr.  Genesis  (he  has 
also  played  in  Strange  Fruit,  Two  Blind 
Mice,  Long  Way  Home,  The  Wisteria 
Trees,  and  the  Green  Pastures  revival), 
and  Maurice  Ellis  as  Genesis  (he  sang  in 
Brown  Buddies,  played  Pooh  Bah  in  The 
Hot  Mikado,  was  with  Ethel  Waters  in 
Cabin  in  the  Sky,  with  the  Lunts  in  The 
Pirate,  with  Helen  Hayes  in  The  Wisteria 


Trees,  was  in  the  Porgy  and  Bess  revival 
and  played  Julian  in  Jeb.) 

Anna  Lucasta  was  revived  during  the 
1947-48  season  with  the  following  cast: 
Wesleen  Foster,  Rosetta  Le  Noire,  Laura 
Bowman,  Roy  Allen,  Warren  Coleman, 
Frank  Wilson,  Rolf  Coleman,  Slim 
Thompson,  Claire  Jay,  Maxwell  Glan- 
ville,  Isabelle  Cooley,  Lance  Taylor, 
Sidney  Poitier,  and  Duke  Williams. 

Lost  in  the  Stars  closed  July  1,  1950, 
after  273  performances.  This  musical 
play,  based  on  the  book  Cry  the  Beloved 
Country,  by  Alan  Paton,  is  set  in  South 
Africa  and'  relates  the  tragedy  of  Ab- 
salom, son  of  the  Rev.  Stephen  Kumalo, 
pastor  of  a  South  African  church.  Ab- 
salom, in  Johannesburg  to  earn  money  for 
his  education,  falls  in  with  evil  compan- 
ions. In  an  attempted  robbery  he  shoots 
the  city's  leading  white  advocate  of  Negro 
equality.  He  confesses  and  is  hanged.  His 
father  plans  to  leave  the  community  but 
is  persuaded  to  stay  by  the  slain  man's 
father.  The  music  is  by  Kurt  Weill  and 
the  lyrics  and  dialogue  are  by  Maxwell 
Anderson.  The  light-hearted  singing  of 
"Big  Mole"  by  Herbert  Coleman  was  out- 
standing. In  the  cast  were  Todd  Duncan 
playing  the  Rev.  Stephen  Kumalo,  Geor- 
gette Harvey  as  Mrs.  M'Kize,  William 
Greaves,  Gloria  Smith,  Sheila  Guyse,  La 
Verne  French,  and  Van  Prince. 

There  were  a  number  of  plays  with 
Negroes  in  their  casts  whose  runs  were 
short,  among  them  The  Cradle  Will  Rock 
(1947),  How  Long  Till  Summer  (1949), 
Our  Lan'  (1947  and  1948),  Forward  the 
Heart  (1949),  and  Set  My  People  Free 
(1948).  The  Cradle  Will  Rock,  dealing 
with  labor-management  conflict,  had  only 
Muriel  Smith's  singing  to  relieve  its  soap- 
box monotony.  Forward  the  Heart  had  a 
challenging  theme  in  the  idea  that  color 
is  only  skin  deep,  with  the  love  of  a  blind 
white  veteran  for  his  mother's  Negro  maid, 
played  by  Julie  Evans,  but  it  never  reached 
the  level  of  true  and  uplifting  tragedy 
that  it  should  have  reached. 

Hassan  (1951),  a  play  by  James  Elroy 
Fleeker,  gave  Hilda  Simms  a  role  as 
Pervaneh,  a  slave  girl. 


MOTION  PICTURES 


91 


MOTION  PICTURES 

Lost  Boundaries  (1949).  This  picture  is 
based  on  the  life  story  of  the  Johnston 
family  of  Keene,  New  Hampshire.  Dr. 
Johnston,  a  practicing  physician,  is  re- 
garded as  white.  He  is  socially  and 
financially  successful  and  his  children 
are  unaware  of  their  Negro  blood.  But 
unfortunately  the  father's  application  for 
a  naval  commission  is  rejected  because  of 
his  Negro  blood.  Regardless  of  the  con- 
sequences, he  and  his  wife  decide  to  tell 
the  children  of  their  heritage.  The  effects 
are  well-nigh  disastrous.  Howard,  the  son, 
goes  to  Harlem  to  learn  how  the  people 
there  live,  gets  into  trouble,  and  is  given 
help  and  sympathy  by  a  Negro  police 
lieutenant.  This  picture  digs  deep  into 
the  problem  of  "passing."  The  conflict 
generates  emotions  that  touch  the  audi- 
ence to  the  quick.  The  direction  is  most 
dignified.  Bill  Greaves,  Canada  Lee,  Bea- 
trice Pearson,  and  Susan  Douglas  act 
realistically  in  a  mixed  cast. 

Home  of  the  Brave  (1949).  The  star, 
James  Edwards,  a  Negro  GI,  is  torn  by 
discrimination  and  hatred.  The  climax  is 
reached  when  he  and  four  white  GI's  are 
trapped  on  a  Pacific  atoll.  He  quarrels 
with  his  friend,  Finch,  who  is  killed  in 
battle,  and  the  resulting  shock  leaves 
Edwards  paralyzed.  The  doctor's  skill 
cures  him.  The  film  is  based  on  a  play 
about  anti-Semitism.  It  is  tense  and  dra- 
matic. Edwards  is  remembered  for  his 
fine  acting  as  the  lead  in  the  play,  Deep 
are  the  Roots. 

Battleground  (1949).  This  film  is  no- 
table for  the  achievement  of  two  Negroes, 
Willie  L.  Duckworth,  the  soldier  who 
created  the  chant  first  called  after  him 
and  later  rechristened  "Sound  Off,"  and 
his  partner  Colonel  Bernard  Lentz.  They 
made  the  chant  into  a  song  and  it  was 
recorded  in  a  dozen  languages.  It  is 
said  they  are  reaping  large  financial  re- 
wards from  this  army  marching  song. 
Master  Sergeant  Samuel  Jagers,  94th 
Engineer  Battalion,  was  placed  in  charge 
of  the  snappy  drills  in  the  movie.  His 


success  with  "Sound  Off"  won  him  a  place 
in  some  of  the  MGM  movie  scenes. 

Pinky  (1949).  The  basic  theme  of  this 
20th  Century  Fox  picture  is  pride  in  what 
one  is  and  does.  Pinky's  fair  skin  admits 
her  to  a  nursing  career  and  social  oppor- 
tunities in  the  North.  But  she  runs  away 
from  marriage  with  a  white  doctor.  Back 
home  she  rebels  against  the  situation  of 
her  grandmother,  who  made  great  sacri- 
fices for  her  granddaughter's  education. 
But  she  reaps  the  reward  of  a  mansion 
for  her  care  of  Ethel  Barrymore,  her 
grandmother's  employer.  With  the  help 
of  a  Negro  doctor,  she  converts  the  man- 
sion into  a  nursing  home.  She  again  de- 
clines the  offer  of  marriage  to  the  white 
doctor.  She  says,  "You  can't  live  without 
pride."  In  the  cast  are  Ethel  Waters,  the 
grandmother,  Fred  O'Neal,  a  smooth  in- 
dividual, Kenny  Washington  as  Dr.  Can- 
ady,  and  Nina  Mae  McKinney  as  Rozelia. 

The  Jackie  Robinson  Story  (1948). 
This  is  a  movie  about  the  first  Negro  to 
play  in  the  major  leagues  in  recent  times. 
Jackie  calls  it  "just  a  success  story  on 
the  screen,  nothing  more."  It  is  more — a 
movie  with  a  Negro  here  in  the  lead.  It 
depicts  his  struggles  against  jim  crowism 
in  this  great  American  sport,  especially 
against  the  Dodgers'  protest  at  his  trans- 
fer to  the  Brooklyn  team.  Branch  Rickey, 
the  manager,  assails  their  sportsmanship. 
When  his  teammates  protest  decisions 
against  him,  Robinson  knows  he  has  been 
accepted.  This  improves  his  playing.  Fans 
begin  to  cheer  him.  The  climax  is  his 
patriotic  speech  on  loyalty  before  the 
House  Committee  on  Un-American  Acti- 
vities.1 In  the  cast  are  Ruby  Dee,  as 
Robinson's  wife,  Joel  Fluellen  as  his 
brother,  and  Louise  Beavers  as  his 
mother. 

The  Quiet  One  (1949).  This  film,  pro- 
duced independently  by  Meyer-Burstyn 
Pictures,  is  remarkable  because  its  lead 
is  played  by  a  young  Harlem  boy,  Donald 
Thompson,  and  it  had  the  cooperation  of 
Harlem  and  the  Wiltwyk  School  for  De- 
linquents. It  strikes  at  the  core  of  the 
delinquency  problem.  Donald's  keen  in- 


1  This  is  a  dramatization  of  his  actual  appearance  before  this  committee  on  July  18,  1949. 


92 


THEATRE,  MOTION  PICTURES,  TELEVISION 


sight  into  the  problems  of  the  character 
and  his  skillful  portrayal  are  praise- 
worthy. In  the  cast  are  Estelle  Evans,  the 
mother,  and  Sadie  Stockton,  the  grand- 
mother, both  from  the  American  Negro 
Theatre,  and  the  boys  and  staff  of 
Wiltwyk. 

Show  Boat  (1951).  In  this  revival  there 
are  some  changes  in  the  racial  attitude  of 
this  musical.  The  stage  presentation  in 
1927  and  the  movie  in  1929  contained  two 
despised  terms  in  the  song,  "01'  Man 
River,"  which  have  been  dropped,  and 
Francis  Williams  wears  no  bandana. 
William  Warfield  sings  "01'  Man  River." 
One  naturally  compares  him  with  former 
singers  Jules  Bledsoe,  Paul  Robeson,  and 
Kenneth  Spencer.  Hammerstein  thinks 
Warfield  delivers  the  song  with  more 
understanding  than  anyone  else,  making 
apparent  slight  and  pleasing  nuances 
with  his  rich  and  powerful  voice.  He  has 
signed  for  the  musical  film  version  of 
Huckleberry  Finn.  He  sang  in  Call  Me 
Mister  and  Set  My  People  Free. 

No  Way  Out  (1950).  This  movie  con- 
cerns a  doctor  who  is  the  first  Negro 
interne  in  a  white  hospital.  A  patient  he 
treats  in  the  prison  ward  dies.  The  pa- 
tient's brother,  in  the  same  ward,  charges 
murder,  and  a  race  riot  threatens.  Dr. 
Brooks,  the  Negro,  however,  insists  on  an 
autopsy,  which  proves  death  was  due  to  a 
brain  tumor.  The  brother  calls  this  a 
frame-up,  escapes,  and  tries  to  kill  the 
doctor.  His  life  is  saved  by  Linda  Darnell, 
who  dies  in  his  stead.  Sidney  Poitier  is 
Dr.  Brooks,  Mildred  Joanne  Smith,  his 
wife,  and  Fred  O'Neal,  the  rich  Dr.  Clark. 
Other  artists  include  Dots  Johnson, 
Maude  Simmons,  Ruby  Dee,  and  Ossie 
Davis.  The  film  is  termed  a  "daring, 
powerful,  and  stirring  indictment  of 
Negro  prejudice." 

Bright  Victory  (1951).  The  setting  is 
in  a  hospital  for  the  blind.  A  Negro  GI 
is  brought  in.  The  others,  not  seeing  his 
skin  color,  accept  him  and  he  makes 
friends  with  a  white  GI  by  giving  him 
faith  in  the  future.  Then  the  white  soldier 
discovers  the  truth  about  his  friend  and 
prejudice  sets  in.  But  his  father  wisely 


observes:  "The  whole  world's  changing 
and  you  more  than  we — because  you've 
helped  to  change  it."  James  Edwards  is 
the  Negro  soldier. 

Native  Son  (1951).  Richard  Wright, 
the  author  of  the  original  book,  plays 
Bigger  Thomas,  Gloria  Madison  is  his 
girl  friend  and  Willa  Pearl  Curtiss,  his 
mother.  The  movie  is  based  on  the  stage 
play  of  the  same  name,  described  in  the 
Negro  Year  Book  1947.  It  is  an  indict- 
ment of  jim  crowism  and  is  realistically 
done. 

The  Breaking  Point  (1951).  In  this 
film  Juano  Hernandez  is  cast  as  a  white 
man's  friend.  The  relationship  between 
them  is  equal  for  the  first  time.  Hernan- 
dez has  played  in  Strange  Fruit,  Intruder 
in  the  Dust,  Show  Boat,  Blackbirds,  and 
others. 

The  Well  (1951).  This  picture  is  rem- 
iniscent of  the  little  girl  who  fell  in  the 
shaft  at  San  Marino,  Calif.  Human  be- 
havior is  depicted  under  a  similar  tense 
and  emotional  circumstance.  The  Well 
follows  two  lines  of  development.  First, 
the  drama  of  the  community  as  a  white 
man  falls  under  suspicion  after  the  dis- 
appearance of  a  Negro  girl.  This  presents 
the  growth  of  insane  rashness  that  leads 
to  the  brink  of  a  race-riot.  The  second 
line  develops  from  clues  that  the  girl  has 
fallen  into  a  well.  Now  the  emotions  are 
strained  by  the  united  efforts  to  save  a 
human  life,  without  thought  of  race  pre- 
judice. Even  the  accused  lends  his  su- 
perior mining  skill.  This  is  well  done.  The 
entire  town  is  swept  to  the  scene  to  watch 
or  help  in  the  rescue  with  feverish  excite- 
ment. Doubtless  the  onlookers  mumble 
prayers  that  the  child's  life  may  be  saved. 
All  this  is  to  the  accompaniment  of  mas- 
sive machinery  heavily  pulsing  out  their 
hope,  with  the  soothing  effects  of  occa- 
sional music.  The  climax  is  suspenseful 
and  soul-stirring.  In  the  cast  are  Maidie 
Norman,  playing  the  mother,  Ernest 
Anderson,  the  father,  Christine  Larson, 
the  child,  Bill  Walker,  the  doctor,  Alfred 
Grant,  the  Negro  leader,  and  Benjamin 
Hamilton,  the  grandfather.  All  did  out- 
standing work. 


RADIO  AND  TELEVISION 


93 


Intruder  in  the  Dust  (1949).  A  Negro 
is  accused  of  murdering  a  white  man. 
There  is  race  hate  and  talk  of  lynching. 
The  real  culprit  is  discovered  by  the  act 
of  a  white  youngster  whose  life  the  Negro 
once  saved.  The  play  was  filmed  in  Ox- 
ford, Miss.,  and  150  Negroes  and  many 
whites  were  used.  Juano  Hernandez 
played  the  accused  with  great  dignity. 

Tarzan's  Perils  (1951).  Dorothy  Dan- 
dridge  plays  the  lead  as  Melmendi,  the 
beautiful  queen  of  a  peaceful  African 
tribe.  She  has  played  bit  parts  in  many 
movies. 

Lydia  Bailey  (1951) .  This  film  presents 
Ken  Renard  in  the  role  of  Toussaint 
L'Ouverture.  Juanita  Moore  is  Maria  and 
William  Marshall  is  King  Dick. 

To  Live  Together,  a  documentary 
movie  produced  by  B'nai  B'rith  in  1951, 
depicts  an  interracial  camp  for  Chicago 
children. 

THE  DANCE 

Janet  Collins,  who  had  made  a  reputa- 
tion for  herself  as  a  musical  comedy 
dancer,  was  engaged  in  1951  as  premiere 
danseuse  by  the  Metropolitan  Opera  Com- 
pany, and  became  the  first  regular  Negro 
member  of  the  Metropolitan  Company 
in  New  York  City. 

Eugene  Robinson,  a  native  of  Detroit, 
made  a  hit  in  1951  as  a  dancer  at  the 
Edderkobbel  Theatre  in  Norway. 

Pearl  Primus,  who  was  featured  as  a 
dancer  in  the  revival  of  Show  Boat,  was 
invited  in  1951  to  give  a  command  per- 
formance for  the  British  Royal  Family 
in  London. 

Josephine  Baker,  the  master  artist, 
spent  most  of  1951  on  an  American  tour 
which  brought  her  unstinting  acclaim. 
Her  artistic  and  expensive  gowns  as  well 
as  her  effective  stock  of  songs  and  dances 
captivated  audiences  wherever  she  ap- 
peared. 

Katherine  Dunham  and  her  dancing 
troupe  continued  to  enjoy  great  popu- 
larity. In  1951,  the  Dunham  dancers  had 
a  European  tour  which  took  them  to  all 
the  major  cities. 


RADIO  AND  TELEVISION 

Radio 

There  has  been  a  noticeable  lessening 
of  the  importance  of  the  Negro  on  radio 
since  1947,  due  largely  to  the  development 
of  television.  Some  Negro  actors  are  active 
on  both  radio  and  television. 

WERD,  the  only  Negro-owned  radio 
station,  was  opened  Oct.  3,  1949,  by  J.  B. 
Blayton,  Jr.,  in  Atlanta,  Ga.  A  listener 
survey  showed  a  40%  white  audience. 

Stations  WMFS,  Chattanooga,  Tenn., 
and  WEDR,  Birmingham,  Ala.,  are  en- 
tirely staffed  by  Negroes.  Ed  Reynolds 
and  John  Thompson  have  provided  pro- 
grams for  Negroes  over  WEDR  since 
August  1949. 

Among  the  numerous  Negro  disc 
jockeys  with  spots  on  radio  in  practically 
all  of  our  major  cities,  are  two  women 
who  have  achieved  considerable  popu- 
larity. They  are  Jessie  Morris,  whose 
"Swing  Ship"  program  is  heard  from 
WEPG,  Atlantic  City,  N.J.,  and  Mary 
Dee,  from  WHOD,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Among  other  popular  disc  jockeys  are 
Ralph  Cooper,  WOV,  New  York;  "Doc" 
Wheeler,  WWRL,  New  York;  Leroy 
White,  Detroit;  John  Hardy,  WBOK, 
New  Orleans;  Sonny  Thompson,  WIRK, 
West  Palm  Beach,  Fla.;  "Daddy  '0  Day- 
lie,"  WAIT,  Chicago;  Bill  Sampson, 
KWKW,  Los  Angeles;  Phil  "Trash" 
Gordon,  WWRL,  New  York;  Randy 
Dixon,  WDAS,  Philadelphia. 

Old  favorites  on  featured  programs 
continued  to  enjoy  their  popularity.  Eddie 
(Rochester)  Anderson  still  brings  laughs 
on  the  Jack  Benny  program.  The  pro- 
longed illness  of  beloved  Hattie  McDan- 
iels  brought  Lillian  Randolph  to  the 
"Beulah  Show"  in  the  title  role.  Miss 
Randolph  also  continued  to  play  the  role 
of  Birdie  on  the  "Great  Gildersleeve" 
comedy  program.  Louis  Armstrong  and 
Nat  "King"  Cole  have  their  own  spon- 
sored network  shows. 

Television 

Variety,  May  3,  1950,  carried  an  article 
entitled,  "Negro  Talent  Coming  Into  Own 


94 


THEATRE,  MOTION  PICTURES,  TELEVISION 


On  TV,  Without  Use  of  Stereotypes."  The 
"Amos  'N  Andy"  show,  which  features 
Alvin  Childress,  Spencer  Williams,  Tim 
Moore,  and  Ernestine  Wade,  all  experi- 
enced Negro  artists,  was  mentioned  in  the 
article.  The  National  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Colored  People,  however, 
protested  the  stereotyping  alleged  to  be 
present  in  this  show,  causing  confusion  in 
the  TV  studios.  Should  they  disregard  the 
rising  storm,  strengthened  by  the  addi- 
tional opposition  of  Phi  Beta  Sigma,  one 
of  the  leading  college  fraternities? 

These  protests  occured  at  a  time  when 
it  was  rumored  the  studios  were  about 
ready  to  go  forward  in  the  employment  of 
Negro  artists  in  a  large  way.  In  this 
emergency,  a  Coordinating  Council  was 
organized  in  New  York  in  July  1951  by 
the  Negro  Actors  Guild  in  response  to 
public  request. 

Since  the  Guild  is  a  welfare  organiza- 
tion, the  Council  became  a  separate  en- 
tity. It  aims  at  promoting  better  under- 
standing in  the  selection  of  script  mate- 
rial for  Negro  parts,  without  caricatures 
and  stereotypes,  and  at  acquainting  pro- 
ducers and  sponsors  with  the  wealth  of 
available  Negro  talent.  The  Council  will 
adopt  a  positive  approach  to  the  solution 
of  differences,  looking  to  mutually  bene- 
ficial results.  It  is  interracial  and  includes 
representatives     from     the     amusement 
world  and  the  press  as  well  as  individuals 
and  representatives  of  outside  organiza- 
tions. Its  officers  are  Lester  A.  Walton, 
former    minister    to    Liberia,    chairman. 
Dick  Campbell,  Rosetta  Le  Noire,  Pauline 
Myers,  Alberta  Pryme,  Leroy  Butler,  and 
A.   Edward  Walters.  Other  Guild  mem- 
bers  active  in   forming  the   Council   in- 
clude Noble  Sissle,  Fred  O'Neal,  Rosa- 
mond Johnson,  William  C.  Handy,  Etta 
Moten,    Marchand    McReynolds,    Edith 
Wilson,  and  George  Wiltshire. 

The  Council  has  a  tentative  promise  to 
increase  the  number  of  Negro  musicians 
to  10%.  One  committee  consists  of 
Eugene  Fraulie  and  Fred  O'Neal,  Walter 
White  of  the  NAACP,  Julius  A.  Thomas 
of  the  National  Urban  League,  Allen 
Morrison  of  Ebony,  and  Lester  Walton. 


Similar  committees  are  working  with 
Equity,  the  Producers  and  Dramatists 
Guild,  and  the  unions. 

Programs  on  Which  Negroes 
Appeared 

Hazel  Scott  has  a  sponsored  15-minute 
show  on  WABD,  New  York,  on  which  she 
plays,  sings,  and  talks.  On  the  technical 
side,  George  Olden  heads  the  New  York 
art  staff  at  CBS  and  Robert  Pettus  is  TV 
engineer  at  WEWS,  Cleveland.  Al  Benson 
is  emcee  on  a  one-hour  variety  show  on 
WBKB,  Chicago.  Nellie  Lutcher  ap- 
peared with  the  Nat  "King"  Cole  series 
and  "Steve  Allen  Show."  "Chuck  Rich- 
ards Social  Club"  on  WAAM,  Baltimore, 
has  a  gag-song  act.  Pearl  Bailey  was  on 
Dumon't  "Cavalcade  of  Stars."  Evelyn 
Davis  has  been  on  radio  and  TV.  Maxine 
Sullivan  appeared  on  Faye  Emerson's 
CBS  show  "Wonderful  Town."  Lorenzo 
Fuller  premiered  his  own  show  on 
WABD-TV. 

Neil  Scott  was  narrator  and  singer  on 
the   Joe   Tonti    NBC-TV    show.    "Sugar 
Chile"  Robinson  appeared  as  an  eleven- 
year-old  piano  wizard  on  Milton  Berle's 
TV  show.  Leigh  Shipper  played  in  "The 
Private    Eye,"    and    in    three    "Beulah" 
shows    with   Ethel    Waters    and   Dooley 
Wilson.  Canada  Lee  starred  in  the  Chev- 
rolet Tele-Theatre  in  a  fight  story  with  a 
white  cast.  Joe  Adams  is  the  first  Negro 
to  be  a  staff  member  on  a  TV  station  and 
the  first  to  be  employed  by  radio  stations 
in  eight  western  states;  he  is  now  emcee 
band  leader  on  KTTV's  "Joe  Presents." 
Lena  Home  was  emcee  on  NBC's  "Your 
Show  of  Shows,"  and  a  guest  star  on  Ed 
Sullivan's  show.  She  proved  an  effective 
TV  performer.  She  is  set  to  star  on  NBC's 
"Saturday  Night  Revue"  with  Cab  Gallo- 
way. Sarah  Vaughan  has  been  on  Perry 
Como's  popular  CBS-TV  show,  "Chester- 
field Supper  Club,"  and  has  contracts  for 
three  additional  guest  appearances.  Cab 
Galloway  and  Jack  Carter  appeared  in 
"Minnie    the    Moocher."   Cab    Galloway 
also  appeared  on  Ed  Eullivan's  show  and 
others.  Josh  White  and  his  nine-year-old 
son  appeared  on  Arthur  Godfrey's  TV 


RADIO  AND  TELEVISION 


95 


show.  Hadda  Brooks  is  featured  in  "The 
Hadda  Brooks  Show,"  sponsored  by 
Kaiser-Frazer  on  KGO-TV,  San  Fran- 
cisco, a  program  of  nostalgic  melodies 
and  friendly  chatter. 

Evelyn  Bradshaw  was  on  the  Arthur 
Godfrey  Talent  Show.  Amando  Randolph 
has  appeared  on  Dumont  TV,  and  also 
has  his  own  show,  "The  Laytons."  Butter- 
fly McQueen  is  Oriole  in  "Beulah"  on 
TV.  She  opened  at  Carnegie  Hall,  for  12 
weeks,  a  series  of  one-woman  shows  with 
pantomimes  and  sketches.  The  Mariners 
are  a  vocal  quartet  with  two  whites  and 
two  Negroes  on  Arthur  Godfrey's  show. 
George  Kirby  is  on  the  "Amos  'N  Andy" 
show.  Edith  Wilson  has  been  Aunt  Je- 
mima on  the  Quaker  Oats  program  since 
1948;  she  has  also  been  on  the  "Gary 


Moore  Show,"  "Gabby  Hayes  Show," 
"Call  of  the  Yukon,"  "Breakfast  Club," 
and  "The  Answer  Man."  Bill  Cook  is 
emcee  on  the  popular  "Stairway  to  Star- 
dom" on  WATV,  New  Jersey.  Bob  How- 
ard is  one  of  the  veteran  Negro  TV  per- 
formers, with  a  parade  of  one-minute  spot 
announcements  on  WCBS  daily  over  the 
past  two  years.  Sugar  Ray  Robinson,  the 
middleweight  champion,  was  unusual  in  a 
vaudeville  act  on  Ed  Sullivan's  "Toast  of 
the  Town,"  CBS-TV. 

Barbara  Watson  was  formerly  with 
radio  station  WNYC,  New  York,  and  was 
recently  on  "Meet  Your  Cover  Girl," 
CBS-TV,  and  interviewed  by  Lorenzo 
Fuller  on  WLIB,  New  York,  and  by  Ruth 
Ellington  James  on  the  same  station  on 
"Beauty  and  Fashion." 


8 

Science 


NEGROES  in  the  natural  science  fields 
have  made  strides  previously  denied  them 
in  the  past  decade  by  limited  teaching  fa- 
cilities and  limited  opportunities  for  in- 
dustrial employment.1  Fortunately,  teach- 
ers of  natural  science  subjects  in  Negro 
colleges  with  limited  facilities  have  pro- 
vided sound  fundamental  instruction  and 
encouraged  students  to  graduate  study 
and  to  do  researcryThe  first  Negro  to  be 
elected  to  Phi  Beta  Kappa  and  the  first 
to  earn  the  Ph.D.  degree  took  his  degree 
in  physics.  Edward  Bouchet  was  awarded 
this  degree  at  Yale  in  1876,  just  ten 
years  after  the  first  Ph.D.  in  physics  had 
been  awarded  by  any  American  school. 
In  1889,  Alfred  0.  Coffin  became  the  first 
Negro  to  earn  the  Ph.D.  in  biology  when 
his  degree  was  awarded  by  Illinois  Wes- 
leyan.  It  was  not  until  1916  that  St.  Elmo 
Brady,  at  the  University  of  Illinois,  be- 
came the  first  Negro  to  earn  a  Ph.D. 
degree  in  chemistry.  No  Negro  held  the 
Ph.D.  in  mathematics  until  1925  when 
Elbert  Cox  received  his  degree  at  Cornell 
University.  These  pioneers  in  academic 
competence  were  followed  much  later  by 
Negro  pioneers  in  industrial  plants  such 
as  Elmer  S.  Imes,  Doctor  Percy  Julian, 
and  Lloyd  Hall.  Now  an  increasing  num- 
ber of  trained  Negro  natural  scientists 
are  finding  employment  for  their  skills  in 
American  industrial  plants. 

Around  the  period  of  the  second  World 
War,  the  Negro  scientist  in  industry 
ceased  to  be  an  outstanding  rarity,  and 
trained  Negroes  could  consider  industrial 
jobs  as  an  area  of  normal  employment. 
In  this  very  recent  period,  also,  research 
competence  and  research  facilities  in 
Negro  institutions  began  receiving  the 
recognition  that  brought  grants  and  con- 


tracts for  research  for  industry  and  gov- 
ernment agencies.  At  the  same  time  there 
was  integration  of  Negro  scientists  into 
professional  societies  and  organizations, 
placing  them  in  the  mainstream  of  de- 
velopments in  the  sciences  concerned. 

NEGROES  LISTED  IN 

"AMERICAN  MEN  OF 

SCIENCE" 

Included  in  the  directory,  American  Men 
of  Science,  eighth  edition,  the  names  of 
Negro  scientists  who  have  contributed  to 
the  advancement  of  pure  science  or  who 
are  found  in  the  membership  lists  of  cer- 
tain national  societies  are  as  follows : 2 

Alexander,  Dr.  Lloyd  E. — Embryology — Ken- 
tucky St.  Col. 

Anderson,  Dr.  Russell  L. — Agriculture — Flor- 
ida A.&M.  Col. 

Anderson,  Dr.  Thomas  N.,  Jr. — Organic 
Chemistry — Florida  A.&M.  Col. 

Atkins,  Dr.  Cyril  F. — Chemistry — Morgan  St. 
Col.,  Md. 

Baker,  Dr.  Thomas  N.,  Jr. — Organic  Chem- 
istry— Virginia  St.  Col. 

Banks,  Dr.  Floyd  R.,  Jr. — Physics — Morgan 
St.  Col.,  Md. 

Barker,  Dr.  Prince  P. — Neurology — Vet.  Ad- 
min. Facility,  Tuskegee  Inst,  Ala. 

Barnes,  Dr.  Robert  P. — Chemistry — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Bate,  Dr.  Langston  F. — Chemistry — Miner 
Teachers  Col.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Beck,  James  T. — Chemistry — Lane  Col.,  Tenn. 

Belton,  Dr.  William  E. — Chemistry — Tuske- 
gee Inst.,  Ala. 

Bembry,  Dr.  Thomas  H. — Organic  Chemistry 
—Col.  of  City  of  N.  Y. 

Blackwell,  Dr.  David  H. — Mathematics,  Sta- 
tistics— Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Blanchet,  Dr.  Waldo  W.  E.— General  Sci- 
ence—Fort Valley  St.  Col.,  Ga. 

Booker,  Dr.  Walter  M. — Pharmacology — How- 
ard Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Branson,  Dr.  Herman  R. — Bio-physics — How- 
ard Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Bright,  Dr.  William  M. — Biology — Louisville 
Municipal  Col.,  Ky. 

Brown,  Dr.  Russell  W. — Bacteriology — Tuske- 
gee Inst.,  Ala. 


1  For  sketches  of  outstanding  individual  scientists,  see  Negro  Year  Book  1947. 

8  From  available  lists  permitting  identification  as  Negro.  Omission  of  some  scientists  is  certain  to  have  occurred* 


96 


NEGROES  IN  "MEN  OF  SCIENCE" 


97 


Buggs,  Dr.  Charles  W. — Bio-chemistry,  Bac- 
teriology, Zoology — Dillard  Univ.,  La. 

Callis,  Dr.  Henry  A. — Clinical  Medicine — 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Galloway,  Dr.  Nathaniel  O. — Medicine — Univ. 
of  Illinois 

Cason,  Dr.  Louis  F. — Organic  Chemistry — 
Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala. 

Chambers,  Dr.  Vivian  M. — Biology — Alabama 
A.&M.  Col. 

Claytor,  Dr.  William  W.  S. — Mathematics — 
Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Cobb,  Dr.  William  M. — Anatomy,  Physical 
Anthropology — Howard  Univ.,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Cooper,  Dr.  Stewart  R. — Chemistry — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Coruthers,  Dr.  John  M. — Agriculture — Prairie 
View  A.&M.  Col.,  Tex. 

Cox,  Dr.  Elbert  F. — Mathematics — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Crooks,  Dr.  Kenneth  B.  M. — Biology,  Para- 
sitology — Happy  Grove  Col.,  Hectors  River, 
Jamaica,  BWI 

Crouch,  Dr.  Hubert  B. — Zoology — Tennessee 
A.&I.  Univ. 

Cuff,  Dr.  John  R. — Medicine — Meharry  Medi- 
cal Col.,  Tenn. 

Dailey,    Dr.    Ulysses    G. — Surgery — Chicago, 

Davis,  Dr.  Toye  G. — Parasitology — Lincoln 
Univ.,  Mo. 

Derbigny,  Dr.  Irving  A. — Chemistry — Tuske- 
gee Inst.,  Ala. 

Diuguid,  Dr.  Lincoln  I. — Organic  Chemistry 
— Du-Good  Chemical  Lab.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Dooley,  Dr.  Thomas  P. — Genetics — Prairie 
View  A.&M.  Col.,  Tex. 

Dowdy,  Dr.  William  W. — Biology— Lincoln 
Univ.,  Mo. 

Eagleson,  Dr.  Halson  V. — Physics — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Ferguson,  Dr.  Edward,  Jr. — Biology — Mary- 
land St.  Col. 

Ferguson,  Dr.  Lloyd  N. — Chemistry — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Fields,  Dr.  Victor  H. — Chemistry — Hampton 
Inst.,  Va. 

Finley,  Dr.  Harold  E. — Protozoology — How- 
ard Univ.,  Washington,  TX  C. 

Fort,  Dr.  Marron  W. — Chemical  Engineering 
— A.  &  G.  J.  Caldwell,  Inc.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Franks,  Dr.  Cleveland  J. — Chemistry — Mor- 
gan St.  Col.,  Md. 

Gibson,  Dr.  Walker  W. — Biology — Texas 
Southern  Univ. 

Green,  Prof.  James  H. — Analytical  Chemistry 
—State  N.I.A.&M.  Col.,  S.  C. 

Griffith,  Dr.  Booker  T. — Biology — Georgia  St. 
Col. 

Hall,  Lloyd  A. — Chemistry — Griffith's  Labs., 
Chicago,  111. 

Hansborough,  Dr.  Louis  A. — Embryology — 
Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Harvey,  Prof.  Burwell  T.,  Jr. — Chemistry — 
Morehouse  Col.,  Ga. 

Hawkins,  Dr.  Walter  L. — Organic  Chemistry 
— Bell  Telephone  Labs.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Henderson,  Dr.  James  H.  M. — Plant  Physi- 
ology— Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala. 

Henry,  Dr.  Warren  E. — Physical  Chemistry — 
U.S.  Naval  Research  Lab.,  Washington, 


Hill,  Dr.  Carl  McC. — Organic  Chemistry — 
Tennessee  A.&I.  Univ. 

Hill,  Dr.  Henry  A. — Dewey  &  Almy  Chemical 
Co.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Hinton,  Dr.  William  A. — Pathology,  Bacteri- 
ology— St.  Dept.  of  Health,  Boston,  Mass. 

Howard,  Dr.  Roscoe  C. — Biology — Virginia 
St.  Col. 

Huggins,  Dr.  Kimuel  A. — Organic  Chemistry 
— Atlanta  Univ.,  Ga. 

Hunter,  Dr.  George  W. — Chemistry — Mary- 
land St.  Col. 

Hunter,  Dr.  John  McN. — Physics — Virginia 
St.  Col. 

Inge,  Dr.  Frederick  D. — Plant  Physiology — 
Hampton  Inst.,  Va. 

Jason,  Dr.  Robert  S. — Pathology — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Jeffries,  Prof.  Louis  F. — Chemistry — Virginia 
Union  Univ. 

Johnson,  Dr.  Joseph  L. — Physiology,  Medicine 
— Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Jones,  Prof.  William  W. — Mathematics — Ken- 
tucky St.  Col. 

Julian,  Dr.  Percy  L. — Organic  Chemistry — 
The  Glidden  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Kennedy,  Dr.  Wadaran  L. — Dairy  Husbandry 
— A.&T.  Col.,  N.  C. 

King,  Dr.  John  W. — Biology — Morgan  St. 
Col.,  Md. 

Kittrell,  Dr.  Flemmie  P. — Nutrition — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C.. 

Knox,  Dr.  Lawrence  H. — Chemistry — Hickrill 
Chemical  Research  Foundation,  Katonah, 
N.Y. 

Knox,  Dr.  William  J.,  Jr. — Physical  Chem- 
istry— Eastman  Kodak  Co.,  Rochester,  N.Y. 

Lawless,  Dr.  Theodore  K. — Medicine — Chi- 
cago, 111. 

Lawson,  Dr.  James  R. — Physics — Tennessee 
A.&I.  Univ. 

Lee,  Dr.  James  W. — Protozoology — Southern 
Univ.,  La. 

Lewis,  Dr.  Julian  H. — Pathology — Chicago, 
111. 

Lloyd,  Dr.  Ruth  S. — Anatomy — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

LuValle,  Dr.  James  E. — Physical  Chemistry — 
Eastman  Kodak  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Maloney,  Dr.  Arnold  H. — Pharmacology — 
Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Mason,  Dr.  Clarence  T. — Chemistry — Tuske- 
gee Inst.,  Ala. 

Massie,  Dr.  Samuel  P. — Chemistry — Langston 
Univ.,  Okla. 

Maxwell,  Dr.  Ucecil  S. — Biochemistry — Lin- 
coln Univ.,  Mo. 

McBay,  Dr.  Henry  C. — Chemistry — More- 
house  Col.,  Ga. 

McDaniel,  Dr.  Reuben  R. — Mathematics — 
Virginia  St.  Col. 

McKinney,  Dr.  Roscoe  L. — Anatomy — How- 
ard Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Moore,  Prof.  Paul  J. — Organic  Chemistry — 
W.  Virginia  St.  Col. 

Moore,  Dr.  Ruth  E. — Bacteriology — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Morris,  Dr.  Kelso  B. — Chemistry — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Murray,  Dr.  Peter  M. — Gynecology — N.  Y., 
N.  Y. 

Nabrit,  Dr.  Samuel  M. — Physiology — Atlanta 
Univ.,  Ga. 


98 


SCIENCE 


O'Banion,  Dr.  Elmer  E. — Chemistry — Prairie 
View  A.&M.  Col.,  Tex. 

O'Hara,  Prof.  Leon  P. — Physiology,  Physi- 
ological Chemistry — Talladega  Col.,  Ala. 

Perry,  Dr.  Rufus  P. — Organic  Chemistry — 
Langston  Univ.,  Okla. 

Pierce,  Dr.  Joseph  A. — Mathematics — Texas 
Southern  Univ. 

Pitts,  Raymond  J. — Mathematics — Fort  Val- 
ley St.  Col.,  Ga. 

Poindexter,  Dr.  Hildrus  A. — Bacteriology, 
Parasitology — U.S.  Public  Health  Mission, 
Monrovia,  Liberia 

Posey,  Dr.  Leroy  R.,  Jr. — Physics — Southern 
Univ.,  La. 

Quinland,  Dr.  William  S. — Pathology — Vet. 
Admin.  Hosp.,  Tuskegee,  Ala. 

Raines,  Dr.  Morris  A. — Botany — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Reddick,  Dr.  Mary  L. — Biology — Morehouse 
Col.,  Ga. 

Rhaney,  Dr.  Mahlon  C. — Biology — Florida 
A.&M.  Col. 

Robinson,  Dr.  Lawrence  B. — Physics — How- 
ard Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Robinson,  Dr.  William  H. — Mathematics, 
Physics— N.  Carolina  Col. 

Rolfe,  Dr.  Daniel  T. — Physiology — Meharry 
Medical  Col.,  Tenn.  - 

Romm,  Dr.  Harry  J. — Biology-southern 
Univ.,  La. 

Smith,  Dr.  Barnett  F. — Parasitology — Spel- 
man  Col.,  Ga. 

Spaulding,  Dr.  George  H. — Chemistry — Mor- 
gan St.  Col.,  Md. 

Spaulding,  Dr.  Major  F. — Agronomy — Ten- 
nessee A.&I.  St.  Univ. 

Stephens,  Dr.  Clarence  F. — Mathematics — 
Morgan  St.  Col.,  Md. 

Talbot,  Dr.  Walter  R. — Mathematics — Lin- 
coln Univ.,  Mo. 

Taylor,  Dr.  Moddie  D. — Chemistry — Lincoln 
Univ.,  Mo. 

Thornton,  Dr.  Robert  A. — Physics — Brandeis 
Univ.,  Mass. 

Towns,  Dr.  Charles  H. — Physics,  Physical 
Chemistry — Virginia  St.  Col. 


lys^ca 
iflflt 


Towns,    Dr.    Myron    B. — Chemistry — Lit 
Univ.,  Pa. 

Tulane,    Dr.    Victor   J. — Chemistry — Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Turner,   Dr.  Thomas  W. — Botany — Hampton 
Inst,  Va. 

Van   Dyke,    Dr.   Henry   L. — Chemistry— Ala- 
bama St.  Teachers  Col. 

Wall,    Dr.    Arthur    A. — Chemistry — Virginia 
Union  Univ. 

Wall,  Dr.  Limas  D. — Parasitology — Virginia 
Union  Univ. 

Wallace,  Dr.  William  J.  L. — Physical  Chem- 
istry— W.  Virginia  St.  Col. 

Ware,     Prof.     Ethan     E. — Zoology — Florida 
A.&M.  Col. 

West,  Dr.  Harold  D. — Biochemistry — Meharry 
Medical  Col.,  Tenn. 

Wheeler,    Dr.    Albert    H.— Public    Health— 
Univ.  of  Michigan  Hosp. 

White,  Dr.  Booker  T.— Biochemistry— A.&T. 
Col.,  N.  C. 

Wilkerson,    Dr.    Vernon    A. — Biochemistry — 
Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Wilkins,  Dr.  J.  Ernest,  Jr. — Mathematics — 
American  Optical  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Williams,  Dr.  Joseph  L. — Mercy  Douglass 
Hosp.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  ' 

Wilson,  Dr.  Henry  S. — Inorganic  Chemistry — 
Louisville  Municipal  Col.,  Ky.1 

Young,  Dr.  Moses  W. — Neuroanatomy — How- 
ard Univ.,  Washington,  D.  C. 


THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES 

IN  COLLEGES  AND 

UNIVERSITIES 

Limited  personnel  and  laboratory  equip- 
ment at  Negro  colleges  have  required  that 
scientists  working  there  concentrate  on 
teaching.  For  a  long  time,  such  research 
as  Negro  scientists  did  was  done  in  the 
laboratories  of  the  private  schools.  How- 
ard, Tuskegee,  Atlanta,  and  Fisk  came  to 
be  recognized  as  the  centers  at  which  re- 
search in  the  natural  sciences  was  carried 
on.  The  laboratories  of  these  institutions, 
together  with  those  of  Dillard,  continue  to 
be  the  most  productive  centers,  but  several 
of  the  state  colleges  have  inaugurated 
programs  under  competent  scientists  that 
promise  to  enrich  greatly  the  research 
production  at  Negro  institutions. 

Departments  of  chemistry  have  gener- 
ally become  the  most  fully  developed 
branch  of  the  natural  sciences  in  Negro 
institutions.  The  Howard  University  De- 
partment of  Chemistry  is,  however,  the 
only  one  at  a  Negro  institution  to  be  rated 
by  the  American  Chemical  Society.  The 
Carver  Foundation  of  Tuskegee  Institute 
is  the  only  organization  at  a  Negro  insti- 
tution devoting  itself  specifically  to  re- 
search in  the  natural  sciences  with  em- 
phasis on  research  in  chemistry.  The 
major  research  being  done  in  the  natural 
sciences  at  Fisk  is  also  in  the  field  of 
chemistry. 

The  upsurge  in  research  at  Negro  insti- 
tutions has  been  made  possible  by  the 
flow  of  funds  to  these  schools  in  the  form 
of  grants  and  contracts.  No  full  listing  of 
these  grants  and  contracts  is  possible,  but 
a  random  selection  will  indicate  the  na- 
ture of  the  grants  made.  Scientists  at  the 


1  Closed  1951. 


NEGRO  SCIENTISTS  IN  INDUSTRY 


99 


following  schools  have  received  research 
grants  from  the  agencies  indicated: 
Prairie  View  A.&M.  College— U.S,  Public 
Health  Service;  Howard  University — Na- 
tional Institutes  of  Health;  A.&T.  Col- 
lege, N.  C.;  Southern  University,  La., 
Tennessee  A.&I.  University  —  Research 
and  Marketing  Administration;  Tuskegee 
Institute  and  Fisk  University — Office  of 
Naval  Research. 

The  Carver  Foundation 

The  George  Washington  Carver  Foun- 
dation, which  had  its  beginning  through 
gifts  from  and  the  bequest  of  Dr.  Carver's 
personal  savings,  moved  into  new  quar- 
ters during  1951.  These  modern  labora- 
tories make  possible  greater  service  by 
the  Foundation,  which  already  has  estab- 
lished a  reputation  with  government  agen- 
cies and  industry.  Among  its  research 
contracts  with  industry  are  those  with  the 
Parker  Pen  Company,  Swift  and  Com- 
pany, Abbott  Laboratories,  the  Upjohn 
Company,  the  Visking  Corporation,  Con- 
tinental Can  Company,  and  International 
Minerals  and  Chemical  Corporation.  A 
full-time  research  staff,  together  with  fel- 
lows and  graduate  students,  carry  on  a 
variety  of  projects. 

NEGRO  NATURAL 

SCIENTISTS  IN 

INDUSTRY1 

The  most  encouraging  single  development 
in  recent  years  has  been  the  gradual  integra- 
tion of  top-flight  Negro  scientists  and  techni- 
cians into  . . .  industrial  concerns. ...  In  chem- 
istry, Lloyd  A.  Hall,  a  consulting  chemist, 
has  been  for  many  years,  the  Director  of  Re- 
search at  the  Griffith  Laboratories  in  Chicago. 
He  is  one  of  the  few  Negroes  who  did  not 
have  to  spend  long  years  during  his  most 
creative  period  teaching  in  second-rate  insti- 
tutions, which  for  the  most  part,  have  been 
totally  ill-equipped  for  carrying-on  productive 
research.  He  struck  out  from  the  beginning 
in  the  field  of  industrial  chemistry  and  rose 
rapidly  to  the  position  of  Director  of  his 
laboratories.  He  holds  over  eighty  patents 
related  to  the  preparation  and  curing  of  salts 
and  spices  and  food  products.  His  advice  is 


sought  by  all  of  the  major  agencies  of  the 
country  concerned  with  the  problems  of 
maintaining  our  food  supplies  pure  and  pal- 
atable. He  has  won  many  honors  and  opened 
a  new  field. 

William  G.  Holly,  Chemical  Superintendent 
of  the  Gypsy  Paint  and  Varnish  Company  of 
New  York,  formulated  a  complete  series  of 
interior  paints  using  titanium  as  the  basic 
pigment,  thereby  creating  a  new  method  for 
the  entire  field.  James  Parsons,  Jr.,  a  metal- 
lurgist, winner  of  the  Harmon  Award  in 
Science  as  long  ago  as  1927,  has  for  many 
years  been  in  charge  of  research  and  pro- 
duction for  the  Duriron  Company  of  Dayton, 
Ohio.  He,  like  several  others  of  our  dis- 
tinguished industrial  scientists,  holds  many 
patents  in  a  highly  competitive  field  and  has 
opened  new  avenues  for  our  men.  Associated 
with  him  is  Earl  T.  Ryder,  one-time  Chief 
Engineer  of  the  Champion  Company  of 
Springfield.  In  our  striving  for  recognition  in 
purely  cultural  and  academic  fields  we  have 
overlooked  some  of  these  able  disciples  of 
the  scientific  method.  William  G.  Haynes, 
Assistant  Chief  Chemist,  Union  Pacific  Rail- 
road, is  responsible  for  the  preparation  of  the 
liquid  used  to  preserve  railroad  ties  and  for 
the  creation  of  laboratory  apparatus  and  test- 
ing methods  for  the  company.  Harry  J. 
Greene,  Jr.,  chemical  engineer,  has  pioneered 
in  another  violently  competitive  research  field 
and  has  recently  been  put  in  charge  of  the 
Research  Department  of  Plastics  with  the 
Stromberg-Carlson  Radio  Corporation  of 
Rochester,  N.  Y.  Edward  L.  Harris,  who 
holds  a  doctor's  degree  in  chemical  engineer- 
ing from  the  University  of  Pittsburgh,  has 
established  himself  as  one  of  the  country's 
leading  authorities  in  the  field  of  rocket  and 
jet  fuels  and  has  recently  been  made  head  of 
the  laboratory  to  study  such  fuels  at  Wright- 
Patterson  Air  Field.  Jobs  of  this  character 
represent  a  totally  new  trend  for  our  men  and 
a  totally  new  challenge,  for  only  the  finest  of 
brains  can  expect  to  survive  in  the  world-wide 
battle  for  supremacy  in  the  area  of  super- 
sonic speeds. 

Walter  L.  Hawkins,  another  top-flight  in- 
dustrial chemist,  had  his  basic  training  and 
received  his  degree  as  a  result  of  his  con- 
tributions in  the  field  of  chemistry  of  wood 
pulp  and  related  studies  which  are  of  great 
significance  to  the  paper  industry.  At  present 
he  is  a  member  of  the  Research  Staff  of  the 
Bell  Telephone  Company  in  New  York  City. 
Marion  Fort,  also  a  recipient  of  a  Ph.D.  in 
chemical  engineering,  going  straight  into  in- 
dustrial chemistry,  has  become  Chief  Chemist 
and  Plant  Superintendent  of  the  A.  and  G. 
J.  Caldwell  Co.  in  Massachusetts.  Leroy  Flor- 
ant,  another  mechanical  engineer  represent- 


1  Drew,    Charles   Richard,    "Negro   Scholars   in  Scientific   Research,"   Journal   of  Negro   History,   Vol.   35,    No. 
j.  141-144,  April  1950. 


100 


SCIENCE 


ing  another  area  of  advancement  for  our  sci- 
entists, after  working  as  a  research  assistant 
with  the  Manhattan  Project,  is  at  present 
acting  as  the  Chief  Engineer  with  the  Rocket 
Test  Laboratory  at  Ohio  State  University.  Dr. 
James  LuValle  and  Dr.  William  Knox,  former 
top-flight  academic  chemists,  have  formed  a 
part  of  the  brilliant  research  staff  at  the 
Eastman  Kodak  Company  in  Rochester.  Dr. 
Lloyd  M.  Cook  is  a  research  chemist  with  the 
Visking  Corporation  in  Chicago,  Illinois, 
while  H.  A.  Hill  holds  a  similar  position  with 
the  Dewey  and  Almay  Chemical  Company  of 
Roxbury,  Mass.  R.  Percy  Barnes,  Phi  Beta 
Kappa  from  Amherst  and  Ph.D.  from  Har- 
vard in  Chemistry,  has  established  a  definite 
school  of  thought  in  his  continuous  studies  on 
Alpha  and  Beta  Diketones  in  the  Department 
of  Chemistry  at  Howard  University.  For  over 
ten  years,  he  and  a  series  of  students  have 
continued  to  create  new  substances  and  add 
new  processes  in  synthesizing  chemicals.  His 
publications  are  now  past  the  thirty  mark, 
and  in  the  basic  fields  of  research,  many  of 
which  have  industrial  implications  which  are 
surpassed  in  quantity  only  by  his  former  col- 
league, Percy  Julian. 

The  story  of  [Doctor]  Percy  L.  Julian  is 
probably  the  most  brilliant  recent  example  of 
accomplishments  in  this  field.  Dynamic,  bril- 
liant organic  chemist,  he  represents,  perhaps, 
our  first  contributor  to  fundamental  knowl- 
edge in  pure  chemistry  in  this  country.  His 
successful  synthesis  of  the  drug,  Physostig- 
mine,  in  1935,  was  the  result  of  the  finest 
kind  of  research  in  pure  Chemistry.  His  basic 
work  on  the  carbon  atom  was  of  fundamental 
importance,  and  now  as  Director  of  Research 
at  the  Glidden  Company  of  Chicago,  his 
mastery  of  the  chemistry  of  the  soya  bean  has 
led  to  the  preparation  of  such  widely  differ- 
entiated substances  as  a  male  sex  hormone 
and  a  weatherproof  covering  for  a  battle- 
ship. Recently  he  has  produced  a  small  quan- 
tity of  a  substance  very  closely  allied  to  the 
recently  highly  publicized  Substance  E, 
which  has  given  promising  results  in  the 
alleviation  of  the  suffering  of  persons  with 
arthritis. 

To  these  scientists  in  industry  listed  by 
Dr.  Drew  the  following  may  be  added: 
Weltman  D.  Bailey,  analytical  chemist  at 
Sunflower  ordinance  works;  Paul  Imes, 
Tennessee  Valley  Authority  laboratories; 
Dr.  J.  Ernest  Wilkins,  Jr.,  American  Opti- 
cal Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  There  are 
also  private  laboratories  maintained  for 
the  purpose  of  consultation  service.  Rep- 
resentative of  these  is  the  Du-Good  Chem- 


ical Laboratory  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  oper- 
ated by  Dr.  Lincoln  I.  Diuguid. 

NEGRO  SCIENTIFIC 
ORGANIZATIONS 

There  are  three  organizations  of  Negroes 
in  the  natural  science  fields  which  serve 
to  stimulate  and  encourage  Negroes  to 
work  in  these  fields.  They  are:  The  Na- 
tional Technical  Association,  The  Na- 
tional Institute  of  Science,  and  Beta 
Kappa  Chi  Scientific  Fraternity. 

Integration  in  Scientific 
Organizations 

The  Negro  natural  scientist  partici- 
pates in  local  and  regional  meetings  of 
his  professional  organizations  with  full 
acceptance,  even  if  there  are  embarrass- 
ments as  to  housing  and  eating  inflicted 
by  southern  customs  not  condoned  by  the 
scientists  themselves.  Negro  natural  scien- 
tists have  membership  in  and  participate 
in  the  meetings  of  the  regional  sections  of 
the  Society  of  American  Biologists,  Amer- 
ican Botanical  Society,  American  Chemi- 
cal Society,  and  the  Southern  Association 
of  Science  and  Industry. 

Scientific  facilities  maintained  by  the 
Federal  government  in  the  South  at 
TVA's  Wilson  Dam  and  by  the  Atomic 
Energy  Commission  at  Oak  Ridge,  Tenn., 
are  open  to  Negro  scientists.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  partial  list  of  Negroes  who  have 
spent  periods  at  the  Oak  Ridge  labora- 
tories as  participants  in  the  Oak  Ridge  In- 
stitute of  Nuclear  Studies  in  the  Isotopes 
Techniques  course,  classes  9  through  23, 
1949-51  r1  B.  T.  White,  North  Carolina 
A.&T.  Coll.;  E.  E.  O'Bannion,  Prairie 
View  A.&M.  Coll.;  D.  C.  Gandy,  Tenn. 
A.&I.  Coll.;  (Mrs.)  M.  R.  Myles,  Tenn. 
A.&I.  Coll.  (presently  at  Fort  Valley) ;  J. 
H.  M.  Henderson,  Carver  Foundation, 
Tuskegee  Inst. ;  J.  A.  Rucker,  Tenn.  A.&I. 
Coll.;  M.  C.  Otey,  National  Cancer  Inst., 
National  Inst.  of  Health  (formerly  gradu- 
ate student  of  chemistry,  Howard  Univ.)  ; 
E.  D.  Riley,  Benedict  Coll. 


1  In  order  of  taking  the  course. 


Agriculture 


EMPLOYMENT 

The  decline  in  the  number  of  people  em- 
ployed in  agriculture  continued  in  1950, 
according  to  preliminary  census  reports. 
In  1950,  there  were  1,200,000  fewer  peo- 
ple employed  in  agriculture  than  were  so 
employed  in  1940.  Of  this  decrease  in 
numbers,  400,000  or  one-third,  were  non- 
white.  Of  the  total  decline  in  agricultural 
employment,  two-thirds  occurred  in  the 
South.  Of  the  South's  loss,  47%  was  non- 
white. 

The  shift  away  from  agriculture  was  even 
more  marked  for  nonwhite  workers  than  for 
all  employed  persons.  In  1940,  one  out  of 
every  three  employed  nonwhite  workers  was 
in  agriculture.  By  1950,  however,  only  one  out 
of  every  five  was  so  employed.  In  the  South, 
where  the  nonwhite  farm  workers  are  largely 
concentrated,  the  number  of  nonwhites  em- 
ployed in  agriculture  declined  by  400,000  to  a 
1950  level  of  l^OO.OOO.1 

Despite  the  estimated  production  of 
17,291,000  bales  of  cotton,  third  largest 
cotton  crop  on  record,  in  1951  employ- 
ment in  cotton  production  declined.2  In 
the  South  during  the  latter  part  of  August 
1951,  132,000  fewer  persons  were  em- 
ployed on  farms  than  a  year  previous. 


This  reduction  consisted  of  121,000  family 
workers  and  11,000  hired  hands. 

When  the  broad  general  categories  of 
agricultural  occupations  are  considered, 
there  is  little  change  to  be  seen  except  for 
slightly  higher  proportions  of  farmers  and 
farm  managers  for  both  total  population 
and  nonwhite  population  in  the  United 
States  as  a  whole  and  in  the  South.  Table 
2  shows  distribution  by  broad  occupa- 
tional classes. 

Farm  Operators 

The  breakdown  of  "farmers"  according 
to  farm  tenure  for  1950  has  not  yet  been 
released  by  the  Census  Bureau.  However, 
the  trend  since  1930  shown  in  the  Agri- 
cultural Census  of  1945  is  anticipated  to 
have  continued  and  perhaps  to  have  been 
accelerated.  See  Table  3. 

Between  1930  and  1945,  the  number  of 
farm  operators  in  the  South  decreased 
from  3,223,000  to  2,881,000  or  10.6%.  In 
the  same  period,  nonwhite  operators  de- 
creased from  881,000  to  665,000  or  24.5%. 
In  1930,  nonwhite  operators  were  27.3% 
of  all  operators  and  in  1945  they  were 
23.1%  of  all  operators.  Thus  it  is  seen 
that  nonwhite  farm  operators  decreased 


TABLE  1 
AGRICULTURAL  EMPLOYMENT  1940  AND  1950 


Year 

United  States 

South 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Nonwhite 

Number 

Per  Cent 
of  all 
Employed 

Number 

Per  Cent 
of  all 
Employed 

Number 

Per  Cent 
of  all 
Employed 

Number 

Per  Cent 
ofali 
Employed 

1940 
1950 

8,372,222 
7,138,000 

18.7 
12.8 

1,541,807 
1,078,000 

33.1 
20.1 

4,342,096 
3,408,000 

31.8 
20.6 

1,449,023 
1,013,000 

40.4 
29.2 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Employment  and  Income  in  the  United  States,  By  Regions:  1950, 
1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-7,  No.  2,  Table  8. 

1  U.S.   Bureau    of  the  Census,   Employment  and  Income  in  the   United  States,   By  Regions:   1950.    1950   Census   of 
Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-7.  No.  2,  p.  3. 

2  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Release  No.  2253-51. 


101 


102 


AGRICULTURE 


both  numerically  and  in  terms  of  their 
proportion  of  all  operators. 

Nonwhite  farm-owners  increased  from 
182,000  in  1930  to  189,000  in  1945  or 
3.8%.  Despite  this  numerical  increase, 
they  were  a  smaller  proportion  of  all 
owners  in  1945  than  they  were  in  1930. 
In  1930,  nonwhite  owners  were  12.8%  of 
all  owners  as  contrasted  to  11.1%  in  1945. 

The  decrease  in  farm  tenants  between 
1930  and  1945  was  625,504,  of  which 
329,722  were  nonwhite.  The  proportion  of 
nonwhites  to  all  tenants  increased  slight- 
ly, but  in  the  sharecropper  category  non- 
whites  were  60.5%  of  the  total  in  1945  as 
contrasted  to  50.5%  in  1930. 

When  tenure  of  nonwhite  operators  is 
considered  in  terms  of  the  proportion  of 
operators  in  each  tenure  category,  the 
ratio  of  owners  to  tenants  is  observed  to 
have  increased  between  1930  and  1945.  In 
1930,  20.6%  of  nonwhite  farm  operators 
were  owners  and  in  1945,  28.4%  were 
owners.  The  corresponding  decrease  in 
the  proportion  of  tenants  to  all  operators 
was  from  79.3%  to  71.5%.  Table  4  shows 
this  ratio. 

Dr.  Arthur  F.  Raper  of  the  Bureau  of 
Agricultural  Economics  has  pointed  out 
that  between  1930  and  1945,  Negroes 
were  35.8%  of  the  loss  in  farm  tenant 


TABLE  3 

PROPORTION  OF  NONWHITE  FARM  OPERATORS 

TO  ALL  OPERATORS  ACCORDING  TO  TENURE 

IN  SOUTH,  1930  TO  1945 


Nonwhite 


Tenure 


Total 


Number 


7930 


%of 
Total 


All 3,223,816  881,687  27.3 

All  owners 1,415,675  182,019  12.8 

Part  owners 224,992  41,523  18.2 

All  tenants 1,790,783  698,839  39.0 

Croppers 776,278  392,897  50.5 

1935 

All..        .   3,421,923  815,747  23.8 

All  owners 1,574,666  186,065  11.8 

Part  owners 234,720  35,952  15.3 

All  tenants 1,831,475  629,301  34.3 

Croppers 716,256  368,408  51.4 

1940 

All..,      .   3,007,170  680,266  22.6 

All  owners 1,544,297  173,263  11.2 

Part  owners 216,607  31,361  14.3 

All  tenants 1,449,293  506,630  35.0 

Croppers 541,291  299,118  55.3 

7945 

All..        .   2,881,135  665,413  23.1 

All  owners 1,702,663  189,232  11.1 

Part  owners 193,607  28,252  14.4 

All  tenants 1,165,279  475,739  40.8 

Croppers 446,556  270,296  60.5 


Source:  17. S.  Census  of  Agriculture,  1945. 


TABLE  2 
OCCUPATIONAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  AGRICULTURALLY  EMPLOYED,  1940  AND  1950 


Year  and  Class 


United  States 


Total 


Nonwhite 


Number   Per  Cent    Number   Per  Cent 


South 


Total 


Nonwhite 


Number   Per  Cent    Number   Per  Cent 


1940 

All 

Farmers  and  farm 

mangaers    

Paid  farm  laborers . 
Unpaid  family 

workers 

Not  reported 


8,372,000      100.0      1,541,000      100.0 


4,342,000      100.0      1,449,000      100.0 


5,143,614 
1,924,890 

1,165,120 
138,376 


61.4 
23.0 


13.9 
1.7 


700,602 
514,602 

308,722 
17,676 


45.5 
33.4 


20.0 
1.1 


2,583,937 
965,464 

746,440 
46,159 


59.5 
22.2 


17.2 
1.1 


666,929 
470,546 

298,312 
13,213 


46.0 
32.5 


20.6 
0.9 


1950 

All 

Farmers  and  farm 

managers 

Paid  farm  laborers . 
Unpaid  family 

workers 

Not  reported 


7,138,000   100.0   1,078,000   100.0 


3,408,000   100.0   1,013,000   100.0 


4,453,000 
1,562,000 

941,000 
182,000 


62.4 
21.9 

13.2 
2.5 


507,000 
345,000 

211,000 
15,000 


47.0 
32.0 

19.6 
1.4 


2,090,000 
709,000 

547,000 
62,000 


61.3 
20.8 


16.1 
1.8 


482,000 
312,000 


47.6 
30.8 


204,000        20.1 
15,000          1.5 


io«-:  U'S'  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Employment  and  Income  in  the  United  States,  by  Regions:  1950, 
1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-7,  No.  2,  Table  6. 


EMPLOYMENT 


103 


operators  and  4.1%  of  the  gain  in  farm 
owner-operators.1 

Farm  Ownership 

An  increase  in  the  ratio  of  farm  owners 
to  farm  tenants  may  be  regarded  as  an 
index  to  increasing  stability  of  farm  op- 
erators. When  nonwhites  are  considered 
by  themselves,  there  seems  to  be  a  sub- 
stantial increase  in  the  proportion  of  farm 
owners.  When  considered  in  relation  to 
the  over-all  trend  in  farm  ownership,  it  is 
seen  that  the  increase  in  nonwhite  own- 
ership has  not  kept  pace  with  the  in- 
crease in  white  ownership.  Using  the 
decade  1935  to  1945  for  purposes  of  com- 
parison, we  see  the  following  change  in 
the  South.  White  owners  increased  8.9% 
from  1,388,601  to  1,513,431.  The  land  in 
farms  of  white  owner-operators  increased 
19.4%  from  200,000,000  to  238,000,000 
acres.  The  average  number  of  acres  per 
white  owner-operated  farm  increased  from 
143.7  to  157.4.  The  value  of  land  and 
buildings  on  white  owner-operated  farms 
increased  from  $4,774,000,000  to  $8,360,- 
000,000,  or  75.1%. 

Nonwhite  owner-operators  increased 
1.7%,  from  186,065  to  189,232.  The  land 
in  farms  of  nonwhite  operators  increased 
8.0%,  from  10,533,000  to  11,380,000  acres. 
The  average  number  of  acres  per  non- 
white  owner-operated  farm  increased  from 
56.6  to  60.1.  The  value  of  land  and  build- 
ings on  nonwhite  owner-operated  farms 
increased  from  $207,932,000  to  $374,- 
732,000,  or  80.2%. 

The  percentage  of  ownership  by  non- 
white  farmers  in  the  nation  reached  its 


highest  level  in  1945,  when  close  to  30% 
owned  their  farms.  The  number  of  non- 
white  farmers  in  the  nation  who  operated 
between  1,000  and  5,000  acres  rose  from 
473  in  1930  to  1,434  by  1945.  These  fig- 
ures should  not  cloud  the  fact  that  Ne- 
groes are  becoming  proportionately  less 
important  in  agriculture. 

Between  1940  and  194||^ie  number  of 
nonwhite  owners  in  the  Sduth  increased 
from  173,263  to  189,232.  But  a  look  at 
these  farms  will  show  that  many  of  them 
are  hardly  larger  than  home  sites.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  over  25,000  of  these  are 
less  than  10  acres,  and  about  40,000  more 
are  under  30  acres.  The  over-all  average 
size  of  farms  owned  by  nonwhites  in  the 
South  is  only  60  acres,  compared  with  157 
for  white  owners.  This  can  be  seen  by  re- 
ferring to  Table  6. 

These  figures  seem  to  indicate  that  non- 
white  farmers  are  on  the  fringe  of  secur- 
ity from  the  standpoint  of  ownership. 
Many  of  their  farms  are  too  small  and 
uneconomic  for  the  development  of  farm- 
ing programs  which  will  return  a  good 
living  and  maintain  the  soil  at  high  pro- 
duction level.  In  an  unmechanized  cotton 
economy  with  a  few  sideline  crops,  these 
farms  have  been  reasonably  adequate. 
With  hand  and  mule-drawn  implements,  a 
family  can  work  only  30  or  40  acres  of 
cotton.  However,  with  the  shift  to  mecha- 
nization— tractors,  flame-cultivators,  me- 
chanical cotton  pickers — a  family  will  be 
able  to  and  have  to  handle  many  more 
acres  to  make  a  living  by  growing  cotton 
in  competition  with  synthetic  fibers,  such 
as  nylon  and  rayon. 


TABLE  4 

PERCENTAGE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FARM  OPERATORS  ACCORDING  TO  TENURE  AND  COLOR 
IN  SOUTH,  1930  TO  1945 


1 

930 

1 

935 

1 

940 

1 

945 

White 

Nonwhite 

White 

Nonwhite 

White 

Nonwhite 

White 

Nonwhite 

Owners  

.  .     52.7 

20  6 

53  3 

22  8 

58  9 

25.5 

68.3 

28.4 

Managers  .  .  . 
All  tenants  .  . 
Croppers  .... 

0.7 
.  .     46.6 
.  .     16.4 

0.1 

79.3 
44  6 

0.6 
46.1 
13  3 

77.1 
45  2 

0.6 

40.5 
10  4 

0.1 

74.5 
44.0 

0.6 
31.1 
8.0 

0.1 
71.5 
40.6 

Source:  U.S.  Census  of  Agriculture,  1945. 


1  The  Changing  Status  of  the  Negro  in  Southern  Agriculture,  Rural  Life  Information  Series,  Bulletin  No.  3,  Tuske- 
gee   Institute,  1950. 


104 


AGRICULTURE 


From  the  long  view,  a  good  many  of  the 
farms  now  owned  by  nonwhite  farmers 
are  too  small  for  cotton  production.  More- 
over, a  large  number  of  the  hill  and  black- 
belt  farms  are  not  suited  to  cotton  pro- 
duction. They  are  better  for  grasses  and 
small  grain — the  basis  of  a  livestock 
economy.  But  livestock  farms  require  even 
more  acreage.  Already  some  farmers  are 
seeking  to  enlarge  their  holdings  as  the 
family-farm  concept  begins  to  be  under- 
stood. A  considerable  number  of  the  loans 
now  being  made  by  the  Farmers  Home 
Administration  are  for  enlargement  and 
development.  An  increased  number  of 
similar  loans  are  also  being  made  by  the 
Federal  Land  Bank. 

Farm  Tenancy 

Tenancy  in  the  South  is  being  sharply 
reduced.  The  number  of  tenant  farmers  in 
1945  stood  at  the  lowest  level  since  1900. 
As  recently  as  1935,  tenants  accounted 
for  more  than  half  of  all  farmers  in  the 
South.  But  10  years  later,  tenants  com- 
posed only  40.5%  of  the  farmers  in  the 
southern  region.  The  level  of  tenancy 
among  non whites  had  dropped  from  77% 
in  1935  to  71.5%  10  years  later.  The  nu- 
merical decline  of  153,000  is  somewhat 
more  impressive  than  the  percentage 
would  seem  to  indicate. 

Among  the  tenants  who  left  the  farm, 
sharecroppers,  or  those  who  were  least 
secure  on  the  land,  made  up  the  bulk. 
They  accounted  for  more  than  100,000  of 
the  total  reduction  of  nonwhite  tenants. 

One  of  the  goals  of  American  agricul- 
ture is  the  elimination  of  sharecropping, 


which  at  best  is  only  a  stop-gap  or  tem- 
porary arrangement.  The  1945  agricul- 
tural census  reported  446,556  sharecrop- 
pers in  the  South.  Of  these,  '270,296,  or 
more  than  60%,  were  nonwhites.  It  is  ex- 
pected that  the  1950  census  report  will 
show  a  further  decline  in  both  white  and 
nonwhite  tenants  and  croppers.  Between 
1930  and  1945  the  percentage  of  non- 
white  farmers  that  were  sharecroppers 
decreased  from  16.4  to  8.0,  as  shown  in 
Tables  5,  6,  and  7. 

AGRICULTURAL  AGENCIES 
AND  THE  NEGRO  FARMER 

The  American  farmer  is  the  beneficiary 
of  many  services  provided  by  government 
agencies.  Success  in  agriculture  depends 
in  a  measure  on  availability  and  utiliza- 
tion of  these  services. 

The  Extension  Service 

The  oldest  of  these  agencies  is  the  U.S. 
Extension  Service  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  whose  work  is  education  in 
farm  and  home  improvement.  While  for 
the  most  part  separate  figures  as  to  race 
are  not  kept,  a  presentation  of  total  par- 
ticipation of  southern  farmers  in  the  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  services  gives 
some  indication  of  the  extent  to  which 
these  services  are  available  to  Negro 
farmers. 

Among  7,000,000  families  influenced  by 
the  U.  S.  Extension  service  during  1951 
were  425,000  Negro  families,  reached  by 
about  775  Negro  county  extension  agents 
in  17  states,  mostly  in  the  South.1  About 


TABLE  5 
NUMBER  OF  NONWHITE  FARMERS  BY  TENURE  FOR  U.S.,  1900  TO  1945 


Tenure 


1945 


1940 


1935 


1930 


1925' 


1920 


1910 


1900 


All  nonwhite  .... 
Operators  f 
"Owners  

689,215 
205,917 

719,071 
201,098 

855,555 
211  394 

916,070 
202  720 

831,455 
194  540 

949,889 
233  222 

920,883 
241  221 

767,764 
206  517 

Managers  
All  Tenants  
Croppers  (So.)  . 

622 
482,676 
270,296 

717 
517,256 
299,118 

1,190 
642,971 
368,408 

3,122 
710,228 
392,897 

667 
636,248 
344,322 

2,226 
714,441 
333,713 

1,544 
678,118 
373,551 

1,824 
559,423 
284,760 

Source:  U.S.  Census  of  Agriculture,  1945. 

*  Figures  for  1925  are  for  South  only.  U.S.  figures  not  available. 

f  Nonwhite  includes  Negroes,  Indians,  Chinese,  and  Japanese.  Negroes  are  about  95%  of  all  nonwhite 
farmers  in  U.S.  and  98%  of  those  in  the  South. 


1  Report  of  Cooperative  Extension  Work  in  Agriculture  and  Home  Economics,  1950,  USDA  Extension  Service. 


AGRICULTURAL  AGENCIES 


105 


TABLE  6 

NUMBER  OF  FARMS,  LAND  IN  FARMS,  VALUE  OF  LAND  AND  BUILDINGS,  BY  COLOR 
AND  TENURE  FOR  U.S.  AND  BY  REGIONS,  1935  AND  1945 


Region  or 
States  —  Color 
and  Tenure 

Number  of  Farms 

Land  in  Farms,  Acres 

Average 
Acres  per 
Farm 
1945 

Value  of  Land  and  Buildings 

1945 

1935 

1945 
(000) 

1935 
(000) 

1945 
(000) 

1935 
(000) 

United  States  .  .  . 
Owners  .... 
Tenants1  .  .  . 
Whites  

5,859,169 
3,961,863 
1,858,421 
5,169,954 
3,755,946 
1,375,745 
689,215 
205,917 
482,676 

2,470,049 
1,836,117 
616,706 
13,529 
8,754 
4,704 

484,183 
406,398 
69,499 
10,273 
7,331 
2,233 

2,215,722 
1,513,431 
689,540 
665,413 
189,232 
475,739 

6,812,350 
3,899,091 
2,865,155 
5,956,795 
3,687,697 
2,222,184 
855,555 
211,394 
642,971 

2,802,801 
1,891,538 
890,566 
16,667 
9,166 
7,433 

547,818 
407,558 
129,444 
23,141 
16,163 
6,237 

2,606,176 
1,388,601 
1,202,174 
815,747 
186,065 
629,301 

1,141,615 

783,609 
251,634 
1,100,858 
767,477 
231,605 
40,756 
16,132 
20,028 

445,670 
312,218 
123,972 
2,044 
1,483 
458 

308,163 
217,117 
27,563 
7,942 
3,268 
423 

347,025 
238,140 
80,069 
30,769 
11,380 
19,146 

1,054,515 
657,609 
336,802 
1,015,710 
664,209 
311,109 
38,804 
12,839 
25,692 

440,383 
277,852 
153,406 
1,568 
1,054 
488 

234,706 
166,841 
41,639 
1,649 
1,250 
331 

340,619 
199,515 
116,063 
35,586 
10,533 
24,872 

194.8 
197.8 
135.4 
212.9 
204.3 
168.3 
59.1 
78.3 
41.5 

180.4 
170.0 
201.1 
151.1 
169.4 
97.4 

636.5 
534.2 
396.6 
773.1 
412.1 
189.8 

156.6 
157.4 
116.1 
46.2 
60.1 
40.2 

$46,388,925 
31,135,665 
12,898,697 
45,112,676 
30,680,053 
12,106,870 
1,276,249 
455,612 
791,826 

25,352,173 
16,460,700 
8,171,446 
49,240 
29,561 
17,376 

7,747,731 
5,859,393 
1,064,672 
95,246 
51,317 
29,635 

12,017,072 
8,359,959 
2,870,751 
1,131,761 
374,732 
744,814 

$32,858,844 
20,339,784 
10,952,747 
31,930,394 
20,075,488 
10,307,948 
928,449 
264,295 
644,798 

18,988,831 
11,840,979 
6,602,542 
35,836 
19,621 
15,200 

4,993,107 
3,460,070 
1,034,686 
104,210 
36,740 
55,497 

7,948,456 
4,774,438 
2,670,719 
788,402 
207,932 
574,100 

Owners  .... 
Tenants.  .  .  . 
Nonwhites2   . 

Owners  .... 
Tenants.  .  .  . 
North 
Whites  

Owners  .... 
Tenants.  .  .  . 
Nonwhites.  .  . 
Owners  .... 
Tenants.  .  .  . 
West 
Whites  

Owners  .... 
Tenants.  .  .  . 
Nonwhites  .  .  . 
Owners  .... 
Tenants.  .  .  . 
South 
Whites 

Owners  .... 
Tenants.  .  .  . 
Nonwhites.  .  . 
Owners  .... 
Tenants.  .  .  . 

Source:  U.S.  Census  of  Agriculture,  1945. 

1  Sharecroppers  are  included  with  the  other  tenants. 

2  Nonwhite  includes  Negroes,  Indians,  Chinese,  and  Japanese.   Approximately  95%  of  all  nonwhite 
farmers  are  Negroes;  in  the  South,  the  percentage  of  Negroes  increases  to  about  98. 


TABLE  7 

NONWHITE  FARM  OPERATORS  IN  SOUTH  BY  STATES,  TENURE,  LAND  IN  FARMS, 
VALUE  OF  LAND  AND  BUILDINGS,  1935  AND  1945 

Number  of  Farms  Land  in  Farms  (Acres)          Value  of  Land  and  Buildings 


States  and  Tenure 

1945 

1935 

1945 

1935 

1945 

1935 

Alabama 
Owners 

18  382 

15  709 

1  242  653 

1  053  710 

29  663  961 

15  906  940 

Managers  

25 

21 

22  739 

14  644 

600  256 

527  720 

Tenants 

48  823 

75  542 

2  202  477 

2  835  305 

52  667  677 

46  871  826 

Arkansas 
Owners  

11,469 

11,343 

681,639 

669  746 

24  902  008 

13  022  749 

Managers 

12 

17 

8  540 

7  152 

681  663 

241  470 

Tenants  

39,794 

59,940 

1,038,200 

1,553  845 

59  294  679 

48  950  176 

Delaware 
Owners              .    . 

464 

398 

18,386 

13249 

1  275  050 

535  800 

Managers  

10 

13 

1,033 

1,598 

155  500 

180  900 

Tenants  

217 

416 

16,200 

35  729 

695  275 

1  039  095 

Florida 
Owners  

6,467 

6,792 

322,579 

266,064 

10,049  657 

5  737  952 

Managers      

46 

50 

17,422 

5  367 

1  621  790 

521  000 

Tenants  

3,922 

5,922 

171,224 

217,154 

4,757,504 

3,981,667 

106 


AGRICULTURE 


TABLE  7  (Continued) 


Number  of  Farms 


Land  in  Farms  (Acres)          Values  of  Land  and  Building 


States  and  Tenure        1945 


1935 


1945 


1935 


1945 


1935 


Georgia 
Owners  

12,352 

10,571 

1,024,363 

838,573 

23,971,643 

11,485,134 

Managers         .  .  . 

44 

32 

20,150 

11,384 

619,411 

407,390 

Tenants  

58,015 

62,682 

3,613,715 

4,483,224 

85,345,074 

62,338,026 

Kentucky 
Owners  

3,080 

4,052 

141,557 

142,598 

7,255,613 

4,633,744 

Managers  ...... 

3 

11 

1,355 

6,186 

38,000 

423,160 

Tenants  

2,876 

4,187 

83,024 

128,894 

6,254,714 

4,642,064 

Louisiana 
Owners    

11,826 

10,839 

593,439 

543,827 

24,298,941 

11,639,632 

Managers  

27 

20 

14,611 

5,464 

680,030 

312,850 

Tenants  

37,278 

59,456 

1,096,966 

1,655,860 

50,909,855 

49,752,080 

Maryland 
Owners  

2,429 

2,720 

88,464 

92,536 

6,800,376 

3,909,574 

Managers  

41 

42 

8,480 

8,134 

978,100 

453,300 

Tenants         .  .  .  . 

1,748 

2,132 

155,809 

194,556 

8,475,388 

6,052,571 

Mississippi 
Owners  

25,346 

21,288 

1,919,701 

1,592,580 

49,865,488 

21,898,399 

Managers  

59 

25 

45,524 

6,288 

2,045,366 

283,700 

Tenants  

.     116,908 

147,693 

3,258,273 

3,946,584 

142,661,831 

104,049,359 

Missouri 
Owners  

1,230 

1,149 

76,175 

73,570 

3,451,341 

1,777,392 

Managers 

5 

7 

826 

1,600 

145,400 

73,800 

Tenants  

2,762 

4,102 

100,687 

150,156 

7,829,029 

5,324,709 

North  Carolina 
Owners        .    .  .  . 

19,841 

20,373 

965,026 

947,567 

48,146,776 

26,301,365 

Managers,  

18 

15 

8,077 

4,684 

379,540 

250,650 

Tenants  

54,414 

48,985 

2,336,558 

2,217,217 

140,649,011 

72,094,578 

Oklahoma 
Owners  

6,543 

6,762 

684,900 

644,775 

16,267,019 

13,070,586 

Managers  

18 

16 

17,402 

12,886 

337,650 

324,300 

Tenants  

4,643 

11,046 

419,083 

744,220 

9,206,019 

13,668,642 

South  Carolina 
Owners  

17,936 

18,394 

877,335 

795,077 

30,591,428 

14,827,788 

Managers  

18 

19 

12,335 

11  145 

531,110 

207,575 

Tenants  

51,155 

58,124 

1,928,960 

2,683,030 

78,835,240 

54,792,933 

Tennessee 
Owners  

7,380 

7,843 

387,046 

381,190 

16  504  364 

8  839,297 

Managers  

12 

8 

6  674 

1  216 

356  569 

86  000 

Tenants  

20,137 

26,545 

726,907 

899,212 

35,391  887 

25,644,082 

Texas 
Owners  

22,024 

20,800 

1,300  768 

1  378  141 

40  619  153 

28  190  598 

Managers  

48 

44 

34,784 

68  754 

1  349  010 

1  155,180 

Tenants  

23,878 

50,941 

1,374,006 

2  374  856 

44  841  530 

60  718  726 

Virginia 
Owners  

23,109 

27,662 

1  111  823 

1  129  181 

43  419  672 

27  319  244 

Managers  

45 

37 

19,572 

13  574 

1  416  700 

587  200 

Tenants  

11,801 

15,512 

719,646 

895  494 

24  535  710 

19  285  780 

West  Virginia 
Owners        

556 

511 

21  288 

19  309 

1  097  635 

561  195 

Managers  

14 

7 

3  192 

1  901 

389  800 

376  600 

Tenants  

.  ;          130 

175 

5  629 

7  020 

293  190 

201  525 

TOTALS*.  .  . 

.     669,410 

820,990 

30,947,222 

35,811,609 

1,143,187,633 

795,578,323 

*  These  totals  are  slightly  higher  than  those  shown  in  Table  1  because  of  the  inclusion  of  Missouri. 

Source:  U.S.  Census  of  Agriculture,  1945. 

Note:  Negro  fanners  compose  approximately  98%  of  all  nonwhite  farmers  in  the  South.  See  Table  1  for 
U.S.  totals.  The  3  nonwhite  fanhers  in  the  District  of  Columbia  are  included  in  totals.  These  operate  116 
acres,  valued  at  $48,000,  including  buildings;  in  1935,  there  were  12  nonwhite  farmers  in  D.C.  operating 
140  acres,  valued  at  $100,300. 


half  of  these  agents  were  agricultural 
agents  and  another  half  were  home  dem- 
onstration agents.  They  specialized  in 
working  with  Negro  farmers,  homemak- 
ers,  and  boys  and  girls.  Nearly  325,000  of 


the  families  aided  were  farm  families  and 
about  100,000  were  nonfarm  families  liv- 
ing in  the  country  or  in  villages  and  cities. 
These  were  only  the  families  aided 
through  the  work  of  the  Negro  extension 


AGRICULTURAL  AGENCIES 


107 


agents;  thousands  of  other  Negro  fami- 
lies were  also  helped,  both  in  these  17 
states  and  in  other  parts  of  the  nation, 
by  other  extension  workers. 

Work  among  Negroes  by  the  Extension 
Service  is  divided  into  two  regions,  each 


of  which  is  served  by  a  field  agent.  These 
field  agents  are  T.  M.  Campbell  at  Tuske- 
gee  Institute,  Ala.,  and  John  W.  Mitchell 
at  Hampton  Institute,  Va.  An  indication 
of  services  provided  Negroes  in  the  South 
is  found  in  the  personnel  employed.  Table 


TABLE  8 
NUMBER  OF  EXTENSION  WORKERS  IN  SOUTH  BY  STATES  AND  RACE,  JUNE  1951 


States 

County  Agent  Work 

Home  Demonstration  Work 

4-H  Club 

Supervisors1 

Agents2 

Supervisors 

Agents2 

Leaders 

Negro  White 

Negro 

White 

Negro 

White 

Negro 

White 

Negro 

White 

Alabama 

3           6 
2           4 
0           1 
1           3 
2           6 
1           7 
1           6 
1           1 
2           4 
0           6 
4           6 
1           4 
2           3 
2           6 
4         15 
2           6 
1           2 

36 
24 
0 
10 
44 
3 
19 
7 
43 
0 
54 
13 
31 
13 
56 
30 
2 

182 
126 
5 
97 
224 
172 
134 
41 
172 
202 
238 
145 
97 
190 
352 
152 
58 

2 
2 
0 
1 
1 
0 
1 
0 
2 
0 
3 
1 
2 
1 
3 
1 
1 

5 
5 
1 

4 
7 
7 
5 
2 
7 
6 
8 
6 
5 
5 
17 
7 
3 

36 
28 
1 
11 
32 
6 
21 
5 
61 
4 
53 
14 
28 
12 
46 
31 
8 

127 
94 
3 
63 
149 
108 
107 
36 
110 
109 
177 
111 
78 
126 
233 
109 
38 

2 
1 
0 
0 
2 
0 
1 
0 
2 
0 
2 
0 
0 
0 
1 
0 
4 

2 
2 
5 
4 
5 
12 
4 
4 
5 
7 
7 
4 
5 
4 
4 
5 
43 

Arkansas  

Delaware      .    .  . 

Florida  

Georgia  

Kentucky  

Louisiana  

Maryland  

Mississippi  

Missouri  ....        .  .      .  . 

North  Carolina3  
Oklahoma  

South  Carolina      .      .  . 

Tennessee  

Texas    

Virginia  

West  Virginia  

Totals  .  . 

29         86 

385 

2587 

21 

100 

397 

1742 

15 

122 

Source:  USDA  Extension  Service  Report  on  Number  of  Extension  Workers,  June  30,  1951. 

1  The  41  white  directors  and  assistant  directors  are  not  included. 

2  Assistant  agents  are  included. 

3  North  Carolina  has  four  Negro  subject  matter  specialists,  not  included  in  totals. 


TABLE  9 

AVERAGE  ANNUAL  SALARIES  OF  EXTENSION  WORKERS  IN  SOUTH  BY 
STATES  AND  RACE,  OCTOBER  1950 


States 

County 
Agent 
Negro 

County 
Agent 

White 

Asst. 
Agents 
White 

Home 
Agents 
Negro 

Home 

Agents 
White 

Asst. 
Agents 
White 

Alabama  

$2,752 

$5  Oil 

$3  683 

$2  288 

53  560 

$3  009 

Arkansas  

4,713 

4,259 

3,050 

2,563 

3602 

2,687 

Delaware  

3  300 

3  500 

Florida  

2  604 

4,368 

3  669 

2  604 

3  533 

3  087 

Georgia  

2,298 

3,508 

2,950 

2,049 

2  821 

2  446 

Kentucky  

2  860 

4,254 

3,262 

2  808 

3  605 

2  950 

Louisiana    .  .  . 

2  980 

4,879 

3  455 

2  668 

3  973 

2  722 

Maryland  

3,214 

5,197 

3,422 

2,973 

3825 

3  100 

Mississippi  .  . 

2,782 

4,333 

3,366 

2,327 

3,557 

2,758 

Missouri  

2,477 

3,059 

North  Carolina  

3,732 

5,202 

3,841 

3,221 

3,910 

3,071 

Oklahoma  

2,943 

4,436 

3,466 

2,547 

3,737 

2,967 

South  Carolina  

2,791 

4,297 

3,263 

2,323 

3,067 

2,445 

Tennessee  

2,745 

4,046 

3,403 

2,510 

3,300 

2,935 

Texas  

.    .         3,079 

4,481 

3,427 

2,684 

3,842 

3  312 

Virginia  

3,152 

4,401 

3,100 

2,951 

3,784 

2,744 

West  Virginia  

(no  report) 

(no  report) 

Source:  USDA  Extension  Service  Report  on  Average  Annual  Salaries,  No.  1033  (10-50). 
Note:  White  County  and  Home  Agents  have  assistants;  Negro  Agents  do  not. 


108 


AGRICULTURE 


8  shows  the  numbers  of  agents  employed 
by  states  in  which  there  is  a  distinction 
made  in  service  according  to  race. 

Extension  Service  policy  is  suggested  in 
the  value  placed  on  the  services  of  Negro 
agents  as  expressed  in  salaries  paid  them. 
The  salary  differential  is  such  that  in  no 
state  does  the  average  salary  of  the  Negro 
agents  equal  that  of  the  assistant  white 
agents,  to  say  nothing  of  the  considerable 
disparity  between  the  salary  of  Negro 
agents  and  white  agents,  as  shown  in 
Table  9. 


All  allotments  of  monies  for  extension 
work  in  the  states  are  shown  in  Table  10. 
The  sum  of  $3,099,225.17  was  expended 
for  the  county  extension  program  among 
Negroes  during  the  year  1950-51,  as  com- 
pared with  $2,218,209.40  during  1947-48. 

Extension  Service  Supervisors 
(Farm  and  Home  Work) 

Alabama 

State  Leader:  W.  B.  Hill,  Tuskegee  Inst. ; 
District  Agents:  Grady  W.  Taylor,  Cor- 
nelius A.  Williams,  Clemmie  Martin,  Ruth 
Rivers ;  4-H  Agents :  Thomas  R.  Agnew, 
Ethel  M.  Harris;  Editor,  Joseph  Bradford. 


TABLE  10 

ALLOTMENTS  FOR  COUNTY  EXTENSION  WORK  (INCLUDING  SUPERVISION)  AND 
SPECIALISTS  FROM  ALL  SOURCES  FOR  FISCAL  YEAR  1950-51 


States 

County  Extension  Work 

Home  Demonstration  Work 

White  and  Negro             Negro 

White  and  Negro 

Negro 

Alabama  .  . 

S  1  260  962  07         $    148,060.00 

$      755,802.70         $ 
608,897.18 
22,820.71 
381,737.41 
642,635.00 
515,340.00 
602,862.51 
218,693.71 
745,082.56 
587,106.26 
1,085,805.62 
607,525.38 
437,332.10 
661,657.09 
1,282,065.02 
653,113.95 
200,713.71 

120,340.03 
110,898.18 
2,340.71 
39,330.00 
66,880.00 
21,530.00 
96,820.53 
27,023.00 
177,495.00 
10,210.00 
222,126.00 
42,437.84 
92,091.00 
45,400.00 
160,662.23 
116,277.00 
26,557.00 

Arkansas  , 

776,780.00               98,790.00 

Delaware      .            ... 

Florida  

566,394.39               38,230.00 

Georgia  

1,151,950.20             115,820.00 

Kentucky  

919,515.04                14,982.00 

Louisiana  

1,000,432.72                90,386.22 

Maryland  

283,822.00               35,713.50 

Mississippi  

1,058,158.47             159,302.00 

Missouri.  . 

1,004  188.34 

North  Carolina  

1,947,508.00             337,149.00 

Oklahoma      .  .      .    . 

778  110.22               51  703.88 

South  Carolina  

685,439.67             121,500.00 

Tennessee  

881  996.18               56,326  36 

Texas  

2,123,824.66              221,177.40 

Virginia  

1,038,523.41              133  565.00 

West  Virginia  

357,586.67                15,850.00 

TOTALS  

.  .  .     $15,835,192.04         $1,638,555.36 

$10,009,190.91         $1 

,378,418.52 

States 

Club  Work 

Specialists 

White  and  Negro       Negro 

White  and  Negro 

Negro 

Alabama  

$  24  580  00         $  8  560  00 

$    302,200.00 
242,168.30 
69,755.00 
195,110.00 
320,924.40 
267,149.17 
313,466.00 
448,551.50 
394,432.59 
289,714.12 
568,447.20 
379,164.08 
346,110.00 
399,490.00 
428,002.53 
462,493.84 
180,370.00 

$  4,120.00 
22,816.00 

Arkansas  

16,980.00             4000.00 

Delaware  

2340929            215929 

Florida  

65  434  00               — 

Georgia  

.  .    .    .                45  518.00            4  203  00 

Kentucky  

78  520  00               — 

Louisiana  

36  890  00            4  700  00 

Maryland  

88  013  00               — 

Mississippi  

52,960.00          10  800  00 

Missouri  

47,177.50               — 

North  Carolina  

70  709  00           10  500  00 

Oklahoma  

44  540  00               ' 

South  Carolina  

18,150.00               — 

Tennessee  

39  460  70               — 

Texas  

31  678  30 

Virginia  

39  798  00               — 

West  Virginia  

239  031  33          10  393  00 

TOTALS  

596284912        $5531529 

$5,607,548.73 

$26,936.00 

Source:  Division  of  Business  Administration,  Extension  Service,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  10-5-51. 


AGRICULTURAL  AGENCIES 


109 


Arkansas 

Districts  Agents:  T.  R.  Betton,  H.  C.  Ray, 
Fannie  Boon,  Ella  P.  Neely,  610^  W.  9th 
St.,  Little  Rock;  4-H  Agent:  L.  L.  Phil- 
lips. 

Delaware 

Camille  W.  Jacobs,  Laurel. 

Florida 

District  Agents:  J.  A.  Gresham,  Floyd 
Britt,  Florida  A.M.  Coll.,  Tallahassee. 

Georgia 

State  Leader:  P.  H.  Stone,  Savannah  State 
Coll.,  Savannah ;  Assistants :  A.  S.  Bacon, 
Camilla  Weems ;  4-H  Agents :  Alexander 
Hurse,  Augustus  Hill. 

Kentucky 

Field  Agent:  John  H.  Finch,  179  Dewesse 
St.,  Lexington. 

Louisiana 

Assistant  State  Agents:  R.  J.  Courtney, 
Amelia  Lewis,  Southern  Univ.,  Baton 
Rouge;  4-H  Agent:  Gloria  B.  Brown. 

Maryland 

District   Agent:    Martin  G.   Bailey,   P.   O. 

.   Box  5320,  Seat  Pleasant. 

Mississippi 

State  Leader:  M.  M.  Hubert,  1308  Lynch 
St.,  Jackson;  Assistants:  W.  E.  Ammons; 
District  Agents:  Hallie  L.  Gray,  Daisy  M. 
Lewis ;  4-H  Agents :  G.  C.  Cypress,  Alberta 
Dishmon. 

Missouri 

Ella  Stackhouse,  Courthersville. 

North  Carolina 

State  Leader:  R.  E.  Jones,  A.&T.  Coll., 
Greensboro ;  Assistant :  J.  W.  Jefferies ; 
District  Agents:  M.  R.  Zackery,  J.  A. 
Spaulding,  Dazelle  F.  Low,  Ruby  C.  Caria- 
way,  Wilhelmina  R.  Laws ;  4-H  Agents  : 
W.  C.  Cooper,  Idell  Jones. 

Oklahoma 

District  Agents:  Paul  O.  Brooks,  Helen 
M.  Hewlett,  Langston  Univ.,  Langston. 

South  Carolina 

State  Supervisors:  E.  N.  Williams,  Marian 
B.  Paul,  South  Carolina  State  Coll.,  Orange- 
burg;  Assistants:  Waymon  Johnson,  Willie 
M.  Price. 

Tennessee 

Assistant  State  Agents:  W.  H.  Williamson, 
Bessie  L.  Walton,  409  Gay  Street,  Nash- 
ville. 

Texas 

State  Leader:  W.  C.  David,  Prairie  View 
A.&M.  College,  Prairie  View ;  Adm.  Assist- 
ant :  M.  V.  Brown ;  District  Agents :  John 
E.  Mayo,  H.  S.  Estelle,  J.  V.  Smith ;  Su- 
pervisor :  Pauline  R.  Brown ;  District 
Agents:  Myrtle  E.  Garrett,  Ezelle  M. 
Gregory. 

Virginia 

State  Agent :  Ross  W.  Newsome,  Va.  State 
Coll.,  Petersburgh ;  District  Agents :  S.  E. 
Marshall,  Blanche  Harrison. 

West  Virginia 

State  Leader:  L.  A.  Toney,  W.  Va.  State 
Coll.,  Institute;  District  Agent:  Tanner  J. 
Livisay. 


Agricultural  Research 

For  a  long  time  Negro  agricultural  col- 
leges, especially  the  17  land-grant  insti- 


tutions, have  felt  the  need  for  an  effective 
agricultural  research  program  both  for 
improvement  of  teaching  and  to  supply 
answers  to  knotty  farm  problems.  Be- 
tween 1888  and  1946,  Congress  passed  a 
half-dozen  acts  relating  to  Agricultural 
Experiment  stations,  but  only  through  the 
Agricultural  Research  and  Marketing  Act 
of  1946,  have  the  Negro  land-grant  col- 
leges been  successful  in  their  efforts  to 
share  these  funds. 

Two  land-grant  colleges — Virginia  State 
College  at  Petersburg,  and  Prairie  View 
A.&M.  College,  Texas — have  succeeded  in 
securing  funds  and  establishing  sub-ex- 
periment stations.  The  Virginia  State 
College  sub-station  was  established  in 
1938  with  an  appropriation  of  $600.  Its 
appropriation  was  $4,000  in  1951.  Twelve 
projects  were  reported  in  process.  The 
sub-station  at  Prairie  View  A.&M.  Col- 
lege was  set  up  in  1946.  Its  1951  appro- 
priation was  $14,000. 

Negro  institutions  which  have  received 
grants  for  research  under  the  Agricul- 
tural Research  and  Marketing  Act  of 
1946  are: 

(1)  The    Agricultural   and    Technical 
College,  Greensboro,  N.  C.:  a  three-year 
project   undertaken   by   the   agricultural 
chemistry  department  to  isolate  the  bit- 
terweed  substance,  ascertain  its  physical 
and   chemical   properties,   and   devise   a 
rapid  test  for  detecting  its  presence  in 
milk. 

(2)  Southern  University,  Baton  Rouge, 
La.:  a  project  to  analyze  the  marketing 
methods    of    farmers    selling    specialized 
farm  commodities,  including  strawberries 
and  sweet  potatoes  in  selected  areas  of 
Louisiana. 

(3)  Tennessee  A.&I.  State  University, 
Nashville,  Tenn.:  a  project  to  study  hu- 
man nutritional  requirements  by  popula- 
tion  groups  as  indicated  by  nutritional 
status  in  relation  to  food  intake. 

(4)  Tuskegee  Institute,  Ala.:  a  project 
to  determine  amino  acids  content  in  food. 

Farm  Credit  Administration 

No  figures  according  to  race  were  se- 
cured to  provide  a  statistical  measure  of 


110 


AGRICULTURE 


the  service  of  this  agency  set  up  to  fur- 
nish credit  to  farmers  on  reasonable  inter- 
est and  payment  terms.  Two  types  of 
services  provided  are  long-term  loans 
through  the  National  Farm  Loan  Associa- 
tion and  short-term  loans  through  the  Pro- 
duction Credit  Association. 

The  services  of  these  associations  are 
available  to  all  farmers  in  the  continental 
United  States  without  regard  to  race. 
Some  production-credit  associations  have 
more  Negro  members  than  white.  Many 
production-credit  associations  in  sections 
of  the  country  where  the  Negro  farm  pop- 
ulation is  large  have  from  25  to  50% 
Negro  membership,  which  is  proportion- 
ately small.  A  parallel  situation  is  to  be 
found  in  the  long-term  Land  Bank  Loans. 

Loans  to  farmers'  cooperatives  are  also 
made  by  the  banks  for  cooperatives  of  the 
Farm  Credit  Administration.  These  loans 
are  made  to  those  engaged  in  processing 
and  marketing  agricultural  products  and 
providing  farm  business  services.  Negro 
farmers'  cooperatives  operate  in  various 
states  in  the  South.  In  many  instances, 
Negro  farmers  are  members  of  farmers' 
cooperatives  where  the  membership  is 
mostly  white. 

The  following  are  cooperative  gins : 
Mound  Bayou  Gin  Association,  Mound 
Bayou,  Miss.;  Black  Fish  Cooperative 
Gin,  Heth,  Ark.;  Grand  Cooperative  Gin, 
Marion,  Ark.;  Peoples  Cooperative  Gin, 
Marianna,  Ark.;  and  the  Wycamp  Coop- 
erative Gin,  West  Helena,  Ark.  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  miscellaneous  all-Negro 
cooperatives:  The  Washington  Parish  Col- 
ored Farmers  Marketing  Association, 
Franklinton,  La.;  St.  Helena  Consumers 
Cooperative,  Frogmore,  S.  C. ;  Farmers 
Cooperative  Market,  Chester,  S.  C.;  and 
the  Charleston  Vegetable  Cooperative, 
Charleston,  S.  C. 

Farmers  Home  Administration 

In  the  southern  states  about  27%  of 
the  30,200  farm  families  who  received 
new  operating  loans  from  this  agency 
during  1951  were  Negroes.  Likewise,  24% 
of  the  1962  farmers  who  received  loans 
during  that  year  to  purchase  or  develop 


family-type  farms  through  the  agency's 
farm-ownership  program  were  colored 
farmers. 

Records  also  show  that  Negroes  make 
up  about  17%  of  the  3,000  farm  owners 
in  the  South  who  have  been  aided  during 
the  past  year  in  the  farm-housing  pro- 
gram providing  long-term  credit  for  con- 
struction or  repair  of  houses  and  other 
farm  buildings. 

Farm  families  have  received  individual 
guidance  from  Farmers  Home  Adminis- 
tration local  supervisors  in  making  and 
carrying  out  farm  and  home  plans,  ad- 
justing operations  to  shifting  agricultural 
conditions,  learning  up-to-date  methods, 
improving  soil  and  livestock,  and  pro- 
ducing and  conserving  food  both  for  home 
needs  and  for  the  market. 

Insured  Mortgage  Loans 

Since  1947,  the  Farmers  Home  Admin- 
istration has  made  insured  mortgage  loans 
for  purchasing,  enlarging,  or  improving 
of  farms  and  rural  homes,  thus  encourag- 
ing private  lenders  to  make  funds  avail- 
able. There  are  now  nearly  700  such  lend- 
ers, including  several  Negro  business  in- 
stitutions. The  Pilgrim  Health  and  Life 
Insurance  Company  of  Augusta,  Ga.,  has 
advanced  $180,000  for  loans  in  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina;  and  the  North  Caro- 
lina Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company  of 
Durham  has  advanced  $113,000  for  loans 
in  North  and  South  Carolina.  Other  Ne- 
gro firms  that  have  set  aside  funds  for 
insured  mortgage  loans  are:  The  Supreme 
Liberty  Life  Insurance  Company  of  Chi- 
cago; the  Afro-American  Life  Insurance 
Company  of  Jacksonville,  Fla. ;  the  Court 
of  Calanthes  of  Texas;  and  a  Mississippi 
burial  association. 

Other  Agencies 

Extremely  valuable  services  are  being 
rendered  to  Negro  farmers  by  the  Soil 
Conservation  Service  and  the  Production 
and  Marketing  Administration.  However, 
no  statistics  are  available  on  the  numbers 
of  Negro  farmers  being  served  by  these 
organizations. 


VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE 


111 


VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE 


cation,  Federal  Security  Agency,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.1 

The  New  Farmers  of  America  became  a 
national  organization  in  1935.  Since  that 
time  it  has  grown  from  500  to  34,228 
members  and  is  recognized  as  the  largest 
Negro  farm  boy  organization  in  the  world. 
The  NFA  has  become  an  important  factor 
in  helping  Negro  farm  boys  to  better  pre- 
pare themselves  for  loyal  American  citi- 
zenship and  life  on  the  farm.  Annual  na- 
tional NFA  dues  are  lOtf  per  member, 
which  is  used  largely  for  conducting  the 
Annual  National  NFA  Convention,  at- 
tended by  approximately  1200  NFA  dele- 
gates from  17  states. 


VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE  HEAD 
TEACHERS-TRAINERS,  1951 


Vocational  education  in  agriculture  was 
made  possible  by  the  U.  S.  Congress 
though  the  National  Vocational  Educa- 
tion Acts,  requiring  the  educational  pro- 
gram to  be  of  less  than  college  grade 
and  designed  to  increase  proficiency  in 
farming  for  those  who  have  entered  or  are 
preparing  to  enter  upon  the  work  of  the 
farm  or  farm  home. 

Instruction  is  provided  in  local  public 
high  schools  for  three  recognized  groups: 
(1)  classes  for  in-school  youth,  (2) 
classes  for  out-of-school  young  farmers, 
and  (3)  classes  for  adult  farmers.  The 
in-school  youth  needs  instruction  in  order 
to  lay  a  foundation  for  his  farming  ca- 
reer. The  out-of-school  young  farmer 
needs  systematic  instruction  dealing  with 

,        .  ,.  ,  -•  r   i  .  Alabama .A.  Flovd 

the  immediate  problem  of  becoming  es-  Tuskegee  Inst. 

tablished    in    farming,    while    the    adult  Arkansas L.  R.  Gaines 

farmer  needs  an  educational  service  that      Dd^JSr?0'*. .  W.  R.  Wynder 

will  keep  him  abreast  of  the  latest  devel-  Del.  State  Coil:,  Denver 

opments  and  improved  farm  practices  that  Fl^\'^  coll L'  A-  Marwha11 

affect  his  farming  operations.  Tallahassee 

In  1951,  vocational  agricultural  depart-  Georgia       ...                Alva  Tabor 

•  i     i    r       /->r.n  TVT            T  •    i  Fort  Valley  State  Coll.. 

ments  were  provided  for  988  INegro  high  Fort  Valley 

schools  in  the  17  states  that  maintain  sep-  Kentucky P.  j.  Manly 

,       i      r       XT                  TU              i.      1  Ky.  State  Coll..  Frankfort 

arate  schools  for  Negroes.  These  schools  Lou/siana Matthew  J.  Clark 

employed   990   Negro   teachers   of  voca-  Southern  Univ.,  Baton 

tional  agriculture  and  reached  more  than  Mar^e                           Dr.  c.  c.  Marion 

35,000  Negro  farm  boys.  Each  of  the  17  Md.  State  Coll.,  Princess 

states  conducts  an  annual  five-day  state  x ,.  A?ne. 

.              .                         .         ,  Mississippi A.  D.  Fobbs 

conference  tor  improving  instruction  tor  Alcorn  A.&M.  Coll., 

the  teachers  of  agriculture.  Alcorn 

Missouri Dr.  J.  N.  Freeman 

Lincoln  Univ.,  Jefferson 

New  Farmers  of  America  Citv 

...  N.Carolina S.B.Simmons 

The  New  farmers  of  America  is  the  na-  A.&T.  Coll.,  Greensboro 

tional  organization  of  Negro   farm  boys  Oklahoma D.C.Jones 

,              .         ,                ,  Langston  Univ., 

who  are  students  of  vocational  agriculture  Langston 

in  public  secondary  schools.  Membership  *  Carolina W.  F.  Hickson 

in  the  NFA  for  1951  totaled  34,228  in  Oran^burg 

983    local    high    schools    in   the    17    States  Tennessee Walter  Flowers 

where  the  NFA  is  organized.  ^Univ^Nash^Ue 

Departments  of  vocational  agriculture  Texas Dr.  E.  M.  Norris 

serve  as  headquarters  for  the  local  NFA  Pr£™  *pS*fe  Vtet 

chapters  and  the   State  Departments  of  Virginia.' J.R.Thomas 

Education    are    designated    headquarters  Vaj  State  Coll., 

r       .,                   XT f  A               •   »•           TU  Petersburg 

tor  the  state  Nr  A  associations.    1  he  na-  yv.  Virginia W.  T.  Johnson 

tional  headquarters  is  in  the  Agricultural  W.  Va.  State  Coll., 

Education  Service  of  the  Office  of  Edu-  Institute 


112 


AGRICULTURE 


A  national  system  of  awards  for  out- 
standing achievement  in  farming  is  made 
possible  by  the  Future  Farmers  of  Amer- 
ica Foundation,  which  receives  its  funds 
by  grants  from  business  and  industrial 
firms.  In  1951,  the  NFA  had  $9,196.68 
available  for  farming  awards  to  worthy 
Negro  farm  boys. 


TABLE  11 
ACTIVE  NFA  MEMBERS  BY  STATES 


State 

NFA 
Chapters1 

Active 

Membership 

Alabama 
Arkansas 

55 
53 

2,375 
1,250 

Delaware 

4 

120 

Florida 

40 

2,075 

Georgia 
Kentucky 
Louisiana 

86 
11 
64 

3,340 
365 
2,503 

Maryland 
Mississippi 
Missouri 

15 
112 
4 

997 
2,550 
206 

North  Carolina 
Oklahoma 

112 
28 

5,518 
954 

South  Carolina 

124 

2,160 

Tennessee 

38 

1,525 

Texas 
Virginia 
West  Virginia 

175 
56 
6 

5,575 
2,393 
322 

TOTALS 


983 


34,228 


1  Five  Departments  of  Vocational  Agriculture  in 
the  Negro  schools  do  not  have  NFA  chapters. 


In  1951,  the  national  organization  re- 
ported 12,890  former  NFA  members  es- 
tablished in  farming  as  follows:  509  ten- 
ants, 2,716  in  farm  partnerships,  5,079 
as  farm  owners.  Other  outstanding  accom- 
plishments of  the  New  Farmers  of  Amer- 
ica were  as  follows:  16,440  members  re- 
paired farm  machinery;  1,186  members 
belonged  to  sire  circles  for  dairy  cattle; 
5,308  members  belonged  to  sire  circles  for 
swine;  5,412  members  belonged  to  pig 
chains ;  14,414  culled  their  poultry  flocks ; 
8,541  terraced  or  contoured  land;  14,081 
participated  in  agricultural  fairs;  1,86*9 
members  purchased  government  bonds 
and  stamps. 

In  the  vocational  agricultural  class- 
rooms, members  of  the  New  Farmers  of 
America  study  agriculture  and  partici- 
pate in  the  latest  scientific  methods  of 
farming.  The  classroom  training  is  taken 


directly  to  the  farm  homes,  where  each 
boy  conducts  a  "supervised  farming  pro- 
gram" dealing  with  livestock,  poultry,  and 
crops  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher 
of  vocational  agriculture,  who  is  an  agri- 
cultural college  graduate  employed  on  a 
12-month  basis. 

In  order  to  train  competent  leaders  and 
teachers  of  vocational  agriculture,  all  the 
Negro  land-grant  colleges  maintain  a  col- 
lege of  agriculture  staffed  with  compe- 
tent instructors  for  both  technical  and 
professional  courses  in  agriculture.  These 
colleges  also  maintain  teacher  training 
departments  that  employ  a  total  of  37 
highly  qualified  teacher  trainers  who  have 
responsibility  for  the  pre-employment  and 
"in  service"  training  of  teachers  of  voca- 
tional agriculture.  Twenty-two  of  these 
teacher  trainers  supervise  the  988  depart- 
ments of  vocational  agriculture  located 
through  17  states.  These  departments  rep- 
resent over  35,000  students  of  vocational 
agriculture  in  the  secondary  schools. 

Negro  4-H  Club  Activities 

More  than  75%  of  the  326,000  Negro 
4-H  Club  boys  and  girls  satisfactorily 
completed  their  project  work  in  agricul- 
ture and  homemaking  methods.  Not  only 
did  they  learn  improved  methods  of  farm- 
ing and  homemaking,  but  they  added  to 
their  families'  food  supply  with  the  crops 
they  grew,  the  animals  and  poultry  they 
kept,  and  the  fruits,  vegetables,  and  meats 
they  preserved.  They  raised  128,000  acres 
of  corn,  legumes,  potatoes,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, vegetables,  and  fruits,  of  which 
more  than  25,000  acres  were  in  home 
gardens.  They  raised  or  kept  83,000  dairy 
cattle,  beef  cattle,  swine,  rabbits,  and 
other  animals.  They  raised  or  kept 
1,630,000  chickens,  turkeys,  and  other 
birds,  in  accordance  with  extension  rec- 
ommendations. They  canned  more  than 
2,000,000  quarts  of  food  and  froze  40,000 
quarts  and  40,000  pounds. 

Members  of  4-H  Clubs  helped  to  make 
their  homes  more  pleasant  and  more  con- 
venient by  improving  37,000  rooms  and 
making  nearly  210,000  articles.  Between 
30,000  and  40,000  improved  the  appear- 


INDIVIDUAL  FARMERS 


113 


ance  of  their  homes  by  landscaping, 
planting  flowers,  or  establishing  lawns. 

The  63,000  girls  who  completed  their 
clothing  projects  made  270,000  dresses, 
aprons,  coats,  and  other  garments  and  re- 
modeled 120,000  garments  for  themselves 
and  families. 

Of  four  annual  regional  camps,  the 
first  was  held  in  1948  at  Southern  Uni- 
versity, Baton  Rouge,  La.;  the  second  in 
1949  at  Tennessee  A.  &  I.  State  College, 
Nashville,  Tenn.;  the  third  in  1950  at 
Virginia  State  College,  Petersburg,  Va.; 
and  the  fourth  in  1951  at  Arkansas  A. 
M.  &  N.  College,  Pine  Bluff,  Ark.  About 
120  clubbers  attended  each  encampment. 

REPORTS  ON  INDIVIDUAL 
FARMERS 

Individual  Negro  farmers  in  the  South 
are  making  outstanding  progress  in  ex- 
panding their  livestock,  dairy,  and  poul- 
try production  as  a  means  of  diversifying 
their  farming  operations. 

Elley  C.  Fore  of  Marion,  S.  C.,  is 
rapidly  shifting  from  cotton  and  tobacco 
to  beef-cattle  breeding  on  his  400-acre 
farm.  Starting  with  five  registered  Here- 
ford heifers  and  a  bull,  today  he  has  54 
head  of  registered  foundation  stock.  In 
Chester  County,  S.  C.,  some  Negro  ten- 
ants are  getting  a  toehold  in  dairying 
by  sharecropping  milk  production. 

In  Alabama,  Carroll  Jones  and  Ray- 
mond Brown  have  really  gone  in  for 
large-scale  cattle  production.  Mr.  Jones 
of  Epes  maintains  a  herd  of  400  brood 
cows.  Mr.  Brown  of  Eutaw,  who  is  also 
in  the  timber  business,  has  200  brood 
cows. 

Andrew  H.  Bowers  of  Marianna,  Fla., 
who  started  out  with  $1.75  and  a  cow,  is 
now  milking  23  cows  and  grossing  nearly 
$500  a  month  from  milk  besides  his  in- 
come from  peanuts,  cotton,  timber,  and 
hogs. 

In  Tennessee,  William  Collins  of  Clark- 
ville  started  as  a  sharecropper  in  1928. 
Today,  he  owns  521  acres  and  a  herd  of 
97  Jersey  milk  cows.  In  addition,  he  raises 
tobacco,  wheat,  and  hogs. 


Myrt  Coney  of  Magnolia,  Miss.,  was 
a  cotton  farmer  until  a  few  years  ago 
when  he  switched  to  livestock  and  poultry. 
He  has  one  of  the  largest  broiler  houses 
in  southern  Mississippi,  handling  about 
3,000  birds  at  a  time. 

In  Texas,  cotton,  cattle,  and  water- 
melons are  the  crops.  Hilliard»L.  Muse 
has  lifted  himself  out  of  sharecropping 
with  this  combination.  He  is  having  a 
bad  year  now  when  he  doesn't  gross 
$15,000. 

Louisiana  farmers  who  live  near  New 
Orleans  and  other  population  centers  are 
making  good  with  vegetables.  Samuel 
Freeman,  of  St.  Helena  Parish,  markets 
$10,000  worth  of  vegetables  annually  in 
New  Orleans  from  his  14-acre  truck  patch. 

But  some  farmers  are  sticking  to  cotton 
and  making  a  success  of  it.  Edward  Scott 
of  Greenwood,  Miss.,  produces  nearly 
1,000  bales  of  cotton  a  year  on  his  1,168 
acre  farm.  He  and  his  five  sons,  using 
10  tractors,  do  much  of  the  work  them- 
selves. Scott  came  to  Mississippi  from 
Demopolis,  Ala.,  as  a  sharecropper. 

Not  far  from  the  Scotts  lives  Isaac 
Daniel,  at  Mound  Bayou.  Fifteen  years 
ago,  he  didn't  own  a  foot  of  land.  Today 
he  owns  700  acres  and  raises  cotton  and 
rice.  He  is  reported  to  be  the  first  Negro 
farmer  in  Mississippi  to  go  in  for  rice 
farming.  Conservatively,  his  gross  income 
approximates  $150,000  annually. 

In  Arkansas,  Alex  Brown  of  Tucker 
is  one  of  the  biggest  cotton  farmers  in 
Jefferson  County.  He  started  out  with  six 
acres  and  an  $800  mortgage.  Now  he  owns 
300  acres  and  rents  500  more. 

All  over  the  South  one  can  find  Negro 
farmers  who  are  remarkably  successful. 
But  for  every  one  who  is  succeeding, 
there  are  five  others  who  are  ground  down 
in  poverty.  Credit  and  know-how  are  the 
principal  needs,  but  there  just  isn't 
enough  of  either  to  go  around. 

With  a  continued  reduction  in  tenancy 
and  with  further  expansion  of  owner- 
ship and  diversified  farming  methods,  the 
outlook  seems  bright  for  those  who  can 
survive  mechanization  and  forge  their  way 
into  the  new  era  of  southern  agriculture. 


10 


Employment  and  Labor 


THE  STRUGGLE  of  the  Negro  in  America 
for  unhampered  economic  opportunity 
has  been  as  important,  if  not  as  dramatic, 
as  the  fight  for  civil  rights.  Evidence  of 
the  Negro's  economic  status  is  found  in 
the  extent  to  which  Negroes  are  employed, 
in  what  industries  and  occupations  they 
are  employed,  and  opportunities  for  ad- 
vancement open  to  them. 

Preliminary  reports  from  the  1950 
Census  supply  statistics  on  "white"  and 
"nonwhite"  employment  but  do  not  give 
figures  on  Negroes  separately.  However, 
96%  of  those  reported  in  the  nonwhite 
category  are  Negroes.  Where  current  in- 
formation does  not  provide  reports  on 
Negroes  and  that  on  the  nonwhite  popu- 
lation is  available,  the  latter  is  given  here. 

THE  LABOR  FORCE1 

In  1950,  a  slightly  larger  percentage  of 
the  nonwhite  population  than  of  the  white 
population  was  reported  as  being  in  the 
labor  force — those  employed  or  seeking 
employment.  Of  the  population  14  years 
old  and  over,  there  were  proportionately 
fewer  nonwhite  men  in  the  labor  force 
than  white  men.  To  the  contrary,  and  in 
keeping  with  the  traditional  pattern,  a 


considerably  larger  proportion  of  non- 
white  women  than  of  white  women  were 
in  the  labor  force. 

EMPLOYMENT 

Fifty  per  cent  of  both  the  total  popu- 
lation and  the  nonwhite  population  14 
years  old  and  over  were  employed  in 
1950.  For  the  total  population  this  repre- 
sented, 94%  of  the  labor  force  and  for 
the  nonwhite  population,  90%. 

By  Age  and  Sex 

The  proportion  (67%)  of  nonwhite 
males  14  years  old  and  over  employed 
was  smaller  than  the  proportion  (73%) 
of  all  males  employed.  Of  nonwhite  males, 
90%  of  those  in  the  labor  force  were 
employed  while  of  all  males  in  the  labor 
force  93%  were  employed.  The  34%  of 
nonwhite  females  14  years  and  over  who 
were  employed  was  a  substantially  greater 
proportion  than  the  27%  of  all  females 
employed.  Of  those  women  in  the  labor 
force,  91%  of  the  nonwhite  women  and 
89%  of  all  women  were  employed. 

Considered  in  terms  of  age  groups,  a 
greater  proportion  of  younger  (14-24 
years  old)  nonwhite  persons  and  a  greater 


TABLE  1 
LABOR  FORCE  IN  U.S.  BY  SEX  AND  COLOR,  1950 


Total 

Nonwhite 

Per  Cent 
of 
Total 

Sex 

Number 

Per  Cent 

Number 

Per  Gent 

Total  1  4  years  old  and  over  .  .  . 
Total  Labor  Force.  .  .  . 

111,915,000 
59,592,000 
54,923,000 
43,268,000 
56,991,000 
16,323,000 

100 
53 
100 
79 
100 
29 

10,733,000 
5,925,000 
5,250,000 
3,882,000 
5,483,000 
2,043,000 

100 
55 
100 
74 
100 
37 

10 
10 
10 
9 
10 
13 

Men  1  4  years  old  and  over  .... 
Men  in  Labor  Force  .... 

Women  1  4  years  old  and  over  . 
Women  in  Labor  Force  

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-7,  No.  2. 


1  From  tabulations  by  the  Women's  Bureau,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Labor  from  the  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary 
Reports,  Series  PC-7,  No.  2. 


114 


POSTWAR  TRENDS 


115 


proportion  of  nonwhites  65  years  old  and 
over  were  employed  in  1950.  Between  the 
ages  14  and  24,  the  proportion  of  non- 
white  males  employed  was  greater  than 
their  proportion  of  the  population.  In  no 
other  age  group,  excepting  ages  35  to  44, 
was  the  proportion  of  nonwhite  males 
equal  to  their  population  proportion.  Be- 
tween the  ages  of  25  and  34,  nonwhite 
women  showed  a  higher  proportion  of  em- 
ployed both  in  terms  of  their  own  group 
and  in  terms  of  the  proportion  of  the 
total  population  14  years  old  and  over. 

By  Industry 

There  continued  to  be  a  concentration 
of  nonwhite  employment  in  agriculture 
and  in  the  service  industries,  where  they 
were  15  and  14%  respectively  of  total 
employment.  As  in  the  past,  the  propor- 
tion of  Negro  women  to  all  women  em- 
ployed in  agriculture  was  high.  The  65% 
of  employed  nonwhite  women  in  the 
service  industries  was  20%  of  all  women 
employed  in  these  industries.  Four  indus- 
try groups — Agriculture,  Manufacturing, 
Trade,  and  Service — employed  96%  of 
nonwhite  women  and  76%  of  nonwhite 
men. 

By  Occupations 

Service  work  and  laborers'  jobs  were 
the  occupations  of  one-fifth  of  all  em- 
ployed persons  in  the  United  States  in 
1950;  54%  of  all  nonwhite  workers  fol- 
lowed these  occupations.  Only  2%  of 
employed  persons  in  the  United  States 


were  employed  as  private  household  work- 
ers, but  15%  of  nonwhite  workers  were 
thus  employed,  comprising  56%  of  all 
workers  so  engaged.  In  other  service  occu- 
pations, in  which  7%  of  all  workers  were 
employed,  nonwhites  made  up  19%  of 
the  total.  Six  per  cent  of  all  workers  were 
occupied  as  laborers  other  than  agricul- 
tural and  mine  laborers,  but  nonwhite 
laborers  were  one-fourth  of  all  laborers, 
or  two  and  one-half  times  their  proportion 
in  all  occupations  taken  together. 

Employment  of  nonwhite  workers  in 
professional,  managerial,  and  official  oc- 
cupations remained  limited.  In  1950,  4% 
of  employed  nonwhites  were  in  profes- 
sional occupations  and  2%  were  in  mana- 
gerial and  official  occupations.  In  clerical, 
sales,  crafts,  and  kindred  occupations, 
5%  or  less  of  all  nonwhite  employed  were 
occupied.  The  proportion  they  made  of 
all  workers  in  these  occupations  was  com- 
parably small. 

Unemployment 

Nonwhite  males,  9.4%  of  the  labor 
force,  were  15%  of  unemployed  males. 
Nonwhite  females,  12.5%  of  the  females 
in  the  labor  force,  were  22%  of  unem- 
ployed females. 

POSTWAR  TRENDS  IN 
EMPLOYMENT 

Concern  about  the  employment  of  Ne- 
groes following  the  end  of  World  War  II 
was  reflected  in  studies  made  in  several 


TABLE  2 
EMPLOYMENT  STATUS  OF  POPULATION  IN  U.S.  BY  SEX  AND  COLOR,  1950 


White 

Nonwhite 

Employment  Status  and  Sex 

Total   \ 

Number 

Per  Cent 

Number 

Per  Cent 

Total  Labor  Force  

59,592,000\ 
55,843,000  1 
2,892,000 

43,268,000 
40,317,000 
2,129,000 

16,323,000 
15,526,000 
763,000 

53,667,000 
50,488,000 
2,400,000 

39,386,000 
36,829,000 
1,806,000 

14,280,000 
13,659,000 
593,000 

90.1 
90.4 
83.0 

91.0 

91.3 
84.8 

87.5 
88.0 

77.7 

5,925,000 
5,355,000 
492,000 

3,882,000 
3,488,000 
323,000 

2,043,000 
1,867,000 
170,000 

9.9 
9.6 
17.0 

9.0 
8.7 
15.2 

12.5 
12.0 
22.3 

Total  Employed  

Total  Unemployed  

Male 
Labor  Force  

Employed        .... 

Unemployed  

Female 
Labor  Force  

Employed  

Unemployed 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-7,  No.  2. 


116 


EMPLOYMENT  AND  LABOR 


parts  of  the  United  States  prior  to  the 
Census  enumeration  of  1950: 

Reconversion  of  industry  to  peacetime  ac- 
tivities brought  no  major  downgrading  in  the 
occupational  composition  of  the  Negro  work- 
ers. This  is  especially  significant  in  view  of 
the  concentration  of  wartime  advances  of  Ne- 
groes in  those  occupations,  industries,  and 
areas  in  which  the  post-war  adjustment  was 


most  severe.  Essentially,  the  maintenance  of 
high  labor  demand  during  the  transition 
period  enabled  these  workers  to  hold  on  to 
many  of  their  wartime  gains.1 

Employment  of  Women 

According  to  the  Department  of  Labor, 
450,000  more  Negro  women  were  in  the 
labor  force  in  1947  than  there  had  been 


TABLE  3 

MAJOR  INDUSTRY  GROUPS  OF  EMPLOYED  PERSONS  IN  U.S.  BY  SEX  AND  COLOR,  1950 
(Persons  14  years  and  over) 


Tot 

al 

Nonwhite1 

Main  Industry  Group  and  Sex 

Per  Cent 

Number 

Per  Cent 

Number 

Per  Cent 

of 

Total 

Total  

.     55,843,000 

.      100 

5,355,000 

100 

10 

Agriculture  

7,138,000 

13 

1,078,000 

20 

15 

Mining  

971,000 

2 

40,000 

1 

4 

Construction  

3,480,000 

6 

285,000 

5 

8 

Manufacturing  

.     14,110,000 

25 

959,000 

18 

7 

Durable  goods  

7,361,000 

539,000 

7 

Non  durable  goods  

6,566,000 

406,000 

6 

Not  specified  manufacturing  

183,000 

15,000 

8 

Transportation,  communication, 

and  other  public  utilities  

4,252,000 

8 

322,000 

6 

8 

Wholesale  and  retail  trade  

.     10,392,000 

19 

679,000 

13 

7 

Service  industries  

.     12,037,000 

21 

1,735,000 

32 

14 

All  other  industries  

2,605,000 

5 

193,000 

4 

7 

Industry  not  reported  

859,000 

1 

64,000 

1 

7 

Total  Men  

.     40,317,000 

100 

3,488,000 

100 

9 

Agriculture  

6,516,000 

16 

878,000 

25 

13 

Mining  

949,000 

2 

40,000 

1 

4 

Construction  

3,375,000 

9 

279,000 

8 

8 

Manufacturing  

.     10,5-66,000 

26 

779,000 

22 

7 

Durable  goods  

.       6,236,000 

497,000 

8 

Nondurable  goods 

4,193,000 

271,000 

6 

Not  specified  manufacturing  
Transportation,  communication, 

137,000 

11,000 

8 

and  other  public  utilities  
Wholesale  and  retail  trade  
Service  industries  
All  other  industries  
Industry  not  reported  

3,554,000 
6,933,000 
5,922,000 
2,004,000 
498,000 

9 
17 
15 
5 
1 

297,000 
487,000 
525,000 
160,000 
44,000 

9 
14 
15 
5 

1 

8 
7 
9 
8 
9 

Total  Women  

.     15,526,000 

100 

1,867,000 

100 

12 

Agriculture  

622,000 

4 

200,000 

11 

32 

Mining  

21,000 

(2) 

Construction  
Manufacturing  
Durable  goods  .... 
Nondurable  goods  
Not  specified  manufacturing  . 
Transportation,  communication, 

105,000 
3,545,000 
1,125,000 
2,373,000 
46,000 

1 

23 

6,000 
180,000 
42,000 
135,000 
4,000 

10 

6 
5 
4 
6 
9 

and  other  public  utilities  
Wholesale  and  retail  trade 
Service  industries    .  . 
All  other  industries  
Industry  not  reported 

698,000 
3,459,000 
6,114,000 
602,000 
361,000 

5 
22 
39 
4 
2 

25,000 
192,000 
1,210,000 
33,000 
21,000 

1 

10 

65 
2 
1 

4 
5 
20 
5 
6 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-7,  No.  2. 
PQ1  ulation OWn  °f  lab°r  £0fCe   f°r   Negroes  not   available;    Negro   population   forms   96%   of  nonwhite 
z  Per  cent  not  shown  where  less  than  1%. 
1  Wolfbin,  Seymour  L.,  "Postwar  Trend  in  Negro  Employment,"  Monthly  Labor  Review,  p.  665,  December  1947. 


POSTWAR  TRENDS 


117 


seven  years  earlier.  This  was  an  increase 
from  1,800,000  to  2,250,000.  The  propor- 
tion of  gainfully  employed  Negro  women 
in  farm  work  declined  from  21  to  7% 
of  the  total  Negro  females  in  the  labor 
force.  In  1940  about  70%  of  Negro 
women  gainfully  employed  were  in  domes- 


tic service;  in  1947  the  proportion  was 
less  than  50%.  The  proportion  of  the 
female  Negro  labor  force  in  semiskilled 
jobs  (for  the  most  part  employed  as  oper- 
atives in  industry)  more  than  doubled, 
while  the  proportion  in  clerical  and  sales 
capacities  nearly  tripled.1 


TABLE  4 

MAJOR  OCCUPATION  GROUP  OF  EMPLOYED  PERSONS  IN  U.S.  BY  SEX  AND  COLOR,  1950 
(Persons  14  years  and  over) 


Total 


Nonwhite1 


Major  Occupation  Group  and  Sex 


Per  Cent 

Number       Per  Cent       Number      Per  Cent  of 

Total 


Total  

55,843,000 

100 

5,355,000 

100 

10 

Professional,  technical,  kindred  workers.  .  . 

4,944,000 

9 

192,000 

4 

4 

Farmers  and  farm  managers  

4,453,000 

8 

507,000 

9 

11 

Managers,  officials,  proprietors  (exc.  farm)  . 

5,010,000 

9 

80,000 

2 

2 

Clerical  and  kindred  workers  

6,776,000 

12 

192,000 

4 

3 

Sales  workers  

3,740,000 

7 

78,000 

2 

2 

Craftsmen,  foremen,  kindred  workers  

7,632,000 

14 

283,000 

5 

4 

Operatives  and  kindred  workers  

11,054,000 

20 

1,000,000 

19 

9 

Private  household  workers  

1,457,000 

2 

812,000 

15 

56 

Service  workers  (exc.  private  household)  .  . 

4,145,000 

7 

768,000 

14 

19 

Farm  laborers  (exc.  unpaid  and  foremen)  . 

1,562,000 

3 

345,000 

6 

22 

Farm  laborers,  unpaid  family  workers  

941,000 

2 

211,000 

4 

22 

Laborers  (exc.  farm  and  mine)  

3,348,000 

6 

827,000 

15 

25 

Occupation  not  reported  

780,000 

1 

60,000 

1 

8 

Total  Men  

40,317,000 

100 

3,488,000 

100 

9 

Professional,  technical,  kindred  workers  .  .  . 

2,994,000 

7 

77,000 

2 

3 

Farmers  and  farm  managers  

4,327,000 

11 

470,000 

13 

11 

Managers,  officials,  proprietors  (exc.  farm)  . 

4,346,000 

11 

70,000 

2 

2 

Clerical  and  kindred  workers  

2,625,000 

6 

119,000 

3 

5 

Sales  workers  

2,502,000 

6 

54,000 

2 

2 

Craftsmen,  foremen,  kindred  workers  

7,380,000    ' 

18 

264,000 

8 

4 

Operatives  and  kindred  workers  

8,076,000 

20 

727,000 

21 

9 

Private  household  workers  

74,000 

(2) 

27,000 

1 

36 

Service  workers  (exc.  private  household)  .  . 

2,258,000 

6 

436,000 

12 

19 

Farm  laborers  (exc.  unpaid,  and  foremen)  . 

1,420,000 

4 

271,000 

8 

19 

Farm  laborers,  unpaid  family  workers  

610,000 

2 

121,000 

4 

20 

Laborers  (exc.  farm  and  mine)  

3,233,000 

8 

806,000 

23 

25 

Occupation  not  reported  

473,000 

1 

47,000 

1 

10 

Total  Women  

15,526,000 

100 

1,867,000 

100 

12 

Professional,  technical,  kindred  workers  .  .  . 

1,950,000 

12 

115,000 

6 

6 

Farmers  and  farm  managers  

126,000 

1 

37,000 

2 

29 

Managers,  officials,  proprietors  (exc.  farm)  . 

664,000 

4 

10,000 

1 

2 

Clerical  and  kindred  workers  

4,151,000 

27 

74,000 

4 

2 

Sales  workers  

1,238,000 

8 

24,000 

1 

2 

Craftsmen,  foremen,  kindred  workers  

252,000 

2 

19,000 

1 

8 

Operatives  and  kindred  workers  

2,978,000 

19 

273,000 

14 

9 

Private  household  workers  

1,383,000 

9 

785,000 

42 

57 

Service  workers  (exc.  private  household)  .  . 

1,887,000 

12 

332,000 

18 

18 

Farm  laborers  (exc.  unpaid  and  foremen)  . 

142,000 

1 

75,000 

4 

53 

Farm  laborers,  unpaid  family  workers  

331,000 

2 

90,000 

5 

27 

Laborers  (exc.  farm  and  mine)  

116,000 

1 

21,000 

1 

18 

Occupation  not  reported  .  i  

307,000 

2 

13,000 

1 

4 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-7,  No.  2. 

1  Breakdown  of  labor  force  for  Negroes  not  available;  Negro  population  makes  up  96%  of  nonwhite 
population. 

2  Per  cent  not  shown  where  less  than  1%. 

1  Weaver,  Robert  C.,  "Negro  Labor  Since  1939,"  Journal  of  Negro  History,  p.  34,  January  1950. 


118 


EMPLOYMENT  AND  LABOR 


It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  Census 
enumeration  of  1950  the  proportion  of 
nonwhite  women  engaged  in  farm  work 
increased  from  7  to  11%.  The  proportion 
of  nonwhite  women  in  domestic  service 
was  42%. 

New  York  City  Study 

A  survey  made  in  1947  revealed  that 
Negroes  had  held  on  to  gains  made  in 
New  York  City  during  the  war  period. 
Service  occupations,  in  which  40  out  of 
each  100  employed  Negro  men  were  en- 
gaged in  March  1940,  claimed  only  23 
of  each  100  in  April  1947.  Simultaneously, 
the  proportion  of  all  Negro  men  workers 
employed  in  the  crafts  rose  by  25%;  in 
the  semiskilled  occupations  the  increase 
was  50%,  representing  the  entry  of  thou- 
sands of  Negro  workers  into  industrial 
plants.  The  ratio  of  clerk  and  salesman 
positions  increased  by  over  27%,  and  that 
of  proprietors,  managers,  and  officials  by 
40%. 

Among  Negro  women,  the  shifts  in 
kinds  of  work  were  even  more  striking. 
In  1940,  out  of  each  100  employed,  75 
were  in  service  occupations ;  in  1947,  such 
work  engaged  only  49.  During  this  period, 
the  proportion  of  Negro  women  workers 
employed  in  retail  stores  and  in  various 
clerical  occupations  quadrupled.  The  Ur- 
ban League  reported  that  more  than  500 
Negro  telephone  operators  were  in  the 
employ  of  the  area  telephone  company 
alone.  In  the  semiskilled  occupations,  par- 
ticularly in  laundries  and  manufacturing 
establishments,  Negro  women  operatives 
increased  from  16  to  31%  of  all  employed 
Negro  women.1 

San  Francisco  Area2 

What  happened  to  Negroes  on  the 
Pacific  coast  was  of  special  interest  be- 
cause of  tremendous  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  Negroes  in  that  area  through  migra- 
tion for  wartime  employment. 

Between  1940  and  1944,  the  Negro 
population  more  than  tripled  in  the  San 


Francisco  Bay  area  and  nearly  doubled 
in  Los  Angeles.  Similar  increases  oc- 
curred in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  West- 
ward migration  continued  after  the  war 
ended  an,d  the  cities  on  the  Pacific  coast 
now  have,  for  the  first  time,  a  sizable 
Negro  population.  This  development  is 
similar  to  that  in  northern  cities  after 
World  War  I.  Of  national  interest  is  the 
departure  from  the  traditional  South-to- 
North  route  of  Negro  migration,  and  con- 
sequent redistribution  of  Negro  popula- 
tion within  the  United  States. 

The  migrants  came  predominantly  from 
the  Southwest ;  more  than  half  came  from 
Texas  and  Louisiana,  and  a  fourth  from 
Oklahoma,  Arkansas,  and  Mississippi. 
Less  than  a  seventh  were  from  states 
outside  the  South. 

Common  labor  and  service  jobs  occu- 
pied more  than  half  the  employed  Negro 
workers  in  1948  but  only  a  sixth  of  the 
general  employed  population  of  the  Bay 
area  in  1947.  Another  fourth  of  the  Negro 
workers  were  employed  in  industrial 
jobs,  chiefly  as  operatives. 

In  1940,  two-thirds  of  the  employed 
Negro  workers  in  San  Francisco  and  Oak- 
land were  engaged  in  service  occupations, 
in  contrast  with  less  than  a  third  of  the 
workers  in  the  1948  sample.  Correspond- 
ingly large  increases  occurred  in  the 
proportions  employed  as  laborers,  indus- 
trial workers,  and  clerical  workers. 

Only  one  worker  in  20  was  a  domestic 
servant  in  1948,  compared  with  nearly  one 
in  every  four  employed  Negroes  in  1940. 
The  increase  in  the  proportion  of  Negro 
workers  in  clerical  occupations  is  also 
notable  in  view  of  the  virtual  closure  of 
this  field  to  Negroes  before  the  war. 
However,  the  Negro  gain  in  the  clerical 
field  does  not  appear  to  have  been  made 
in  the  general  labor  market.  Of  the 
workers  surveyed  who  held  clerical  jobs 
in  1948,  nearly  three-fourths  were  em- 
ployed in  government  agencies,  including 
the  Post  Office.  Those  in  private  employ- 
ment were  mainly  in  "back  room"  jobs, 


1  "Negroes  in  New  York  City:  Occupational  Distribution,  1946-47"  Monthly  Labor  Review,  p.  57,  January  1949. 

2  "Post  War  Status  of  Negro  Workers  in  the  San  Francisco  Area,"  Monthly  Labor  Review,  Vol.  70,  No.  6,  pp.  612- 
616,  June  1950. 


POSTWAR  TRENDS 


119 


such  as  stock  and  shipping  clerks,  with 
few  in  Negro  businesses. 

Negro  women  were  primarily  affected 
by  the  shift  away  from  domestic  service. 
In  1940,  nearly  two-thirds  of  all  employed 
Negro  women  in  San  Francisco  and  Oak- 
land were  domestic  servants;  this  pro- 
portion in  the  1948  survey  shrank  to  a 
fifth.  More  than  a  fourth  of  the  employed 
Negro  women  were  laborers  and  indus- 
trial workers  in  1948,  as  compared  with 
less  than  5%  in  those  categories  in  1940. 
The  proportion  of  Negro  women  in  cler- 
ical occupations  also  increased  substan- 
tially between  1940  and  1948.  In  com- 
parison with  the  total  population  of  em- 
ployed women,  Negro  working  women  in 
1948  were  still  employed  predominantly 
in  the  "lower"  occupations.  Only  a  fifth 
of  the  employed  Negro  women  in  1948 
were  engaged  in  clerical,  proprietary- 
managerial,  or  professional  jobs,  although 
these  occupations  included  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  total  employed  women  in 
the  San  Francisco-Oakland  metropolitan 
district  in  1947. 

With  respect  to  distribution  among  in- 
dustries, about  a  fourth  of  the  Negro 
workers  surveyed  in  1948  were  employed 
in  government  establishments,  another 
fourth  in  the  service  industries,  chiefly 
personal  services,  and  a  fifth  in  manu- 
facturing. As  compared  with  the  general 
employed  population  of  the  metropolitan 
district,  the  Negro  workers  were  strik- 
ingly under-represented  in  wholesale  and 
retail  trade. 

Contrary  to  a  widespread  impression, 
the  migrants  were  not  primarily  engaged 
in  farming  before  coming  to  California. 
Less  than  a  seventh  reported  their  pre- 
war occupation  as  in  agriculture.  More 
than  a  fourth  were  manufacturing  work- 
ers and  about  a  fifth  were  employed  in 
service  industries.  During  wartime,  they 
shifted  from  service,  trade,  and  agricul- 
ture to  manufacturing  and  government 
employment.  After  the  war,  employment 
in  manufacturing  was  drastically  reduced, 
but  the  proportion  of  Negro  workers  in 
government  employment  increased  still 
further.  Relative  increases  occurred  also 


in  construction,  transport,  and  communi- 
cation, and  in  the  service  category.  Negro 
workers  apparently  did  not  participate 
in  the  postwar  expansion  of  wholesale 
and  retail  trade. 

Some  15%  of  the  men  and  more  than 
40%  of  the  women  in  the  labor  force 
were  unemployed  at  the  survey  date, 
compared  with  about  6%  of  the  Cali- 
fornia labor  force,  according  to  estimates 
of  the  State  Department  of  Employment 
and  Division  of  Labor  Statistics.  Thus, 
the  unemployment  rate  found  among 
Negro  male  workers  was  more  than  twice, 
and  among  Negro  women  workers,  six 
times  as  great,  as  the  state-wide  rate. 
Subsequent  to  the  survey,  unemployment 
has  increased  at  least  as  much  among 
Negroes  as  in  the  general  force.  Hence, 
a  general  unemployment  rate  in  Cali- 
fornia of  8  to  10%  during  the  winter 
months  of  1949-50  points  to  serious  un- 
employment among  Negroes  there. 

New  Occupations 

The  early  releases  of  statistics  from  the 
1950  Census  enumeration  and  the  studies 
made  following  World  War  II  show  the 
broad  trends  in  employment  in  occupa- 
tions and  industries.  Another  indication 
of  new  trends  is  the  jobs  individual  Ne- 
groes are  reported  as  occupying. 

Negroes  have  been  employed  sparingly 
in  sales  and  promotion  of  products  by 
American  industry.  Some  recent  employ- 
ers of  Negroes  in  these  particular  fields 
are  Camel  Cigarettes,  Pepsi-Cola,  Schen- 
ley,  Seagram's,  and  National  Distillers. 
Mrs.  Mary  Tobias  Dean  was  promoted  to 
be  a  department  manager  at  the  R.  H. 
Macy  Company  in  New  York  in  January 
1951.  The  F.  R.  Lazarus  Company  in 
Columbus,  Ohio,  hired  its  first  Negro  sales 
clerk.  Carson  Pirie  Scott  and  Marshall 
Field  stores  in  Chicago  also  hired  Negroes 
in  clerical  jobs.  Major  C.  Udell  Turner 
was  employed  by  the  Remington-Rand 
Business  Machines  Corporation  as  man- 
ager of  special  markets.  George  H.  Fow- 
ler was  employed  by  the  New  York  State 
Board  of  Mediation  as  a  mediator  of  labor 
disputes. 


120 


EMPLOYMENT  AND  LABOR 


Integration  in  Industries  .  . 

The  Chicago  Defender,  in  a  series  of 
articles  on  industrial  plants  which  have 
a  hiring  policy  favorable  to  Negroes, 
cited  the  following:  American  Maize 
Products  Company,  Hammond,  Ind.,  30% 
of  whose  employees  are  Negro ;  the  RCA- 
Vic^pr  Division  of  the  Radio  Corporation 
of  America,  where  Negroes  are  engaged 
in  virtually  every  phase  of  productive 
activity;  the  Marion,  Ind.  plant  of  RCA- 
Victor,  which  received  an  Urban  League 
citation  for  its  employment  policies ;  Spie- 
gel's, a  Chicago  mail  order  company, 
where  Negroes  comprise  10%  of  the  em- 
ployees in  all  types  of  employment;  the 
International  Harvester  Company  in  the 
Chicago  area  in  which  18.9%  of  the  em- 
ployees are  Negroes;  the  Krey  Packing 
Company,  St.  Louis,  and  the  Inland  Steel 
Container  Company,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  in 
which  65%  of  the  employees  are  Negroes. 
The  Rossford  Ordnance  Depot,  near  To- 
ledo, Ohio,  had  Negroes  as  40%  of  its 
employees  in  March  1951. 

This  report  by  the  Chicago  Defender 
does  not  represent  a  survey  by  any  means. 
It  indicates  random  but  specific  instances 
in  which  the  integration  of  Negro  workers 
has  progressed. 

Social  Security  Act 

Amendments  to  the  Social  Security  Act, 
effective  Jan.  1,  1951,  extended  social 
security  benefits  to  domestic  service  work- 
ers and  to  farm  workers.  Negroes  consti- 
tute a  high  proportion  of  those  employed 
in  these  occupations. 

FAIR  EMPLOYMENT 

PRACTICES 
Executive  Order  9908 

President  Truman's  order  forbidding 
discrimination  in  Federal  employment  has 
had  results.  Following  the  issuing  of  this 
order,  in  Birmingham,  Ala.,  three  Negro 
mail  clerks  were  appointed,  the  first  in 
that  city  since  1916.  Seventeen  Negro 
veterans  of  World  War  II  began  training 
as  apprentices  in  the  plate  printing  de- 
partment at  the  Treasury  Department's 


Bureau  of  Engraving  in  January  1951. 
This  was  the  first  time  Negroes  had  been 
employed  there  as  either  apprentices  or  as 
journeymen.  The  Executive  Order  has  not 
been  fully  enforced  in  the  South,  but  field 
offices  of  some  agencies  have  begun  hiring 
Negroes.  Again,  on  Dec.  3,  1951,  Presi- 
dent Truman  set  up  a  Federal  committee 
to  help  outlaw  discrimination  against 
Negroes  and  other  minorities  in  hiring 
by  Government  contractors.  The  commit- 
tee's job  will  be  to  investigate  and  study 
employment  practices  of  firms  holding 
Government  contracts  and  report  any  bias 
found  to  the  heads  of  the  particular  con- 
tracting agency. 

Fair  Employment  Legislation 

Legislation  to  prohibit  discrimination 
in  employment  on  the  grounds  of  race, 
creed,  color,  or  national  origin  is  quite 
new.  No  such  laws  existed  prior  to  1941, 
but  since  then  nine  states  have  enacted 
such  laws,  of  varying  breadth.  By  1949, 
such  legislation  was  introduced  in  17 
other  states  but  failed  to  be  enacted  into 
law. 

The  states  in  which  fair  employment 
legislation  has  been  enacted  are  Connec- 
ticut, Indiana,  Massachusetts,  New  Mex- 
ico, New  Jersey,  New  York,  Oregon, 
Rhode  Island,  Washington. 

The  states  in  which  fair  employment 
legislation  concerned  with  public  or  state 
employees  has  been  passed  are  California, 
Connecticut,  Illinois,  Massachusetts,  Mich- 
igan, Minnesota,  Nebraska,  New  York, 
Oregon. 

Effect  on  Employers:  A  survey  of  large 
employers  in  FEPC  states,  reported  in 
1950  by  Business  Week,  revealed  that 
"employers  agree  that  FEPC  laws  haven't 
caused  near  the  fuss  that  opponents  pre- 
dicted. Disgruntled  jobseekers  haven't 
swamped  commissions  with  complaints. 
Personal  friction  hasn't  been  at  all  seri- 
ous .  .  .  even  those  who  opposed  a  FEPC 
aren't  actively  hostile  now."  Rarely  was 
it  necessary  to  take  cases  to  court.  New 
York's  commission,  which  handles  the 
largest  volume  of  business,  averages  less 
than  one  court  case  a  year;  Connecticut's 


ORGANIZED  LABOR 


121 


commission  took  only  one  case  to  court 
during  the  1948-49  reporting  period.  New 
Jersey  in  1948  received  749  complaints 
of  which  40%  were  closed  amicably,  40% 
were  dismissed  for  lack  of  evidence,  and 
20%  were  dropped  when  the  complainant 
withdrew.  In  a  survey  made  by  this  com- 
mission, 79  employers  indicated  that  there 
were  no  new  difficulties  or  problems  in 
business  policy,  that  there  was  no  inter- 
ference with  their  "basic  right  to  select 
the  most  competent  workers,"  and  that 
the  law  was  being  fairly  and  effectively 
administered.  The  commission  further  re- 
ported there  were  no  complaints  of  FEPC- 
bred  racial  tension  nor  of  anyone's  refus- 
ing or  vacating  a  job  because  of  minority- 
group  employment. 

Effect  on  Organized  Labor:  The  most 
effective  action  against  official  discrimina- 
tion by  labor  unions  has  been  that  of  New 
York  State's  Commission  Against  Dis- 
crimination. 

In  1947,  the  Commission  launched  an 
investigation  of  all  discriminatory  labor 
organizations  in  the  state,  calling  upon 
them  to  do  away  with  discrimination.  By 
1949,  SCAD  was  able  to  announce  that 
several  unions  had  removed  discrimina- 
tory provisions  from  their  by-laws,  in  some 
cases  independently  of  Commission  ac- 
tion. Another  group  of  organizations  did 
not  change  their  by-laws  but  suspended 
the  operation  of  discriminatory  provisions 
in  New  York  State.  Since  SCAD  informed 
other  Fair  Employment  Practice  agencies 
of  this  action,  these  suspensions  are  pre- 
sumably operative  in  all  FEP  areas. 

The  following  are  the  unions  which 
have  relaxed  official  discrimination  since 
1945: 

1)  Unions  which  have  eliminated  racial 
restrictions  (exclusion  or  auxiliary  status) 
from  their  by-laws: 

AFL  affiliates:  Air  Line  Dispatchers 
Association;  Brotherhood  of  Blacksmiths, 
Drop  Forgers  and  Helpers;  International 
Association  of  Machinists;  Brotherhood 
of  Maintenance  of  Way  Employees; 
Brotherhood  of  Railway  and  Steamship 
Clerks,  Freight  Handlers,  Express  and 
Station  Employees ;  Sheet  Metal  Worker's 


International  Association ;  Switchmen's 
Union  of  North  America. 

Independent  Unions:  Railroad  Yard- 
masters  of  North  America. 

2)  Unions  which  have  made  discrimina- 
tory provisions  inoperative  in  FEP  states 
and  cities: 

AFL  affiliates:  National  Association  of 
Letter  Carriers ;  Order  of  Railroad  Teleg- 
raphers ;  Brotherhood  of  Railway  Carmen 
of  America;  Railway  Mail  Association; 
Brotherhood  of  Boilermakers,  Iron  Ship- 
builders, Welders,  and  Helpers. 

Independent  Unions:  Brotherhood  of 
Locomotive  Engineers;  Brotherhood  of 
Locomotive  Firemen  and  Enginemen; 
Brotherhood  of  Railroad  Trainmen;  Or- 
der of  Railway  Conductors  of  America; 
American  Train  Dispatchers  Association. 

Since  FEP  areas  presently  include  a 
population  of  approximately  40  million, 
or  almost  one-third  of  the  national  popu- 
lation, a  serious  blow  has  been  struck  at 
official  discrimination  among  those  unions 
previously  excluding  Negroes  or  confining 
them  to  a  subordinate  status. 

The  railway  unions  still  comprise  the 
hard  core  of  resistance  to  minority  work- 
ers. None  of  the  Big  Four  operating 
brotherhoods  have  eliminated  the  color 
clauses  from  their  by-laws.  The  suspen- 
sion of  discriminatory  provisions  by  these 
and  other  unions  in  FEP  areas  has  not 
automatically  opened  the  door  to  non- 
white  workers.  In  the  railroad  industry, 
long  layoff  lists  still  effectively  bar  Negro 
workers  from  most  occupations  even  when 
railway  management  is  willing  to  hire 
them. 

ORGANIZED  LABOR 

In  the  postwar  period,  the  position  of 
Negro  workers  in  organized  labor  was 
strengthened  as  a  result  of  employment 
in  war  industries  and  fair-employment 
laws  enacted  in  states  with  highly  indus- 
trialized areas.  Integration  of  Negroes  in 
unions  continued  to  be  affected  by  the 
traditions  of  the  major  groups  of  organ- 
ized labor.  The  CIO  policy  and  tradition 
are  all  in  favor  of  full  integration,  while 


122 


EMPLOYMENT  AND  LABOR 


the  AFL  charters,  ritual,  and  traditional 
proscriptions  against  full  integration  give 
ground  slowly.  The  Railroad  Brother- 
hoods continue  to  be  the  largest  body  of 
organized  workers  whose  policies  and  pro- 
grams are  calculated  to  prevent  Negro 
inclusion,  to  say  nothing  of  integration. 

Union  Policies  in  the 
San  Francisco  Area 

The  study  made  by  Fred  Stipp  is  the 
best  basis  for  appraisal  of  union  policy 
and  practice  in  the  San  Francisco  Bay 
area  in  the  absence  of  reliable  reports 
from  the  unions  themselves.1  This  area 
is  important  because  of  the  shift  of  mi- 
gration to  this  region. 

A  total  of  163  AFL  locals  were  ques- 
tioned. They  reported  195,951  members, 
of  whom  18,953  were  Negroes,  a  9.6  per- 
centage. Laborers,  culinary  workers, 
molders,  building  service  employees,  and 
carpenters  accounted  for  55%  of  Negro 
workers  reported  by  all  163  AFL  locals. 
Fifty-five  locals,  representing  50,000  AFL 
trade-unionists,  reported  no  Negro  mem- 
bers. The  largest  locals  in  the  all-white 
group  are:  the  Seafarers,  Plumbers  and 
Steamfitters  Local  38;  Machinists  Local 
68;  Masters,  Mates,  and  Pilots  Local  90; 
Butchers  Local  115;  and  Musicians  Local 
6.  There  were  45  locals,  on  the  other 
hand,  reporting  100  or  more  Negro  mem- 
bers. 

Thirty-three  AFL  unions  were  able  to 
furnish  figures  for  prewar,  peak-war  and 
postwar  Negro  membership,  reporting 
890  Negroes  in  the  prewar  period  (860 
as  laborers  and  building  service  em- 
ployees), 29,314  in  the  peak-war  period, 
and  7,670  in  postwar  May  1948.  The 
significant  figure  is  not  the  swollen  peak- 
war  total  but  the  postwar  figure.  Thou- 
sands of  war  workers  naturally  lost  their 
jobs  when  the  war  ended,  white  as  well  as 
Negro.  Boilermakers  Local  6,  as  a  single 
example,  dropped  31,000  white  workers 
in  the  postwar  era.  Thus  the  important 
emphasis  for  our  study  of  these  33  locals 
out  of  the  163  questioned  is  the  contrast 

1  Stipp,  Fred    "The  Treatment  of  Negro-American  Work 
Social  Forces,  Vol.  28,  No.  3,  pp.  330-332,  March  1950. 


between  the  890  Negro  unionists  in  the 
prewar  days  and  the  7,670  Negroes  still 
in  the  33  unions  nearly  three  years  after 
V-J  Day.  Many  of  the  AFL  leaders  indi- 
cated that  the  same  contrast  would  hold 
in  their  unions,  but  the  actual  figures 
were  not  available.  The  increase  may  or 
may  not  have  been  as  high  as  the  850% 
in  the  33  unions,  but  from  the  reports  of 
the  other  75  AFL  locals  with  Negro 
membership,  it  is  a  striking  increase  over 
the  prewar  ratio. 

Important  legal  and  psychological 
gains  have  also  come  to  Negro  AFL  mem- 
bers in  the  Bay  area,  not  the  least  of 
these  being  the  mixed  unions  which  have 
replaced  "Jim  Crow"  auxiliaries  among 
the  Boilermakers.  A  7-0  decision  against 
the  segregated  auxiliary  when  supported 
by  the  closed  shop  was  rendered  by  the 
California  Supreme  Court.  Boilermakers 
39  and  Welders  and  Burners  681  on  the 
Oakland  side  and  Boilermakers  6  and 
Welders  and  Burners  1330  on  the  San 
Francisco  side  now  practice  mixed  mem- 
bership, meeting  in  the  same  union  hall. 
The  universal  transfer  card  is  yet  to  come, 
but  the  James-Marinship  case  is  a  land- 
mark for  the  Negro  workers. 

The  Hotel  and  Restaurant  Workers, 
Commercial  Telegraphers,  Blacksmiths, 
Railway  Clerks,  and  Railway  Carmen 
unions  have  removed  the  color  bar  from 
their  membership  requirements  in  their 
respective  constitutions.  Most  Machinists' 
locals  in  the  Bay  area  admit  Negroes  de- 
spite the*  exclusion  clause  in  the  lodge 
ritual.  The  Carpenters,  with  a  poor  na- 
tional record  on  color  concord  and  almost 
no  Negro  carpenters  in  Bay  area  affiliates 
prior  to  the  war,  had  2.000  Negro  mem- 
bers among  a  15,000  total  membership 
in  May  1948.  Such  gains  are  more  than 
legal  and  numerical;  they  are  psycho- 
logical as  well.  The  Negro's  morale  im- 
proves with  each  of  these  hard-won  steps 
on  the  long  road  to  equality. 

In  the  important  job  category  of  trans- 
portation, the  Negro  is  still,  for  the  most 
part,  "on  the  outside  looking  in."  The 

ers  by  the  AFL  and  CIO  in  the  San  Francisco  Bay  Area," 


ORGANIZED  LABOR 


123 


teamster  affiliates  are  almost  exclusively 
white  and,  in  labor  terminology,  "tight 
outfits,  difficult  to  crack."  AFL  water 
transport  is  100%  white  in  the  Bay  area. 
While  some  gains  have  been  made  in 
streetcar  and  railroad  transport,  the 
Negro's  chief  place  in  transportation  is 
in  such  non-transporting  affiliates  as  the 
Warehousemen  and  the  Cannery  Workers. 

In  the  professional  and  technical  classi- 
fications, the  Negro  has  his  smallest  op- 
portunity. While  he  holds  as  high  as 
11.2%  of  union  membership  in  the  build- 
ing trades,  12.8%  in  food,  clothing,  and 
laundry  locals,  and  20.2%  in  the  service 
groups,  he  holds  only  3%  of  the  cards  in 
professional  and  technical  unions.  He 
faces  here  the  twin  handicaps  of  lack 
of  training  and  racial  discrimination. 

Despite  these  less  encouraging  aspects 
of  the  picture,  field  investigation  has 
found  the  Negro  worker  marking  up  sub- 
stantial numerical  and  psychological 
gains  in  the  AFL  locals  of  the  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay  area  from  the  prewar  years  to 
the  post-war,  at  least  until  May,  1948. 

The  CIO  has  organized  the  Negro  from 
the  very  inception  of  the  "one  big  union." 
In  the  Bay  area  26  major  CIO  unions 
were  questioned,  with  42  locals  reporting 
55,205  members,  among  them  7557  Ne- 
groes. They  hold  2,500  of  7,000  member- 
ship cards  in  the  Marine  Cooks  and 
Stewards.  They  hold  2,200  of  Longshore 
Local  6's  15,000  cards.  The  remaining 
2,857  Negro  CIO  members  are  scattered 
among  24  major  CIO  unions  with  a  mem- 
bership of  38,205.  Five  CIO  locals  of  the 
42  reporting  have  no  Negroes  and  nine 
more  have  10  or  less.  The  7,557  Negro 
members  of  the  Bay  area  CIO  affiliates 
make  up  13.6%  of  55,205  CIO  unionists, 
a  percentage  comparing  favorably  to  the 
AFL's  9.6%. 

Five  CIO  unions  representing  18,600 
members  reported  6  Negro  members  prior 
to  the  war  and  3,127  after  the  war.  Most 
unions  had  no  prewar  figures,  some,  in- 
deed, coming  into  being  after  the  war 
was  over;  but  all  have  been  affected  by 
the  movement  of  thousands  of  Negroes 

1  Raushenbush,  Winifred,  Jobs  Without  Creed  or  Color,  pp 


into  the  Bay  area.  In  cases  where  Negro 
membership  has  been  proportionately  low 
in  CIO  units,  the  leadership  has  volun- 
teered dissatisfaction,  often  pointing  to 
discriminatory  management  as  the  con- 
trolling factor  in  hiring.  The  AFL  leaders 
gave  ample  support  to  this  CIO  indict- 
ment of  management. 

FEPC  records  on  the  West  Coast  and 
in  the  National  Office  suggest  that  the 
labor  leadership  is  probably  correct.  Mr. 
Harry  Kingman,  FEPC  Administrator  on 
the  West  Coast  during  the  war,  estimated 
that  10%  of  the  FEPC  cases  handled 
involved  labor  unions  and  70%  involved 
management.  Miss  Winifred  Raushenbush 
gave  figures  at  the  national  level  of  6.5% 
for  unions  and  70%  for  management  in 
her  Jobs  Without  Creed  or  Color.1 

CIO  Expulsion  of  Unions 

In  1949  and  1950,  the  CIO  expelled  11 
unions,  chiefly  for  left-wing  opposition 
in  the  form  of  Communist  activity  or  fail- 
ure to  renounce  Communist  leadership. 
Several  of  these  had  large  Negro  member- 
ships in  1945.  The  principal  ones  are 
shown  below: 

The    United    Electrical,    Radio    and    Machine 

Workers :  40,000 

The  United  Farm  Equipment  Workers :  3,000 
Mine,  Mill  &  Smelter  Workers :  20,000 
Food,    Tobacco    and    Agricultural    Workers : 

6,000 

International   Fur  and  Leather  Workers  Un- 
ion:  8,000-10,000 

International  Longshoremen's  and  Warehouse- 
men's Union :   13,000 

New  Labor  Group 

Expelled  union  groups  in  the  New  York 
City  area  formed  a  new  labor  body  in 
1951.  The  new  organization,  the  Distribu- 
tive, Processing  and  Office  Workers  of 
America,  was  created  when,  at  a  conven- 
tion in  October,  the  CIO  United  Office  and 
Professional  Workers ;  the  Food,  Tobacco 
and  Agricultural  Workers;  and  the  Dis- 
tributive Workers  merged.  An  appeal  to 
minority  groups  was  made  in  a  statement 
by  Arthur  Osmon,  who  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  new  union:  "There's  no  room 
for  racial  or  religious  prejudices  among 
us.  Negroes,  Jews,  Puerto  Ricans,  Ital- 

15-17. 


124 


EMPLOYMENT  AND  LABOR 


ians — all  sorts  of  minority  groups  enjoy 
equal  rights  and  opportunity." 

Negro  Labor  Leaders 

Veteran  labor  leader  A.  Philip  Ran- 
dolph, president  of  the  Brotherhood  of 
Sleeping  Car  Porters,  and  Boyd  Wilson, 
of  the  United  Steel  Workers,  CIO,  were 
among  the  24  American  delegates  to  the 
Second  World  Congress  of  the  Interna- 
tional Confederation  of  Free  Trade 
Unions. 

Mr.  Randolph  spoke  for  American 
labor  leaders  on  the  Point  IV  program 
of  the  United  States,  which  is  designed 
to  give  economic  aid  to  undeveloped  areas 
of  the  world. 

At  the  1950  National  Convention  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  in  Hous- 
ton, Texas,  Mr.  Randolph  protested  jim- 
crow  entertainment  of  delegates. 

Willard  S.  Townsend,  president  of  the 
CIO  United  Transport  Service  Employees, 
has  maintained  the  prestige  of  his  mem- 
bers and  has  secured  for  the  "Red  Caps" 
in  his  organization  fixed  salaries  and  re- 
tirement and  insurance  benefits. 

Ferdinand  Smith,  secretary-treasurer 
of  the  CIO  National  Maritime  Union  for 
many  years,  was  deported  to  Jamaica  in 
1951. 

Other  Negro  labor  leaders  to  attract 
public  attention  since  World  War  II  were 


not  national  officers  of  unions  but  leaders 
of  powerful  local  unions. 

Sam  Parks  became  president  of  the 
Wilson  Company  local  of  the  CIO  Pack- 
inghouse Workers  in  Chicago. 

Hillard  Ellis  became  president  of  the 
Amalgamated  Local  453  of  the  CIO 
United  Auto  Workers,  which  has  a  pre- 
dominantly white  membership. 

James  B.  Marshall  became  president  of 
Local  68  of  the  Building  Service  Em- 
ployees Union  in  Newark,  N.  J. 

Ajay  Martin  become  international  vice- 
president  of  the  CIO  United  Farm  Equip- 
ment Workers. 

Louise  Anderson  became  president  of 
Local  3808,  United  Steel  Workers  of 
America. 

NATIONAL   URBAN  LEAGUE 

Intensifying  its  program  for  fuller  em- 
ployment of  Negroes,  the  National  Urban 
league  stressed  working  with  private 
industry,  organized  labor,  and  govern- 
ment agencies  to  secure  employment  for 
greater  numbers  of  Negroes  and  to  have 
them  employed  in  a  wider  variety  of  occu- 
pations. For  1949  the  League  reported 
that  it  had  succeeded  in  placing  261 
Negroes  in  industries  where  they  had  not 
been  previously  employed.  To  facilitate 
its  program  the  Urban  League  has  spon- 
sored Vocational  Opportunity  Week. 


11 

Income  and  Business 


IN  1949,  Emmer  Martin  Lancaster,  special 
adviser  on  Negro  Affairs  to  the  .Secretary 
of  Commerce,  made  a  survey  of  nine 
cities  for  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce to  ascertain  the  conditions  of  busi- 
ness and  employment  among  Negroes  in 
certain  metropolitan  areas.  His  itinerary 
included  Detroit,  New  York,  Cleveland, 
Chicago,  Atlanta,  Birmingham,  Baton 
Rouge,  Houston,  and  St.  Louis. 

Negro  groups  participating  in  the  sur- 
vey felt  that  while  World  War  II  in- 
creased the  opportunities  of  Negroes  to 
acquire  additional  wealth,  their  earning 
power  was  below  that  of  other  groups.  It 
was  also  noted  that  "employment  for  the 
Negro  is  marginal  in  character  and  the 
small  retailer  whose  principal  market 
source  is  the  Negro  laborer,  is  likewise  a 
a  marginal  businessman  unable  to  ac- 
cumulate reserves  to  meet  the  emergency 
of  an  economic  recession."1 

In  addition  to  the  fact  that  Negro  busi- 
nesses must  depend  largely  on  the  Negro 
worker,  Negroes  do  not  confine  their  pur- 
chasing to  Negro  businesses  alone,  but 
shop  in  the  market  at  large.  This  disper- 
sion of  funds,  while  beneficial  to  the  indi- 
vidual consumer,  is  an  additional  liability 
to  the  Negro  businessman. 

INCOME  STATISTICS 

In  1950,  the  annual  purchasing  power 
of  the  Negro  populace  reached  an  all- 
time  high  of  approximately  $15,000,000,- 
000.  In  the  Southeast  in  the  same  year, 
it  was  estimated  to  be  $3,500,000,000  a 
year.  In  this  region  it  barely  reached  the 
$1,000,000,000  mark  in  1939.  The  250% 
increase  since  before  World  War  II  is  all 


the  more  remarkable  in  view  of  the  7% 
drop  in  the  Negro  population  in  the 
Southeastern  states.2 

Despite  this  increase  in  buying  power, 
the  Negro  is  identified  with  most  of  the 
economic  problems  faced  by  the  poorest 
people  in  America.  His  low  income  is 
apparent  in  whatever  comparison  is  made 
between  whites  and  nonwhites,  whether 
in  urban  or  rural  areas,  as  indicated  by 
comparative  figures.  In  1939,  the  last  full 
year  before  the  World  War  II  defense 
boom,  the  median  wage  or  salary  income 
of  nonwhite  primary  families  and  indi- 
viduals, $489,  was  about  37%  that  of 
whites,  which  was  $1,325.  In  1949,  the 
figures  were  about  $1,533  and  $3,138,  re- 
spectively, the  nonwhite  wages  or  salaries 
being  49%  that  of  whites.  See  Table  1. 

Median  Income  by  Color  and  Sex, 
1939  and  1949:  Between  1939  and  1949 

(Continued  on  page  128) 

TABLE  1 

MEDIAN  WAGE  OR  SALARY  INCOME  OF 

PRIMARY  FAMILIES  AND  INDIVIDUALS  WITH 

WAGE  OR  SALARY  INCOME  FOR  U.S. 

1949  AND  1939 1 


Color 

Total 

Without 
Nonwage 
Income 

1949        1939 

1949        1939 

White  families 
and  individuals 
Nonwhite  families 
and  individuals 

$3,138     $1,325 
1,533          489 

$3,501     $1,409 
1,772          531 

1  "Primary  family"  refers  to  head  of  household 
and  all  other  persons  in  household  related  to  head 
by  blood,  marriage,  or  adoption.  If  there  is  no  per- 
son in  household  related  to  the  head,  then  the  head 
himself  constitutes  a  primary  individual  not  in  a 
family.  A  household  can  contain  only  one  primary 
family  or  individual.  "Primary  families  and  indi- 
viduals" is  used  with  same  meaning  as  "families" 
in  the  1940  Census. 

Source:  Cuirent  Population  Report,  Consumer 
Series  P-60,  No.  7,  p.  28,  Feb.  18,  1951. 


1  Lancaster,  Emmer  Martin,  The  Negro  in  Business — 7950  Review  and  Forecast,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Commerce. 

2  Sources :   Heyman,   Joseph   R.,   Southeastern    Business    Consultant,   Birmingham  News    (Ala.) ,   March   26,    1950 ; 
Joseph  V.  Baker  in  The  Inquirer,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  23,  1951. 


125 


126 


INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


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128 


INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


the  wages  or  salary  of  the  average  em- 
ployee more  than  doubled,  increasing 
from  about  $800  to  $2,000.  The  median 
for  white  males  increased  from  $1,112  to 
$2,735  and  that  for  nonwhite  males  in- 
creased from  $460  to  $1,367.  In  the  case 
of  females,  the  median  for  whites  in- 
creased from  $676  to  $1,615  and  that  for 
nonwhites  from  $246  to  $654.  See  Table  3. 

TABLE  3 

MEDIAN  WAGE  OR  SALARY  INCOME  OF 

PERSONS  14  YEARS  OF  AGE  AND  OVER 

FOR  U.S.  1949  AND  1939 


Both  Sexes 


Male 


Female 


Color         1949      1939      1949       1939       1949      1939 

White  $2,350    $956    $2,735    $1,112    $1,615    $676 

Nonwhite       1,064      364      1,367         460         654      246 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Current 
Population  Reports,  Series  P-60,  No.  7,  Feb.  18, 
1951. 


Median  Income  by  Regions,  1949:  The 
average  (median)  income  in  1949  of  the 


49,580,000  families  and  unrelated  indi- 
viduals in  the  United  States  was  $2,599. 
Approximately  16%  of  the  total  received 
incomes  of  $5,000  or  more,  whereas  39% 
had  incomes  under  $2,000. 

With  the  exception  of  the  South,  the 
median  income  received  by  families  and 
unrelated  individuals  in  1949  varied  little 
from  one  region  to  another.  That  for  the 
Northeast,  West,  and  North  Central  Re- 
gions, about  $2,900,  was  approximately 
50%  greater  than  the  median  for  the 
South,  which  was  $1,940.  The  relatively 
low  median  cash  income  for  the  South 
is  attributable  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
this  region  contains  a  greater  proportion 
of  farm  residents  who  typically  receive 
a  part  of  their  income  in  the  form  of 
goods  produced  and  consumed  on  the 
farm  rather  than  in  cash.  In  addition, 
the  South  contains  about  three-fifths  of 
the  nation's  nonwhite  families  and  unre- 
lated individuals,  whose  median  income 
was  only  about  one-half  that  received  by 


TABLE  4 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  FAMILIES  AND  UNRELATED  INDIVIDUALS  BY  TOTAL  MONEY  INCOME, 
BY  COLOR,  FOR  U.S.,  URBAN  AND  RURAL,  1949 


Total  Money 
Income 

Families  and  Unrelated 
Individuals 

Families 

Unrelated  Individuals 

Total 

White 

Non- 
white 

Total 

White 

Non- 
white 

Total 

White 

Non- 
white 

United  States 
Per  Cent 

Under  $500  .  . 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

9.9 

8.9 
8.1 
7.4 
7.5 
10.1 
10.0 
10.5 
8.2 
6.2 
4.9 
7.1 
4.2 
4.5 
2.4 
$2,905 

$3,235 
$2,564 
$1,624 

20.3 
19.0 
14.6 
13.0 
11.5 
7.5 
4.8 
2.8 
1.8 
1.3 
1.8 
0.9 
0.4 
0.2 
$1,364 

$1,661 

$982 
$635 

5.9 
6.2 
7.3 
7.6 
10.2 
10.4 
11.2 
8.8 
6.7 
5.3 
7.8 
4.8 
5.0 
2.6 
$3,107 

$3,486 
$2,763 
$1,587 

5.1 
5.3 
6.6 
7.1 
10.0 
10.5 
11.7 
9.3 
7.1 
5.6 
8.3 
5.1 
5.4 
2.8 
$3,232 

$3,619 
$2,851 
$1,757 

14.9 
16.0 
15.1 
13.5 
12.9 
9.2 
5.6 
3.7 
2.6 
1.9 
2.5 
1.3 
0.5 
0.3 
$1,650 

$2,084 
$1,240 
$691 

27.2 
21.6 
11.5 
9.8 
10.2 
7.0 
4.5 
2.9 
1.9 
1.1 
1.2 
0.3 
0.4 
0.3 
$1,050 

$1,278 
$573 
$500 

26.2 
20.8 
11.2 
9.4 
10.5 
7.7 
4.8 
3.3 
2.2 
1.3 
1.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
$1,134 

$1,399 
$641 
$559 

33.2 
26.2 
13.5 
11.9 
8.1 
3.4 
2.9 
0.8 

$819 
$904 
(') 
0) 

$500  to  $999  

9.1 

$1,000  to  $1,499.  .  . 
$1,500  to  $1,999.  .  . 

8.1 
8.0 

$2,000  to  $2,499  .  .  . 

10.2 

$2,500  to  $2,999.  .  . 

9.8 

$3,000  to  $3,499  .  .  . 
$3,500  to  $3,999.  .  . 

10.0 

7.7 

$4,000  to  $4,499  . 

5.8 

$4,500  to  $4,999  .  .  . 
$5,000  to  $5,999  .  .  . 
$6,000  to  $6,999 

4.5 
6.6 
3.9 

$7,000  to  $9,999  .  .  . 
$10,000  and  over... 
Median  income  .... 

4.2 
2.2 
.  .   $2,739 

Urban 
Median  income  .... 
Rural  Nonfarm 
Median  income  .  .  . 

.  .   $3,068 
.  .   $2,462 

Rural  Farm 
Median  income  .... 

.     $1  462 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Current  Population  Reports,  Series  P-60,  No.  7. 

1  Median  not  shown  where  there  were  fewer  than  100  cases  in  the  sample  reporting  on  income. 


INCOME  STATISTICS 


129 


all  families  and  individuals.  In  1949,  the 
median  income  of  nonwhite  southern  fami- 
lies and  unrelated  individuals  was  $995. 
See  Table  2. 

Income  By  Color,  Urban  and  Rural, 
1949:  There  is  evidence  that  the  economic 
position  of  nonwhites  relative  to  whites 
was  more  favorable  in  urban  than  in  rural 
areas.  One  of  the  reasons  for  the  differ- 
ential rate  of  migration  of  white  and  non- 
white  households  from  farm  to  nonfarm 
areas  may  be  the  relative  difference  in 
the  attractiveness  of  higher  city  incomes 
to  each  group.  Table  4  shows  that  the 
median  income  of  nonwhite  families  and 
individuals  residing  on  farms  was  only 
$635  as  compared  with  $1,661  for  those 
living  in  urban  areas.  For  white  families 
and  individuals  the  relative  difference  be- 
tween the  median  incomes  of  farm  and 
urban  residents,  $1,624  and  $3,235  re- 
spectively, was  not  so  great. 

The  ratio  of  the  income  of  white  fam- 
ilies to  that  of  nonwhite  families  is  higher 
in  farm  areas  than  in  urban  areas.  There 
is  some  evidence  that  the  greater  advan- 
tage of  white  families  in  farm  areas  is 
maintained  with  a  relatively  smaller  num- 
ber of  workers  per  family.  See  Table  4. 

Families  with  More  Than  One  Earner, 
by  Color  and  Residence,  1949:  In  each 
residence  group  about  half  of  the  non- 
white  families  had  more  than  one  earner, 
whereas  the  proportion  of  multi-earner 
families  among  whites  varied  from  about 
one-third  in  rural  areas  to  about  two- 
fifths  in  urban  areas.  Despite  the  fact  that 


TABLE  5 

FAMILIES  WITH  MORE  THAN  ONE  EARNER 
BY  COLOR  AND  RESIDENCE  FOR  U.S.,  1949 


Residence 

Per  cent 
White 

Per  cent 
Nonwhite 

Urban 
Rural  Nonfarm 
Rural  Farm 

41.0 
35.6 
33.4 

52.3 
53.6 
55.9 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Current 
Population  Reports,  Consumer  Income  Series  60, 
No.  7. 


proportionately  more  of  the  nonwhite  than 
of  the  white  population  was  engaged  in 
paid  work,  the  average  income  of  non- 
white  farm  families  was  about  half  that 
of  white  farm  families.  It  is  possible  that 
many  of  the  nonwhite  workers  had  paid 
employment  for  only  short  periods  during 
the  year.  More  important  is  the  concen- 
tration of  nonwhites  in  farm  areas  in 
low-paying  jobs.  See  Table  5. 

Income  by  Sex  and  Color,  Urban  and 
Rural,  1949:  In  the  case  of  both  male  and 
female  income  recipients,  the  median 
money  income  of  whites  was  about  twice 
that  of  nonwhites.  See  Table  6. 

Income  in  Metropolitan  Areas,  by 
Color,  1949:  In  eight  standard  metropoli- 
tan areas  in  1949,  the  low  level  of  the 
median  income  of  the  nonwhite  popula- 
tion may  be  noted  when  compared  with 
whites.  In  only  one  area,  that  of  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  was  the  median  income  of 
nonwhite  families  and  individuals  as 
much  as  60%  that  of  the  white  median 
income.  In  other  areas  it  was  less  than 
50%,  and  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  it  was  42%. 


TABLE  6 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  PERSONS  14  YEARS  OF  AGE  AND  OVER  BY  TOTAL  MONEY  INCOME, 
BY  SEX  AND  COLOR,  FOR  U.S.,  URBAN  AND  RURAL,  1949 


Male 

Female 

Non- 

Non- 

Total  Money  Income  Group 

Total 

White 

white 

Total 

White 

white 

United  States 

Median  income  for  persons  with  income 

$2,346 

52,471 

$1,196 

$    960 

$1,070 

$495 

Urban 

Median  income  for  persons  with  income 

2,684 

2,906 

1,575 

1,167 

1,288 

688 

Rural  Nonfarm 

Median  income  for  persons  with  income 

2,190 

2,250 

803 

681 

749 

348 

Rural  Farm 

Median  income  for  persons  with  income 

1,054 

1,194 

488 

392 

433 

290 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Current  Population  Reports,  Series  P-60,  No.  7. 


130 


INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


From  the  viewpoint  of  consumer  goods, 
the  purchasing  of  necessary  services,  and 
the  maintenance  of  certain  standards  of 
living,  this  difference  in  income  is  of 
the  utmost  significance.  See  Table  7. 

INSURANCE 

The  first  Negro  insurance  company,  the 
African  Insurance  Company,  started  in 
1810  in  Philadelphia  with  $5,000  capital. 
Since  then,  insurance  companies  have 
progressed  steadily. 

"One  of  the  chief  factors  in  a  consider- 
ation of  life  insurance  practices  so  far  as 
Negroes  are  concerned  has  been  the  rela- 
tively high  mortality  rate,  as  compared 
with  the  white  population." 1  However, 
with  the  raising  of  living  standards  among 
Negroes  has  come  better  health,  sani- 
tation, and  education.  These  in  turn  have 
produced  a  greater  life  expectancy. 

Some  of  the  hindrances  to  greater  ex- 
pansion of  Negro  insurance  companies 
seem  to  be:  (1)  lack  of  capital,  (2)  lack 
of  confidence  of  Negroes  in  the  com- 
panies, (3)  lack  of  trained  personnel. 

In  spite  of  these  factors,  insurance  is 
the  Negroes'  largest  business.  While  white 
companies  have  to  a  great  extent  equal- 
ized their  premiums  and  sought  Negro 
patronage,  Negro  companies  are  better 
able  to  attract  Negro  patronage  because 
they,  more  than  any  other  Negro  business, 
are  in  a  position  to  employ  Negroes  in 
large  numbers  in  white-collar  jobs  and  to 


render  substantial  services  to  Negro  com- 
munities with  the  money  obtained. 

The  writers  mentioned  above  conclude: 
"The  Negro  insurance  companies  repre- 
sented historically  the  outstanding  busi- 
ness efforts  to  obtain  independence  from 
the  white  economy.  They  are  important 
not  only  as  sources  of  employment  but 
as  a  constant  pressure  on  the  white  com- 
panies to  adopt  non-discriminatory  poli- 
cies, and  finally  as  a  means  of  placing 
Negro  spokesmen  in  positions  in  indus- 
try in  which  their  voices  will  be  heard." 

The  National  Negro 
Insurance  Association 

This  association  was  part  of  the  Na- 
tional Negro  Business  League  until 
1920.  It  became  a  separate  organization 
on  Aug.  19,  1921,  with  Charles  Clinton 
Spaulding  elected  as  president.  A  per- 
manent association  was  formed  in  October 
of  the  same  year  by  60  representatives  of 
13  companies.  On  Sept.  1,  1950,  a  na- 
tional office  was  set  up  at  433  Drexel 
Boulevard,  Chicago,  with  Murray  J. 
Marvin,  Jr.,  as  Executive  Director,  to 
direct  public  relations. 

"The  insurance  industry  has  become 
increasingly  concerned  over  the  campaign 
by  whjte  companies  to  invade  the  Negro 
insurance  market  for  new  business. 
Already  four  of  the  larger  white  com- 
panies have  employed  Negro  personnel 
and  one  company  has  a  regional  staff 
headed  by  a  competent  Negro  manager." a 


TABLE  7 

MEDIAN  INCOME  BY  COLOR  OF  FAMILIES  AND  INDIVIDUALS  IN  SELECTED  STANDARD 
METROPOLITAN  AREAS,  1949 


Area 

White 

Nonwhite 

Amount  White 
Greater  than 
Nonwhite 

Per  cent 
Nonwhite 
of   White 

Atlanta,  Ga  

$3  208 

•$1  343 

$1  865 

42  0 

Birmingham,  Ala  

3  285 

1  552 

1  733 

47  2 

Memphis,  Tenn  

3  085 

1  348 

1  737 

440 

Nashville,  Tenn  

2,811 

1  214 

l'597 

43.1 

New  Orleans,  La  

2  968 

1  423 

1  545 

48  0 

Norfolkr  Portsmouth,  Va  

2,842 

1  230 

1  612 

43  2 

Richmond,  Va  

3  466 

1  495 

1  971 

43  1 

Washington,  B.C.   . 

3  592 

2  152 

1  440 

60  0 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Preliminary  Reports,  Series  PC-5,  1950. 


1  Kinzer,  Robert,  and  Sagarin,  Edward,  The  Negro  in  American  Business,  New  York:  Greenberg,  1950. 

2  Source:  Lancaster,  Emmer  Martin,  op.  cit. 


INSURANCE 


131 


The  NNIA  conducts  annually  a  "Na- 
tional Negro  Insurance  Week"  and  "Na- 
tional Collection  Month,"  in  which  local 
member  companies  stress  the  importance 
of  insurance  in  the  life  of  the  individual. 
Other  work  of  the  Association  includes 
health  education,  an  Impairment  Bureau, 
which  is  a  central  listing  of  insurance 
applicants  not  accepted  as  risks  by  the 
companies,  and  the  publication  of  The 
Pilot,  a  quarterly,  giving  news,  informa- 
tion, and  trends  in  the  insurance  field. 
During  1950,  these  special  efforts  helped 
to  increase  the  total  insurance  in  force  of 
200  companies  well  beyond  the  billion 
dollar  mark.  More  than  5,000,000  policies 
have  been  issued  by  Negro  companies.1 

The  staff  strength  of  60  member  com- 
panies of  NNIA  in  1950  was:  field  em- 
ployees, 7,534;  home  office  employees, 
1,703. 

A  record  of  53  life  insurance  companies 
operated  by  Negroes  under  the  super- 
vision of  insurance  departments,  not  in- 
cluding burial  associations  or  fraternal 
orders,  for  the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1949, 
is  shown  in  Table  9. 

TABLE  8 

FINANCIAL  STRENGTH  OF  SIXTY  MEMBER 
COMPANIES,  NNIA,  1950 


Capital  and  Surplus  Funds .... 

Insurance  in  Force 

Assets 

Premium  Income 

Total  Income 

Benefit  Payments  to  Policy- 
holders  

Staff  Payroll 

Medical  Examinations  and  In- 
spection Fees 

Bonds 

Mortgage  Loans 


$      30,193,158.56 

1,287,216,075.10 

137,708,766.07 

54,409,366.62 

60,684,609.45 

13,742,016.88 
16,518,714.00 

275,000.00 
75,463,734.00 
27,491,928.00 


Source:    Murray  J.   Marvin,   Jr.,   Executive  Di- 
rector, NNIA. 

Membership  List 

National  Negro  Insurance  Association 
1951-52 

Afro-American  Life  Ins.  Co.,  101-105  E. 
Union  St.,  Jacksonville  1,  Fla. ;  James  H. 
Lewis,  Pres. ;  Ralph  B.  Stewart,  Sr.,  Secy. 

American  Woodmen,  The  Supreme  Camp, 
2100  Downing  St.,  Denver  5,  Colo.;  Law- 
rence H.  Lightner,  Supreme  Commander ; 
Harold  Jacobs,  Secy-Treas. 

i  Hid. 


Atlanta  Life  Ins.  Co.,  148  Auburn  Ave.,  N.E., 

Atlanta,  Ga. ;  N.  B.  Herndon,  Pres. ;  E.  M. 

Martin,  Secy. 
Beneficial  Life  Ins.  Soc.  of  the  U.  S.,  401  E. 

Warren  Ave.,  Detroit  1,  Mich. ;  Seward  S. 

Boyd,  Pres. ;  T.  S.  Howell,  Secy. 
Benevolent    Service    Ins.    Co.,    Inc.,    401    E. 

Union  St.,  Minden  4,  La.;  H.  D.  Wilson, 

Pres. ;  G.  L.  Smith,  Secy- Agency  Dir. 
Booker  T.  Washington  Ins.  Co.,  505^  N.  17th 

St.,  or  P.O.  Box  2621,  Birmingham  2,  Ala.; 

A.  G.  Gaston,  Pres. ;  L.  R.  Hall,  Secy. 
Bradford's  Funeral  Service,  Inc.,  1525  N.  7th 

Ave.  or  P.O.  Box  2015,  Birmingham  2, 
Ala.;  E.  A.  Bradford,  Pres.;  Mary  E. 
Williams,  Secy. 

Central  Life  Ins.  Co.  of  Florida,  1416  North 
Blvd.  or  P.O.  Box  3286,  Tampa  7,  Fla.; 
Dr.  Mary  McLeod  Bethune,  Pres. ;  Allen 
Jones,  Secy. 

Domestic  Life  &  Accident  Ins.  Co.,  601  W. 
Walnut  St.,  Louisville  3,  Ky. ;  W.  L.  San- 
ders, Pres. ;  R.  D.  Terry,  Secy. 

Douglas  Life  Ins.  Co.,  2203  Dryades  St.,  New 
Orleans  13,  La. ;  Joseph  M.  Bartholomew, 
Pres. ;  Mrs.  H.  G.  Bartholomew,  Secy. 

Dunbar  Life  Ins.  Co.,  7609  Euclid  Ave., 
Cleveland  3,  Ohio;  M.  C.  Clarke,  Pres.- 
Agency  Dir. ;  J.  C.  Wiggins,  Secy. 

Excelsior  Life  Ins.  Co.,  2600  Flora  St.,  Dallas 
4,  Tex. ;  A.  Prestwood,  Pres. ;  C.  E.  Jones, 
Secy. 

Federal  Life  Ins.  Co.,  717  Florida  Ave.,  N.W., 
Washington  2,  D.C. ;  Dr.  George  W.  White, 
Pres.-Medical  Dir. ;  C.  B.  Gilpin,  Secy. 

Fireside  Mutual  Ins.  Co.,  1183  E.  Long  St., 
Columbus  3,  Ohio ;  T.  K.  Gibson,  Sr.,  Pres.  ; 
R.  Black,  Secy. 

Friendship  Mutual  Ins.  Co.,  617  E.  Warren 
Ave.,  Detroit  1,  Mich. ;  Burton  A.  Fuller, 
Pres. ;  Mrs.  Bertha  Ida  Gordy,  Secy. 

Gertrude  Geddis  Willis  Industrial  Life  & 
Burial  Ins.  Co.,  Inc.,  2120-2128  Jackson 
Ave.,  New  Orleans  13,  La.;  Mrs.  Gertrude 
G.  Willis,  Pres.;  Floyd  A.  Talbert,  Secy- 
Gen.  Mgr. 

Golden  State  Mutual  Life  Ins.  Co.,  1999  W. 
Adams  Blvd.,  Los  Angeles  18,  Calif.;  Nor- 
man O.  Houston,  Pres. ;  Edgar  J.  Johnson, 
Secy-Treas. 

Good  Citizens  Life  Ins.  Co.,  1809  Dryades  St., 
New  Orleans  13,  La.;  James  A.  Holtry, 
Pres. ;  Clifton  H.  Denson,  Secy. 

Great  Lakes  Mutual  Life  Ins.  Co.,  82  E.  Han- 
cock Ave.,  Detroit  1,  Mich.;  Charles  H. 
Mahoney,  Pres. ;  Louis  C.  Blount,  Secy. 

Guaranty  Life  Ins.  Co.,  460  W.  Broad  St., 
Savannah,  Ga. ;  Walter  S.  Scott,  Pres. ; 

B.  C.  Ford,  Secy. 

Jackson  Mutual  Life  Ins.  Co.,  4636  South 
Parkway,  Chicago  15,  111.;  Leonard  J.  Liv- 
ingston, Pres. ;  Olive  H.  Crosthwait,  Secy. 

Keystone  Life  Ins.  Co.,  1503  St.  Bernard 
Ave.,  New  Orleans  16,  La. ;  A.  V.  German, 
Pres.-Agency  Dir. ;  Rudolph  Moses,  Secy. 

Lighthouse  Life  Ins.  Co.,  1209  Pierre  Ave., 
Shreveport,  La. ;  Bishop  F.  L.  Lewis,  Pres. ; 
Rev.  J.  C.  Anderson,  Secy. 

Lincoln  Industrial  Ins.  Co.,  1801  Ave.  C, 
Ensley  Station,  Birmingham,  Ala. ;  L.  W. 
Stallworth,  Sr.,  Pres.;  L.  W.  Stallworth, 
Jr.,  Secy. 

(Continued  on  page  134) 


132 


INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


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INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


Louisiana  Life  Ins.  Co.,  2107  Dryades  St., 
New  Orleans  13,  La.;  Dr.  Rivers  Frederick, 
Pres. ;  M.  B.  Vining,  Secy. 

Mammoth  Life  &  Accident  Ins.  Co.,  606-608 
W.  Walnut  St.,  Louisville  3,  Ky. ;  Robert 
Holloman,  Pres.;  Mrs.  Hilda  H.  Price, 
Secy. 

Metropolitan  Funeral  System  Assn.,  675  Mack 
Ave.,  Detroit  1,  Mich. ;  Charles  C.  Diggs, 
Jr.,  Pres. ;  Carter  Jones,  Secy. 

Metropolitan  Mutual  Assurance  Co.  of  Chica- 
go, 4455  South  Parkway,  Chicago  15,  111.; 
Robert  A.  Cole,  Pres. ;  H.  G.  Hall,  Secy. 

Monarch  Life  Ins.  Co.,  2715  Daneel  St.,  New 
Orleans  13,  La.;  Dave  A.  Dennis,  Pres.; 
Avery  C.  Alexander,  Secy. 

National  Service  Industrial  Life  Ins.  Co., 
1716  N.  Claiborne  Ave.,  New  Orleans  16, 
La. ;  Duplain  Rhodes,  Jr.,  Pres. ;  Donald 
E.  Ramseur,  Secy. 

North  Carolina  Mutual  Life  Ins.  Co.,  114  Par- 
rish  St.  or  P.O.  Box  201  Durham,  N.  C.  ; 
C.  C.  Spaulding,  Pres. ;  W.  J.  Kennedy,  Jr., 
Secy. 

Peoples  Ins.  Co.,  Inc.,  550  St.  Michael  St., 
Mobile  10,  Ala.;  L.  A.  Hall,  Sr.,  Pres.; 
L.  A.  Hall,  Jr.,  Secy. 

People's  Life  Ins.  Co.  of  La.,  901-907  N. 
Claiborne  Ave.,  New  Orleans  16,  La. ;  H. 
J.  Christophe,  Pres. ;  B.  Johnson,  Secy. 

Pilgrim  Health  &  Life  Ins.  Co.,  1143  Gwin- 
nett  St.  or  P.O.  Box  904,  Augusta,  Ga.; 
Dr.  S.  W.  'Walker,  Pres. ;  A.  M.  Carter, 
Secy. 

Protective  Industrial  Ins.  Co.  of  Ala.,  Inc., 
237  Graymont  Ave.,  N.,  or  P.O.  Box  528, 
Birmingham  4,  Ala.;  V.  L.  Harris,  Pres.; 
Mrs.  M.  H.  Davis,  Secy. 

Provident  Home  Industrial  Mutual  Life  Ins. 
Co.,  731  S.  Broad  St.,  Philadelphia  47, 
Pa. ;  Joseph  A.  Faison,  Pres. ;  Lucinda  B. 
Mackrey,  Secy. 

The  Richmond  Beneficial  Ins.  Co.,  700  N. 
Second  St.,  Richmond  19,  Va. ;  J.  Edward 
Harris,  Pres. ;  C.  Bernard  Gilpin,  Secy. 

The  Right  Worthy  Grand  Council,  Indepen- 
dent Order  of  St.  Luke,  902-04  St.  James 
St.,  Richmond  20,  Va. ;  Miss  Gertrude  C. 
Sharpe,  R.  W.  G.  Chief ;  Mrs.  Hattie  N.  F. 
Walker,  R.  W.  G.  Secy. 

Safety  Industrial  Life  Ins.  &  Sick  Benefit 
Assn.,  Inc.,  1128  Claiborne  Ave.,  New  Or- 
leans 16,  La. ;  Robert  Vaucresson  Pres.  • 
N.  H.  Burleigh,  Secy. 

The  Security  Life  Ins.  Co.,  P.O.  Box  1549, 
Jackson  112,  Miss.;  Dr.  L.  T.  Burbridge, 
Pres.;  W.  H.  Williams,  Secy-Agency  Dir. 

Southern  Aid  Life  Ins.  Co.,  Inc.,  214  E 
Clay  St.,  Richmond,  19,  Va. ;  James  T. 
Carter,  Pres. ;  W.  A.  Jordan,  Secy. 

Southern  Life  Ins.  Co.,  1841  Pennsylvania 
Ave.,  Baltimore  17,  Md.;  Willard  W.  Allen, 
Pres. ;  W.  Emerson  Brown,  Secy. 

Standard  Industrial  Life  Ins.  Co.,  1530  N. 
Claiborne  Ave.,  New  Orleans  16,  La. ;  W 
G.  Carradine,  Pres.;  Mrs.  W.  Sazon  Dor- 
sey,  Secy-Treas. 

St.  John  Berchman's  Industrial  Life  Ins.  Co., 
1125  N.  Claiborne  Ave.,  New  Orleans  16 
La.;  Dr.  J.  O.  Sheffield,  Pres.-Medical 
Dir. ;  Mrs.  Bonita  L.  Nelson,  Secy. 

Superior  Life  Ins.  Soc.  of  Mich.,  319  E.  Kirby 
Ave.,  Detroit  2,  Mich.;  John  W.  Roxbor- 
ough,  Pres. ;  Cohen  W.  White,  Secy 


Supreme  Industrial  Life  Ins.  Co.,  1433  N. 
Claiborne  Ave.,  New  Orleans  15,  La.;  Dr. 
Raleigh  C.  Coker,  Pres.-Medical  Dir. ;  Gus- 
tave  C.  Chapilta,  Jr.,  Secy. 

Supreme  Liberty  Life  Ins.  Co.,  3501  South 
Parkway,  Chicago  15,  111.;  T.  K.  Gibson, 
Sr.,  Pres. ;  W.  Ellis  Stewart,  Secy. 

Union  Mutual  Life,  Health  &  Accident  Ins. 
Co.,  N.E.  Corner  20th  &  Master  Sts.,  Phila- 
delphia 21,  Pa.;  M.  T.  Somerville,  Pres.; 
J.  Robert  Saxon,  Secy. 

Union  Protective  Assurance  Co.,  368  Beale 
Ave.,  Memphis  3,  Tenn. ;  Lewis  H.  Twigg, 
Pres. ;  E.  R.  Kirk,  Secy-Treas. 

Unity  Burial  Ass.,  506  St.  Michael  St.,  Mo- 
bile 10,  Ala.;  A.  L.  Herman,  Pres.;  D.  L. 
Moore,  Secy. 

Unity  Mutual  Life  Ins.  Co.,  4719-4721  S. 
Indiana  Ave., -Chicago  15,  111.;  A.  W.  Wil- 
liams, Pres. ;  Mrs.  L.  E.  James,  Secy. 

Universal  Life  Ins.  Co.,  480  Linden  Ave., 
Memphis  1,  Tenn.;  Dr.  J.  E.  Walker, 
Pres. ;  A.  Maceo  Walker,  Secy. 

Victory  Industrial  Life  Ins.  Co.,  2019  Lou- 
isiana Ave.,  New  Orleans  15,  La. ;  Dr.  J. 
E.  Simms,  Pres.-Medical  Dir. ;  Mrs.  Essie 
Simms,  Secy. 

Victory  Mutual  Life  Ins.  Co.,  5601  S.  State 
St.,  Chicago  21,  111. ;  Dr.  P.  M.  H.  Savory, 
Pres. ;  Bishop  R.  A.  Valentine,  Secy. 

Virginia  Mutual  Benefit  Life  Ins.  Co.,  214  E. 
Clay  St.,  Richmond  19,  Va. ;  Booker  T. 
Bradshaw,  Pres. ;  Clarence  L.  Townes,  Sr., 
Secy-Agency  Dir. 

Watchtower  Life  Ins.  Co.,  P.O.  Box  2097 
Houston  1,  Tex.;  Charles  A.  Shaw,  Exec. 
V-Pres. ;  L.  B.  Bickham,  Secy. 

Winston  Mutual  Life  Ins.  Co.,  1100  E.  llth 
St.,  Winston-Salem  4,  N.  C.;  G.  W.  Hill, 
Pres. ;  E.  E.  Hill,  Secy. 

Wright  Mutual  Ins.  Co.,  4808  Beaubien  St., 
Detroit  1,  Mich.;  D.  O.  Wright,  Pres.;  R. 
O.  Bradby,  Jr.,  Secy. 


Underwriters'  Associations 
1951-52 

Akron  Ins.  Council,  39J^  N.  Howard  St., 
Akron  8,  Ohio ;  Carlton  Conley,  Pres. ; 
Mrs.  Veronica  Myricks,  Secy. 

Chicago  Negro  Ins.  Ass.,  4636  South  Park- 
way, Chicago  15,  111.;  V.  L.  Burnett,  Pres.; 
Mrs.  Olive  H.  Crosthwait,  Secy. 

Ins.  Mgr.'s  Ass.  of  D.C.,  1736  Vermont  Ave., 
N.W.,  Washington  9,  D.C. ;  William  M. 
Goines,  Pres.;  Mrs.  Erma  W.  Shamwell, 
Secy. 

The  Ins.  Mgrs.'  Council  of  Cleveland,  2321 
E.  55th  St.,  Cleveland  4,  Ohio;  Fred  S. 
Moore,  Pres. ;  Charles  H.  Porter,  Secy. 

Lexington  Negro  Underwriters'  Ass.,  P.O. 
Box  397,  Lexington,  Ky.;  Mrs.  V.  B.  Gar- 
ner, Pres. ;  Miss  R.  M.  Martin,  Secy. 

Maryland  Mgrs.'  Ass.,  706  N.  Gay  St.,  Balti- 
more 2,  Md. ;  Theodore  Kess,  Pres.;  John 
L.  Berry,  Secy. 

New  Orleans  Mgrs.'  Council,  1765  N.  Tonti 
St.,  New  Orleans  19,  La.;  Eugene  Lee, 
Pres.,  Norey  J.  Smith,  Jr.,  Secy. 

Newport  News  Negro  Underwriters  Ass., 
P.O.  Box  562,  Newport  News,  Va. ;  A.  D. 
Manning,  Pres.;  Mrs.  Roberta  Langford, 
Secy. 


BANKS 


135 


South    Carolina   Negro    Ins.   Ass.,    P.O.    Box 

778,  Columbia,  S.C.;  J.  C.  Shavers,  Pres.; 

St.  Clair  Robinson,  Secy. 
Underwriters'  Ass.  of  Md.,  1430  Pennsylvania 

Ave.,    Baltimore    17,    Md. ;    A.    M.    Jones, 

Pres.  •   Inez  Lonesome,   Secy. 
West   Side   Underwriters   Ass.,    1705    Banker 

Place,   Dayton   4,   Ohio ;    Robert  Patterson, 

Pres.;  A.  E.  Baity,  Secy. 

BANKS 

According  to  J.  H.  Wheeler,  president  of 
the  National  Bankers  Association,  14 
banks  owned  and  operated  by  Negroes 
had  combined  resources  of  approximately 
$35,000,000  in  1950.  At  the  end  of  that 
year  they  were  serving  approximately 
110,000  depositors. 

At  their  1950  meeting,  the  National 
Bankers  Association  stressed  the  prob- 
lems of  rising  operating  costs.  Special 
consideration  was  given  to  the  limited 
sources  of  finance  available  for  Negroes 
in  business  and  the  assistance  which 
might  be  forthcoming  from  Negro  bank- 
ing institutions. 


Perhaps  more  than  any  other  factor  in  im- 
peding the  success  of  Negro  banking  attempts 
was  the  scarcity  of  prosperous  business  enter- 
prises in  other  fields  of  industry  upon  which 
to  base  a  Negro  bank.  Thus,  the  American 
Negro  was  caught  ...  in  a  vicious  circle.  On 
the  one  hand,  he  needed  banks  to  help  estab- 
lish successful  businesses,  and  on  the  other  he 
lacked  the  successful  businesses  upon  which 
to  base  a  banking  industry.1 

That  these  banks  are  becoming  strong 
enough  to  assist  other  businesses  is  sig- 
nificant from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
development  of  businesses  by  Negroes. 

The  financial  institutions  in  Table  10 
point  the  way  to  what  is  being  done  in 
maintaining  sound  banking  practices. 
They  also  assist  Negroes  in  their  business 
life,  as  well  as  in  their  personal  life,  and 
encourage  thrift  as  a  means  of  obtaining 
security. 

The  Bankers  Fire  Insurance  Company: 
At  its  annual  meeting  in  March  1951,  at 
Durham,  N.C.,  the  report  of  the  Bankers 
Fire  Insurance  Company  for  1950,  its 
thirtieth  year  of  existence,  showed  a  total 


TABLE  10 
NEGRO  BANKS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1951 


Name  and  Location 


Executive  Officers 


The  Carver  Savings  Bank L.  B.  Toomer,  Pres. 

Savannah,  Ga.  L.  D.  Perry,  Cashier 

Citizens  Savings  Bank  &  Trust  Co Henry  A.  Boyd,  Pres. 

Nashville,  Tenn.  M.  G.  Ferguson,  Exec.  V-Pres. 

Miss  H.  L.  Jordan,  Cashier 

Citizens  &  Southern  Bank  &  Trust  Co E.  C.  Wright,  Pres. 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  Mrs.  Harriett  W.  Lemon,  Treas. 

Citizens  Trust  Co L.  D.  Milton,  Pres. 

Atlanta,  Ga.  J.  B.  Blayton,  Cashier 

Consolidated  Bank  &  Trust  Co F.  C.  Burke,  Pres. 

Richmond,  Va.  W.  S.  Banks,  Sec-Treas. 

Crown  Savings  Bank .  . . Leroy  F.  Ridley,  Pres. 

Newport  News,  Va. 

Danville  Savings  Bank  &  Trust  Co I.  W.  Taylor,  Pres. 

Danville,  Va.  M.  C.  Martin,  Exec.  V-Pres.,  Cashier 

Douglass  State  Bank H.  W.  Ewing,  Pres. 

Kansas  City,  Kans.  E.  C.  Ewing,  Cashier 

Farmers  State  Bank Forest  Anderson,  Pres. 

Boley,  Okla.  M.  W.  Lee,  Cashier 

Fraternal  Bank  &  Trust  Co William  McDonald,  Pres. 

Fort  Worth,  Tex.  I.  P.  Anderson,  Exec.  V-Pres.,  Cashier 

Industrial  Bank  of  Washington Jessie  H.  Mitchell,  Pres. 

Washington,  D.C.  Mervin  O.  Parker,  Cashier 

Mechanics  &  Farmers  Bank C.  C.  Spaulding,  Pres. 

Durham,  N.C.  f.  H.  Wheeler,  Exec.  V-Pres.,  Cashier 

Tri-State  Bank  of  Memphis Dr.  J.  E.  Walker,  Pres. 

Memphis,  Tenn. 

Victory  Savings  Bank E.  A.  Adams,  Pres. 

Columbia,  S.C.  E.  W.  Vance,  Cashier 

Source:  The  Modem  Fanner,  Aug.  15,  1951. 


1  Kinzei  and  Sagarin,  op.  cit. 


136 


INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


of  $304,173.35  as  assets,  against  $17,- 
353.55  as  liabilities.  Of  significance  is  the 
fact  that  to  cover  the  liabilities,  the  com- 
pany owned  "quick"  assets  amounting  to 
$203,681.74,  or  a  ratio  of  $11  in  assets 
to  every  $1  in  liabilities.  During  the  year, 
a  total  of  $170,085.99  from  premium 
writing  and  $78,984.19  in  paid  loss  claims 
were  reported.  The  company,  in  the 
meanwhile,  announced  its  twentieth  distri- 
bution of  dividends,  bring  the  dividend 
payments  to  $112,822.1 

SAVINGS  AND  LOAN 
ASSOCIATIONS2 

As  of  Dec.  31,  1949,  Negro  savings  and 
loan  associations  in  the  United  States, 
operating  in  12  states,  were  worth  $16,- 
404,918.  They  grew  45.27%  over  the  1948 
total.  First  mortgage  loans  totaling  $14,- 
015,905  constituted  85.42%  of  all  assets 
and  exceeded  the  previous  year's  record 
by  a  gain  of  41.56%.  The  greatest  in- 
crease in  all  their  operations  was  regis- 
tered in  volume  of  cash  and  government 
obligations,  which  aggregated  $1,774,321, 
an  excess  of  120.8%  beyond  last  year. 

Liabilities  and  Share  Capital:  The 
growing  volume  of  savings  capital  and 
shareholders  accounts,  which  amounted 
to  $13,088,262,  was  a  significant  feature 
of  the  operations  for  1949.  This  capital 
sum  exceeded  the  past  year's  total  by 
$4,607,742,  or  54.37%,  and  directly  in- 
fluenced  the  decline  of  13.52%  in  the 
Federal  Home  Loan  Bank  System.  Com- 
bined reserves  and  undivided  profits  of 
$1,146,181  advanced  34.45%  during  the 
year. 

Statement  of  Operations:  The  gross 
operating  income  of  24  reporting  asso- 
ciations for  the  year  1949  was  $838,902; 
gross  operating  expenses,  $334,927;  and 
net  income,  after  interest  and  other 
charges,  $477,288.  Of  the  net  income, 
dividend  distributions  amounted  to  $311,- 
397;  reserves  and  undivided  profits  to 
$165,891. 


Although  the  dollar  volume  of  net  in- 
come increased  during  the  year,  the  per- 
centage ratio  of  net  income  to  gross  in- 
come dropped  approximately  6%.  This 
decline  is  directly  traceable  to  the  con- 
stant rise  in  operating  expenses — 39.88% 
—for  1949,  as  against  33.93%  for  1948. 

FHLB  System  Members 

During  1949,  three  new  associations 
were  admitted  to  membership  in  the 
Federal  Home  Loan  Bank  System:  the 
Carver  Federal  Savings  and  Loan  Asso- 
ciation of  New  York,  the  Trans-Bay  Fed- 
eral Savings  and  Loan  Association  of  San 
Francisco,  and  the  Watts  Savings  and 
Loan  Association  of  Los  Angeles.  Fifteen 
associations  are  members  of  the  FHLB 
System,  five  institutions  have  been  Feder- 
ally chartered  by  the  FHLB  Board,  and 
13  associations  are  members  of  the  Fed- 
eral Savings  and  Loan  Insurance  Cor- 
poration, a  government  agency  which  in- 
sures savers'  funds  up  to  $10,000. 

The  1949  record  of  FHLB  System  mem- 
bers, as  compared  with  non-member  asso- 
ciations, is  one  of  the  most  outstanding 
accomplishments  of  the  savings  and  loan 
industry.  Although  they  comprise  only 
60%  of  the  25  associations,  they  represent 
93.5%  of  the  total  asset  volume,  97%  of 
combined  cash  and  government  obliga- 
tions, 93%  of  first  mortgage  loans,  ap- 
proximately 94%  of  savings  capital,  and 
88.6%  of  total  reserves  and  undivided 
profits. 

This  progress  record  is  attributable  to 
the  lending  facilities  and  supervisory  as- 
sistance of  the  Bank  System,  as  well  as 
the  confidence  which  the  Negro  saver  has 
developed  in  the  integrity  of  Negro  asso- 
ciation officials  and  the  protective  regula- 
tions of  Federal  thrift  and  home  finance 
agencies. 

The  American  Savings 
and  Loan  League 

This  organization  was  formed  Nov.  12- 
13,  1948,  to  explore  the  possibilities  of 


1  Source :  The  Pittsburgh  Courier,  March  24,  1951. 

2  Source:  Savings  and  Loan  Associations  Owned  and  O&TOted  by  Negroes,  Fourth  Report,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Commerce, 
Washington,  D.C.,  January  1951. 


CREDIT  UNIONS 


137 


new  construction  and  to  formulate  plans 
for  adequate  mortgage  financing  of  dwell- 
ings and  housing  projects  for  Negro  occu- 
pancy, due  to  the  acute  housing  situation 
among  Negroes.  Thirteen  associations  are 
members  of  the  League,  which  includes 
among  its  objectives  the  formation  of  new 
associations  operated  by  Negroes  and  the 
expansion  of  its  program  of  service  to  all 
minority  groups. 

CREDIT  UNIONS 

In  September  1951,  at  least  102  credit 
unions  chartered  under  state  and  Federal 
laws  were  operated  by  Negroes  in  26 
states.  North  Carolina  had  30  of  these 
organizations,  Louisiana  followed  with  19, 
Texas  had  5,  Missouri  5,  and  Virginia, 
Oklahoma,  New  York,  and  Kansas  4  each. 
There  were  3  in  Alabama,  California,  and 
Ohio,  2  each  in  West  Virginia,  Michigan, 
and  Maryland,  and  1  each  in  Arkansas, 
Florida,  Georgia,  Illinois,  Kentucky, 
Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  Mississippi, 


New  Jersey,   Pennsylvania,  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Tennessee. 

By  types,  these  credit  unions  are  not 
confined  to  any  particular  group.  They 
exist  among  teachers,  churches,  schools 
and  colleges,  farmers,  insurance  com- 
panies, the  NAACP,  and  other  community 
organizations. 

Credit  Unions  Serving  Negroes,  1951  ' 

Alabama 

Mobile  County  Teachers  Fed.  C.  U.,  Mobile 
Montgomery    District    Fed.    C.    U.,    Mont- 
gomery 

Tuskegee    Institute   Fed.    C.    U.,   Tuskegee 
Institute 

MWKD  Fed.  U.,  Grand  Council  of  Free- 
masons, Little  Rock 
California 

Acme  Household  C.  U.,  Berkeley 
First  A.M.E.  Church  Fed.  C.  U.,  Los  An- 
geles 

Sacramento  NAACP  C.  U.,  Sacramento 
Florida 

Railway  Express  Colored  Employees  C.  U., 

Jacksonville 
Georgia 

Bibb  Professional  Teachers  C.  U.,  Macon 
Illinois 

Carver  Center  C.  U.,  Galesburg 


TABLE  11 
TOTAL  ASSETS  24  SAVINGS  AND  LOAN  ASSOCIATIONS 


Associations 


Total 

Assets 


Atlanta  Mutual  Building,  Loan  &  Savings  Ass.,  Atlanta,  Ga $1,064,924 

The  Berean  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Philadelphia,  Pa 1,209,597 

Berkley  Citizens  Mutual  Building  &  Loan  Ass.,  Inc.,  Norfolk,  Va 355,899 

Broadway  Federal  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 3,123,534 

Calvary  Building  &  Loan  Ass.,  Philadelphia,  Pa 94,607 

Carver  Federal  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  New  York,  N.Y 829,219 

Community  Building-Loan  Ass.,  Norfolk,  Va 20,747 

Columbia  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Milwaukee,  Wis 793,443 

East  End  Investment  &  Loan  Ass.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 172,250 

Eighth  Ward  Settlement  Building  &  Loan  Ass.,  Philadelphia,  Pa 62,752 

Home  Federal  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Detroit,  Mich 384,932 

Homeseekers  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Kansas  City,  Mo 22,637 

Illinois  Federal  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Chicago,  111 2,264,765 

Imperial  Building  &  Loan  Ass.,  Inc.,  Martinsville,  Va ' 37,863 

Industrial  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 254,820 

Liberty  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 1,810,524 

Magic  City  Building  &  Loan  Ass.,  Inc.,  Roanoke,  Va 160,674 

Morgan  Park  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Chicago,  111 57,806 

Mutual  Building  &  Loan  Ass.,  Durham,  N.C 1,351,859 

251,376 

725,920 

253,594 

277,439 

641,174 

182,563 


New  Age  Building  &  Loan  Ass.,  St.  Louis,  Mo 

Peoples  Building  &  Loan  Ass.,  Hampton,  Va 

Trans-Bay  Federal  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  San  Francisco,  Calif. 

Tuskegee  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Tuskegee  Institute,  Ala 

Watts  Savings  &  Loan  Ass.,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Zoar  Community  Building  &  Loan  Ass.,  Philadelphia,  Pa 


TOTAL 516,404,918 

Source:  Savings  and  Loan  Associations  Operated  by  Negroes,  Fourth  Report,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Commerce, 
January  1951. 


1  Source:  Credit  Union  National  Association,  Inc.,  Thomas  W.  Doig,  Managing  Director. 


138 


INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


Kansas 

Barton    County    Branch    NAACP    C.    U., 

Great  Bend 

First  C.  U.,  Parsons  Branch  NAACP,  Par- 
sons 

NAACP  C.  U.,  Wichita 
Topeka  Branch  C.  U.,  Topeka 
Kentucky 

15th  St.  Memorial  C.  U.,  Louisville 
Louisiana 

Bossier  Chamber  of  Commerce  Fed.  C.  U., 

Benton 

Calliope  Project  C.  U.,  New  Orleans 
East   Baton   Rouge   Teachers   Fed.   C.   U., 

Baton   Rouge 

Grambling  Fed.  C.  U.,  Grambling 
LaFitte  C.  U.,  New  Orleans 
Local   101   Industrial  Insurance  Agents  C. 

U.,  New  Orleans 

Louisiana    Industrial    Life    Insurance    Em- 
ployees, C.  U.,  New  Orleans 
Magnolia  Project  C.  U.,  New  Orleans 
Nakatosk  Fed.  C.  U.,  Natchitoches 
Our  Mother  of  Mercy  Fed.  C.  U.,  Rayne 
People  C.  U.,  New  Orleans 
St.  Catherine's  Arnoudville  Fed.  C.  U.,  Ar- 

noudville 

St.  James  Fed.  C.  U.,  Alexandria 
St.  Thomas  Parish  Fed.  C.  U.,  Davant 
Supreme   Insurance   Co.   Employees   C.  U., 

New  Orleans 
Terrebonne    Parents    &    Teachers    C.    U., 

Houma 

Twin  City  Teachers  Fed.  C.  U.,  Monroe 
Washington     Parish    Teachers    &    Parents 

Fed.  C.  U.,  Franklinton 
West  Baton  Rouge  Parish  Parents  &  Teach- 
ers Fed.  C.  U.,  Port  Allen 
Maryland 

Ambrosia  Fed.  C.  U.,  Baltimore 
Laurel  Community  Fed.  C.  U.,  Laurel 
Massachusetts 

Mystic  Valley  Fed.  C.  U.,  Boston 
Michigan 

Ebenezer  A.M.E.  Church  C.  U.,  Detroit 
Memorial  Fed.  C.  U.,  Benton  Harbor 
Minnesota 

Associated  Negro  C.  U.,  Minneapolis 
Mississippi 

Picayune  Fed.  C.  U.,  Picayune 
Missouri 

Elleardsville  C.  U.,  St.  Louis 

Lincoln  Univ.,  Fed.  C.  U.,  Jefferson  City 

St.  Louis  Area  A  C.  U.,  St.  Louis 

Negro  Employees  C.  U.,  Kansas  City 

Southeast,   Mo.   Negro   Professional   C.  U., 

Caruthersville 
New  Jersey 

St.  James  A.M.E.  C.  U.,  Newark 
New  York 

Abyssinia  Baptist  Church  Fed.  C.  U.,  New 

York 

Bethel  A.M.E.  Fed.  C.  U.,  Buffalo 
Caldwell  Fed.  C.  U.,  Bronx 
Carver  Fed.  C.  U.,  White  Plains 
North  Carolina 

Asheville  Buncombe  C.  U.,  Asheville 
Atlantic  C.  U.,  Rocky  Mount 
Bright  Leaf  C.  U.,  Ayden 
Brown  Memorial  C.  U.,  Winton 
Cabarrus  County  C.  U.,  Concord 
Camden  C.  U.,  Belcross 
Carver  Creek  C.  U.,  Councils 
Caswell  C.  U.,  Yanceyville 


North  Carolina  (cent.) 

Cherrytown  C.  U.,  Charlotte 
Chicod  C.  U.,  Grimesland 
Compact  C.  U.,  Kings  Mountain 
Cumberland  County  Negro  Teachers  C.  U., 
Fayetteville 

Dan  River  C.  U.,  Leaksville 
Douglas  High   School  Farm  C.  U.,  Lawn- 
dale 

Edgecombe  Farmers  Coop.  C.  U.,  Tarboro 
Farmers  &  Veterans  C.  U.,  Fuquay  Springs 
Granville  C.  U.,  Oxford 
Hertford  County  Guide  C.  U.,  Como 
Joint  County  C.  U.,  Powellsville 
Lincoln  Academy  Community  C.  U.,  Kings 

Mountain 

Pasquotank  C.  U.,  Elizabeth  City 
Perquimas  C.  U.,  Hertford 
Roanoke  Chowan  C.  U.,  Rich  Square 
Roanoke  C.  U.,  Welden 
Roper  C.  U.,  Roper 
School  Workers  Fed.  C.  U.,  Charlotte 
Square  Deal  C.  U.,  Scranton 
Warren  County  C.  U.,  Warrenton 
Wilson  County  C.  U.,  Wilson 
Zebulon  C.  U.,  Zebulon 
Ohio 

Cleveland  Tuskegee  Alumni   C.  U.,  Cleve- 
land 

NAACP  C.  U.,  Youngstown 
State  College  Fed.  C.  U.,  Wilberforce 
Oklahoma 

Creek  Farmers  Fed.  C.  U.,  Bristow 

Okla.    Negro    Teachers    C.    U.,    Oklahoma 

City 

Seminole  County  C.  U.,  Wewoka 
Tulsa  Negro  Teachers  C.  U.,  Tulsa 
,  Pennsylvania 

Lincoln   Park  Residents  Fed.  C.  U.,  Pitts- 
burgh 
South  Carolina 

Richland    Teachers    Council    Fed.    C.    U., 

Columbia 
Tennessee 

Foote  Homes  Fed.  C.  U.,  Memphis 
Texas 

Baptist  People  Fed.  C.  U.,  Victoria 
Dallas  Negro  Teachers  C.  U.,  Dallas 
Galveston  Negro  Chamber  of  Commerce  C. 

U.,  Galveston 

McDonald  College  C.  U.,  Fort  Worth 
Texas  State  Univ.  Fed.  C.  U.,  Houston 
Virginia 

A.F.L.    Local    209    Richmond   Fed.    C.    U., 

Richmond 

A.F.L.  216  Richmond  Fed.  C.  U.,  Richmond 
Norfolk  Teachers  Ass.  Fed.  C.  U.,  Norfolk 
Salem  Community  Fed.  C.  U.,  Salem 
West  Virginia 

Lakin  Fed.  C.  U.,  Lakin 
The  Weirton  Progressive  Fed.  C.  U.,  Weir- 
ton 

Federal  Credit  Unions,  1942  and  1950: 
In  1942,  83%  of  all  Federal  credit  unions 
chartered  were  operating;  for  Negroes, 
80%.  All  Federal  credit  unions  canceled 
and  inoperative  during  the  same  year 
amounted  to  17%;  for  Negroes,  14%. 
For  all  Federal  credit  unions,  the  per- 
centage of  actual  to  potential  member- 


CREDIT  UNIONS 


139 


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Membership 
Potential  
Artnal  .  . 

Percentage  actual  to  p 
Average  No.  members 
Total  Assets  

Loan  Statistics 
Total  loans  outstandin 
Current  loans  
Delinquent  2  or  more1 
Legal  reserve  for  bad  loa 

Special  reserve  for  delinq 
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amount  loaned  .  .  .  . 

Share  Statistics 
Total  shareholdings  .  .  , 
Average  holdings  per  ] 
Average  holdings  per  i 

Source:  Bureau  of  Federal 
1  Includes  military  loans. 

140 


INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


ship  was  35%;  for  Negroes,  30%.  Cur- 
rent loans  for  all  of  these  unions  were 
84%;  Negro  Federal  credit  union  loans 
were  80%.  All  loans  delinquent  for  two 
months  or  more  amounted  to  16%;  for 
Negro  credit  unions,  this  delinquency  was 
20%.  All  Federal  credit  unions  and 
Federal  credit  unions  among  Negroes  had 
the  same  percentage  of  charge-offs  to 
amounts  loaned,  0.08%  in  1942. 

In  1950,  the  picture  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent. For  that  year,  71%  of  all  Federal 
credit  unions  chartered  were  operating; 
while  for  the  Negro  credit  unions,  80% 
were  operating.  All  Federal  credit  unions 
canceled  and  inoperative  during  the  same 
year  were  29%;  for  Negroes,  20%.  For 
all  Federal  credit  unions,  the  percentage 
of  actual  to  potential  membership  was 
39%;  for  Negroes,  24%.  Current  loans 
for  all  Federal  credit  unions  amounted  to 
94% ;  Negro  Federal  credit  unions  loans 
were  86%.  All  Federal  credit  unions  had 
only  6%  of  their  loans  delinquent  two 
months  or  more  in  1950;  for  the  same 
period,  14%  of  the  loans  of  Negro  Fed- 
eral credit  unions  were  delinquent.  The 
percentage  of  charge-offs  to  amounts 
loaned  for  all  Federal  credit  unions  was 
14%;  for  Negroes,  12%. 

CERTIFIED  PUBLIC 
ACCOUNTANTS1 

Accountancy  is  increasingly  becoming  an 
important  business  among  Negroe^.  Sev- 
eral have  opened  individual  offices.  A 
prominent  example  is  Mrs.  Mary  Wash- 
ington of  Chicago,  licensed  during  1939, 
and  sole  owner  of  her  business.  She 
supervises  a  staff  of  seven,  and  her  firm 
handles  general  accounting,  installation 
of  accounting  systems,  and  financial  re- 
porting. 

Others  who  have  formed  companies 
include:  Lucas  and  Tucker  of  New  York 
City;  J.  B.  Blayton  and  Company,  Audi- 
tors and  Actuaries,  Atlanta,  Ga.;  G.  S. 
Marchman  and  Company,  Chicago,  111.; 
and  Richard  A.  Austin  Company,  Detroit, 
Mich.  In  the  teaching  field  are:  Mrs. 

1  Souice :  Questionnaire  and  Negro  Press. 


Larzette  Hale  of  Clark  University;  Lin- 
coln J.  Harrison  of  Central  State  College, 
Wilberforce,  Ohio;  and  Carey  B.  Lewis, 
Jr.,  at  Southern  University,  Baton  Rouge, 
La.  Jesse  H.  Turner  is  with  the  Tri-State 
Bank  of  Memphis,  Tenn. 

The  first  Negro  Certified  Public  Ac- 
countant to  win  the  Ph.D.  degree  in 
accounting  is  William  H.  Campfield,  son 
of  Mrs.  I.  K.  Campfield  and  the  late 
Charles  G.  Campfield,  Tuskegee  Institute, 
Ala.  This  degree  was  conferred  by  the 
University  of  Illinois  in  1951.  Twenty- 
six  names  are  recorded  on  the  list  that 
follows. 

Some  Negro  Certified  Pubic  Accountants 

California : 

Bratton,  Bertrand  B.,  2514^  Central  Ave., 

Los  Angeles 
Campfield,  Dr.  William  H.,  725-25th  Ave., 

San  Francisco 
District  of  Columbia,  Washington  : 

Cromwell,  John  W. 
Georgia,  Atlanta : 

Blayton,  J.  B.,  Sr.,  239  Auburn  Ave.,  N.  E. 
Hale,    Mrs.    Larzette.    239    Auburn    Ave., 

N.  E. 
Illinois,  Chicago : 

Beckett,    Charles    A.,    4655    So.    Michigan 

Ave. 

Jones,  Theodore  A.,  3507  So.  Parkway 
Lewis,  Gary  B.,  Jr.,  4926  Washington  Park 

Court 

Little,  Isaac  Y.,  2700  So.  Wabash  Ave. 
Marchman,  G.  Stevens,  4649  So.  Parkway 
Pittman,  Hiram  L.,  2700  So.  Wabash  Ave. 
Washington,  Mrs.  Mary  T.,  2700  So.  Wa- 
bash Ave. 

Wilson,  Arthur  J.,  765  E.  Oakwood  Blvd. 
Kentucky,  Louisville : 

Christian,  J.  W. 
Michigan,  Detroit : 

Austin,  Richard  A.,  Richard  A.  Austin 
Company  of  Certified  Public  Account- 
ants 

Monjoy,    Milton,   Richard   A.   Austin    Com- 
pany of  Certified  Public  Accountants 
Washington,  George 
New  York,  N.  Y. : 

Drayton,  Parnell,  166  W.  125th  St. 
Lucas,  Wilmer  F.,  209  W.  125th  St. 
Rawlins,  Louis,  209  W.  135th  St. 
Tucker,  Alfred,  209  W.  135th  St. 
Ohio: 

Brown,  Dallas,  c/o  Majestic  Hotel,  Cleve- 
land 

Harrison,  Lincoln  Jay,,  Central  State  Col- 
lege, Wilberforce 
Whiting,   Elmer  J.,  Jr.,  8414   Cedar  Ave., 

Cleveland 
Tennessee : 

Campbell,  B.  .,  Nashville 

Turner,  Jesse  H.,  c/o  Tri-State  Bank  of 
Memphis,  Memphis 


OUTSTANDING  BUSINESSES 


141 


SOME  OUTSTANDING 

BUSINESSES  AND 

BUSINESSMEN1 

In  general  the  Negro  in  business  operates 
small  service  establishments  which  cater 
to  basic  needs — grocery  stores,  barber 
shops,  cleaning,  pressing,  and  tailoring 
establishments,  drug  stores,  auto  service 
stations,  beauty  shops,  and  the  like. 

The  Bureau  of  the  Census  reports  on 
business  for  1948  do  not  provide  any  data 
on  business  establishments  owned  and 
operated  by  Negroes,  because  the  ques- 
tion on  race  of  proprietor  asked  in  1939 
and  earlier  was  not  asked  in  the  last 
survey.  However,  there  are  numerous 
cases  of  outstanding  and  prosperous 
businesses  owned  and  operated  by  Ne- 
groes all  over  the  United  States  in  addi- 
tion to  those  in  which  Negroes  have 
traditionally  been  successful. 

Contracting:  The  Means  Brothers,  Inc., 
of  Gary,  Ind.,  have  developed  within  the 
past  few  years  several  model  home  pro- 
jects. During  their  building  career  they 
have  built  more  than  700  small  homes, 
ranging  from  4  to  12  rooms,  and  about 
100  commercial  buildings,  such  as  flats, 
stores,  warehouses  and  churches.  In 
January  1950,  they  held  a  week-long 
daily  inspection  of  two  homes  of  the 
F.  D.  Patterson  Village.  The  president, 
Andrew  A.  Means,  a  Tuskegee  Institute 
graduate,  is  nationally  known  for  his 
contributions  to  better  housing  and  for 
his  active  participation  in  the  wide-scale 
effort  to  develop  Negro  business  through- 
out the  country.  His  firm  has  also  devel- 
oped the  Means  Model  Community,  the 
Booker  T.  Washington  Terrace,  and  the 
Gary  Land  Subdivision  Project,  all  of  the 
city  of  Gary.  This  firm  regularly  employs 
112  men,  including  plumbers  and  elec- 
tricians, who  draw  a  weekly  payroll  of 
from  $7,800  to  $18,000. 

Walter  "Chief"  Aiken  of  Atlanta,  Ga., 
a  Hampton  graduate,  is  a  recognized 
builder  of  small  homes.  Not  only  has  he 


built  more  than  3,000  homes  between 
1945  and  1950,  he  has  also  made  them 
obtainable  to  the  most  needy  by  financing 
purchases  himself  under  a  plan  whereby 
only  a  small  down  payment  is  required. 
This  is  possible  because  he  combines  pre- 
fabricated and  custom  construction.  As  a 
matter  of  business  principle  he  earns 
only  a  small  per-unit  profit.  Hiring  white 
and  colored  workers  strictly  on  an  ability 
basis,  his  construction  firm  is  a  living 
example  of  the  workability  of  fair  em- 
ployment practices  in  the  South.  In  addi- 
tion to  small  homes,  his  specialty,  he  has 
built  some  of  the  finest  homes  in  Atlanta. 

Samuel  Plato  is  leading  the  way  in 
solving  the  acute  housing  shortage  in 
Louisville,  Ky.  During  1950,  Mr.  Plato 
built  36  two-bedroom  houses  selling 
under  $8,000.  He  built  a  number  of  four- 
room  houses  in  1951  and  now  plans  to 
erect  12  more  with  prices  starting  at 
$7,500. 

Paul  Williams,  celebrated  architect 
and  builder  of  homes  for  small  income 
families,  has  designed  many  fine  Cali- 
fornia homes  as  well  as  public  buildings. 
In  1951,  he  was  selected  to  design  the 
$84,000  shrine  to  the  memory  of  the  late 
singer,  Al  Jolson. 

Engineering:  Archie  A.  Alexander  of 
Iowa  is  a  builder  of  bridges  and  other 
engineering  projects.  Upon  entering  the 
University  of  Iowa  he  was  told  that  a 
Negro  could  not  hope  to  succeed  as  an 
engineer.  After  14  years,  his  alma  mater 
called  him  back  to  construct  a  $1,000,000 
heating  plant  and  to  lecture  to  students 
in  the  Engineering  College.  His  company, 
known  as  Alexander  and  Repass,  is  re- 
ported to  have  completed  300  building 
projects,  valued  at  nearly  $20,000,000,  in 
34  years.  Among  their  construction  pro- 
jects are  the  Tidal  Basin  Bridge,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  and  the  $3,500,000  District 
of  Columbia  speedway. 

Arts  and  Craft  Shop:  Afro-Arts  Bazaar, 
Inc.,  124  E.  60  St.,  N.Y.,  N.Y.,  opened  on 
March  1,  1949.  Three  enterprising  Negro 


1  Sources:  Chicago  Defender,  Jan.  14,  1950,  Oct.  21,  1950;  Ebony,  November  1948,  August  1949,  October  1950,  April 
1951;  Black  Dispatch,  Aug.  8,  1951;  Afro-American,  Feb.  17,  1951;  Tyler  College  Chain  Bulletin,  August  1946; 
and  interview  with  H.  M.  Morgan. 


142 


INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


women,  Miss  Etta  Moton  (Mrs.  Claude 
Barnett),  singer;  Mrs.  Estelle  Massey 
Osborne,  social-minded  nurse;  and  Mrs. 
Ida  Cullen,  widow  of  the  poet,  Countee 
Cullen,  formed  a  partnership  on  a  capital 
investment  of  less  than  $3,000.  The  idea 
for  the  shop  came  from  their  desire  to 
"focus  attention  on  the  arts  and  crafts 
and  especially  the  contributions  of  the 
darker  peoples  of  the  world."  Imported 
articles  from  Africa,  Haiti,  and  Cuba  are 
their  specialty.  They  also  deal  in  unusual 
American  art  objects.  In  1950  this  busi- 
ness had  a  $20,000  stock  and  was  well 
rated  by  Dun  and  Bradstreet. 

Beauty  Culture:  The  beauty  culture 
business  has  long  been  a  lucrative  one  for 
Negroes,  one  in  which  large  numbers 
have  been  able  to  secure  employment. 
Since  Madame  C.  J.  Walker  founded  her 
system  of  beauty  culture  and  Mrs.  Annie 
M.  Malone  developed  the  Poro  system 
some  50  years  ago,  others  have  success- 
fully followed  in  their  footsteps.  In  1951, 
one  of  the  most  modern  of  the  beauty 
culture  businesses  owned  by  Negroes  was 
the  Rose  Meta  House  of  Beauty,  Inc., 
N.Y.,  N.Y.  It  began  in  1944,  when  two 
young  women,  one  an  experienced  beauty 
shop  operator  and  the  other  trained  in 
biology  and  physical  education,  joined 
their  resources  and  worked  out  their 
ideas  of  combining  body  care  with  a 
specially  blended  line  of  cosmetics.  They 
began  in  a  run-down  old  mansion  with  a 
capital  of  $10,000.  By  1948  they  had  ex- 
perimented with  cosmetics  suitable  for 
the  pigmentation  of  colored  people  and 
were  distributing  their  products  in  42 
cities  of  the  United  States  and  in  Liberia, 
Jamaica,  Cuba,  and  other  foreign  coun- 
tries. By  1950,  they  had  further  expanded 
their  domestic  and  foreign  trade,  had 
opened  three  shops  in  New  York  and 
were  employing  at  least  300  people. 

Through  demonstrations  in  Paris  in  the 
same  year,  Rose  Morgan  acquainted 
French  women  and  beauty  operators  with 
a  new  method  of  pressing  and  waving 
hair.  She  also  toured  Nice,  Algiers,  Casa- 
blanca, Switzerland,  and  Dakar,  West 
Africa.  The  Rose  Meta  Company's  name 


is  copyrighted  in  many  foreign  countries. 

Shirt  Manufacturer:  The  Washington 
Shirt  Manufacturing  Company  of  Chi- 
cago, according  to  the  Chicago  Defender, 
Oct.  21,  1950,  is  the  only  Negro  shirt- 
manufacturing  company  in  America.  It 
has  produced  and  sold  almost  4,000,000 
men's  shirts  during  the  past  few  years. 
Starting  business  in  1930,  George  J. 
Washington  shocked  his  friends  by  leav- 
ing the  security  of  a  post-office  job  to 
pursue  a  childhood  dream.  In  1950  he 
was  reported  to  have  grossed  $750,000. 
His  payroll  for  30  regular  employees, 
who  work  in  two  shifts,  is  above  $85,000 
a  year.  His  shirts,  trademarked  "Dunbar 
Shirts,"  are  sold  not  only  in  such  stores 
as  Marshall  Field,  Chicago,  but  also  in 
first  class  men's  stores  everywhere. 

This  factory  received  orders  from  the 
government  during  World  War  II  and 
made  almost  1,000,000  shirts  for  the 
Army,  as  well  as  undershirts,  shorts,  and 
ties.  In  1948,  the  factory  was  renovated 
and  new  machines  costing  more  than 
$20,000  installed. 

Barbering:  A  unique  business  is  the 
Tyler  Barber  College,  authorized  and 
recognized  by  State  Boards  of  Barber 
Examiners,  State  approval  agencies,  and 
the  Veterans  Administration.  Organized 
in  1933  with  its  home  office  in  Tyler, 
Texas,  this  chain  of  barber  colleges,  ac- 
cording to  H.  M.  Morgan,  founder-presi- 
dent, had  eight  units  in  September  1950, 
located  in  Tyler,  Houston,  and  Dallas, 
Texas;  Jackson,  Miss.;  Little  Rock,  Ark.; 
and  New  York  City.  This  chain  now  has 
more  than  15,000  graduates,  who  practice 
in  every  state.  As  the  first  school  of  its 
kind  in  America  for  Negroes,  it  aims  to 
help  them  "regain  the  barbering  business 
through  training  and  intelligence,"  as 
Mr.  Morgan  states. 

Inventor-Manufacturer:  William  Ches- 
ter Ruth  is  a  successful  inventor  who  has 
gone  into  business.  Formerly  a  farmer, 
this  Gap,  Pa.,  businessman  is  said  to  have 
begun  registering  his  patents  nearly  20 
years  ago  and  to  do  a  current  annual 
business  of  more  than  $50,000  by  manu- 
facturing and  selling  his  own  inventions, 


OUTSTANDING  BUSINESSES 


143 


among  which  is  a  bombsight.  In  1932,  he 
designed  and  perfected  three  new  pieces 
of  farm  machinery,  which  promptly  en- 
abled him  to  convert  his  blacksmith  shop 
into  a  manufacturing  business.  His  first 
product  was  a  baler-feeder,  then  came  a 
cinder  and  manure  spreader,  and  finally 
an  automatic  tie  for  a  hay-baler.  Ruth's 
machine  shop  has  equipment  valued  at 
over  $65,000.  His  son  is  his  business 
partner,  and  he  employs  a  mixed  crew  of 
workmen. 

Realtor:  An  unusual  business  for  a 
woman  is  that  of  Mrs.  Geneva  K.  Valen- 
tine of  Washington,  D.C.,  whose  40  sales- 
men are  said  to  have  handled  $1,250,000 
worth  of  realty  business  in  1946.  She  is 
the  only  Negro  woman  member  of  the 
National  Association  of  Real  Estate 
Boards. 

Ice  Cream  Manufacturer:  Kit  Baldwin, 
who  owns  the  Baldwin  Ice  Cream  Com- 
pany on  Chicago's  Southside,  is  one  of 
the  few  ice-cream  manufacturers  among 
Negroes.  Starting  as  a  day-time  salesman 
while  working  at  night  in  the  Post  Office, 
Baldwin  took  over  a  shaky  plant  in  1939 
and  built  it  into  a  successful  business. 
He  has  about  125  outlets  and  has  won 
the  confidence  of  his  patrons  to  the  extent 
that  his  product  is  one  of  the  top  South- 
side  sellers. 

Diversified  Businesses:  New  Orleans, 
La.,  like  many  other  large  southern  cities, 
has  numerous  Negro-owned  businesses. 
In  1949,  there  were  3,100  in  that  city  alone. 
Fortune  cited  some  of  the  most  successful.1 
There  is,  for  example,  contractor  Joe  Bar- 
tholomew, reputed  to  be  worth  $500.000. 
In  addition  to  his  contracting  business, 
specializing  in  drainage,  foundation,  and 
landscape  work,  he  is  a  real-estate  dealer 
and  head  of  an  insurance  company.  He 
also  manufactures  a  high-quality  ice 
cream.  He  employs  accountants  and  sec- 
retaries to  maintain  his  businesses  other 
than  contracting.  In  1934,  Bartholomew 
repaired  Tulane  Avenue  in  his  home  city, 
a  $250,000  job.  He  handled  all  the  stone 
at  the  famous  Charity  Hospital,  and  dur- 
ing World  War  II  did  "large-scale"  work 

1  Fortune,  November  1949,  pp.  112-116. 


for  Higgins,  Inc.,  shipyards.  He  has 
drained,  landscaped,  and  laid  sewage 
pipe  for  some  of  the  largest  public  and 
private  housing  projects  in  the  city  and 
has  provided  foundations  for  factories 
and  office  buildings,  including  the  Johns- 
Manville  plant.  His  preparation  of  the 
grounds  for  the  Parkview  Gardens,  a  new 
housing  unit,  was  a  $300,000  job.  Bartho- 
lomew's ice-cream  business  is  housed  in  a 
$75,000  plant  and  uses  two  refrigerated 
trucks. 

Adam  Haydel,  who  began  as  an.  auto 
wrecker,  is  also  said  to  operate  a  six- 
figure  business.  He  is  now  a  contractor, 
a  real-estate  dealer,  an  insurance  man,  a 
drugstore  owner,  a  night  club  operator, 
and  an  undertaking  establishment  oper- 
ator. The  forty-two-year  old  Haydel 
moved  from  his  father's  1,300  acre  plan- 
tation in  southern  Louisiana  during  the 
1931  slump,  went  to  New  Orleans,  and 
became  a  plasterer  by  day  and  an  auto 
mechanic  by  night.  In  1935  he  went  into 
business  for  himself.  Today,  after  seven- 
teen years,  he  is  one  of  the  best  known  and 
most  influential  Negro  businessmen  in  the 
city. 

In  1942,  George  McDemmond  of  New 
Orleans  began  his  potato-chip  business 
with  two  sacks  of  potatoes,  eight  gallons 
of  cooking  oil,  a  slicing  machine,  and  $40 
worth  of  wax  bags,  all  of  which  he  pur- 
chased for  $78.  In  1949  he  owned  a 
$50,000  plant.  He  does  between  $150,000 
and  $200,000  worth  of  business  a  year  in 
potato  chips,  pork  skins,  and  peanut- 
butter  wafers,  calling  his  products  "Com- 
munity Essentials."  About  15%  of  his 
sales  are  to  white  retail  outlets.  Through 
brokers  he  sells  to  New  York  distributors 
and  reaches  markets  as  far  off  as  South 
America.  He  is  one  of  the  largest  Negro 
manufacturers  and  distributors  of  food 
in  America. 

In  their  diversity  of  activities  these 
men  cut  across  racial  lines  with  "luxuries 
and  necessities  that  rank  high  in  quality 
by  any  standards."  They  have  created  new 
opportunities  for  Negro  businessmen  by 
their  endeavors. 


144 


INCOME  AND  BUSINESS 


INTEGRATION  OR 
SEGREGATION  IN  BUSINESS 

Robert*  H.  Kinzer  and  Edward  Sagarin 
in  The  Negro  in  American  Business 
(1950)  pose  the  ideological  dilemma  fac- 
ing the  Negro  in  business  as  it  faces  him 
in  every  phase  of  his  life,  that  of  making 
a  choice  between  the  temporary  advan- 
tages of  separation  and  "fuller  economic 
opportunities  offered  by  the  difficult  road 
of  integration." 

The  Negro  is  at  the  present  time  at  a  cross- 
road. The  expansion  of  vocational  and  busi- 
ness education  has  brought  forth  a  generation 
among  whom  are  large  numbers  of  Negroes  ex- 
cellently equipped  for  the  business  world  and 
who,  finding  the  roads  seemingly  blocked,  turn 
toward  a  segregated  economy.  At  the  same 
time,  the  entire  social  trend  in  this  country, 
from  a  long-range  viewpoint,  indicates  that  the 
forward-looking  Negro  has  greater  opportuni- 
ties in  business  than  ever  before,  not  as  a 
Negro  businessman  specifically,  but  as  an 
American  businessman. 

Fundamentally,  the  dilemma  thus  resolves 
itself  into  one  of  outlook.  If  the  Negro  is  at  a 
crossroad,  he  finds  paths  leading  in  two  direc- 
tions. Standing  at  that  point,  a  choice  seems  to 
be  mandatory.  Shall  he  think  and  work  in 
terms  of  a  separate  economy,  exploiting  its 
possibilities,  utilizing  its  advantages,  prolong- 
ing its  life?  Or,  shall  the  other  pathway  be 
taken,  with  the  orientation  toward  integration, 
the  overcoming  of  obstacles,  the  breakdown  of 
separatist  tendencies? 

These  writers  make  this  conclusion: 

The  two  roads  can  be  taken  simultaneously 
and,  despite  temporary  conflicts  that  may  arise 
from  time  to  time,  they  will  actually  aid  each 
other.  In  fact,  it  would  be  impossible  at  this 
time  to  suggest  that  either  pathway  be  aban- 
doned, because  there  would  be  entailed  an 
obvious  sacrifice  that  Negro  people  can  ill 
afford  to  make. 

This  joint  development  of  the  separate  and 
the  integrated  philosophies  of  business  is  not 
only  desirable,  but  is  inevitable.  It  is,  in  fact, 
forced  upon  the  Negro  by  outer  circumstances, 
by  the  current  political  and  economic  status 
in  the  United  States,  just  as  the  previous 
economic  roads  which  he  took  at  other  stages 
of  his  history  were  imposed  from  without. 

It  is  not  the  Negro  in  business  that  is  faced 
with  an  ideological  dilemma,  so  much  as  it  is 
American  business  that  is  faced  with  this 
dilemma. 

Elmer  W.  Henderson,  director,  Ameri- 
can Council  on  Human  Rights,  in  his  ar- 
ticle, "Why  Have  Negro  Enterprises  in  an 


Integrated  Society?",  appearing  in  the 
Spring  1951  issue  of  The  Pilot,  organ  of 
the  National  Negro  Insurance  Associa- 
tion, is  in  agreement  with  this  point  of 
view.  He  feels  that — 

. . .  there  has  developed  a  confusion  in  the 
minds  of  most  of  us  about  the  relationship  of 
Negro-owned  enterprises  to  the  general  fight 
against  segregation  and  ultimately  to  the  goal 
of  an  integrated  society.  Some  have  gone  so 
far  as  to  say  Negro  business  as  such  can  have 
no  place  at  all  when  we  finally  achieve  the 
abolition  of  segregation.  This  is  not  sound 
thinking. 

Negro  owned  and  operated  enterprises  are 
any  and  all  businesses  under  the  proprietor- 
ship and  management  of  colored  Americans. 
They  may  or  may  not  limit  their  services  or 
market  to  Negroes  although  this  has  been  a 
predominating  characteristic. . . . 

Our  economy  is  based  on  individual  or 
corporate  enterprises  and  will  no  doubt  re- 
main so  for  a  long  time.  If  all  segregation  were 
abolished  the  day  after  tomorrow,  Negroes 
would  still  have  the  problem  of  making  a  liv- 
ing; either  by  going  into  business  for  them- 
selves or  by  selling  their  labor  for  hire. . . .  The 
job  of  making  a  living  and  creating  wealth 
must  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  fight  against 
segregation  and  discrimination. 

Negro  business  is  not  the  same  as  Jim-Crow 
business.  What  tends  to  equate  the  two  is  that 
Negro  enterprises  usually  employ  only  Ne- 
groes and  usually  cater  only  to  Negro  trade. 
There  develops  too  often  a  psychology  of 
lower  standards  and  a  market  of  trade  limited 
by  the  segregated  environs  and  the  habits  of 
life  that  may  exist  there.  We  see  many  signs  of 
a  movement  away  from  Jim-Crow  business  but 
it  is  still  too  prevalent.  On  the  other  hand, 
Negro-owned  and  operated  enterprises  should 
be  unlimited  in  scope  and  the  standards  put  on 
as  competitive  a  basis  as  financing  permits. 

The  pattern  that  most  American  business 
enterprises  have  followed  has  been  in  the  be- 
ginning to  cater  to  a  small  specialized  or 
geographically  restricted  clientele  but  as  they' 
grow  larger  and  more  secure  to  remove  all 
bounds  to  the  limits  of  the  market. 

The  basic  ingredient  of  success  in  any  type 
of  business  is  having  something  to  sell  that  is 
a  little  better  or  a  little  cheaper  than  that  of 
the  other  fellow.  There  is  every  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  white  customers  will  react  in  the 
same  way  as  Negro  customers.  My  plea  is  that 
the  Negro  business  man  throw  off  the  remains 
of  the  ghetto  psychology  . . .  and  look  upon 
our  entire  national  population  as  a  potential 
market  for  his  goods  and  services. 

National  Negro  Business  League 

The  National  Negro  Business  League 
was  organized  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1900. 


INTEGRATION  OR  SEGREGATION 


145 


It  represents  the  vision  of  Booker  T. 
Washington  that  ultimately  the  Negro 
should  be  integrated  into  the  affairs  of 
the  state,  the  nation,  and  the  world. 

He  realized  that  business  and  the  build- 
ing of  it  was  basic  to  the  rise  of  the  race. 
He  further  knew  that  the  Negro  was  not 
in  a  position  to  provide  the  financing  to 
carry  forward  the  needed  program,  so 
he  turned  to  his  friend,  Julius  Rosen- 
wald,  and  to  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
to  provide  the  funds  with  which  to  in- 
augurate the  League.  Its  first  headquar- 
ters was  at  Tuskegee  Institute,  and  there, 
at  the  shrine  of  its  founder,  the  League 
celebrated  its  Golden  Anniversary  in 
1950.  In  1951,  the  League  established 
permanent  headquarters  at  1228  U  St., 
Washington  9,  B.C. 

Presidents  of  the  National  Negro  Busi- 
ness League  have  been:  Booker  T.  Wash- 
ington, 1900-15;  J.  C.  Napier,  1915-19; 
Robert  R.  Moton,  1919-30;  C.  C.  Spauld- 
ing,  1930-38;  Dr.  J.  E.  Walker,  1938-44; 


Roscoe  Dungee,  1944-46;   A.  J.  Gaston, 
1946-48;  Horace  Sudduth,  1948-current.1 

Negro  Business 
Associations,  1951 

Emmer  Martin  Lancaster,  adviser  on 
Negro  Affairs,  U.S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce, Washington,  D.C.,  has  compiled  a 
list  of  approximately  200  Negro  business 
associations,  located  in  21  states  and 
more  than  100  cities  throughout  the 
United  States.  Fourteen  of  the  associa- 
tions are  national  in  scope,  together  hav- 
ing 111  affiliates  throughout  the  nation. 
Prepared  at  the  request  of  prominent 
business  executives  and  delegates  attend- 
ing the  Annual  Conference  of  the  Negro 
in  Business,  sponsored  by  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce,  the  data,  for  the  most 
part,  was  obtained  from  ranking  officials 
of  the  listed  associations.  Organizations 
known  as  Negro  Chambers  of  Commerce 
and  Negro  business  Leagues  are  included 
in  these  associations. 


1  Source:    Horace    Sudduth,    president,    National    Negro    Business    League,    in    Convention    Journal    and    Directory, 
National  Negro  Business  League  and  National  Housewives  League  of  America.  51st  Anniversary,  1951. 


72 
The  Armed  Forces 


ELIMINATION  OF 
SEGREGATION 

Reporting  on  Negroes  in  the  armed  forces 
of  the  United  States  has  become  difficult 
since  the  end  of  World  War  II  with  the 
inauguration  of  a  Federal  policy  requir- 
ing the  elimination  of  segregation.  This 
integration  policy  and  its  implementation 
in  the  past  five  years  is  a  major  reform. 

Records  of  the  Selective  Service  System 
show  that  1,074,083  Negroes  were  in- 
ducted into  the  armed  forces  between 
Nov.  1,  1940,  and  Aug.  1,  1946,  or  10.7% 
of  the  total  number  of  men  of  all  races 
inducted  during  that  period.  The  total 
number  of  Negroes  to  enlist  or  be  in- 
ducted in  this  period  was  1,154,720  or 
7.7%  of  the  total.1 

All  branches  of  the  armed  forces  of  the 
United  States  were  still  segregated  when 
World  War  II  ended  with  the  signing  of 
the  articles  of  surrender  by  Japan  on 
Sept.  2,  1945.  The  Army  had  held  to  its 
traditional  policy  of  segregation  accord- 
ing to  race.  And  at  the  end  of  1945 
slightly  over  5%  of  the  Negroes  in  the 
Navy  were  in  general  ratings  and  almost 
95%  in  the  messman's  branch.  The  Air 
Force  maintained  segregated  units. 

Experiments  with  integrated  units  had 
been  tried  by  the  Army  in  the  latter  pe- 
riod of  the  war.  The  Navy  had  revised  its 
policy  to  eliminate  segregation  in  train- 
ing. However,  a  uniform  policy  did  not 
go  into  effect  until  Executive  Order  9981 
was  issued  by  President  Harry  S.  Tru- 
man on  July  26,  1948. 

EXECUTIVE  ORDER  9981 

Whereas  it  is  essential  that  there  be  main- 
tained in  the.  armed  services  of  the  United 


States  the  highest  standards  of  democracy, 
with  equality  of  treatment  and  opportunity  for 
all  those  who  serve  in  our  country's  defense: 

Now,  therefore,  by  virtue  of  the  authority 
vested  in  me  as  President  of  the  United  States, 
by  the  Constitution  and  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States,  and  as  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  armed  services,  it  is  hereby  ordered  as 
follows : 

1.  It  is  hereby  declared  to  be  the  policy  of 
the  President  that  there  shall  be  equality  of 
treatment  and  opportunity  for  all  persons  in 
the  armed  services  without  regard  to  race, 
color,  religion  or  national  origin.  This  policy 
shall  be  put  into  effect  as  rapidly  as   possible, 
having  due  regard  to  the  time  required  to 
effectuate  any  necessary  changes  without  im- 
pairing efficiency  or  morale. 

2.  There  shall  be  created  in  the  National 
Military  Establishment  an  advisory  committee 
to  be  known  as  the  President's  Committee  on 
Equality  of  Treatment  and  Opportunity  in  the 
Armed  Services,  which  shall  be  composed  of 
seven  members  to  be  designated  by  the  Presi- 
dent. 

3.  The  Committee  is  authorized  on  behalf 
of  the  President  to  examine  into  the  rules, 
procedures  and  practices  of  the  armed  ser- 
vices in  order  to  determine  in  what  respect 
such  rules,  procedures  and  practices  may  be 
altered  or  improved  with  a  view  to  carrying 
out  the  policy  of  this  order.  The  Committee 
shall  confer  and  advise  with  the  Secretary  of 
Defense,  the  Secretary  of  the  Army,  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Air 
P'orce,  and  shall  make  such  recommendations 
to  the  President  and  to  said  Secretaries  as  in 
the  judgment  of  the  Committee  will  effectuate 
the  policy  herof . 

4.  All  executive  departments  and  agencies 
of  the  Federal  Government  are  authorized  and 
directed  to  cooperate  with  the  Committee  in 
its  work,  and  to  furnish  the  Committee  such 
information  or  the  services  of  such  persons  as 
the  Committee  may  require  in  the  performance 
of  its  duties. 

5.  When  requested  by  the  Committee  to  do 
so,  persons  in  the  armed  services  or  in  any  of 
the  executive  departments  and  agencies  of  the 
Federal  Government  shall  testify  before  the 
Committee  and  shall  make  available  for  the 
use  of  the  Committee  such  documents  and 


1  Johnson,  Campbell  C.,  "The  Negro  and  Selective  Service,"  The  Negro  History  Bulletin,  Vol.  15,   No.  1,  p.  7, 
October  1951. 


146 


THE  ARMY 


147 


other    information    as    the    Committee    may 
require. 

6.  The  Committee  shall  continue  to  exist 
until  such  time  as  the   President  shall  ter- 
minate its  existence  by  Executive  Order. 
Harry  S.  Truman 

The  President  appointed  the  following 
to  be  members  of  the  Committee :  Charles 
Fahy,  Chairman;  Alphonsus  J.  Donahue; 
Lester  B.  Granger;  Charles  Luckman; 
Dwight  R.  G.  Palmer;  John  H.  Seng- 
stacke;  William  E.  Stevenson. 

Secretary  of  Defense 
Johnson's  Directive 

While  the  President's  Committee  was 
sitting  on  April  6,  1949,  Secretary  of  De- 
fense Louis  Johnson  issued  the  following 
directive: 

1.  a.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  National  Military 
Establishment  that  there  shall  be  equality  of 
treatment  and  opportunity  for  all  persons  in 
the  armed  services  without  regard  to  race, 
color,  religion  or  national  origin. 

b.  To  assist  in  achieving  uniform  applica- 
tion of  this  policy,  the  following  supplemental 
policies  are  announced: 

(1)  To  meet  the  requirements  of  the  ser- 
vices for  qualified  individuals,  all  personnel 
will  be  considered  on  the  basis  of  individual 
merit  and  ability  and  must  qualify  accord- 
ing to  the  prescribed  standards  for  enlist- 
ment, attendance  at  schools,  promotion,  as- 
signment to  specific  duties,  etc. 

(2)  All  individuals,  regardless  of  race,  will 
be  accorded  equal  opportunity  for  appoint- 
ment,  advancement,  professional  improve- 
ment, promotion  and  retention  in  their  re,- 
spective  components  of  the  National  Mili- 
tary Establishment. 

(3)  Some  units  may  continue  to  be  manned 
with  Negro  personnel ;  however,  all  Negroes 
will  not  necessarily  be  assigned  to  Negro 
units.  Qualified  Negro  personnel  shall  be 
assigned  to  fill  any  type  of  position  vacancy 
in  organizations  or  overhead   installations 
without  regard  to  race. 

2.  Each  department  is  directed  to  examine 
its  present  practices  and  determine  what  for- 
ward steps  can  and  should  be  made  in  the  light 
of  this  policy  and  in  view  of  Executive  Order 
9981,  dated  July  26,  1948  which  directs  that 
this  policy  shall  be  put  into  effect  as  rapidly 
as  possible  with  due  regard  to  the  time  re- 
quired to   effectuate  any  necessary  changes 
without  impairing  efficiency  or  morale. 

3.  Following  the  completion  of  this  study, 
each  department  shall  state,  in  writing,  its 
own  detailed  implementation  of  the  general 
policy  stated  herein  and  such  supplemental 


policies  as  may  be  determined  by  each  service 
to  meet  its  own  specific  needs.  These  state- 
ments shall  be  submitted  to  the  chairman  of 
the  Personnel  Policy  Board,  Office  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  Defense  not  later  than  May  1,  1949. 

THE  ARMY 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  Negroes 
in  the  armed  forces  have  served  in  the 
Army.  The  new  policy  was  slowest  to  get 
underway  and  to  be  implemented  in  this 
branch  of  the  service. 

The  Gillem  Report 

In  October  1945,  the  Army  convened  a 
special  board  of  general  officers  and 
charged  it  with  submitting  recommenda- 
tions to  the  Secretary  of  War  and  the 
Chief  of  Staff.  This  body  became  popu- 
larly known  as  the  "Gillem"  Board  after 
its  chairman,  Lt.  Gen.  Alvin  C.  Gillem. 
The  Gillem  Board  sat  for  three  and  one- 
half  months  and  on  Feb.  26,  1946,  re- 
leased its  report.  From  this  report,  Army 
policy  was  defined  and  published  in  Util- 
ization of  Negro  Manpower  in  the  Post- 
War  Army  Policy,  War  Department  Cir- 
cular, No.  124,  April  1946. 

Adopted  recommendations  of  the  Board 
included : 

1.  Inclusion  of  Negroes  in  the  Army  in  the 
same  ratio  as  in  the  civilian  population. 

2.  Assignment  of  Negroes  to  both  combat 
and  service  units. 

3.  Assignment  of  Negroes  to  separate  out- 
fits to  range  in  size  from  companies  to  regi- 
ments, some  of  which  units  to  be  grouped 
together  with  white  units  into  composite  or- 
ganizations. 

4.  Establishment  of  uniform  procedures  in 
processing  all  enlisted  men  to  insure  proper 
classification  and  assignment  of  individuals. 

5.  Gradual,  complete  replacement  of  white 
officers  assigned  to  Negro  units  with  qualified 
Negro  officers. 

6.  Acceptance  of  officers  into  the  Regular 
Army  without  regard  to  race  and  continuation 
of  "the  present  policy  of  according  all  officers, 
regardless  of  race,  equal  opportunities  for  ap- 
pointment,   advancement,     professional     im- 
provement,  promotion   and   retention   in   all 
components  of  the  Army." 

7.  Continuation  of  present  policies  barring 
segregation  in  the  use  of  recreational  facilities 
at  Army  posts. 

8.  Stationing  of  Negro  units  in  localities 
and  communities  where  attitudes  are  most  fa- 


148 


THE  ARMED  FORCES 


vorable  and  in  such  numbers  as  will  not  con- 
stitute an  undue  burden  to  the  local  civilian 
facilities. 

The  Board  had  decided  that  segrega- 
tion must  be  maintained;  and  therefore, 
if  the  Negro  soldier  were  to  be  used  ac- 
cording to  his  individual  capacity,  Negro 
units  must  be  created  which  would  con- 
form in  general  to  white  units. 

The  Fahy  Committee  Report 

When  the  Fahy  Committee  issued  its 
report1  in  1950,  it  announced  basic 
changes  that  had  occurred  in  Army  policy 
since  it  had  begun  its  work.  The  Commit- 
tee reported  the  following  policy  changes: 

In  August  1949,  the  Army  had  490  active 
occupational  specialties.  In  198  of  these  spe- 
cialties, there  were  no  authorizations  at  all  for 
Negroes.  All  Army  jobs  are  now  open  to 
Negroes.  (Policy  change  adopted  Sept.  30, 
1949) . 

All  Army  school  courses  are  open  to  Negroes 
without  restriction  or  quota.  (Policy  change 
adopted  Sept.  30,  1949).  For  the  first  time 
Negroes  no  longer  are  limited  in  assignment 
to  Negro  and  overhead  (housekeeping)  units, 
but  are  to  be  assigned  according  to  their  quali- 
fications to  any  unit,  including  formerly  white 
units.  (Policy  change  adopted  Jan.  16,  1950). 

The  10%  limitation  on  Negro  strength  in 
the  Army  has  been  abolished,  and  there  no 
longer  are  Negro  quotas  for  enlistment.  (Pol- 
icy change  adopted  March  21,  1950). 

On  the  sixteenth  of  January  1950,  the 
Army  issued  Special  Regulations  No.  600- 
629-1,  Personal  Utilization  of  Negro  Man- 
power in  the  Army,  superseding  Circular 
124,  which  had  embodied  the  recommen- 
dations of  the  Gillem  Board.  The  policy 
of  the  Army  was  now  one  of  full  integra- 
tion without  prejudice  or  segregation. 

Implementation  of  Policy 

Far  into  1951  the  Negro  press  re- 
proached the  Army  for  its  failure  to  carry 
out  the  policy  of  integration.  Congress- 
man Jacob  K.  Javits  (Rep.,  N.Y.)  turned 
the  spotlight  on  this  failure  and  called 
the  attention  of  the  Defense  Department 
to  specific  instances. 

Reporters  for  Negro  weekly  papers 
visited  camps  and  installations  and  pub- 
licized what  they  found,  giving  praise  or 


censure  where  they  saw  or  did  not  see 
integration  in  process.  In  its  Sunday  edi- 
tion, May  20,  1951,  the  Atlanta  Daily 
World  reported  seven  Army  camps  where 
there  was  no  segregation:  Fort  Jackson, 
S.C.,  Camp  Breckinridge,  Ky.,  Fort  Riley, 
Kans.,  Fort  Leonard  Wood,  Mo.,  Fort 
Ord,  Calif.,  Camp  Chaffee,  Ark.,  and 
Camp  Roberts,  Calif. 

Segregation  of  units  in  the  Far  East 
continued  throughout  the  period  of  com- 
mand of  Gen.  Douglas  MacArthur,  who, 
after  his  recall  to  the  United  States,  dis- 
claimed responsibility  for  this  and  blamed 
military  authorities  in  Washington.  His 
successor,  Gen.  Matthew  Ridgway,  was 
instructed  to  give  Executive  Order  9981 
his  full  support. 

The  Korean  War 

Upon  the  outbreak  of  war  in  Korea, 
organized  reserves  and  National  Guard 
units  were  mobilized,  and  before  the  end 
of  the  year  many  Negro  units  were  on 
active  duty.  News  releases  in  September 
1950  reported  that  the  following  Negro 
units  had  joined  the  fighting: 

3rd  Battalion  15th  Infantry  Regiment,  Third 
Airborne  Division  Attached  to  the  82nd  Air- 
borne Division : 

3rd  Battalion  505th  Airborne  Infantry 

80th  AAA  Automatic  Weapons  Battalion 

589th  Quartermaster  Field  Service  Company 

98th  Field  Artillery  Battalion 

665th  Transportation  Truck  Company 

2nd  Ranger  Company 

159th  Field  Artillery  Battalion 

The  following  participated  in  the  In- 
chon Invasion  in  October  1950: 

805th  Quartermaster  Service  Company 

573rd  Engineer  Pontoon  Bridge  Company 

559th  and  560th  Ambulance  Companies 

96th  Field  Artillery  Battalion 

73rd  Combat  Engineers 

65th  Ordnance  Ammunition  Company 

549th  Quartermaster  Laundry  Company 

881st  Engineers 

539th  Truck  Company 

55th  Engineer  Treadway  Bridge  Company 

It  is  notable  that  none  of  these  units  is 
larger  than  a  battalion  and  many  are 
companies.  Integration  had  proceeded  to 
the  point  that  no  separate  Negro  units  of 
larger  size  could  be  identified  except  the 
24th  Infantry  Regiment. 


1  Freedom  to  Serve.  Equality  of  Treatment  and  Opportunity  in  the  Armed  Services:  A  Report  of  the  President's 
Committee.  U.S.  Govt.  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.C.,  1950. 


THE  ARMY 


149 


24th  Infantry  Regiment 

The  24th  Infantry  Regiment  figured 
prominently  in  the  news  reports,  receiv- 
ing both  censure  and  praise.  At  the  time 
of  its  deactivation  in  October,  1951,  the 
"24th"  was  the  last  of  four  Negro  units 
authorized  by  Congress  in  1866.  The  other 
three,  the  25th  Infantry  and  the  9th  and 
10th  Cavalry  units,  had  already  gone. 
The  24th  Regiment  was  organized  at  Fort 
McKevitt,  Texas,  in  1869,  and  achieved 
fame  in  the  battle  of  San  Juan  Hill  dur- 
ing the  Spanish-American  War.  It  was 
the  first  Negro  unit  to  get  into  the  war  in 
the  Pacific  in  1942,  and  in  1946  joined 
the  occupation  forces  in  Japan.  The  ra- 
cially mixed  unit  to  replace  the  24th  was 
redesignated  the  14th  Infantry  Regiment. 
The  Department  of  the  Army  announced 
that  because  its  history  as  an  all-colored 
regiment  is  so  firmly  fixed  in  the  public 
mind,  a  new  designation  was  more  ap- 
propriate for  a  racially  mixed  unit.  The 
colors  of  the  24th  Infantry  Regiment, 
with  Block  House  insignia,  adopted  fol- 
lowing the  Spanish-American  War,  were 
retired. 

Winning  more  combat  decorations  in 
the  Korean  fighting  than  were  won  by  all 
Negro  units  in  World  War  II,  the  24th 
was  especially  praised  for  the  capture  of 
Yechon  and  for  action  at  Seoul,  but  was 
censured  for  retreating  at  Taejon.  Some 
of  its  members  were  court-martialed.  The 
case  of  Lt.  Leon  A.  Gilbert  received  wide 
public  attention.  He  was  convicted  of 
violating  the  75th  Article  of  War — mis- 
behavior in  front  of  the  enemy — and  given 
the  death  penalty.  The  intervention  of  the 
NAACP  through  its  Special  Counsel, 
Thurgood  Marshall,  who  was  dispatched 
to  Japan  to  investigate  the  case,  resulted 
in  commutation  of  Gilbert's  sentence  by 
President  Truman.  His  punishment  was 
cut  to  20  years'  imprisonment  on  Nov. 
27,  1951.  Mr.  Marshall's  investigation  of 
the  Gilbert  case  and  others  brought  to 
light  some  unusually  harsh  sentences  for 
Negro  soldiers  as  contrasted  with  those 
given  to  whites.  The  following  summary 
indicates  the  extent  of  this  disparity  in 
military  justice. 


TABLE  1 

SUMMARY  OF  COURTS  MARTIAL  IN  KOREA 
ALLEGED  VIOLATIONS  OF 
75TH  ARTICLE  OF  WAR 

Number  by  Race 


Disposition 

Negro 

White 

Accused 

60 

8 

Charges  Withdrawn 

23 

2 

Charge  reduced  to  AWOL 

1 

0 

Acquitted 

4 

4 

Sentenced 

32 

2 

Death 

1 

0 

Life 

15 

0 

50  years 

1 

0 

25  years 

2 

0 

20  years 

3 

0 

15  years 

1 

0 

10  years 

7 

0 

5  years 

2 

1 

3  years 

0 

1 

The  24th  Infantry,  with  its  long  fight- 
ing record,  was  not  without  heroes.  Pfc. 
William  Thompson,  a  24th  Infantry  sol- 
dier, was  posthumously  awarded  the  Con- 
gressional Medal  of  Honor,  becoming  the 
first  Negro  so  honored  since  the  Spanish- 
American  War.  In  neither  World  War  I 
nor  II  did  a  Negro  win  this  honor. 

Lt.  H.  E.  Button 

Another  of  the  individual  heroes  of  the 
Korean  War  is  the  Third  Division's  Lt. 
Harry  E.  Sutton  of  the  Bronx,  N.Y.,  who, 
with  his  infantry  platoon,  stood  off  North 
Korean  attacks  and  saved  UN  soldiers  on 
the  Hungnam  Beachhead.  Assigned  to  a 
long,  three-humped  ridge,  only  Lt.  Sut- 
ton and  his  platoon  of  heroic  Negro 
doughboys  stood  between  the  Communists 
and  the  Sea  of  Japan,  into  which  the 
enemy  were  trying  to  drive  UN  forces.  If 
this  platoon  had  yielded,  the  end  would 
have  been  written  then  and  there  to  the 
saga  of  the  Allied  evacuation  from  North 
Korea.  From  early  dawn  of  Monday, 
Dec.  18,  1950,  until  the  afternoon  of  Tues- 
day, the  19th,  Lt.  Sutton  led  his  men  to 
attack  and  counter-attack.  Before  the  day 
was  ended  a  new  name  had  been  added 
to  the  long  list  made  famous  by  gallant 
stands — "Sutton's  Ridge."  Some  of  the 
Reds  managed  to  get  into  Sutton's  lines 
but  he  and  his  men  killed  them  off  as  fast 
as  they  came.  After-battle  examination 


THE  ARMED  FORCES 


showed  one  GI  dead  beneath  the  bodies 
of  two  of  the  enemy.  He  had  killed  them 
both.  When  the  enemy  finally  gave  up 
their  attacks,  every  man  in  the  platoon 
was  down  to  his  last  clip  of  .30-calibre 
ammunition  for  his  M-l  rifle.1 

The  Winstead  Amendment 

The  elimination  of  segregation  in  the 
armed  forces  continued,  but  on  April  12, 
1951,  certain  southerners  in  Congress 
sought  to  turn  the  clock  back  by  inserting 
a  segregation  clause,  known  as  the  Win- 
stead  Amendment,  in  a  new  draft  bill. 
Congressman  William  L.  Dawson  of  Illi- 
nois led  the  fight  against  this  clause  in  a 
stirring  plea  which  moved  even  some  of 
the  southern  Democrats  to  applaud.  The 
amendment  was  defeated,  178  to  126. 

ROTC 

Reserve  Officers  Training  Corps  courses 
are  offered  at  15  Negro  institutions.  The 
schools  having  ROTC  units  are : 

TABLE  2 


State 


Institution 


Alabama  Tuskegee  Inst.  (Infantry  &  Air) 

District  of 

Columbia         Howard  Univ.  (Infantry  &  Air) 
Florida  Flda.  A.&M.  Coll.  (Artillery) 

Louisiana  Southern  Univ.  (Transportation) 

Maryland  Morgan  State  Coll.  (Infantry) 

Missouri  Lincoln  Univ.  (Engineer) 

No.  Carolina       A.&T.  Coll.  (Infantry  &  Air) 
Ohio  Central  State  Coll.  (Infantry) 

Wilberforce  Univ.  (Infantry) 
So.  Carolina        S.  C.  State  Coll.  (Infantry) 
Tennessee  Tenn.  State  Univ.  (Air) 

Texas  Prairie  View  A.&M.  Coll. 

(Infantry) 
Virginia  Hampton  Inst.  (Artillery) 

Va.  State  Coll.  (Quartermaster) 
W.  Virginia         W.  Va.  State  Coll.  (Artillery) 


Source:  Supplementary  Data  on  Racial  Integra- 
tion in  the  Armed  Forces,  Jan.  21,  1952,  supplied 
by  Tames  C.  Evans,  Civilian  Assistant,  U.S.  Dept. 
of  Defense. 

WACS2 

Integration  has  also  been  operating  in 
the  Women's  Army  Corps  to  the  extent 
that  separate  data  on  the  number  of  Negro 

1  The  Pittsburgh  Courier,  Jan.  30,  1950. 

2  Sources:  Afro-American,   Feb.   25,    1951,   Oct.   27,    1951;    The   Eagle    (Tulsa,    Oklahoma),    Aug.   2,    1951;   Kansas 
City  CM,  Sept.  14,  1951. 


WAGS  in  the  Army  are  not  readily  avail- 
able. Negro  women  are  serving  in  many 
areas,  including  Europe  and  Japan,  as 
well  as  in  many  U.S.  camps. 

The  all-colored  unit  which  had  been 
stationed  in  Europe  for  16  months,  the 
781st  WAG  Detachment,  was  broken  up 
in  1951  and  its  personnel  assigned  to 
other  units  in  Paris,  Frankfurt,  Munich, 
and  Heidelberg.  In  Japan,  some  are  inte- 
grated as  members  of  the  Yokohama 
WAG  Detachment,  806th  Army  Unit. 

In  July  1951,  Mrs.  Daisy  C.  Hicks,  a 
writer,  found  112  colored  women  trainees 
at  Fort  Lee  making  adequate  adjustment 
to  integrated  Army  life.  Reports  concern- 
ing individual  WAGS  and  their  duties  in 
the  Army  are  constantly  appearing  in  the 
Negro  press. 

Nurses 

Information  appearing  in  newspapers 
gives  some  idea  of  the  activities  of  Negro 
nurses  in  the  Army.  Major  Delia  H. 
Raney,  Chief  Nurse  at  the  Percy  Jones 
Army  Hospital,  Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  was 
the  first  Negro  nurse  to  see  active  duty  in 
World  War  II  and  the  first  to  attain  her 
rank.  Lt.  Juanita  Long  is  located  near 
the  Pusan  prisoner  of  war  camp,  where 
she  conducts  classes  for  Korean  nurses. 

Four  Negro  nurses  are  on  the  staff  at 
the  Tokyo  General  Hospital:  Capt.  Rosa- 
lie H.  Wiggins;  Lts.  L.  Martin,  Alice  H. 
Dolphy,  and  Olga  Beaman. 

The  National  Guard 

In  January  1950,  Governor  G.  Mennen 
Williams  ordered  the  abolition  of  racial 
segregation  in  the  Michigan  National 
Guards.  Several  other  states  have  brought 
their  policies  in  line  with  that  of  the 
Federal  government  by  eliminating  racial 
segregation  in  National  Guard  units. 
California,  Connecticut,  Illinois,  Massa- 
chusetts, Minnesota,  New  Jersey  and  Wis- 
consin have  abolished  segregation.  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  have  passed  laws 
not  specifically  forbidding  segregation. 


THE  AIR  FORCE 


151 


TABLE  3 
NEGRO  GRADUATES  FROM  THE  U.S.  MILITARY  ACADEMY 


Name 

Appointed 
From 

Date 

Admitted 

Date 

Graduated 

Henry  O.  Flipper 

Georgia 

ljuly  1873 

15  June  1877 

(Died  3  May  1940) 

John  H.  Alexander 

Ohio 

ljuly  1883 

12  June  1887 
(Died  26  Mar.  1894) 

Charles  Young 

Ohio 

15  June  1884 

31  Aug.  1889 

(Died   8  Jan.    1922) 

Benjamin  O.  Davis,  Jr. 

Illinois 

ljuly  1932 

12  June  1936 

James  D.  Fowler 

Illinois 

ljuly  1937 

11  June  1941 

Clarence  M.  Davenport 

Michigan 

ljuly  1939 

19  Jan.  1943 

Robert  B.  Tresville,  Jr. 

Illinois 

ljuly  1939 

19  Jan.   1943 

(Declared  dead  in 

Italy  23  June  1945) 

Henry  M.  Francis 

Illinois 

ljuly  1941 

6  June  1944 

Ernest  J.  Davis,  Jr. 

Illinois 

20  July  1942 

5  June  1945 

Mark  E.  Rivers,  Jr. 

New  York 

15  July  1942 

5  June  1945 

Andrew  A.  McCoy,  Jr. 

Pennsylvania 

ljuly  1943 

4  June  1946 

Charles  L.  Smith 

Missouri 

ljuly  1944 

7  June  1949 

Edward  B.  Howard 

Illinois 

2  July  1945 

7  June  1949 

David  K.  Carlisle 

California 

ljuly  1946 

6  June  1950 

Robert  W.  Green 

California 

10  July  1946 

6  June  1950 

Norman  J.  Brown 

Pennsylvania 

ljuly  1947 

5  June  1951 

Roscoe  Robinson,  Jr. 

Missouri 

ljuly  1947 

5  June  1951 

Douglas  F.  Wainer 

New  York 

ljuly  1947 

5  June  1951 

William  B.  Woodson 

Illinois 

ljuly  1947 

5  June  1951 

James  R.  Young,  Jr. 

Army 

ljuly  1947 

5  June  1951 

Source:  R.  P.  Eaton,  Col.,  AGC,  Adjutant  General,  U.S.  Military  Academy,  Jan.  14,  1952. 


Negroes  at  West  Point 

Henry  0.  Flipper  of  Georgia  was  the 
first  Negro  to  be  graduated  from  the  U.S. 
Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  N.Y., 
the  highest-ranking  Federal  academy  for 
the  training  of  Army  officers.  His  gradu- 
ation took  place  in  1877.  Founded  in  1802, 
the  academy  admitted  its  first  Negro, 
James  W.  Smith  of  South  Carolina,  in 
1870.  Graduates  from  the  U.S.  Military 
Academy  are  shown  in  Table  3. 

THE  AIR  FORCE 

On  Jan.  31,  1950,  there  were  25,702 
Negroes  in  the  Air  Force — 25,351  en- 
listed men  and  351  officers.  The  percent- 
age of  Negro  enlisted  men  was  7.2%. 
The  percentage  of  Negro  officers  was 
0.6%. 

A  breakdown  by  unit  assignment: 

Negroes  still  in  predominantly 

Negro  units 6,773 

Negroes  in  mixed  units 11,611 

Negroes  in  pipe  line  (training, 

waiting  assignments,  etc.) 7,318 

In  October  1950,  Col.  Campbell  C. 
Johnson  reported  that  the  Air  Force  be- 


gan to  implement  its  new  racial  program 
on  June  1,  1949.  Eight  months  later,  he 
went  on,  45%  were  in  mixed  units  and 
another  28%  in  basic  training,  technical 
and  flying  schools  preliminary  to  being 
assigned  to  integrated  units.  Only  26% 
remained  in  predominantly  Negro  units 
and  a  number  of  these  units  were  Army 
units  assigned  to  the  Air  Force,  not  af- 
fected by  the  new  Air  Force  policy  of 
integration.1  The  351  Negro  officers  in  the 
Air  Force  were  completely  integrated. 

The  number  of  Negro  nurses  in  the  Air 
Force  is  not  readily  available  but,  from 
press  reports,  Capts.  Ruth  Faulkner  John- 
son and  Lillian  Stone,  and  Lt.  Constance 
Jenkins  are  in  Japan.  Thelma  Sidberry, 
a  psychiatric  nurse,  went  to  Casablanca 
in  1951.  Serving  her  ninth  year  in  the  Air 
Force  is  Capt.  Elizabeth  Tucker  Dozier. 

Capt.  C.  A.  Hill,  Jr. 

Outside  of  the  24th  Infantry  Regiment 
(see  above),  charges  filed  against  an  Air 
Force  Reserve  officer  also  received  wide 
publicity.  Captain  Charles  A.  Hill,  Jr., 
about  29  years  old  and  a  decorated  com- 


1  The  Pittsburgh  Courier,  Oct.  28,  1950. 


152 


THE  ARMED  FORCES 


bat  veteran  of  World  War  II,  on  Jan.  29, 
1951,  was  ordered  either  to  resign  or  to 
face  a  board  of  inquiry  on  a  disloyalty 
charge.  This  charge  was  brought  against 
Hill  because  it  was  alleged  his  father 
had  been  active  in  subversive  organiza- 
tions and  his  sister  was  said  to  be  sympa- 
thetic toward  the  Communist  Party.  Later 
he  was  personally  cleared  of  disloyalty, 
with  an  apology  from  Thomas  K.  Finletter, 
Secretary  of  the  Air  Force. 

THE  NAVY 

Documentation  of  the  development  of 
the  policy  of  integration  of  Negroes  in 
the  Navy  has  been  provided  in  a  volume 
that  approaches  being  an  authorized  Navy 
account.1  In  July  1944,  the  Navy  aban- 
doned its  segregated  advanced  training 
schools  for  Negroes  at  Camp  Robert 
Smalls  and  Hampton  Institute,  declaring 
that  it  did  not  "consider  practical  the 
establishment  of  separate  facilities  and 
quotas  for  Negroes  who  qualify  for  ad- 
vanced training."  Boot  training  remained 
segregated,  however,  until  July  1945, 
when  the  separate  training  camp  at  Great 
Lakes  was  abolished  and  Negro  trainees 
were  assigned  to  the  same  companies, 
barracks,  and  messes  as  whites. 

In  December  1945,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  issued  a  directive  to  all  ships  and 
stations — Alnav  423-45 — stating  that  ".  .  . 
in  the  administration  of  Naval  personnel 
no  differentiation  shall  be  made  because 
of  race  or  color.  This  applies  to  author- 
ized personnel  of  all  the  Armed  Forces 
of  this  country  aboard  Navy  ships  or  at 
Navy  stations  and  activities." 

And  finally  on  Feb.  27,  1946,  the  Navy 
took  the  inevitable  step  of  opening  up 
general  service  assignments  without  any 
restriction.  In  Circular  Letter  48-46,  the 
Navy  ordered: 

Effective  immediately  all  restrictions  gov- 
erning types  of  assignments  for  which  Negro 
naval  personnel  are  eligible  are  hereby  lifted. 
Henceforth  they  shall  be  eligible  for  all  types 


of  assignments  in  all  ratings  in  all  activities 
and  all  ships  of  the  naval  service. . . . 

In  the  utilization  of  housing,  messing  and 
other  facilities  no  special  or  unusual  provi- 
sions will  be  made  for  the  accommodations  of 
Negroes.2 

Number  of  Negroes  in  the  Navy8 

By  September  1945,  there  were  over 
165,000  Negro  enlisted  men,  52  commis- 
sioned officers,  70  WAVES,  and  four  com- 
missioned nurses  in  the  U.S.  Navy.  In 
1951,  there  were  approximately  19,000 
Negroes  in  the  Navy.  Of  these,  approxi- 
mately 11,000  are  in  the  steward's  branch 
and  8,000  in  General  Service. 

There  were  29  Negro  officers  currently 
on  active  duty  in  the  Navy:  3  line  officers 
and  2  nurses  (regular  Navy) ;  11  line  of- 
ficers, 4  doctors,  3  dentists,  2  aviation 
officers,  2  engineers,  and  2  chaplains 
(Reservists). 

There  were  no  WAVES  officers. 

There  were  3  Marine  Corps  officers  and 
6  men  in  NROTC  colleges. 


TOTAL  NEGRO  STRENGTH 


Tear 
1946 
1947 
1948 
1949 
1950 
1951 


Strength 
21,897 
21,730 
17,940 
18,111 
14,782 
20,000 


Per  Cent 
5.07 
4.82 
4.91 
4.7 
3.7 


PERCENTAGE  OF  NEGRO  PERSONNEL  IN 
GENERAL  SERVICE  SINCE  WORLD  WAR  II 


Tear 
1946 
1947 
1948 
1950 


Per  Cent 
17.0 
20.0 
36.0 
42.6 


NEGRO  ENLISTED  PERSONNEL,  U.S.  NAVY 


Year 
1947 
1948 
1950 


Strength 
21,730 
17,940 
13,904 


The  Fahy  Committee  Report 

The  report  of  the  Fahy  Committee  had 
this  to  say  of  the  Navy: 

All  jobs  and  ratings  in  the  naval  general 
service  now  are  open  to  all  enlisted  men  with- 


lenceforth  they  shall  be  eligible  for  all  types      service  now  are  open  to  all  enlisted  men  with- 

1  Nelson,  Lt.  Dennis  D.,  The  Integration  of  the  Negro  in  the  V.S.  Navy.  New  York:  Farrar.  Straus,  and  Young,  1951. 
8  Freedom  to  Serve,  p.  20. 

•  Nelson  Dennis  D.,  "Recent  Trends  in  Naval  Racial  Policies,"  The  Negro  History  Bulletin    Vol    15.  No.  1,  p.  9, 
Jctober  1951. 


THE  NAVY 


153 


out  regard  to  race  or  color.  Negroes  are  cur- 
rently serving  in  every  job  classification  in 
general  service. 

All  courses  in  Navy  technical  schools  are 
open  to  qualified  personnel  without  regard  to 
race  or  color  and  without  racial  quotas.  Ne- 
groes are  attending  the  most  advanced  tech- 
nical schools  and  are  serving  in  their  ratings 
both  in  fleet  and  at  shore  installations. 

Negroes  in  general  service  are  completely 
integrated  with  whites  in  basic  training,  tech- 
nical schools,  on  the  job,  in  messes  and  sleep- 
ing quarters,  ashore  and  afloat.  Chief,  first-, 
second-,  and  third  class  stewards  now  have 
the  rate  of  Chief,  first-,  second-,  and  third- 
class  petty  officers.  (Policy  change  adopted 
June  7,  1949.) 

Stewards  who  qualify  for  general  ratings 
now  can  transfer  to  general  service. 

Negroes  at  the  Naval  Academy 

Lt.  Wesley  A.  Brown  is  the  only  Negro  yet 
to  complete  his  training  at  the  Naval  Academy 
at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  having  graduated 
June  3,  1949.  Previous  to  Brown's  graduation, 
five  Negroes  attended  the  Academy,  three  be- 
ing appointed  in  the  Reconstruction  period 
following  the  Civil  War.  Two  of  these  men 
resigned  and  the  third  was  dismissed.  After 
1875,  no  Negroes  were  in  attendance  at  the 
Academy  for  sixty-one  years  until  1936,  when 
James  Leo  Johnson  entered,  to  be  followed  in 
1937  by  George  Trivers.  Trivers  resigned  for 
reasons  of  health,  Johnson  for  deficiencies  in 
English  and  deportment.1  .  , 

Five  Negro  midshipmen  as  of  November 
5,  1951,  were  enrolled  at  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy. 

The  Naval  ROTC  Program 

Since  1947,  the  Navy  has  teamed  with 
the  National  Urban  League  and  its  na- 


tionwide Vocational  Opportunity  Cam- 
paign in  an  effort  to  present  to  Negroes 
the  Navy's  racial  policy  and  career  oppor- 
tunities. In  1950-51,  the  Navy  provided 
officers  who  accompanied  League  repre- 
sentatives in  three  general  areas — the 
Eastern  Seaboard,  the  mid-South  and  the 
West  Coast.  This  cooperative  adventure 
is  a  two-way  street.  The  Navy  presents 
its  program  in  the  presence  of  an  organi- 
zation which  has  earned  the  confidence 
of  the  Negro  people,  and  the  Urban 
League,  on  its  side,  works  vigorously  to 
obtain  and  prepare  qualified  youth  for  the 
Navy,  particularly  for  the  NROTC  and 
Holloway  program. 

The  qualifying  aptitude  tests  for  the  Navy 
College  Training  Program  (NROTC)  are 
given  annually  in  550  cities  and  communities, 
and  are  conducted  under  the  supervision  of 
the  Educational  Testing  Center  at  Princeton 
University.  This  agency  is  under  contract  with 
the  Navy  Department  for  the  conduct  of  the 
test  and  the  grading  of  the  examinations.  The 
testing  center  contracts  with  local  civilian 
authorities  for  the  sites  of  the  examining  cen- 
ters and  for  the  testing  personnel.  A  few 
southern  communities  have  managed  to  con- 
duct the  tests  on  an  integrated  basis.  As  might 
be  expected,  the  majority  of  southern  com- 
munities 'of  necessity'  conduct  the  tests  on  a 
semi-  or  completely  segregated  basis.  The 
Negro  public  and  the  Negro  Press  have  long 
held  the  Navy  responsible  for  conducting  or 
sanctioning  of  segregated  examinations  for  its 
officer  training  program.  Negro  leaders,  edu- 
cators, parents,  the  press  and  even  the  candi- 
dates themselves  expressed  serious  doubts  of 
the  Navy's  sincerity  in  integration  in  view  of 


TABLE  4 
NEGROES  AT  U.S.  NAVAL  ACADEMY 


Name 

Appointed  From 

Date  Admitted 

John  Henry  Conyers 

South  Carolina 

Sept.  1872 

Alonzo  G.  McCIellan 

South  Carolina 

Sept.  1873 

Henry  E.  Baker 

Mississippi 

Sept.  1874 

James  L.  Johnson 

Washington,  D.C. 

June  1936 

George  J.  Trivers 

Chicago,  111. 

June  1937 

Wesley  A.  Brown 

New  York  City 

June  1945 

Currently  Enrolled 

Lawrence  C.  Chambers 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Class  of  1952 

Reeves  R.  Taylor 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Class  of  1953 

John  D.  Raiford 

East  St.  Louis,  111. 

Class  of  1954 

Lucius  P.  Gregg,  Jr. 

Chicago,  111. 

Class  of  1955 

Charles  A.  Nelson 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Class  of  1955 

Source:  R.  T.  S.  Keith,  Capt.  U.S.N. 
1951. 


Secretary  Academic  Board,  U.S.  Naval  Academy,  letter,  Nov.  5, 


1  Nelson,  Lt.  Dennis  D.,  The  Integration  oj  the  Negro  in  the  U.S.  Navy,  p.  141. 


154 


THE  ARMED  FORCES 


these  separate  and  segregated  'Navy  spon- 
sored' procurement  procedures. 

The  Navy  had  no  other  alternative  than  to 
take  immediate  and  positive  steps  to  eliminate 
the  stigma  attached  to  its  national  testing 
procedures  for  the  NROTC  program.  The 
Navy  met  this  responsibility  head-on  when  it 
was  convinced  that  it  had  been  placed  in  an 
untenable  position  and  that  the  complaints 
were  justifiable. 

The  results  of  this  initial  effort  were  en- 
couraging and  heart-warming,  and  a  new  con- 
fidence and  interest  in  the  Navy  came  into 
being.  Negro  organizations,  the  Negro  press 
and  the  Negro  public  in  general  became  ac- 
tively interested  in  encouraging  qualified 
Negro  students  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
opportunities  provided  them. 

Georgia  Tech  immediately  opened  its  doors 
to  all  candidates  at  its  examining  center — and 
in  many  communities  the  examinations  were 
held  on  an  integrated  basis  rather  than  see 
them  removed  to  federal  territory. 

It  is  sociologically  significant  that  South- 
erners of  the  peacetime  Navy  are  willing  and 
capable  of  attempting  an  integrated  training 
program  in  the  South  in  spite  of  existing  local 
racial  tensions,  and  attitudes  which  often  lead 
to  adverse  criticism  against  the  functioning  of 
mixed  groups  on  equal  planes  in  any  program. 
It  is  also  significant  that  the  general  civilian 
populace  has  been  willing  to  do  its  part  in 
support  of  a  federal  agency  that  has  openly 
manifested  a  definite  and  positive  stand  in 
racial  matters  as  it  relates  to  the  assimilation 
of  Negroes  throughout  its  organization.  This 
has  been  particularly  significant  in  such  areas 
as  Norfolk,  Virginia  and  Pensacola,  Florida. 
True,  the  proportion  of  Negroes  participating 
in  the  Reserve  program  is  comparatively 
small.  The  units,  however,  are  highly  selective, 
and  there  has  been  no  attempt  by  Naval 
authorities  to  limit  the  number  of  Negroes  in 
the  program  or  to  restrict  the  types  of  training 
they  can  receive. 

Outstanding  among  southern  communities 
conducting  Naval  Reserve  training  are  the 
units  at  the  Naval  Gun  Factory  (PRNC) 
Washington,  B.C.,  at  Nashville,  Tennessee, 
and  the  unit  for  reserve  air  training  at  Nor- 
folk, Virginia.  Integration  of  Negro  and  white 
personnel- -officers  and  men — has  been  the 
result  of  the  Navy's  policy  and  of  the  inge- 
nuity of  the  officers  of  the  units  to  conduct  the 
program.  In  Nashville,  a  southern  community 
not  particularly  noted  for  liberality  in  prac- 
tical race  relations,  the  Navy's  Reserve  Train- 
ing Program  has  been  instituted  and  con- 
ducted in  spite  of  existing  patterns  of  segre- 
gation. The  commanding  officer  let  it  be 
known  to  his  command  that  he  would  tolerate 
no  interference  or  the  injection  of  any  racial 


differences  in  the  work  of  the  unit,  and  that 
he  fully  intended  to  continue  the  program  on 
an  integrated  basis — that  all  dissenters  and 
malcontents  would  be  summarily  eliminated 
from  the  training  unit.1 

Nurses  in  the  Navy 

On  March  8,  1945,  the  first  Negro  nurse 
was  sworn  into  the  Navy  Nurse  Corps 
in  New  York  City.  She  was  Miss  Phyllis 
Mae  Dailey,  a  graduate  of  and  nurse  in  the 
Lincoln  Hospital  School  in  the  same  city. 
Three  others  were  commissioned  later. 
As  of  Jan.  1,  1951,  there  were  two  Negro 
Navy  nurses  on  active  duty.  One  was  sta- 
tioned in  a  Navy  dispensary  in  Wash- 
ington, a  second  at  the  St.  Albans  Naval 
Hospital,  N.Y.  The  Navy  stated  recently 
that  all  Negro  nurses  who  can  qualify 
physically  and  professionally  will  be  given 
the  same  consideration  as  all  other  appli- 
cants. 

THE  MARINE  CORPS 

The  Marine  Corps,  as  part  of  the  Navy, 
is  subject  to  Navy  policy  and  has  abol- 
ished its  segregated  Negro  training  units. 
(Policy  change  adopted  June  7,  1949.) 
Marine  Corps  training  is  now  integrated, 
although  some  Negro  marines  are  still 
assigned  to  separate  units  after  basic 
training.  In  this  respect  the  effectuation 
of  Navy  policy  in  the  Marine  Corps  is  yet 
to  be  completed. 

In  September  1945,  there  were  16,944 
enlisted  men  in  the  Marine  Corps;  in 
1951,  there  were  approximately  1,650. 
Annie  N.  Graham,  now  with  the  records 
branch  of  the  Marines  in  Washington, 
D.C.,  is  the  first  Negro  woman  marine. 
She  was  trained  at  Paris  Island,  S.C.2 

THE  MERCHANT  MARINE 

Negroes  served  in  the  Merchant  Marine  as 
seamen  (employed,  of  course,  by  the  ship 
owners) ,  as  commissioned  officers  and  as  crew 
members  of  naval  personnel  aboard  merchant 
ships. 

The  policy  of  the  Maritime  Service  was 
generally  one  of  nondiscrimination.  Men  were 
usually  hired  according  to  their  individual 


1  Nelson,  Lt.  Dennis  D.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  114,  118-119,  121-122. 
3  The  Crisis,  Feb.  1950. 


DECORATIONS  AND  CITATIONS 


155 


ability  and  usefulness,  and  when  aboard  ship 
messed  and  berthed  together  indiscriminately ; 
however,  there  were  numerous  instances  of 
discrimination  in  hiring  of  Negro  seamen  by 
certain  shipowners. 

Prospective  seamen  were  trained  together  at 
the  Merchant  Marine  Training  Centers,  and 
usually  no  distinction  was  made  on  the  basis 
of  race  or  color  as  to  the  type  of  work  to 
which  a  man  was  assigned.  As  the  war  pro- 
gressed, however,  instances  of  discrimination 
against  Negro  seamen  increased.  The  National 
Maritime  Llnion,  the  largest  union  of  mer- 
chant seamen,  and  one  of  the  most  liberal 
unions  in  regard  to  racial  policies,  was  fre- 
quently called  upon  to  remedy  incidents  of 
segregation  and  discrimination. 

By  1946  it  was  estimated  that  at  least  24,000 
Negroes  were  or  had  been  employed  in  the 
Merchant  Marine  during  World  War  II.  Dur- 
ing the  war,  Negroes  worked  in  every  capacity 
aboard  ship  .  . . 

No  accurate  list  of  the  number  of  Negro 
officers  in  the  Merchant  Marine  is  available. 
And  possession  of  a  license  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  that  the  man  served  as  an  officer. 
Four  Negroes  were  full  captains  of  Liberty 
ships  during  the  war.  Many  others  have  been 
ship  officers  of  lower  status,  serving  as  the 
captains  did  over  racially  mixed  crews. 

There  were  four  Liberty  ships  named  for 
Negro  merchant  seamen  lost  in  active  service 
in  the  Merchant  Marine.  Fourteen  Liberty 
ships  were  named  for  noted  and  outstanding 
Negroes,  and  four  Victory  ships  were  named 
for  Negro  colleges.1 

There  has  been  one  Negro  who  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Merchant  Marine 
Academy  cadet  corps:  Joseph  B.  Williams,  of 
Annapolis,  Maryland.  He  went  on  active  duty 
with  the  Navy,  the  second  Negro  to  be  made 
an  officer  in  the  Naval  Civil  Engineer  Corps 
(CEC).  One  Negro  was  enrolled  in  the 
USMCC,  Junius  L.  More,  of  LaMott,  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Many  Negro  seamen  were  graduated  at  Fort 
Trumbull  and  Alameda  Officers'  Schools. 
There  have  been  Negroes  in  practically  every 
class;  no  distinction  was  made.  Nor  was  there 
segregation  or  discrimination  in  employment 
or  in  the  living  quarters  and  facilities  aboard 
merchant  ships  during  the  closing  years  of  the 
war.3 

DECORATIONS  AND 
CITATIONS 

Complete  statistics  on  awards  to  Negroes 
since  World  War  II  are  not  available. 


This  is  due  to  the  integration  program  in 
the  armed  forces,  which  prevents  keeping 
records  on  a  racial  basis.  Some  Negro 
award  winners,  selected  at  random,  are 
listed. 

Medal  of  Honor  (Congressional 
Medal  of  Honor) 

For  conspicuous  gallantry  and  intrepidity  at 
the  risk  of  life  above  and  beyond  the  call  of 
duty  and  without  detriment  to  the  mission 
(combat  and  noncombat). 

8  William  Thompson,  Pfc,  N.Y.C.,  first  Negro 
since  the  Spanish-American  War  to  win  this 
award. 

4  Thomas  J.  Hudner,  Jr.,  Lt.  (jg),  Navy  flyer, 
who  crash-landed  his  plane  Dec.  4,  1950,  be- 
hind enemy  lines  in  Korea  in  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  rescue  Ens.  Jesse  L.  Brown,  USN, 
Hattiesburg,  Miss.,  first  Negro  Navy  flyer 
and  first  naval  officer  of  his  race  to  be  killed 
in  any  U.S.  war. 

Distinguished  Service  Cross 

For  extraordinary  heroism  in  connection 
with  military  operations  against  an  armed 
enemy  (combat  only).8 

Vernon  J.  Baker,  First  Lt.,  Cheyenne,  Wyo. 

8  William  M.  Benefield,  Jr.,  Pittsburgh,  Kans. 

Edward  Carter,  Staff  Sgt.,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

8  Edward  O.  Cleaborn,  Pvt.,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

8  John  Cook,  Maj.,  Columbus,  Ga. 

Arthur  C.  Dudley,  Sgt.  First  Class,  Warring- 
ton,  Fla. 

Levy  V.  Hollis,  Second  Lt.,  Houston,  Tex. 

8  Levi  Jackson,  Jr.,  Corp.,  Cayce,  S.C. 

8  Chester  J.  Lenin,  Second  Lt.,  Independence, 
Kans. 

8  Willie  L.  Moore,  Sgt.  First  Class,  Dispu- 
tanta,  Va. 

Curtis  D.  Pugh,  Master  Sgt.,  Columbus,  Ga. 

Charles  L.  Thomas,  Capt.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Jack  Thomas,  Pfc,  Albany,  Cal. 

William  D.  Ware,  Second  Lt.,  Winchester,  Tex. 

8  George  Watson,  Pvt.,  Birmingham,  Ala. 

Ellison  C.  Wynn,  Second  Lt.,  Greensboro,  N.C. 

Distinguished  Service  Medal 

For  exceptionally  meritorious  service  to  the 
Government  in  a  duty  of  great  responsibility 
(combat  and  noncombat). 

Campbell  C.  Johnson,  Executive  Asst.  to  Di- 
rector of  Selective  Service,  Washington,  D.C. 

Silver  Star 

For  gallantry  in  action  not  warranting  award 
of  a  Medal  of  Honor  or  Distinguished  Ser- 
vice Cross  (combat  only). 

Gerald  N.  Alexander,  Second  Lt.,  Bartlesville, 
Okla. 

Floyd  Allen,  Corp.,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Warren  E.  Allen,  First  Lt.,  Fayetteville,  N.C. 

James  R.  Bellamy,  Master  Sgt.,  Andrews,  S.C. 

Gorham  L.  Black,  Capt.,  Chicago  111. 

8  Thomas  Broadwater,  Pfc,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


1  See  Negro  Year  Book  1947,  p.  375. 

2  Nelson,  Lt.  Dennis  D.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  95,  140-141. 

3  Awarded  posthumously. 
«  White. 

8  The    24th    Infantry    Regiment    (Eagles)    received    the    highest    number    of    Distinguished    Service    Crosses    ever 
awarded  a  colored  infantry  regiment  in  U.S.  military  history. 


156 


THE  ARMED  FORCES 


William  Brown,  Sgt.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

William  L.  Bryant,  Master  Sgt.,  San  Francisco, 
Calif. 

1Rothwell  W.  Burke,  Capt.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Walter  Chandler,  Capt.,  Columbia,  S.C. 

Raymond  I.  Coleman,  Master  Sgt.,  Washington, 
D.C. 

Oliver  W.  Dillard,  Capt.,  Margaret,  Ala. 

Charles  Ellis,  Gary,  Ind. 

Spencer  Forside,  Master  Sgt.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Charles  J.  Fuller,  Pfc,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

1  James  O.  Gardner,  Maj.,  Bprdentown,  N.J. 

Leon  A.  Green,  Corp.,  Moriah,  N.Y. 

Edward  Greer,  First  Lt.,  Welch,  W.Va. 

Wilbur  O.  Hairston,  Pfc,  Roanoke,  Va. 

James  R.  Harris,  Corp.,  Oakland,  Calif. 

1  Raphael  Harris,  Sgt.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Reginald  Howell,  Sgt.,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

Kenneth  Ingram,  Second  Lt.,  Oklahoma  City, 
Okla. 

Clarence  H.  Jackson,  Lt.,  Pittsburg,  Tex. 

Howard  S.  Jackson,  Sgt.,  Newport,  R.I. 

William  J.  Jackson,  Maj.,  N.Y.C. 

John  W.  James,  Capt.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Howard  Jaunes,  Corp.,  Chicago,  111. 

John  M.  Jerkins,  Second  Lt.,  Meadowview,  Va. 

Edgar  Johnson,  Pfc,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Leroy  Johnson,  Jr.,  Corp.,  Fostoria,  Ohio 

Charles  Jones,  Pfc,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Henry  Jones,  Master  Sgt.,  Birmingham,  Ala. 
John  H.  Jones,  Sgt.  First  Class,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Robert  K.  Jones,  Master  Sgt.,  Boston,  Mass. 
1  Patrick  H.  Kelley,  First  Lt.,  Tacoma,  Wash. 
1  Rudolph  F.  Knotts,  Pfc,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Wyman  L.  Lee,  Corp.,  Amityville,  L.I.,  N.Y. 
Jett  W.  Lewis,  Warrant  Officer  (jg),  San  Fran- 
cisco, Calif. 

Willie  J.  Lott,  Sgt.,  Meridian,  Miss. 
Edward  McDavid,  Sgt.  First  Class,  St.  Paul, 

Minn. 
Henry  L.  Musgrove,  Sgt.  First  Class,  Berkeley, 

Calif. 

Willie  C.  Pender,  Jr.,  Corp.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
Leon  H.  Porter,  Master  Sgt.,  Bethel,  Kans. 
William  M.  Roberts  Corp.,  Norfolk,  Va. 
David  Robinson,  Master  Sgt.,  N.C. 
Alono  O.  C.  Sarget,  First  Lt.,  Houston,  Tex. 
Donald  L.  Scott,  First  Lt.,  Fort  Smith,  Ark. 
1  John  A.  Sears,  Second  Lt,  Ind. 
(Arthur  E.  Sikes,  Corp.,  Millner,  Ga. 
Joseph  Simmons,  Sgt.  First  Class,  S.C. 
Edward    B.    Skiffington,    Maj.,    Longmeader, 

Mass. 
Nicholas  Smith,  Sgt.  First  Class,  Baltimore 

Md. 
Willard  B.  Smith,  Sgt.  First  Class,  St.  Louis 

Mo. 

Stanley  P.  Swartz,  Capt.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Leslie  C.  Terry,  Maj.,  Colorado  Springs,  Colo. 
Alfred  F.  Tittle,  Lt.,  Westport,  N.J. 
Clifton  F.  Vincent,  First  Lt,  Houston,  Tex. 
Reginald  Washington,  Corp.,  N.Y. 
Ernest    M.    Williams,    First   Lt,    Marysville 

Calif. 

George  W.  Williams,  Chaplain,  Sumter,  S.C. 
William  S.  Winters,  Sgt.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
1  Roy  Wyatt,  Corp.,  Atwater,  Calif. 

Legion  of  Merit 

For    exceptionally    meritorious    conduct    in 
performance  of  outstanding  services.  Award- 


ed in  degrees  of  Chief  Commander,  Com- 
mander, Officer,  and  Legionnaire  to  armed 
forces  personnel  of  friendly  foreign  nations 
and  without  degrees  to  U.S.  and  Philippine 
armed  forces  (combat  and  noncombat). 

John  A.  DeVeaux,  Lt.  Col.  (Chaplain) 

Wilmer  F.  Lucas,  Col.,  N.Y.C. 

Harold  W.  Thatcher,  Lt  Col.,  Fort  Huachuca, 
Ariz. 

Distinguished  Flying  Cross 

For  heroism  or  extraordinary  achievement 
while  participating  in  an  aerial  flight  (com- 
bat and  noncombat) . 

Charles  A.  Bowers,  Capt.,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

1  Jesse  Leroy  Brown,  Ens.,  Hattiesburg,  Miss. 

Edward  P.  Drummond,  Jr.,  First  Lt.,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

Charles  E.  McGee,  Maj.,  Chicago,  111. 

Soldier's  Medal 

For  heroism    not   involving   actual    conflict 
with  an  enemy  (noncombat  only) .  _ 
Claude  J.  Brown,  Capt,  U.S.  Air  Force 
Burnett  J.  Hale,  Corp.,  U.S.  Air  Force,  Bremer- 
ton, Wash. 

George  Kallis,  Capt.,  U.S.  Air  Force 
Julian  W.  O'Banion,  Sgt.,  Dallas,  Tex. 

Air  Medal 

For  meritorious  acheivement  while  partici- 
pating in  an  aerial  flight  (combat  and  non- 
combat)  . 

1  Jesse  L.  Brown,  Ens.,  Hattiesburg,  Miss. 

James  H.  Harvey,  First  Lt.,  Mountaintop,  Pa. 

Daniel  James,  Capt,  Pensacola,  Fla. 

Unit  Citations 

Two  combat  awards  were  authorized  for 
units  during  World  War  II :  the  Army  and 
Air  Force  Distinguished  Unit  Badge  and  the 
Navy  Presidential  Unit  Citation. 

Distinguished  Unit  Badge 

U.S.  24th  Division 

Foreign  Decorations 

Croix  de  Guerre  (French) 

A  cross  of  bronze  suspended  by  a  green  rib- 
bon with  red  stripes,  awarded  to  officers  or 
soldiers  for  gallant  action  in  war. 

1  Alfonzo  W.  Davis,  Capt.,  W.Va. 

Benjamin  O.  Davis,  Jr.,  Col.,  Washington,  D.C. 

Julius  H.  Dean,  Technical  Sgt.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Edward  C.  Gleed,  Maj.,  Lawrence,  Kans. 

Melvin  P.  Jackson,  Capt.,  Miss. 

1  Edwin  B.  Lawrence,  Capt.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

Lee  Rayford,  Maj.,  Washington,  D.C. 

John  Robinson,  Jr.,  Staff  Sgt.,  Harbeson,  Del. 

Frank  N.  Titus,  Master  Sgt,  Orrville,  Ala. 

1  Andrew  Turner,  Maj.,  Washington,  D.C. 

Croix  de  Guerre  (Belgian) 

Richard  H.  Grinder,  Col.,  Professor  of  Military 
Science  and  Tactics,  Hampton  Institute,  Va. 

Medaille  de  Saint  Mihiel  (French) 

Robert  Lee  Campbell,  Capt.,  retired  Army  of- 
ficer and  first  Professor  of  Military  Science 
and  Tactics,  A.  and  T.  College,  Greensboro, 
N.C.,  for  his  part  in  the  capture  of  13,300 
Germans  in  the  St.  Mihiel  sector  during 
World  War  I. 


J  Awarded  posthumously. 


DECORATIONS  AND  CITATIONS 


157 


Ordre  de  Leopold  avec  Palme  (Belgian) 
Richard  H.  Grinder,  Col.,  Professor  of  Military 

Science  and  Tactics,  Hampton  Institute,  Va. 
Presidential  Unit  Citation  of  the  Republic  of 

Korea 
U.S.  24th  Division 

Selective  Service  Medal 

For  faithful  and  loyal  service,  with  a  certifi- 
cate of  merit  for  patriotic  services  in  ad- 
herence to  duty  and  in  aiding  in  the  impartial 
enforcement  of  the  Selective  Service  Act. 


Scovel  Richardson,  Dean  of  Lincoln  University 
School  of  Law,  Mo. 

War  Department  General  Staff 
Identification  Badge 

For  having  served  over  a  year  as  a  detailed 
member  of  the  General  Staff  Corps  assigned 
to  the  General  Staff  of  the  U.S.  Department 
of  War. 

Steve  G.  Davis,  Maj.,  Chicago,  111.,  first  Negro 
officer  in  history  of  U.S.  Army  to  earn  the 
coveted  badge. 


13 


VITAL  STATISTICS 

The  interpretation  of  vital  statistics  is 
well  stated  in  this  population  census 
statement: 

The  developments  of  statistics  are  causing 
history  to  be  rewritten.  Till  recently,  the  his- 
torian studied  nations  in  the  aggregate  and 
gave  us  only  the  story  of  princes,  dynasties, 
sieges  and  battles.  Of  the  people  themselves — 
the  great  social  body,  with  life,  growth,  forces, 
elements,  and  laws  of  its  own — he  told  us 
nothing.  Now  statistical  inquiry  leads  him  into 
hovels,  homes,  workshops,  mines,  fields,  pris- 
ons, hospitals,  and  other  places  where  human 
nature  displays  its  weakness  and  its  strength. 
In  these  explorations  he  discovers  the  seeds  of 
national  growth  and  decay,  and  thus  becomes 
the  prophet  of  his  generation. 

The  public  health  scientist  observes  in 
matters  pertaining  to  the  control  of  com- 
municable disease  that  "no  health  officer 
can  control  disease  in  his  community  un- 
less he  knows  when,  where,  and  under 
what  conditions  cases  are  occurring." 

The  following  tables  and  comments  pro- 
vide comparable  data  by  race,  not  only 
for  factual  information  but  also  for  in- 
centive to  analysis  of  the  figures  and  pro- 
jection of  their  meanings  into  measures 
and  methods  for  correction  and  protec- 
tion. 

Birth  and  Death  Rate  Trends 

The  crude  birth  rate  of  the  Negro  and 
other  colored  races  (the  number  of  births 
per  1,000  of  the  population)  in  the  United 
States,  like  that  for  the  total  population, 
continues  the  trend  upward  since  the  year 
1930.  Table  1  shows  figures  for  the  white 
and  nonwhite  races.  In  1920,  the  birth 
rate  for  Negroes  and  other  colored  was 
27.0;  in  1930,  21.6;  in  1943,  24.1;  in 
1949  (latest  figures  available)  30.3.  The 
comparable  white  rates  were  23.5,  18.6, 
21.2,  and  23.2. 


Crude  death  rates  by  race  per  1,000  of 
the  population,  also  are  shown  in  Table  1. 

TABLE  1 

RATES  OF  BIRTH  AND  DEATH  AND  MATERNAL 

AND  INFANT  DEATHS  AND  STILLBIRTH 

RATIOS,  BY  RACE  1 


Subject 

1949 

1943 

1930 

1920 

Births 

Total  

24.0 

21.5 

18.9 

23.7 

Negro  &  Other 

30.3 

24.1 

21.6 

27.0 

White  

23.2 

21.2 

18.6 

23.5 

Deaths 

Total  

9.7 

10.9 

11.3 

13.0 

Negro  &  Other 

11.1 

12.8 

16.3 

17.7 

White  

9.5 

10.7 

10.8 

12.6 

Maternal  deaths 

Total  

0.9 

2.5 

6.7 

8.0 

Negro.  ...'.... 

2.4 

5.1 

11.7 

12.8 

Other  

1.8 

4.5 

— 

— 

White  

0.7 

2.1 

6.1 

7.6 

Infant  deaths 

Total  

31.3 

40.4 

64.6 

85.8 

Negro  

46.8 

61.5 

99.5 

135.6 

Other  

58.1 

84.6 

108.4 

89.6 

White  

28.9 

37.5 

60.1 

82.1 

Stillbirths 

Total  

22.9 

26.7 

39.2 

— 

Negro  ........ 

— 

47.3 

82.5 

— 

Other  

— 

22.8 

24.6 

— 

White  

— 

24.2 

34.0 

— 

1  Rates  are  for  death  registration  states.  Birth  and 
death  rates  per  1,000  estimated  population;  mater- 
nal death  and  infant  death  rates,  and  stillbirth 
ratios  per  1,000  live  births.  Birth  rates  are  based  on 
total  population  including  armed  forces  overseas. 
Death  rates  for  1943  are  based  on  total  population 
excluding  armed  forces  overseas. 


TABLE  1A 

CRUDE  AND  AGE- AD  JUSTED  MORTALITY 
FROM  ALL  CAUSES1 


Death  Rate  Per  1,000 


Year 


Crude 


Adjusted 


Nonwhite    White 

Nonwhite    White 

1919-1921 
1929-1931 
1939-1941 
1948 

17.0 
16.2 
13.5 
11.3 

12.0 
10.9 
10.3 
9.7 

19.8 
20.0 
15.9 
12.8 

13.1 
11.8 
10.0 
8.6 

Source:  National  Office  of  Vital  Statistics,  U.S. 
Public  Health  Service. 

1  Rates  are  for  death  registration  states. 


158 


VITAL  STATISTICS 


159 


The  decrease  in  all  categories  in  signi- 
ficant evidence  of  the  effectiveness  of 
health  education  and  health  and  welfare 
services.  The  general  death  rate  for  the 
Negro  and  other  colored  shows  a  definite 


trend  from  17.7  in  1920  to  11.1  in  1949. 
The  white  death  rate  decreased  from  12.6 
in  1920  to  9.5  in  1949. 

Maternal  and  infant  deaths  show  a  re- 
markable decline  in  rates  for  all  races. 


TABLE  2 
RATES  OF  NEGRO  AND  WHITE  MORTALITY  FROM  ALL  CAUSES  IN  SEPARATE  STATES,  1948 


State 


Population,  19501 


White 


Nonwhite 


Death  Rate  per 
1000,  19482 

White      Nonwhite 


United  States 135,215,000  15,482,000 

New  England 

Maine 910,847  2,927 

New  Hampshire 532,275  967 

Vermont 377,188  559 

Massachusetts 4,625,000  64,000 

Rhode  Island 777,015  14,881 

Connecticut 1,952,327  54,953 

Middle  Atlantic 

New  York 13,902,000  928,000 

New  Jersey 4,557,000  278,000 

Pennsylvania 9,844,000  654,000 

East  North  Central 

Ohio ...                                                       7,476,000  470,000 

Indiana 3,758,439  175,785 

Illinois                                               8,085,000  628,000 

Michigan .                        5,920,000  452,000 

Wisconsin 3,392,691  41,884 

West  North  Central 

Minnesota 2,953,678  28,805 

Iowa.                 2,599,566  21,507 

Missouri      3,640,000  315,000 

North  Dakota 608,448  11,188 

South  Dakota 628,504  24,236 

Nebraska...  1,301,344  24,166 

Kansas 1,828,961  76,338 

South  Atlantic 

Delaware...                                                  273,878  44,207 

Mainland.                          1,954,987  388,014 

District  of  Columbia 518,147  284,031 

Virginia.                                        2,581,642  737,038 

West  Virginia...  1,890,284  115,268 

North  Carolina..                        2,983,110  1,078,819 

South  Carolina 1,293,403  823,624 

Georgia.  2,380,573  1,064,005 

Florida '. 2,166,047  605,258 

East  South  Central 

Kentucky                                                              2,741,930  202,876 

Tennessee.                                                         2,760,250  531,468 

Alabama...                                          2,079,500  982,243 

Mississippi 1,188,429  990,485 

West  South  Central 

Arkansas                                              1,481,508  428,003 

Louisiana  1,796,548  886,968 

Oklahoma...                                                2,032,555  200,796 

Texas. 6,825,000  886,000 

Mountain 

Montana...                                    572,038  18,986 

Idaho..,  581,395  7,242 

Wyoming  284,009  6,520 

Colorado..                                          1,296,653  28,436 

New  Mexico 630,211  50,976 

Arizona.  654,511  95,976 

Utah                                                            676,909  11,953 

Nevada 149,907  10,176 

•  Pacific 

Washington..                             2,316,495  62,468 

Oregon                                                                  1,497,128  24,213 

California.' 9,947,000  639,000 


9.4 

10.9 
11.6 
10.9 
11.2 
10.3 
9.7 

10.7 
9.8 
10.3 

10.0 
9.9 

10.4 
8.9 
9.5 

9.2 
9.9 
10.6 
8.3 
8.8 
9.5 
9.6 

10.2 
9.1 

10.1 
7.8 
8.5 
6.7 
7.1 
7.3 
8.3 

9.0 
8.0 
7.5 
7.9 

7.3 
7.6 
8.2 
7.8 

9.8 
8.3 
8.1 
9.5 
7.9 
8.6 
7.3 
10.0 

9.3 
9.2 
9.4 


11.2 

10.2 

5.2 

5.4 

15.1 

12.3 

9.9 

10.4 
12.9 
11.3 

12.5 

12.8 

11.8 

8.5 

9.3 

12.4 
12.4 
13.7 
10.6 
10.7 
11.7 
12.1 

14.0 
12.1 
10.4 
12.1 
12.6 
9.5 
10.7 
11.5 
11.4 

16.8 
12.4 
11.3 
11.0 

10.3 
11.3 
11.9 
12.2 

16.0 
12.6 
14.1 
10.1 
11.8 
10.1 
10.4 
12.6 

9.9 

11.5 
8.0 


1  Population  figures  from  1950  Census  of  Population,  Preliminary  Reports:  Total  U.S.  and  District  of 
Columbia,  Series  PC-7,  No.  1;  States,  including  District  of  Columbia,  Series  PC-12,  Nos.  1-49. 

2  Crude  rates.  Source  for  1948  deaths:  National  Office  of  Vital  Statistics,  U.S.  Public  Heatlh  Service. 
Rates  based  on  1950  enumerated  populations  and  1948  deaths. 


160 


HEALTH  AND  MEDICAL  FACILITIES 


Maternal  mortality  for  Negroes  has  de- 
creased from  12.8  in  1920  to  2.4  in  1949; 
among  whites,  from  7.6  in  1920  to  0.7 
in  1949.  Infant  mortality  for  Negroes  has 
decreased  from  135.6  in  1920  to  46.8  in 
1949;  among  whites,  from  82.1  in  1920 
to  28.9  in  1949.  Stillbirth  rates  in  the 
table  are  not  complete,  but  a  general  de- 
cline for  the  total  population  is  shown. 
Mortality  by  Separate  States:  Table  2 
shows  population  and  death  rates  for  the 
United  States  and  separate  states,  accord- 
ing to  region  and  by  race.  It  will  be  noted 
that,  with  few  exceptions,  the  higher 
death  rates  for  nonwhites,  mostly  Negroes, 
are  in  states  where  there  is  the  greatest 
concentration  of  Negro  population.  Mor- 
tality among  Negroes  in  some  states  with 


small  Negro  populations  may  be  influ- 
enced by  other  factors,  such  as  living  and 
working  conditions  in  urban  centers. 

Mortality  from  Selected  Causes:  Table 
3  shows  crude  death  rates  for  a  large 
number  of  specific  causes  per  100,000 
of  the  population,  by  race,  for  the  period 
1919-48. 

Most  diseases  show  varying  degrees  of 
decline  for  the  period  1939-41  to  1948, 
but  rates  for  heart  disease,  cancer,  dia- 
betes, puerperal  causes  (total),  and  diar- 
rhea, enteritis,  and  ulceration  of  intes- 
tines have  increased  in  both  races.  Ex- 
ceptions noted  are  a  decline  in  rates  for 
cancer  of  the  breast  among  both  whites 
and  nonwhites,  and  for  cancer  of  female 
genital  organs  among  whites,  and  in  rates 


TABLE  3 

MORTALITY  TRENDS  FOR  SPECIFIC  CAUSES,  BY  RACE,  1919-1948 
(Crude  Death  Rates  per  100,000  Population  x) 


Nonwhite 

White 

Cause  of  Death 

1919-21 

1929-31 

1939-41 

1948 

1919-21 

1929-31 

1939-41 

1948 

Diphtheria  

8.7 

5.6 

1.9 

.75 

16.7 

5.4 

1.1 

.35 

Scarlet  fever  

.82 

.70 

.26 

.03 

4.57 

2.25 

.53 

.05 

Whooping  cough  

17.7 

11.2 

6.7 

2.55 

8.2 

4.3 

2.0 

.55 

Tuberculosis  (all  forms)  .  . 

250.9* 

191.7 

126.4 

78.7 

92.1 

58.1 

36.5 

24.3 

Cancer  and  other  malig- 

nant tumors  

48.9 

56.9 

76.2 

98.4 

87.7 

101.9 

124.0 

139.1 

Cancer    of   digestive    or- 

gans and  peritoneum  .  .  . 

20.0* 

22.8 

30.4 

40.5 

47.5 

51.8 

57.7 

60.4 

Cancer  of  the  breast  

9.9* 

10.6 

13.6 

8.0 

16.1 

19.3 

24.0 

13.6 

Cancer  of  female  genital 

organs  

30.8* 

33.8 

37.8 

38.3 

24.5 

27.5 

31.2 

30.8 

Pneumonia  (all  forms)  

160.7 

140.1 

91.4 

66.4 

107.7 

79.1 

49.7 

35.4 

Diseases  of  the  heart  

160.7 

217.6 

239.2 

263.3 

157.7 

212.4 

290.8 

330.1 

Intracranial  lesions  of  vas- 

cular origin  

86.7 

104.9 

109.7 

108.9 

91.5 

87.1 

86.8 

87.4 

Nephritis  (all  forms)  

110.5 

133.5 

120.3 

84.4 

84.3 

85.0 

75.0 

49.3 

Syphilis  (all  forms)  

40.9 

51.6 

52.3 

27.1 

14.9 

11.6 

9.9 

5.7 

Diabetes  mellitus  

7.5 

12.7 

17.3 

18.3 

16.7 

20.2 

26.8 

27.3 

Pellagra  

18.2 

28.9 

6.3 

.95 

1.3 

2.4 

1.1 

.40 

Malaria  

22.4 

13.8 

5.6 

.50 

1.9 

1.6 

.60 

.10 

Puerperal  causes  (total)  .  .  . 

12.0 

11.6 

7.4 

17.4 

7.0 

6.1 

3.1 

4.2 

Premature  birth  

24.3 

19.5 

17.6 

43.0 

18.4 

16.3 

13.2 

24.8 

Injury  at  birth  

2.2 

3.1 

3.6 

— 

3.9 

5.0 

4.5 

— 

Congenital  malformations  . 

3.1 

2.3 

2.3 

10.9 

6.5 

5.8 

5.0 

13.4 

Diarrhea,  enteritis,  ulcer- 

ation of  intestines  

18.3 

10.6 

6.4 

10.4 

14.4 

6.8 

3.4 

5.5 

Hernia  and  intestinal  ob- 

struction   

12.1 

12.7 

11.3 

8.4 

10.3 

10.1 

8.7 

6.7 

Ulcer  of  the  stomach  and 

duodenum  

4.1 

6.0 

6.2 

4.4 

4.0 

6.2 

6.8 

6.1 

Suicide  

4.1 

5.0 

4.3 

4.1 

12.0 

16.6 

14.9 

12.1 

Motor  vehicle  accidents  .  . 

5.2 

22.0 

25.3 

20.9 

10.8 

26.9 

27.1 

22.3 

Other  accidents  

70.2 

62.4 

51.0 

50.3 

59.0 

52.3 

45.9 

44.4 

Homicide  

— 

40.0 

34.2  f 

30.6 

— 

5.6 

3.2  f 

3.0 

Source:  National  Office  of  Vital  Statistics,  U.S.  Public  Health  Service. 

1  Average  of  rates  for  males  and  females. 

«  For  1920-21,  except  for  digestive  organs  (1921). 

t  For  1939. 


VITAL  STATISTICS 


161 


for  intracranial  lesions  of  vascular  origin, 
which  are  slightly  down  for  nonwhites 
and  up  for  whites. 

Table  4  shows  crude  mortality  rates 
per  100,000  of  the  population  for  10  se- 
lected causes  arranged  by  race  and  rank, 
for  the  year  1948.  It  will  be  noted  that 
categories  for  all  races  are  the  same,  ex- 
cept that  homicide  and  syphilis  for  whites, 
and  motor  vehicle  accidents  and  diabetes 
for  nonwhites,  are  not  in  the  first  10 
causes  of  death. 

Tuberculosis:  The  trend  for  tubercu- 
losis is  shown  in  Table  5.  This  table  pre- 
sents a  graphic  picture  of  the  effective 


treatment  and  control  of  this  disease  in 
the  period  1910-48.  However,  the  death 
rate  for  the  nonwhite  population  is  still 
approximately  two  and  one-half  times 
that  of  the  white  population. 

Life  Expectancy:  Table  6  shows  the 
expectation  of  life  at  birth  and  at  age  40 
in  the  United  States,  according  to  color 
and  sex,  for  selected  periods  from  1900  to 
1944.  With  slight  fluctuation  in  some 
periods,  the  over-all  gain  at  birth  for 
white  males  is  17.7  years  and  for  white 
females  20.4  years;  for  nonwhite  males 
26.0  years  and  for  nonwhite  females  27.9 
years. 


TABLE  4 

MORTALITY  FROM  TEN  SELECTED  CAUSES,  BY  RACE  AND  RANK,  1948 1 
(Crude  rate  per  100,000  population) 


Nonwhite 

White 

Rank 

Cause  of  Death 

Rate 

Rank 

Cause  of  Death 

Rate 

1 

Diseases  of  the  heart 

263.3 

1 

Diseases  of  the  heart 

330.1 

2 

Intracranial  lesions  of 

2 

Cancer  and  other  malig- 

vascular origin 

108.9 

nant  tumors 

139.1 

3 

Cancer  and  other  malignant 

3 

Intracranial  lesions  of 

tumors 

98.4 

vascular  origin 

87.4 

4 

Nephritis  (all  forms) 

84.4 

4 

Nephritis  (all  forms) 

49.3 

5 

Tuberculosis  (all  forms) 

78.7 

5 

Accidents  (except 

motor  vehicle) 

44.4 

6 

Pneumonia 

66.4 

6 

Pneumonia  (all  forms) 

35.4 

7 

Accidents  (except  motor 

7 

Diabetes  mellitus 

27.3 

vehicles) 

50.3 

8 

Premature  birth 

43.0 

8 

Premature  birth 

24.8 

9 

Homicide 

30.6 

9 

Tuberculosis  (all 

forms) 

24.3 

10 

Syphilis  (all  forms) 

27.1 

10 

Motor  vehicle 

accidents 

22.3 

Source:  National  Office  of  Vital  Statistics,  U.S.  Public  Health  Service. 
1  See  Table  3  for  changes  1919  to  1939-41. 

TABLE  5 
DEATH  RATES  FOR  TUBERCULOSIS   (ALL  FORMS)  BY  RACE  AND  SEX,  1910-1948  1 


Year 

Total 

White 

Nonwhite 

Total 

Male 

Female 

Total 

Male 

Female 

1948 

30.0 

24.3 

33.3 

15.4 

78.7 

92.1 

65.4 

1944 

41.3 

33.7 

45.0 

23.3 

106.2 

122.7 

91.3 

1943 

42.6 

34.3 

44.4 

24.7 

112.9 

126.4 

100.0 

1942 

43.1 

34.4 

43.3 

25.6 

118.4 

131.4 

106.0 

1941 

44.5 

35.4 

43.3 

27.4 

124.2 

134.3 

114.5 

1940 

45.8 

36.5 

44.7 

28.2 

127.6 

138.7 

116.9 

1935 

55.1 

44.9 

51.7 

37.8 

145.1 

155.4 

135.0 

1930 

71.1 

57.7 

63.4 

51.9 

192.0 

194.3 

189.8 

1925 

84.8 

71.6 

75.8 

67.2 

221.3 

215.8 

226.7 

1920 

113.1 

99.5 

104.1 

94.8 

262.4 

255.4 

269.6 

1915 

140.1 

128.5 

144.0 

112.2 

401.1 

420.2 

380.5 

1910 

153.8 

145.9 

158.2 

132.8 

445.5 

479.3 

406.8 

Source:  Division  of  Chronic  Disease  and  Tuberculosis  and  National  Office  of  Vital  Statistics,  U.S.  Public 
Health  Service. 

1  Rates  for  death  registration  states. 


162 


HEALTH  AND  MEDICAL  FACILITIES 


Average  remaining  lifetime  in  years  at 
specified  ages,  by  race  and  sex,  in  the 
United  States  for  the  years  1949  and  1948 
is  shown  in  Table  7. 

There  is  a  significant  difference  in  the 
life  span  for  whites  and  nonwhites.  Life 
expectancy  at  birth  among  white  males 


in  1949  exceeded  that  for  non white  males 
by  7.3  years.  Among  white  females  the 
excess  was  8.6  years  over  nonwhite  fe- 
males. 

These  tables  are  unmistakable  evidence 
of  what  a  progressive  nation  can  do  to 
improve  and  extend  the  lives  of  its  people. 


TABLE  6 

LIFE  EXPECTANCY  AT  BIRTH  AND  AT  AGE  40  IN  U.S.,  ACCORDING  TO  COLOR  AND  SEX, 
SELECTED  PERIODS,  1900  TO  1944 


Birth 

Age  40 

Year  or  Period 

White 

Nonwhite1 

White 

Nonwhite1 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females        Males 

Females 

19442 

63.55 

68.95 

58.30 

58.99 

30.39 

33.97 

26.26 

28.92 

19432 

63.16 

68.27 

54.65 

57.97 

29.97 

33.47 

25.83 

28.11 

19422 

63.65 

68.61 

54.28 

58.00 

30.27 

33.86 

25.92 

28.51 

1939-19412 

62.81 

67.29 

52.26 

55.56 

30.03 

33.25 

25.06 

27.19 

1930-19392 

60.62 

64.52 

50.06 

52.62 

29.57 

32.24 

24.65 

26.11 

1929-19312 

59.12 

62.67 

47.55 

49.51 

29.22 

31.52 

23.36 

24.30 

1920-19293 

57.85 

60.62 

46.90 

47.95 

29.35 

30.97 

24.55 

24.67 

1919-1921* 

56.34 

58.53 

47.14 

46.92 

29.86 

30.94 

26.53 

25.60 

1909-1911* 

50.23 

53.62 

34.05 

37.43 

27.43 

29.26 

21.57 

23.34 

1901-1910^ 

49.32 

52.54 

32.57 

35.65 

27.55 

29.28 

22.23 

23.81 

1  900-1  902* 

48.23 

51.08 

32.54 

35.04 

27.74 

29.17 

23.12 

24.37 

Gain:  1900-02  to 
19495 


17.7 


20.4 


26.0 


27.9 


3.16 


6.13 


4.08 


6.03 


Note:  Life  table  fsor  1944,  1943,  and  1942  prepared  in  Statitsical  Bureau  of  Metropolitan  Life  In- 
surance Company;  for  1944  on  basis  of  unpublished  data  furnished  by  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census. 
1  Data  for  periods  from  1900-31  and  1939-41  relate  to  Negroes  only. 
3  Continental  U.S. 
3  Registration  States  of  1920. 
*  Original  Death  Registration  States. 
8  See  Table  7. 

TABLE  7 

LIFE  EXPECTANCY:  AVERAGE  REMAINING  LIFETIME   (IN  YEARS)  AT  SPECIFIED  AGES  BY 
RACE  AND  SEX,  U.  S.,  1949  AND  1948 


Age 

Total 
Popu- 
lation 

1949 

Total 
Popu- 
lation 

1948 

White 

Nonwhite 

White 

Nonwhite 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

0 

67.6 

65.9 

71.5 

58.6 

62.9 

67.2 

65.5 

71.0 

58.1 

62.5 

1 

68.8 

67.1 

72.3 

60.8 

64.7 

68.4 

66.8 

71.9 

60.2 

64.2 

5 

65.2 

63.5 

68.7 

57.5 

61.3 

64.9 

63.2 

68.3 

56.9 

60.8 

10 

60.4 

58.7 

63.9 

52.8 

56.5 

60.1 

58.4 

63.5 

52.1 

56.1 

15 

55.6 

53.9 

59.0 

48.0 

51.7 

55.2 

53.6 

58.6 

47.4 

51.3 

20 

50.9 

49.3 

54.2 

43.5 

47.1 

50.6 

49.0 

53.8 

42.9 

46.8 

25 

46.3 

44.7 

49.4 

39.3 

42.8 

46.0 

44.4 

49.0 

38.7 

42.5 

30 

41.7 

40.0 

44.6 

35.1 

38.5 

41.3 

39.8 

44.3 

34.6 

38.3 

35 

37.1 

35.4 

39.9 

31.0 

34.3 

36.8 

35.2 

39.6 

30.5 

34.2 

40 

32.6 

30.9 

35.3 

27.2 

30.4 

32.3 

30.7 

35.0 

26.8 

30.3 

45 

28.3 

26.7 

30.8 

23.6 

26.8 

28.0 

26.5 

30.5 

23.3 

26.7 

50 

24.2 

22.6 

26.4 

20.5 

23.5 

24.0 

22.4 

26.2 

20.1 

23.4 

55 

20.4 

18.9 

22.3 

17.7 

20.4 

20.2 

18.8 

22.0 

17.5 

20.5 

60 

16.8 

15.5 

18.3 

15.3 

17.7 

16.6 

15.4 

18.1 

15.2 

17.8 

65 

13.5 

12.4 

14.6 

13.1 

15.5 

13.4 

12.4 

14.4 

13.1 

15.7 

70 

10.7 

9.8 

11.3 

11.8 

14.4 

10.6 

9.8 

11.2 

11.5 

14.5 

75 

8.2 

7.5 

8.5 

10.5 

13.2 

8.1 

7.5 

8.3 

10.3 

13.2 

80 

6.0 

5.5 

5.9 

9.4 

12.2 

5.9 

5.4 

5.8 

9.2 

11.9 

85 

4.0 

3.7 

3.7 

8.1 

10.9 

3.9 

3.6 

3.7 

7.6 

10.3 

Source:  National  Office  of  Vital  Statistics,  U.S.  Public  Health  Service. 


NEGROES  IN  MEDICAL  PROFESSIONS 


163 


In  them,  too,  are  indications  of  unmet 
needs  among  the  nonwhite  population, 
which,  as  fulfilled,  will  accelerate  the 
trend  to  a  uniform  rate  for  all. 

Data  concerning  life  expectancy  pub- 
lished August  1951  in  the  Statistical 
Bulletin  of  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insur- 
ance Company,  show  that  in  1950  the 
expectation  of  life  at  birth  for  the  indus- 
trial policy-holders  of  this  company 
reached  an  all-time  high  of  68.3  years,  an 
increase  of  fully  half  a  year  over  the 
figure  for  1949.  The  gain  has  amounted  to 
5%  years  since  1940  and  to  21%  years 
since  1911-12,  when  life  expectancy  at 
birth  in  the  wage-earning  population  was 
46.6  years.  The  Bulletin  stated: 

Each  color  and  sex  group  in  this  insurance 
experience  has  shared  in  the  improvement  in 
longevity  in  the  past  decade,  but  not  in  equal 
measure.  Among  both  the  white  and  the  col- 
ored, females  have  a  more  favorable  record 
than  males.  Among  white  persons  at  age  20, 
for  example,  the  increase  in  average  remain- 
ing life-time  between  1940  and  1950  was  3.7 
years  for  females  and  2.8  years  for  males.  For 
the  colored,  among  whom  the  corresponding 
gains  were  even  greater,  the  increases  were 
5.4  years  for  females  and  5.0  years  for  males. 
This  greater  gain  for  the  colored  than  for  the 
white  has  narrowed  somewhat  the  disparity 
between  the  two  groups.  Nevertheless,  the 
whites  still  have  a  marked  advantage  over  the 
colored  in  expectation  of  life. 

NEGROES  IN  ALLIED 
MEDICAL  PROFESSIONS 

Most  of  the  private  medical,  dental,  and 
nursing  care  of  Negroes  in  the  United 
States  is  rendered  by  members  of  the 
Negro  race.  This  practice  within  the  race 
has  not  been  by  choice,  though  race  con- 
sciousness and  increased  confidence  in 
Negro  doctors  have  increasingly  con- 
tributed to  the  selection  of  a  Negro 
doctor  by  the  Negro  patient.  The  major 
factor  has  been  racial  attitudes  and  cus- 
toms in  some  parts  of  the  nation  which 
restrict  residence  and  activities  of  both 
lay  and  professional  members  of  the 
Negro  group.  For  the  Negro  doctor,  the 


choice  has  been  one  of  professional  and 
economic  survival. 

There  is  a  great  need  for  more  and 
better  training  facilities  to  provide  more 
doctors  and  nurses  and  a  more  equable 
distribution  of  them  to  meet  the  demands 
for  adequate  health  and  medical  services 
in  many  communities,  urban  and  rural. 
The  greatest  concentration  of  doctors  of 
both  races  is  in  large  cities,  which  offer 
the  best  facilities  for  practice  and  the 
most  satisfying  living  conditions  for  the 
doctor  and  his  family. 

Physicians 1 

Table  8  shows  the  total  number  of  all 
physicians  and  of  Negro  physicians,  by 
region  and  state,  with  ratio  of  physicians 
to  units  of  the  population. 

The  total  of  all  physicians  in  the 
United  States,  not  including  those  in 
government  services,  in  1950  was  193,205, 
with  a  ratio  of  780  persons  per  physician. 
The  estimated  number  of  Negro  physi- 
cians for  the  year  1948,  (latest  detailed 
data  available),  was  3,753,  with  a  ratio 
of  3,681  Negro  persons  per  Negro  physi- 
cian. This  1948  ratio  is  approximately 
correct  for  the  year  1950,  since  there 
have  been  only  enough  Negro  medical 
graduates  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of 
Negro  physicians  and  for  the  propor- 
tionate increase  in  Negro  population. 
Hence,  there  are  nearly  five  times  as 
many  Negro  persons  per  Negro  physician 
as  there  are  total  persons,  white  and 
nonwhite  per  physician  in  the  total  num- 
ber of  physicians  in  the  United  States. 

The  largest  deficiency  is  manifest  in 
those  areas  where  comparable  educa- 
tional, economic,  and  cultural  conditions 
are  unfavorable  for  all  persons  but  par- 
ticularly for  the  Negro.  For  example,  the 
number  of  persons  per  physician  in  the 
total  population  of  the  Southern  states 
was  1,146  in  the  year  1948.  In  other  re- 
gions the  number  was  much  less,  varying 
from  520  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  states  to 
867  in  the  East  North  Central  states. 


1  Sources :  American  Medical  Directory,  1950 ;  The  Journal  of  Negro  Education,  Yearbook  Number  18,  Summer 
1949,  "The  Health  Status  and  Health  Education  of  Negroes  in  the  United  States."  Communication  from  Michael  J. 
Bent,  Dean,  School  of  Medicine,  Meharry  Medical  College,  "Distribution  of  Negro  Medical  Students  in  the  United 
States." 


164 


HEALTH  AND  MEDICAL  FACILITIES 


TABLE  8 

TOTAL  POPULATION-PHYSICIAN  RATIOS;  NEGRO  POPULATION  RATIOS  FOR  NEGRO  PHYSICIANS 
AND  NEGRO  DENTISTS;  AND  NUMBER  OF  NEGRO  PHYSICIANS  AND  NEGRO  DENTISTS  IN  U.S. 

FOR  SELECTED  YEARS 

Total   Number        Total  Number        Total  Number        Total  Number        Total  Number 
Region  and  State  Persons  Per        Negro  Persons  Per  Negro  Negro  Persons  Per  Negro 

Physician1  Negro  Physician1          Physicians1  Negro  Dentist2  Dentists2 


South 1,146 

Virginia ,262 

North  Carolina ,556 

South  Carolina ,706 

Georgia ,158 

Florida ,035 

Kentucky ,224 

Tennessee ,078 

Alabama ,036 

Mississippi ,525 

Arkansas 1,104 

Louisiana 743 

Oklahoma 984 

Texas 1,046 

Border  States  and 

District  of 

Columbia 691 

Delaware 876 

Maryland 719 

West  Virginia 1,035 

District  of 

Columbia 370 

New  England 658 

Maine 878 

New  Hampshire.  ...  751 

Vermont 831 

Massachusetts 598 

Rhode  Island 680 

Connecticut 685 

Middle  Atlantic 520 

New  York 496 

New  Jersey 366 

Pennsylvania 697 

East  North  Central .  .  .  867 

Ohio 907 

Indiana 946 

Illinois 711 

Michigan 1,032 

Wisconsin 943 

West  North  Central. . .  850 

Minnesota 730 

Iowa 967 

Missouri 718 

North  Dakota 1,236 

South  Dakota 1,396 

Nebraska 876 

Kansas 1,093 

Mountain 734 

Montana 786 

Idaho 706 

Wyoming 1,233 

Colorado 619 

New  Mexico 1,300 

Arizona 664 

Utah...; 658 

Nevada.:. 728 

Pacific 624 

Washington 1,032 

Oregon 1,016 

California 538 

United  States.  .  .  780 


6,203 

4,453 

5,739 

12,561 

7,384 

4,403 

2,323 

2,352 

8,519 

18,132 

10,830 

10,052 

1,701 

7,828 


1,808 
3,341 
3,496 
1,827 

1,029 

1,668 

548 

1,496 
1,870 
1,910 

2,564 
2,723 
2,386 
2,487 

1,709 
2,222 
1,852 
1,615 
1,339 
1,203 

1,265 
3,920 
1,838 
1,111 


934 

2,024 

3,283 


2,136 
5,139 
3,320 


1,374 
3,316 
3,252 
1,319 


1,572 

168 

178 

68 

147 

145 

91 

233 

116 

57 

44 

92 

100 

133 


425 
12 

102 
65 

246 
68 


41 

6 

20 

533 
222 
109 
202 

707 
172 

76 
263 
185 

11 

294 

3 

10 

231 


15 
35 

13 


141 
3 
1 

137 


15,859 

10,499 

16,632 

20,354 

21,699 

13,185 

7,380 

6,875 

25,876 

37,054 

17,873 

23,592 

8,887 

11,412 


5,142 

7,175 

10,411 

4,529 

2,881 
2,051 


1,846 
3,675 
2,062 

3,837 
3,995 
4,053 
3,742 

4,005 
4,297 
3,810 
3,459 
6,114 
2,026 

4,875 
1,986 
4,174 
5,200 


2,834 
5,922 


5,202 


3,044 
4,672 
7,497 


3,629 
3,712 

3..S52 


584 
63 
59 
40 
50 
39 
29 
74 
38 
29 
27 
36 
19 
81 


125 
5 

29 
26 

65 


30 
3 

16 

330 

143 

56 

131 

267 
79 
32 

112 

38 

6 

72 
5 
4 

47 


35 


3,681 


3,753 


8,745 


1,471 


Sources:  Journal  of  Negro  Education,  Yearbook  Number  18,  Summer  1949,  "The  Health  Status  and 
Health  Education  of  Negroes  in  the  United  States."  The  Journal  of  the  American  Dental  Association. 
June  1,  1947,  "Distribution  of  Negro  Dentists  in  the  United  States." 

1  Year  1948,  latest  figures  available  for  comparison. 

2  Year  1940,  population  Census  figures  and  number  of  Negro  dentists  in  1940  are  used  for  comparison. 
1950  figures  are  not  available;  estimate  of  population  ratios  for  1950  is  about  the  same  as  1940  figures. 


NEGROES  IN  MEDICAL  PROFESSIONS 


165 


Among  Negroes,  in  1948;  the  ratio  in  the 
Southern  states  was  6,203  Negro  persons 
per  Negro  physician;  in  other  regions, 
the  number  ranged  from  1,265  in  the 
West  North  Central  states  to  3,283  in  the 
Mountain  states.  It  is  apparent  that  the 
differences  are  both  regional  and  racial. 
The  total  number  of  medical  graduates 
from  all  approved  medical  schools  in  the 
United  States,  July  1,  1950,  to  June  30, 
1951,  was  6,135.  The  number  of  Negro 
medical  graduates  in  1950-51  was  143, 
assuming  that  all  enrolled  senior  Negro 
medical  students  graduated.  There  is  en- 
couragement in  the  slight  but  significant 
increase  in  the  total  enrollment  of  Negro 
medical  students  from  653  in  44  of  the 
72  approved  medical  schools  in  1949-50 
to  661  in  45  of  these  schools  in  1950-51 
(not  including  Temple  University,  which 
had  9  Negro  students  in  1949-50  but  for 
which  1950-51  figures  are  not  available). 
Whereas  518  of  the  661  Negro  medical 
students  were  in  Howard  University  Col- 
lege of  Medicine  'and  Meharry  Medical 
College  School  of  Medicine,  the  other  143 
were  enrolled  in  43  mixed  institutions, 
admitting  white  and  colored  students.  In 
1938-39,  there  were  only  45  Negro  med- 
ical students  enrolled  in  mixed  schools. 

Pharmacists 

Data  for  pharmacists,  recognized  as  an 
important  member  of  the  medical  service 
team,  are  not  available.  There  is  a  large 
number  of  Negro  pharmacists,  many  of 
whom  are  proprietors  of  modern  drug 
stores.  Some  operate  pharmacies  limited 
to  prescription  service  only. 

Dentists1 

Conditions  similar  to  those  affecting 
Negro  physicians  are  presented  in  statis- 
tics of  professional  dental  training  and 
available  dental  services  for  Negroes.  The 
total  of  all  dentists  in  the  United  States 
in  1950  was  84,301  (not  including  den- 
tists in  government  services),  with  a  ratio 
of  1,777  persons  of  the  total  population 


per  dentist.  Table  8  shows  the  number 
of  Negro  dentists  and  the  Negro  popula- 
tion to  Negro  dentist  ratios  for  the  year 
1940.  The  ratio  in  1940  was  8,745  persons 
per  Negro  dentist.  The  U.S.  ratio  of  popu- 
lation to  dentists  was  1,865. 

In  1945,  a  total  of  1,533  Negro  dentists 
was  reported,  a  gain  of  4.2%  over  the 
year  1940.  However,  this  slight  increase 
was  approximately  proportionate  to  the 
increase  in  the  Negro  population  for  the 
same  period.  The  estimated  number  of 
Negro  dentists  in  1950  was  1,650,  with  a 
ratio  of  9,383  Negro  persons  per  Negro 
dentist.  The  number  of  Negro  persons 
per  Negro  dentist  is  more  than  five  times 
the  number  of  persons  in  the  total  popu- 
lation (white  and  nonwhite)  per  dentist 
in  the  total  number  of  dentists  in  the 
United  States.  There  is  approximately  the 
same  ratio  between  Negro  dentists  and 
Negro  persons,  and  Negro  physicians  and 
Negro  persons.  Also  it  is  noted  that  the 
Negro  population  ratio  in  the  Southern 
states  is  greater  for  Negro  dentists  than 
it  is  for  Negro  physicians.  And,  as  for  all 
dentists,  white  and  Negro,  the  greatest 
concentration  is  in  the  larger  cities,  which 
offer  more  attractive  conditions  for  prac- 
tice and  better  community  life. 

The  trend  toward  a  larger  number  of 
students  enrolling  in  dental  schools  is 
encouraging  in  view  of  the  need  of  many 
more  dentists  to  meet  the  demands  for 
adequate  dental  care.  The  Negro  has 
shared  this  increase  to  some  extent  in 
recent  years  through  admission  of  Negro 
students  to  dental  schools  which  formerly 
did  not  admit  them.  More  than  three- 
fourths  of  all  Negro  dental  students  are 
enrolled  in  Howard  University  and 
Meharry  Medical  College  Schools  of 
Dentistry,  which  have  trained  and  gradu- 
ated most  of  the  Negro  dentists  in  the 
United  States. 

Nurses" 

Recent  data  on  Negro  nurses  as  a  sepa- 
rate group  in  the  total  number  of  profes- 


*  Sources :  American  Dental  Directory,  1950  (American  Dental  Association) .  The  Journal  of  Negro  Education, 
arbook  Number  18,  Summer  1949,  "The  Health  Status  and  Health  Education  of  Negroes  in  the  United  States." 
"Source:  "1950  Facts  about  Nursing"  (A  Statistical  Summary). 


166 


HEALTH  AND  MEDICAL  FACILITIES 


sional  nurses  are  not  available  except  in 
a  few  categories. 

The  National  Association  of  Colored 
Graduate  Nurses,  professional  organiza- 
tion of  Negro  nurses,  was  discontinued 
with  the  integration  of  Negro  nurses  in 
the  American  Nurses  Association  of  the 
United  States  and  state  affiliates,  includ- 
ing most  of  the  southern  states. 

A  statistical  summary  of  professional 
nurses  for  January  1,  1950,  reports  a 
total  of  506,050  in  the  year  1949.  The 
estimated  number  of  Negro  nurses  was 
9,000.  The  number  of  Negro  students  in 
nursing  schools  was  3,076.  During  1949, 
a  total  of  1,383  Negro  students  were  ad- 
mitted to  schools  of  nursing  and  507 
were  graduated.  The  number  of  schools 
admitting  Negro  students  increased  from 
76  in  1946  to  207  in  1950. 

HOSPITALS1 

Passage  of  the  Hospital  Survey  and  Con- 
struction Act  in  August  1946  by  the  U.S. 
Congress,  which  was  implemented  by 
Federal-state  appropriations,  has  given 
great  impetus  to  the  provision  of  needed 
hospital  beds.  The  plans  of  the  state  hos- 
pital commissions  must  conform  to  regu- 
lations issued  by  the  Surgeon-General  of 
the  U.S.  Public  Health  Service  and  the 
Federal  Hospital  Council.  A  Negro  hos- 
pital administrator  is  a  technical  member 
of  the  Council. 

This  hospital  program  has  materially 
changed  the  outlook  for  adequate  hos- 
pital facilities  for  the  nation's  population, 
including  the  Negro,  on  an  equable  basis. 
To  be  eligible  for  Federal  aid  under  the 
act,  a  hospital  must  either  accept  Negro 
patients  or  give  assurance  that  separate 
hospital  facilities  will  be  available  for 
Negroes  in  the  area.  Moreover,  these 
separate  facilities  must  be  equal  to  the 
proportion  of .  the  Negro  group  in  the 
total  population  of  the  area.  For  example, 
suppose  a  community  with  a  population 


of  50%  white  and  50%  colored  has  100 
hospital  beds,  30  of  which  are  for  Ne- 
groes and  70  for  whites.  If  the  state  survey 
indicates  that  the  community  needs  100 
additional  beds,  the  state  plan  must  pro- 
vide 70  beds  for  Negroes  and  not  over  30 
beds  for  whites. 

The  chapter  on  "Hospital  Services  for 
Negroes"  in  the  report  of  the  Commission 
on  Hospital  Care  in  the  United  States 
(The  Commonwealth  Fund,  1947)  con- 
tains the  following  recommendations: 

1.  That   adequate   and  competent  hospital 
care  should  be  available  without  restriction  to 
all  people  regardless  of  race,  creed,  color,  or 
economic  status. 

2.  That  facilities  for  the  care  of  Negro  pa- 
tients should  be   provided  in  hospitals  that 
serve  white  patients  rather  than  in  separate 
hospitals.    In    those    communities    in    which 
segregation  is  required  by  law,  as  good  hos- 
pital service  should  be  maintained  for  Negro 
patients  as  is  provided  for  white  patients. 

Figures  for  all  hospital  beds  in  the 
United  States  as  of  Jan.  1,  1951  (number 
of  existing  beds,  net  additional  beds,  and 
total  beds  needed),  by  geographical  re- 
gion, are  recorded,  but  the  number  of 
beds  allocated  specifically  for  Negroes  is 
not  available.  Many  conditions  influence 
Negro  bed  capacity  in  hospitals,  north 
and  south.  Even  in  states  where  segrega- 
tion is  legally  required,  data  are  not 
constant  because  of  regulatory  policies 
and,  primarily  now,  because  of  hospital 
facilities  progressively  becoming  avail- 
able under  the  Hospital  Survey  and  Con- 
struction Act.  In  the  North,  too,  policy 
and  custom  often  determine  the  occu- 
pancy of  beds  by  Negroes. 

Many  surveys  of  Negro  hospitals  have 
been  made,  but  the  figures  produced  vary 
to  such  extent  that  they  are  not  depend- 
able. For  example,  one  survey  of  124 
Negro  hospitals  in  23  states  in  1944  2 
recorded  less  than  10,000  beds.  A  later 
listing  of  beds  in  Negro  hospitals  in  1947  * 
reported  20,336  beds  in  105  hospitals. 
Partial  returns  from  a  preliminary  survey 
of  Negro  hospital  beds  by  the  Office  of 


1  Source:  "What  the  Hospital  Act  Means  to  Negroes,"  National  Negro  Health  News,  Public  Health  Service,  Vol.  15, 
No.  2,  April-June  1947. 

2  Source:  "Health  Hospitals,   and  the  Negro,"  Modern  Hospital,  August  1945;   "Communication  on  Hospitals  for 
Negroes,"  American  Medical  Association,  Jan.  6,  1947. 

3  American  Medical  Association,  Jan.  6,  1947. 


HOSPITALS 


167 


Negro  Health  Work,  Public  Health  Ser- 
vice, 1948-49,  show  the  following  results: 
Now  in  use — beds,  33,390;  bassinets, 
1,000.  Under  construction — beds,  1,515; 
bassinets,  185.  Planned — beds,  8,781; 
bassinets,  839.  These  figures  do  not  in- 
clude a  large  number  of  beds  occupied 
by  Negroes  in  mental  and  tuberculosis 
hospitals.  The  range  in  numbers  of  beds 
in  hospitals  listed  was  from  a  few  beds  in 
some  individual  proprietary  hospitals  or 
clinics  to  hundreds  in  some  corporate 
and  community  hospitals  and  thousands 
in  some  state  and  municipal  hospitals. 

TABLE  9 

PARTIAL  LIST  OF  NEGRO  HOSPITALS 
APPROVED  FOR  FEDERAL  CONSTRUCTION 
FUNDS  UNDER  HlLL-BURTON  PROGRAM 


Hospital 

Estimated 
Total 
Cost 

Approved 
Federal 
Share 

Blessed  Martin  de  Porres 
Hosp.,  Mobile,  Ala  
Florida  A.&M.  College 
Hosp.,  Tallahassee,  Fla. 
Americus  Sumter  Colored 
Hosp.,  Americus,  Ga.  .  . 
Grady  Memorial  Hosp., 
Negro  Unit,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
Provident  Hosp.  Training 
School,  Chicago,  111  
Community  Hosp., 
Evanston,  111  

$    611,425 

1,923,119 
199,400 
.  1,717,984 
527,000 
940,000 

$    195,475 
641,039 
109,670 
1,030,790 
204,476 
364,720 

Red  Cross  Hosp., 
Louisville,  Ky  

650,964 

423,476 

Lincoln  Hosp., 
Durham,  N.C  

758,000 

333,520 

St.  Agnes  Hosp., 
Raleigh,  N.C.  .  

86,356 

36,924 

Good  Samaritan  Waverly 
Hosp.,  Columbia,  S.C.  . 

219,249 

129,102 

Source:  Hospital  Facilities  Division  Report,  Oct. 
31,  1951,  Federal  Security  Agency,  Public  Health 
Service. 

Note:  The  designation  "Negro  hospital"  is  not 
the  policy  or  the  practice  of  the  Federal  Security 
Agency  and  Public  Health  Service.  However,  Negro 
hospitals  are  eligible  for  Federal  construction  funds 
if  these  hospitals  meet  the  requirements  for  ap- 
proval. 

Most  of  these  smaller  hospitals  do  not 
meet  the  standards  prescribed  for  ap- 
proval, but  many  of  the  larger  and  better 
hospitals  do  meet  all  requirements. 

Three  major  factors  will  determine  the 
completion  of  the  projected  hospital  pro- 


gram for  the  nation:  Appropriated 
monies,  availability  of  building  materials, 
hospital  equipment,  and  supplies,  and  the 
time  necessary  for  the  construction  and 
occupancy  of  hospitals.  But  there  is  as- 
surance that  within  a  reasonably  short 
period  there  will  be  a  hospital  bed  for 
every  need. 

A  very  important  factor  in  the  hospital 
situation  is  the  lack  of  opportuniites  for 
Negro  professional  persons  on  the  med- 
ical, surgical,  and  supervisory  staffs  of 
hospitals,  even  in  hospitals  in  the  South 
which  maintain  separate  facilities  for 
Negroes.  There  have  been  some  gains, 
north  and  south,  but  a  more  liberal  policy 
and  practice  are  necessary  to  provide 
these  opportunities  on  the  basis  of  merit 
not  restricted  by  consideration  of  race. 

Partial  List  of  Negro  Hospitals 
With  Fifty  Beds  or  More1 

Brewster  Hospital 

Jacksonville,  Fla. 
Burrell  Memorial  Hospital 

Roanoke,  Va. 
Charity  Hospital 

Savannah,  Ga. 
Collins  Chapel  Connectional  Hospital 

Memphis,  Tenn. 
Community  Hospital 

Wilmington,  N.C. 
Douglass  Hospital 

Kansas  City,  Kans. 
Edith  K.  Thomas  Memorial  Hospital 

Detroit,  Midi. 
Fairview  Sanitarium 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Flint-Goodridge  Hospital  of  Dillard  University 

New  Orleans,  La. 
Florida  A.  &  M.  College  Hospital 

Tallahassee,  Fla. 
Freedmen's  Hospital 

Washington,  D.C. 

George  W.  Hubbard  Hospital  of  Meharry  Med- 
ical College 

Nashville,  Tenn. 
Georgia  Infirmary 

Savannah,  Ga. 
Good  Samaritan  Hospital 

Selma,  Ala. 
Good  Samaritan  Hospital 

Charlotte,  N.C. 
Good  Samaritan-Waverly  Hospital 

Columbia,  S.C. 
The  Good  Shepherd  Hospital 

New  Bern,  N.C. 
Homer  G.  Phillips  Hospital 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 


1  Taken  from  a  list  of  132  hospitals  of  record.  The  larger  number  of  Negro  hospitals  have  less  than  50  beds. 
Most  of  the  larger  and  some  of  the  smaller  Negro  hospitals  are  members  of  the  National  Conference  of  Hospital 
Administrators.  These  hospitals  do  not  incude  those  which  admit  and  serve  Negro  patients  in  the  same  buidings  anil 
not  in  separate  Negro  units.  In  some  hospitals  Negro  patients  are  restricted  tc  certain  areas — wings,  floors,  or  wards. 
Some  hospitals  having  a  majority  of  Negro  patients  and  staff  members  are  called  interracial  hospitals. 


168 


HEALTH  AND  MEDICAL  FACILITIES 


Houston  Negro  Hospital 

Houston,  Texas 
John  A.  Andrew  Memorial  Hospital 

Tuskegee  Institute,  Ala. 
Kansas  City  General  Hospital  No.  2 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Kate  Bitting  Reynolds  Memorial  Hospital 

Winston-Salem,  N.C. 
L.  Richardson  Memorial  Hospital 

Greensboro,  N.C. 
Lincoln  Hospital 

Durham,  N.C. 
Mary  Lawson  Sanatorium 

Palatka,  Fla. 
Mercy-Douglass  Hospital 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Norfolk  Community  Hospital 

Norfolk,  Va. 
Parkside  Hospjtal 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Peoples'  Hospital 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Prairie  View  State  College  Hospital 

Prairie  View,  Texas 
Provident  Hospital  and  Free  Dispensary 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Provident  Hospital  and  Training  School  for 
Nurses 

Chicago,  111. 
Red  Cross  Hospital 

Louisville,  Ky. 
St.  Agnes  Hospital 

Raleigh,  N.C. 
St.  Mary's  Infirmary 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Searcy  Hospital 

Mount  Vernon,  Ala. 
Tampa  Negro  Hospital 

Tampa,  Fla. 
Trinity  Hospital 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Veterans'  Administration  Hospital 

Tuskegee,  Ala. 
Wayne  Diagnostic  Hospital 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Wheatley- Provident  Hospital 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Whittaker  Memorial  Hospital 

Newport  News,  Va. 
William  A.  Harris  Memorial  Hospital 

Atlanta,  Ga. 

PUBLIC  HEALTH 

Although  the  Negro  people  have  been 
beneficiaries  of  many  procedures  and 
practices  of  public  health,  they  have  not 
shares  the  available  facilities  or  oppor- 
tunities in  a  measure  comparable  to  their 
needs. 

In  recent  years  more  facilities  have 
been  provided  Negroes  both  in  separate 
and  in  integrated  services;  and  some 
qualified  Negro  individuals  have  been 
trained  in  public  health  and  placed  in 
useful  and  responsible  positions.  Al- 
though very  limited  in  number,  there  are 


Negro  doctors,  nurses,  and  technical  and 
clerical  personnel  in  official  health  de- 
partments and  health  centers,  voluntary 
health  agencies,  school  health  systems, 
and  other  organizations  which  employ 
health  workers.  The  largest  number  of 
Negroes  employed  in  public  health  acti- 
vities are  nurses.  Doctors  are  relatively 
few,  and  most  of  their  service  is  in 
clinics.  Schools  employ  a  considerable 
number  of  Negro  physicians,  dentists, 
dental  hygienists,  and  nurses.  The  num- 
ber of  Negro  health  educators  is  growing. 
In  recent  years  fellowships  available 
from  various  sources  for  training  in 
health  education  were  available  in  part 
to  qualified  Negro  applicants.  No  funds 
have  been  available  from  voluntary 
sources  in  the  past  few  years,  but  state  de- 
partments of  health  may  use  Federal-state 
funds  for  the  training  of  qualified  persons 
who  will  be  employed  by  that  state's  health 
department  upon  completion  of  training. 

National  Negro  Health 
Movement 

One  of  the  most  active  and  productive 
agencies  for  the  improvement  of  the 
health  of  the  Negro  was  the  National 
Negro  Health  Movement,  the  year-round 
extension  and  development  of  National 
Negro  Health  Week,  founded  in  1915  by 
Booker  T.  Washington.  At  that  time,  Dr. 
Washington  inspired  public  and  private 
agencies  to  join  forces  in  an  effort  to 
improve  the  health  of  the  Negro  people 
through  education  in  healthful  living. 
Information  was  disseminated  through 
churches,  schools,  civic  groups,  and 
health  agencies.  One  week  in  April,  cov- 
ering Dr.  Washington's  birthday,  was 
set  aside  for  intensive  effort.  National 
Negro  Health  Week  became  a  rallying 
point  for  sponsoring  and  participating 
groups  and  agencies  and  for  program 
evaluation. 

In  1930,  the  Annual  Health  Week  Con- 
ference passed  a  resolution  establishing 
the  program  on  a  year-round  basis  and 
changing  the  name  to  the  National  Negro 
Health  Movement.  Health  Week,  how- 
ever, continued  to  be  observed.  An  execu- 


PUBLIC  HEALTH 


169 


tive  committee,  composed  of  a  representa- 
tive from  each  of  the  sponsoring  agencies 
(Tuskegee  Institute,  Howard  University, 
the  National  Medical  Association,  and 
the  National  Negro  Insurance  Associa- 
tion), was  formed  to  plan  the  program 
and  activities.  From  1932  to  1950,  the 
Public  Health  Service  supported  the 
National  Negro  Health  Movement,  sup- 
plying staff,  facilities,  and  materials  for 
nation-wide  activities  recommended  by 
the  executive  committee. 

The  program  of  the  Movement  had  10 
major  objectives: 

1.  Consultation  with  state  health  officers  to 
learn  at  first-hand  the  public  health  problems 
relating  to  the  colored  population. 

2.  Contact  with  states  and  local  Negro  or- 
ganizations to  secure  their  aid  in  promotion  of 
the  health  the   Negro  and  their  support  of 
measures  sponsored  by  state  and  local  health 
authorities. 

3.  Stimulation  of  the  training  and  employ- 
ment  of  Negro   public  health   personnel  by 
state  and  local  health  departments  and  other 
agencies. 

4.  Consistent  efforts  to  elevate  the  stand- 
ards of  training  for  Negro  personnel  and  to 
induce  persons  with  good  educational  back- 
ground and  aptitude  to  fit  themselves  for  pub- 
lice  health  work. 

5.  Special  efforts  to  emphasize  health  work 
in  Negro  schools  and  to  encourage  the  em- 
ployment of  trained  personnel  for  health  work 
in  the  schools. 

6.  Maintenance  of  a  comprehensive  register 
of  speakers  qualified  to  give  talks  on  public 
health  subjects. 

7.  Establishment  in  the  central  office  of  the 
National  Negro  Health  Movement  of  a  list  of 
qualified  Negro  health  workers. 

8.  The    development    of    a    depository    of 
health   information   relating   to   the    colored 
population,   to    include    an    abstracting    and 
reference  section. 

9.  Analysis  of  Census  data  and  vital  sta- 
tistics to  determine  the  distribution  of  popula- 


tion  and   the  nature   and  extent   of  health 
problems. 

10.  Promotion  of  National  Negro  Health 
Week  as  a  period  for  emphasis  on  the  general 
health  status  of  the  Negro  population  and  the 
program  for  health  improvement. 

The  Office  of  Negro  Health  Work  of 
the  Public  Health  Service  was  an  out- 
growth of  the  program.  It  was  discon- 
tinued in  1950  in  keeping  with  the  policy 
and  practice  of  integration  prescribed  by 
the  Administrator  of  the  Federal  Security 
Agency  and  directed  by  the  Surgeon- 
General  of  the  Public  Health  Service.  It 
was  succeeded  by  the  Special  Programs 
Branch,  whose  duties  are  concerned  with 
all  minority  groups  and  intercultural 
relations  during  the  transition  from 
separate  health  activities  by  race  to  uni- 
form, comprehensive  health  programs  for 
all  people  without  racial  distinction. 

Dr.  Roscoe  C.  Brown  and  other  per- 
sonnel of  the  Division  of  Public  Health 
Education,  Public  Health  Service,  will 
continue  to  give  consultative  services  to 
Negro  groups  in  their  communities.  The 
Special  Programs  Branch  will  continue 
to  serve  as  a  clearing-house  of  informa- 
tion on  state  and  community  health  pro- 
grams, health  education  materials,  and 
programs  available  for  Negro  groups. 

The  National  Negro  Health  News, 
published  since  1933  as  the  medium  for 
program  promotion  and  recording  of 
data  on  the  health  of  the  Negro,  was 
discontinued  with  the  April-June  1950 
issue.  Data  of  the  kind  formerly  pub- 
lished in  this  periodical  will  be  issued 
in  publications  which  cover  larger  areas 
of  the  organization  and  activities  of  the 
Public  Health  Service. 


74 
Housing 


PROBLEMS  IN  HOUSING 
MINORITIES 

Negroes  and  certain  other  minorities 
experience  distinct  difficulties  in  obtain- 
ing decent  housing  beyond  those  of  other 
groups.  Though  the  walls  are  expanding, 
Negroes  are  still,  for  the  most  part, 
hemmed  in  by  ghettos  and  do  not  have 
fair  access  to  the  total  housing  supply. 
Many  problems  remain  to  be  resolved 
before  minorities  can  fully  exercise  their 
right  to  live  and  rear  their  families  in  a 
decent  home  and  suitable  living  environ- 
ment according  to  choice  and  ability  to 
pay.  This  right  derives  from  Section  1  of 
the  Civil  Rights  Act  of  1866,  which  pro- 
vides: "All  citizens  of  the  United  States 
shall  have  the  same  right,  in  every  State 
and  Territory,  as  is  enjoyed  by  white 
citizens  thereof  to  inherit,  purchase, 
lease,  sell,  hold,  and  convey  real  and 
personal  property." 

Land  restrictions,  negative  community 
attitudes,  and  the  traditional  practices  of 
real  estate  operators,  home-loan  lenders, 
home  builders,  and  homeowners  all  serve 
to  limit  the  supply  of  housing  available 
to  racial  minorities,  to  induce  dispropor- 
tionate overcrowding,  and  to  lower  the 
quality  and  increase  the  price  of  housing 
available  to  them.  The  following  is  a 
summary  of  the  consequences: 

1)  The   complexity   of   racially   restrictive 
residential  processes  serves  to  constrict  within 
"racial   ghettos"   an   ever-expanding   popula- 
tion. The  consequences  are  overcrowding,  de- 
terioration, and  blight,  which  become  asso- 
ciated with  race  instead  of  with  underlying 
social  and  economic  factors. 

2)  A  veritable  mountain  of  evidence   de- 
scribes these  "ghettos"  as  constituting  a  drain 
upon  the  economic,  political,  social,  and  gpir- 
itual  resources  of  the  entire  community.  The 
high  incidence  of  communicable  disease,  juve- 


nile delinquency,  and  crime  clearly  associated 
with  these  areas  affects  all  families  in  the  city 
and  is  reflected  in  inordinate  costs  to  the 
taxpayer  for  the  maintenance  of  social  insti- 
tutions to  combat  these  effects,  and  the  prop- 
erty deterioration  in  these  neighborhoods  af- 
fects the  tax  structure  of  the  entire  city. 

3)  The  artificially  discriminating  housing 
market   created   by   enforced   residential   re- 
strictions by  race  is  subject  to  exploitation  by 
many    dealers   in   property,   affecting   values 
throughout  the  city. 

4)  Residential  stratification  by  race  gener- 
ates group  racial  attitudes  and  antagonisms 
by  preventing  normal  contact  and  appraisal  of 
individuals    on    merit,    in    turn    preventing 
mutual    respect    and    understanding.    Racial 
tensions  are  traceable  all  along  the  margins  of 
the  "ghetto"  and  resulting  conflicts  have  their 
repercussions  throughout  the  community. 

5)  Residential  restrictions  by  race  serve  to 
conditions  school  systems,  the  use  of  other 
community  services,  employment,  transporta- 
tion, etc.,  and  to  maintain  an  easily  exploitable 
market  for  inferior  consumer  goods  and  rela- 
tively  high   prices.   Associated   problems  re- 
verberate in  every  home  in  the  community. 

6)  The    existence    and    crystallization    of 
"racial  islands"  and  the  costly  maintenance  of 
buffer  areas  thwart  sound  city  planning  and 
healthy    community    development,    including 
sound  and  economic  housing  and  redevelop- 
ment programs.  Since  there  are  practically  no 
other  places  open  to  families  displaced  from 
urban    areas   designated   for   redevelopment, 
city  improvements  of  benefit  to  everyone  are 
inordinately  delayed  and  often  precluded. 

7.  Narrow    vested    interests    are    created 
within  as  well  as  without  the  "ghetto."  The 
"ghetto"  businessmen,  politicians,  ministers, 
property  owners,  and  others  gain  a  stake  in 
keeping  the  "ghetto"  intact.  Many  real  estate 
operators,  controllers  of  "underworld"  enter- 
prises, politicians,  and  others  living  outside 
the  "ghetto"  find  its  preservation  highly  profit- 
able to  them.  Homeowners,  general  business, 
city  administrations,  and  the  moral  leadership 
of  the  total  community  are  the  sufferers. 

8.  Private  builders  or  developers  can  find 
virtually  no  building  sites  outside  the  "ghetto" 
upon  which  they  can,  without  opposition,  con- 
struct decent  homes  open  to  minority-group 
families;   thus,  this  untapped  and  profitable 
market  goes  begging. 


170 


HOUSING  SITUATION  AMONG  NEGROES 


171 


9.  Neighborhoods  stratified  by  race,  re- 
ligion, or  income  create  a  species  of  neighbor- 
hood "isolationism,"  induce  political  racism, 
weaken  national  unity  at  the  community  level, 
and  stultify  our  nation,  leading  advocate  of 
the  democratic  way  of  life. 

Minorities  are  currently  represented 
in  virtually  all  income  sectors  of  the 
population  and,  of  necessity,  feel  the 
full  impact  of  every  aspect  of  the  national 
housing  problem.  Although  still  heavily 
concentrated  in  large  proportions  among 
the  lower-income  families  eligible  for 
subsidized  public  housing  and  among  the 
dwellers  of  slum  and  blighted  areas 
marked  for  clearance  and  redevelopment, 
an  ever-increasing  number  of  Negroes 
and  other  minorities  are  to  be  found  in 
the  vast  middle-income  group  whose 
housing  requirements  constitute  the 
broadest  and  most  stable  private-enter- 
prise market  for  new  as  well  as  existing 
standard  housing. 

During  and  since  World  War  II,  thou- 
sands of  new  dwellings  have  been  made 
available  to  racial  minorities  through  the 
activities  of  private  builders,  lenders, 
and  real  estate  operators,  among  which 
Negro  representatives  themselves  have 
contributed  in  considerable  measure. 
Much  of  this  progress  has  been  due  to 
the  active,  continuing  efforts  of  the 
HHFA,  through  the  Office  of  the  Admin- 
istrator and  the  FHA. 

More  and  more  in  communities  both 
north  and  south  representatives  of  Ne- 
groes and  other  minorities  are  found 
among  those  encouraging  local  responsi- 
bility for  adequate  solution  to  local  hous- 
ing problems  consistent  with  the  view- 
points and  best  interests  of  all  significant 
elements  of  the  total  community. 

HOUSING  SITUATION 
AMONG  NEGROES 

The  second  complete  census  of  housing 
in  the  nation's  history  was  taken  April, 
1950  as  part  of  'the  regular  decennial 
census.  Since  final  tabulations  will  not  be 
available  until  late  1952,  the  Census 


Bureau  has  released  preliminary  data 
tabulated  from  a  sample,  which  indicates 
within  calculable  limits  what  the  final 
summaries  will  show.1  The  increases  in 
urbanization,  interregional  shifts,  and 
money  earnings  of  the  nonwhite  popula- 
tion from  1940  to  1950  have  affected  the 
housing  situation  as  described  below: 

Home  Ownership:  The  number  of  non- 
farm  dwelling  units  occupied  by  non- 
whites  increased  by  31%  between  1940 
and  1950,  approximately  the  same  as  for 
all  such  units.  While  the  proportion  of 
ownership  for  white  groups  remains 
higher  than  for  nonwhites,  the  rate  of 
increase  has  been  greater  among  non- 
whites.  Between  1940  and  1950,  the  pro- 
portion of  urban  white  ownership  in- 
creased from  39%  to  52%,  or  one-third, 
compared  to  urban  nonwhites  from  20% 
to  33%,  or  two-thirds. 

Home  Value:  Home  values  for  non- 
white  owner-occupants  were  generally 
far  lower  than  for  whites  and  nonwhites 
combined.  In  urban  areas  the  medium 
value  of  all  one-dwelling  unit  structures 
was  $8,400  but  it  was  only  $3,700  for 
nonwhite  owners.  Some  65%  of  nonwhite 
owners  of  one-dwelling  unit  structures  in 
urban  areas  estimated  that  their  homes 
would  sell  for  less  than  $5,000  while  90% 
of  such  owners  in  rural  nonfarm  areas 
estimated  that  their  homes  would  sell  for 
less  than  the  same  amount.  Further,  one- 
fourth  of  nonwhite  homeowners  in  urban 
areas  and  three-fifths  of  such  owners  in 
rural  areas  estimated  that  their  dwellings 
would  sell  for  less  than  $2,000. 

Rent:  The  medium  gross  rent  (in- 
cludes cost  of  water,  electricity,  gas,  and 
other  fuel,  excludes  any  charges  for  use 
of  furniture)  for  renter-occupied  non- 
farm  dwelling  units  in  1950  was  $42, 
55%  higher  than  in  1940,  when  it  was 
$27.  For  nonwhite  renters  it  nearly 
doubled,  increasing  from  $14  to  $27.  In 
urban  areas  the  median  gross  rent  for 
whites  was  $44  and  for  nonwhites  $31. 
Whereas  nearly  two-thirds  of  nonwhite 

(Continued  on  page  174) 


1 1950  Census  of  Housing,   Preliminary  Reports,   "Housing   Characteristics  of  the  United   States";   April   1,    1950. 
Series  HC-5,  No.  1. 


172 


HOUSING 


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HOUSING  SITUATION  AMONG  NEGROES 


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174 


HOUSING 


renters  paid  less  than  $20  a  month  in 
1940,  less  than  a  third  fell  in  that  cate- 
gory in  1950.  However,  nearly  70%  of 
nonwhite  renters  living  in  rural  nonfarm 
dwellings  still  paid  less  than  $20  per 
month  in  1950.  Approximately  two-thirds 
of  the  nonwhite  renters  in  urban  areas 
paid  less  than  $40  in  1950. 

Overcrowding:  There  was  a  small  de- 
crease in  overcrowding  in  occupied  non- 
farm  dwelling  units  from  1940  to  1950. 
The  percentage  of  all  occupied  units  with 
1.51  or  more  persons  per  room  was  5.5; 
for  nonwhite  occupied  units  it  was  18.2; 
in  1940,  the  percentages  were  7.1  and 
18.4  respectively.  The  only  increase  in 
percentage  during  the  ten-year  period 
was  for  the  nonwhite  renter-occupied 
group:  1940,  20.2%;  1950,  22.8%.  A 
comparison  of  the  1950  percentages  of 
overcrowding  in  all  owner-  and  renter- 
occupied  units  with  those  occupied  by 
nonwhites  reveals  a  significantly  large 
difference:  All  owner-occupied  units, 
3.1%;  nonwhite  owner-occupied,  9.6%. 
All  renter-occupied  units,  8.3%;  non- 
white  renter-occupied,  22.8%. 

Condition;  Plumbing  Facilities:  In 
1950,  homes  for  nonwhite  families  con- 
tinued to  show  a  greater  need  for  im- 
provement than  those  for  white  families. 
Thus,  including  only  nonfarm  units,  27% 
of  homes  of  nonwhite  families  were  di- 
lapidated as  compared  to  7%  for  all 
families,  both  nonwhite  and  white;  and 
24%  of  homes  of  nonwhite  families  were 
urban  units  not  dilapidated  but  lacking 
running  water,  private  toilet,  or  bath,  as 
compared  to  10%  for  white  and  nonwhite 
combined.  An  installed  bathtub  or  shower 
was  not  available  to  40%  of  nonwhite 
families  in  urban  places  or  to  94%  of 
nonwhite  families  in  rural  nonfarm  areas, 
compared  respectively  to  11  and  44%  for 
white  and  nonwhite  combined.  Over  30% 
of  nonwhite  urban  units  lacked  the  use 
of  a  flush  toilet  as  compared  with  8% 
for  both  groups.  Finally,  only  50%  of 
nonwhite  families  in  urban  places  had 
access  to  both  hot  and  cold  running 
water  inside  the  structure  as  compared 
with  85%  for  both  white  and  nonwhite; 


and  for  rural  nonfarm  areas,  nearly 
three-fourths  of  nonwhite  families  had 
no  piped  running  water  at  all,  as  com- 
pared to  about  one-fourth  of  nonwhite 
and  white  families. 

FEDERAL  HOUSING  AIDS 

All  Federal  aids  to  the  planning,  develop- 
ment, financing,  marketing,  occupancy 
or  management  or  housing  as  well  as  the 
clearance  and  redevelopment  of  slum 
areas  should  be  viewed  in  terms  of  the 
national  housing  objective  set  forth  in 
the  Declaration  of  National  Housing 
Policy  in  the  Housing  Act  of  1949,  which 
states:  "the  general  welfare  and  security 
of  the  Nation,  the  health  and  living 
standards  of  its  people,  require  .  .  .  the 
realization  as  soon  as  feasible  of  the  goal 
of  a  decent  home  and  a  suitable  living 
environment  for  every  American  fam- 
ily. .  .  ."  This  represents  the  first  time 
the  American  people,  acting  through 
Congress,  have  enacted  into  law  a  na- 
tional housing  objective  and  policy;  its 
importance  as  the  key  to  understanding 
Federal  aids  as  applied  to  housing  and 
home  finance  cannot  be  overstressed. 

The  Housing  Act  of  1950  expanded 
and  supplemented  existing  Federal  hous- 
ing legislation  to  make  current  programs 
more  useful  and  to  provide  additional 
types  of  aid  for  particular  housing  prob- 
lems. Since  its  passage,  national  defense 
considerations  have  made  limitations 
necessary,  though  the  general  direction 
of  the  programs  has  not  changed. 

HHF A:  Racial 
Relations  Services 

The  Housing  and  Home  Finance 
Agency  is  a  permanent  Federal  agency 
established  to  carry  out  the  principal 
housing  and  home  financing  functions  of 
the  Federal  government.  This  Agency 
consists  of  the  Office  of  the  Administra- 
tor, three  operation  administrations — the 
Home  Loan  Bank  Board,  the  Federal 
Housing  Administration,  and  the  Public 
Housing  Administration — and  a  National 
Housing  Council. 


FEDERAL  HOUSING  AIDS 


175 


Office  of  the  Administrator:  A  Race 
Relations  Service  in  Government  housing 
agencies,  with  a  staff  headed  by  Frank 
S.  Home,  Assistant  to  the  Administrator 
of  HHFA,  Raymond  M.  Foley,  is  respon- 
sible for  advising  on  racial  implications 
and  considerations  in  the  development 
and  execution  of  Agency  policies  and 
programs  and  for  maintaining  liaison 
with  minority  and  other  interested  group 
leadership  and  organizations.  This  Ser- 
vice provides  assistance  to  the  Agency 
in  implementing  the  Federal  nondis- 
crimination  policy  in  employment  and  in 
mobilizing  private  and  public  planning, 
financing,  and  construction  resources  at 
local,  state,  and  national  levels  to  over- 
come the  added  housing  difficulties  faced 
by  minorities  in  competing  for  standard 
housing. 

Techniques  and  methods  of  the  Service 
include  defining  the  problems  accurately 
and  objectively,  devising  practical  meas- 
ures to  meet  these  problems,  reviewing 
and  evaluating  Agency  operations,  co- 
ordinating racial  relations  services 
throughout  the  Agency,  formulating  and 
adapting  relevant  policies  and  proced- 
ures, and  forestalling  the  rise  of  racial 
problems  whenever  possible  or  resolving 
such  problems  if  they  do  arise. 

In  addition  to  Dr.  Home,  the  profes- 
sional staff  of  the  Racial  Relations  Ser- 
vice is  composed  of  a  Deputy  Assistant, 
Dr.  B.  T.  McGraw,  and  two  Racial  Rela- 
tions Advisers,  Corienne  R.  Morrow  and 
T.  Edward  Davis. 

Division  of  Slum  Clearance  and  Urban 
Redevelopment:  This  part  of  the  Office  of 
the  Administrator  also  has  racial  rela- 
tions specialists  to  provide  specific  ser- 
vices applicable  to  the  program.  Within 
this  structure,  a  Special  Assistant,  George 
B.  Nesbitt,  is  on  the  staff  of  the  Division's 
Director,  Nathaniel  S.  Keith,  and  Racial 
Relations-Relocation  Specialists  are  des- 
ignated to  serve  the  chiefs  of  area  offices. 
Two  such  specialists,  Anne  M.  Roberts 
and  J.  Lawrence  Duncan,  have  been  as- 
signed and  two  others  are  pending. 

The  Special  Assistant  to  the  Director 
is  primarily  concerned  with  basic  policies 


and  procedures  and  provides  services  to 
the  Director's  staff.  As  a  member  of  the 
Program  Review  Committee,  he  partici- 
pates in  the  formulation  of  final  recom- 
mendations concerning  specific  local 
applications  for  loans  and  grants  before 
submission  for  the  Director's  approval. 
This  Special  Assistant  also  coordinates 
the  racial  relations  services  within  the 
Division  and  maintains  liaison  with  or- 
ganizations particularly  concerned  with 
the  minority-group  implicatons  of  slum 
clearance  and  urban  redevelopment. 

A  complementary  service  is  performed 
by  the  Racial  Relations-Relocation  spe- 
cialists in  the  area  offices,  constituting 
the  operating  units  of  the  program  in 
direct  contact  with  the  localities  and  re- 
sponsible for  primarly  review  of  applica- 
tions and  related  documents.  These 
specialists  function  as  integral  parts  of 
operating  units.  Their  function  in  reloca- 
tion is  not  limited  to  racial  minorities. 

Public  Housing  Administration:  In  the 
Public  Housing  Administration,  racial 
relations  services  are  provided  by  the 
Racial  Relations  Branch,  established  as 
part  of  the  Executive  Staff  of  the  Com- 
missioner, John  T.  Egan,  with  Warren  R. 
Cochrane  as  Director.  In  addition,  Racial 
Relations  sections  are  established  in  each 
of  the  PHA  field  offices. 

The  Racial  Relations  Branch  provides 
staff  assistance  on  matters  pertaining  to 
racial  minority  groups  with  respect  to  all 
programs  administered  by  PHA.  Its 
major  functions  include  the  formulation 
of  policy  and  procedure  for  minority- 
group  participation  in  the  program,  re- 
view of  performance  and  relevant  docu- 
ments, functional  coordination  of  field- 
office  racial  relations  operations,  analysis 
of  racial  relations  factors  in  public  hous- 
ing, and  liaison  with  national  organiza- 
tions concerned  with  racial  aspects  of 
the  program. 

Within  each  field  office,  at  the  heart  of 
the  operating  program,  Racial  Relations 
Officers  perform  a  similar  function  for 
the  staff  of  the  directors  and  their  oper- 
ating personnel.  These  officers  are  par- 
ticularly concerned  with  the  specific 


176 


HOUSING 


application  of  policies  and  procedures  to 
local  housing  programs.  They  make  the 
primary  racial-relations  review  of  all 
applications  and  documents  used  in  ex- 
tension of  PHA  aids  to  localities. 

In  addition  to  the  Director  of  the 
Racial  Relations  Branch,  the  staff  is  com- 
prised of  Charles  C.  Beckett,  Assistant 
Director;  Ethel  G.  Greene  and  J.  Arthur 
Weiseger,  Racial  Relations  Assistants; 
Lucia  Pitts,  Administrative  Assistant. 

As  of  December  1951,  field  Racial 
Relations  Officers  were  assigned  as  fol- 
lows: Hubert  M.  Jackson,  Atlanta,  Ga.; 
Reuben  E.  Clay,  Richmond,  Va.;  William 
H.  S.  Dabney,  Boston,  Mass. ;  William  E. 
Hill  and  N.  P.  Dotson,  Chicago,  111.; 
George  W.  Washington,  Fort  Worth, 
Texas;  Edward  Rutledge,  New  York 
City;  Clarence  R.  Johnson  and  Robert  B. 
Pitts,  San  Francisco,  Calif. 

Federal  Housing  Administration:  In 
the  central  office  of  the  Federal  Housing 
Administration,  a  Minority  Group  Hous- 
ing Advisor,  Roland  M.  Sawyer,  acts  as 
consultant  to  Commissioner  Franklin  D. 
Richards  and  his  Washington  staff  and  to 
the  various  state  and  district  Directors 
in  the  field. 

Racial  relations  advisers,  on  the  staffs 
of  each  of  the  five  zone  Commissioners 
and  stationed  in  a  key  city  of  each  zone, 
execute  a  racial  relations  service  directly 
concerned  with  the  operations  of  the 
140-odd  FHA  field  offices  and  with  build- 
ers, lenders,  sponsors,  and  others  whose 
activities  are  essential  to  increasing  the 
supply  of  housing  available  to  minority 
groups.  As  of  December  1951,  these  ad- 
visers are  assigned  as  follows:  Zone  I, 
Madison  S.  Jones,  New  York  City;  Zone 
II,  Albert  L.  Thompson,  Atlanta,  Ga.; 
Zone  III,  DeHart  Hubbard,  Cleveland, 
Ohio;  Zone  IV,  A.  Maceo  Smith,  Dallas, 
Texas;  and  Zone  V,  Floyd  C.  Covington, 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Programs  of  HHFA 

Directly  administered  under  the  Office 
of  the  Administrator  are  several  pro- 


grams dealing  with  various  phases  of 
housing  and  finance.  Among  these,  how- 
ever, only  the  programs  most  active  cur- 
rently and  involving  certain  special 
emphasis  upon  racial-minority  considera- 
tions are  described. 

Housing  Research:  The  Division  of 
Housing  Research,  like  other  units  of  the 
Administration,  includes  consideration  of 
racial  minorities  throughout  its  function. 
Racial  minorities,  like  other  elements  of 
the  population,  will  benefit  from  general 
research  activities  of  this  Division.  Of 
special  interest  is  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  a  "Planning  Survey  of  Interracial 
Housing,"  being  conducted  by  the  Psy- 
chological Research  Center  of  New  York 
University,  under  contract  with  the 
HHFA  Research  Division: 

Objectives:  To  summarize  and  evaluate  the 
problems  of  interracial  housing  so  that  syste- 
matic plans  can  be  made  for  research  on  the 
more  urgent  topics  in  the  order  of  their  im- 
portance, and  to  furnish  a  method  of  approach 
or  guide  for  community  leadership  in  dealing 
with  the  problems  and  possibilities  in  ad- 
vancing interracial  housing. 

Method  and  Scope:  Surveys  are  being  made 
of  six  localities  with  experience  in  interracial 
housing.  Special  attention  is  being  given  to 
the  socio-economic  and  political  background 
of  each  area,  its  ethnic  composition,  types  of 
public  housing  and  experience  with  inter- 
racial occupancy,  problems  confronted,  cor- 
rective steps  taken,  and  their  outcome. 

Significance:  Results  will  be  of  use  to  city 
planners  and  housing  officials,  and  the  hous- 
ing industry  generally;  also  to  sociologists 
and  research  organizations  interested  in  car- 
rying on  further  research  in  the  field  of  racial 
relations.  The  survey  will  also  provide  infor- 
mation on  interracial  housing  experience  to 
help  eliminate  excessive  costs  through  dupli- 
cating facilities,  and  to  meet  urgent  defense 
manpower  requirements  through  adequate 
housing  in  suitable  locations  for  minority 
workers  in  defense  plants.1 

In  addition,  a  study  in  housing  tech- 
nology is  under  contract  to  Tuskegee  In- 
stitute, Ala.  It  is  hoped  that  this  research 
project,  "Guide  for  Cooperative  Self -Help 
Dwelling  Construction,"  will  make  a  gen- 
eral contribution  to  the  problem  of  lower- 
ing housing  costs,  as  outlined  below: 


1  Housing  Research,  Capsule  Descriptions   of   Projects   Started  under   Contract   in   1950,   HHFA,   Office   of  Admin- 
istrator, Division  of  Housing  Research,  Washington,  D.C.,  May  1951,  p.  20. 


FEDERAL  HOUSING  AIDS 


177 


Objectives:  To  develop  techniques  for  low- 
cash-cost  dwelling  construction,  suitable  for 
cooperative,  self-help  labor,  and  to  prepare  a 
manual  or  guide  for  their  use. 

Scope  of  Research:  The  research  involves 
actual  construction  of  at  least  ten  dwellings 
by  ten  or  more  families  working  together  to 
supply  the  labor.  The  families  are  being  in- 
structed in  cooperative  self-help  home  con- 
struction, and  plans  are  being  developed  for 
their  dwellings.  Methods  are  being  worked 
out  to  organize  the  labor  the  families  can 
provide,  and  integrate  it  with  necessary  build- 
ing trades  assistance.  Controls  are  being  de- 
veloped to  insure  production  of  sound,  durable 
homes.  A  complete  record  of  all  operations 
will  be  used  to  prepare  a  manual  for  guiding 
other  self-help  groups. 

Significance:  The  substantial  cash  outlays 
required  prohibit  many  families  from  building 
homes.  This  project  is  designed  to  provide  a 
manual  to  help  groups  of  families,  working 
together,  \o  overcome  this  handicap  by  sup- 
plying as  much  labor  as  possible  themselves. 
For  emergency  use,  self-help  techniques  may 
prove  helpful  in  overcoming  labor  shortages, 
especially  in  rehabilitation  of  areas  disrupted 
by  war.1 

Defense  Housing  and  Community  Faci- 
lities: The  Office  of  the  Administrator  is 
responsible  for  the  program  authorized 
by  the  Defense  Housing  and  Community 
Facilities  and  Services  Act  of  1951.  Fol- 
lowing is  a  statement  of  policy  issued 
Nov.  15,  1951,  by  HHFA  Administrator 
Raymond  M.  Foley,  with  respect  to  pro- 
grams assisted  or  provided  by  the  HHFA 
under  this  legislation: 

General:  The  purpose  of  the  Defense  Hous- 
ing and  Community  Facilities  and  Services 
Act  of  1951  is  to  assure  that  the  needs  of  all 
in-migrant  defense  workers,  including  mili- 
tary personnel,  for  housing  and  for  community 
facilities  and  services  will  be  met.  To  carry 
out  that  purpose,  the  powers,  functions,  and 
duties  under  that  Act  which  are  to  be  admin- 
istered within  the  Housing  and  Home  Finance 
Agency  shall  be  administered  in  such  manner 
as  will  assure  that  the  defense  housing  Act 
shall,  to  the  maximum  extent  feasible  under 
the  limitations  contained  in  said  Act  and  the 
funds  appropriated  or  made  available  there- 
under, be  programmed  and  provided  to  meet 
the  needs  of  eligible  in-migrant  defense  work- 
ers, including  military  personnel,  of  all  races, 
colors,  creeds,  and  national  origins. 

Programming  of  Defense  Housing:  To  as- 
sure that  privately-financed  defense  housing 
will  be  provided  to  meet  the  needs  of  in- 


migrant  defense  workers  of  minority  groups, 
estimates  of  the  defense  housing  requirements 
submitted  by  Regional  Representatives  with 
respect  to  localities  declared  or  proposed  to 
be  declared  as  critical  defense  housing  areas 
pursuant  to  the  Defense  Housing  and  Com- 
munity Facilities  and  Services  Act  of  1951 
shall  include  data  on  the  estimated  number  of 
defense  workers  of  minority  groups  expected 
in  total  estimated  number  of  in-migrant  de- 
fense workers,  the  availability  of  existing 
housing  to  such  defense  workers  and  the  need 
for  additional  housing  available  to  such  de- 
fense workers  taking  into  full  account  pos- 
sible shifts  in  the  local  labor  market  and  in- 
creased utilization  of  minority  group  labor. 

Privately-Financed  Defense  Housing:  Data 
as  to  the  housing  required  to  meet  the  needs 
of  in-migrant  defense  workers  of  minority 
groups  shall  be  made  available  by  the  HHFA 
to  the  appropriate  FHA  field  office  when  the 
number  of  permanent  privately-financed 
dwelling  units  programmed  for  in-migrant  de- 
fense workers,  and  the  authorization  for  such 
office  to  accept  applications  for  special  credit 
assistance  for  such  housing  is  publicly  an- 
nounced. In  processing  applications  for  such 
special  credit  assistance,  approvals  shall  be 
granted  by  such  FHA  field  office  in  such  man- 
ner as  will  assure,  prior  to  the  issuance  of 
approvals  for  the  total  program,  that  the 
amount  of  housing  required  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  estimated  number  of  in-migrant  defense 
workers  of  minority  groups  will  be  provided 
and  will  be  available  to  such  workers  .  .  . 

Defense  Housing  Provided  Directly  by 
HHFA :  Defense  housing  provided  directly  by 
the  Housing  and  Home  Finance  Administra- 
tor pursuant  to  title  III  of  the  Defense  Hous- 
ing and  Community  Facilities  and  Services 
Act  shall  be  developed  so  that  it  can  be 
readily  made  available  for  occupancy  by  any 
eligible  defense  worker.  Occupancy  of  any 
such  defense  housing  shall  not  be  denied  to 
any  eligible  defense  worker  on  the  basis  of 
race,  color,  creed,  or  national  origin. 

Community  Facilities:  The  determination 
of  defense  community  facilities  to  be  assisted, 
or  to  be  provided  directly,  by  thesHousing  and 
Home  Finance  Administrator  pursuant  to  title 
III  of  Defense  Housing  and  Community  Facil- 
ities and  Services  Act  of  1951  and  Executive 
Order  No.  10296  shall  be  on  the  basis  of  need, 
and,  in  determining  need,  no  discrimination 
shall  be  made  on  account  of  race,  color,  creed, 
or  national  origin.  In  the  provision  or  opera- 
tion and  maintenance  of  any  such  community 
facilities,  there  shall  be  equality  of  treatment 
of  persons  of  all  races,  colors,  creeds,  and 
national  origins. 

Division  of  Slum  Clearance  and  Urban 
Redevelopment:  The  Housing  Act  of 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  61. 


(Continued  on  page  180) 


178 


HOUSING 


FEDERAL  HOUSING  AIDS 


179 


180 


HOUSING 


1949  authorizes  the  HHFA,  through  this 
Division,  to  make  loans  and  capital 
grants  to  assist  local  communities  in  the 
clearance  of  slum  and  deteriorated  areas 
for  rebuilding,  primarily  by  private  enter- 
prise. Title  I  of  the  "slum  clearance  and 
urban  redevelopment"  title,  as  it  is  often 
called,  provides  a  new  program  of  Fed- 
eral aid,  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
older,  established  public  low-rent  pro- 
gram. 

While  a  public  low-rent  housing 
agency  often  clears  an  area  of  rundown 
housing  and  always  provides  new  low- 
rent  housing  in  the  cleared  area,  an  area 
cleared  under  the  new  Title  I  may  be 
reused  to  build  housing  which  will  serve 
any  one  or  more  of  the  various  income 
levels  and  also  for  commercial,  industrial, 
or  public  uses,  separately  or  in  any  com- 
bination of  these. 

Congress  has  provided  that  a  local 
public  agency,  acting  under  Title  I,  must 
provide  assurance  that  dwellings  for  the 
permanent  rehousing  of  the  families  to 
be  displaced  "are  or  are  being  provided." 
Such  dwellings  also  must  be  "decent, 
safe  and  sanitary,"  in  reasonably  con- 
venient locations,  sell  or  rent  for  prices 
which  the  displaced  families  can  afford, 
and  be  actually  "available  to  such  dis- 
placed families."  Moreover,  to  encourage 
housing  production,  Title  I  loans  are 
available  in  connection  with  predomin- 
antly open  or  partially  developed  land — 
so-called  "dead"  land — and  open  land, 
provided  that  such  land  is  to  be  rede- 
veloped for  residential  use  and  in  con- 
junction with  a  slum-clearance  program 
in  the  locality. 

Experienced  persons  anticipate  con- 
siderable risk  for  racial  minorities  in- 
herent in  city-wide  planning  and  urban 
redevelopment.  In  1948,  even  before  the 
passage  of  the  Housing  Act  of  1949, 
Robert  C.  Weaver,  a  member  of  the  offi- 
cial Slum  Clearance  Advisory  Committee 
and  a  nationally  recognized  authority  on 
the  subject,  made  the  following  statement 
in  his  book,  The  Negro  Ghetto: 


City  planning  and  urban  redevelopment 
carry  a  triple  threat  to  minorities  and  good 
housing.  They  can  be  used,  and  there  is  a 
tendency  to  use  them,  as  a  guide  for  displac- 
ing minorities  from  desirable  areas.  Or  they 
may  become  the  instrument  for  breaking  up 
established  racially  democratic  neighbor- 
hoods. Finally,  and  equally  dangerous,  is  their 
use  to  reduce  even  further  the  already  inade- 
quate supply  of  living  space  available  to 
minorities. 

In  addition  to  these  dangers,  it  is 
obvious  that  ill-developed  plans  for  the 
relocation  of  displaced  families  and 
planned  "containment"  of  Negro  families 
in  areas  already  occupied  by  them  like- 
wise are  major  risks  of  especial  concern 
to  minorities. 

It  is  too  early  in  the  development  of 
this  new  program  to  indicate  conclusively 
the  degree  to  which  such  risks  are  ma- 
turing. The  fact,  however,  that  a  great 
many  of  the  localities  participating  in  the 
Title  I  program  are  embarking  on  initial 
slum-clearance  activity  in  "near  down- 
town' areas  of  heavily  congested,  racial 
minority  residence  augurs  the  potential 
extent  of  such  problems. 

In  Minnesota,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Wisconsin,  state  legis- 
lation has  been  enacted  which  prohibits 
racial  discrimination  in  housing  built  in 
urban  redevelopment  areas.  Local  gov- 
ernmental bodies  have  passed  resolutions 
of  similar  purport  in  Los  Angeles  and 
San  Francisco,  Calif.,  and  Cincinnati, 
Ohio. 

The  general  approach  of  the  Federal 
Agency  to  meeting  these  issues  is  re- 
flected in  the  following  statement: 

Relocating  Families  Displaced 
by  Slum  Clearance* 

The  clearance  of  slum  areas  for  public 
housing  projects  for  low-income  families  and 
for  slum  clearance  and  urban  redevelopment 
projects  for  new  private  and  public  uses  usu- 
ally involves  serious  and  difficult  problems  in 
the  rehousing  and  relocation  of  families  who 
may  be  displaced  by  such  operations.  In  many 
cities,  these  problems  are  particularly  press- 
ing in  the  clearance  of  slum  areas  occupied 
by  families  of  minority  races,  many  of  whom 


1  A  statement  by  Raymond  M.  Foley,  Administrator,  HHFA,  made  with  the  concurrence  of  Franklin  D.  Richards, 
Commissioner  of  FHA,  John  T.  Egan,  Commissioner  of  PHA.  and  Nathaniel  S.  Keith,  Director  of  the  Division  of 
Slum  Clearance  and  Urban  Redevelopment. 


FEDERAL  HOUSING  AIDS 


181 


have  incomes  exceeding  the  eligibility  require- 
ments for  low-rent  public  housing. 

The  solution  of  these  problems  is  indis- 
pensable if  progress  in  accordance  with  the 
objectives  of  the  Declaration  of  National 
Housing  Policy  contained  in  the  Housing  Act 
of  1949  is  to  be  achieved  and  if  the  legislative 
requirements  and  intent  of  the  specific  pro- 
grams authorized  in  that  act  are  to  be 
observed. 

To  solve  these  problems  in  a  community  a 
concerted  approach  is  required  by  the  City 
and  its  appropriate  public  bodies,  including 
local  civic  groups  and  individuals,  acting  with 
the  cooperation  of  all  the  constitutent  agencies 
and  divisions  of  the  Housing  and  Home  Fi- 
nance Agency.  The  objective  of  this  approach 
should  be  to  assure  not  only  that  the  families 
to  be  displaced  are  rehoused  in  accordance 
with  statutory  requirements  and  objectives 
without  undue  hardship,  but  also  that  the  re- 
housing does  not  in  itself  produce  overcrowd- 
ing and  new  areas  of  blight  contrary  to  the 
intent  of  the  Act.  The  achievement  of  this 
objective  will  usually  require  expansion  of 
housing  facilities  and  living  space,  particu- 
larly where  racial  minorities  are  to  be  dis- 
placed. 

The  communities  themselves  primarily  have 
the  task  of  developing  and  carrying  out  a 
feasible  method  for  adequate  relocation  of 
families  displaced  from  slums  they  want  to 
clear,  and  approvals  of  local  public  housing 
and  slum  clearance  projects  for  Federal  aid 
are  predicted  on  the  communities'  assumption 
of  this  responsibility. 

The  resources  of  the  Housing  and  Home 
Finance  Agency  and  its  constituent  agencies 
are  available  to  assist  communities  in  meet- 
ing their  relocation  problems.  Where  local 
problems  are  particularly  critical,  the  HHFA 
will  be  prepared  to  undertake  special  steps  in 
a  concerted  effort  to  assist  in  their  solution. 

To  make  Federal  aids  available  on  a  co- 
ordinated basis,  the  HHFA  has  developed  a 
national  method  for  the  use  of  various  types 
of  assistance,  to  be  carried  out  through  the 
following  special  steps. 

The  Federal  Housing  Administration  will 
actively  undertake  to  encourage  and  assist 
private  builders  in  a  practical  program  of  de- 
veloping both  sale  and  rental  housing  avail- 
able to  middle-income  families  suited  to  the 
needs  of  displaced  families,  and  will  assist 
and  encourage  the  development  of  vacant  land 
areas  for  housing  available  to  minority  groups 
to  the  maximum  extent  possible,  consistent 
with  the  market  for  such  housing. 

The  Public  Housing  Administration  will 
consider  as  part  of  its  approval  of  low-rent 
projects  built  on  slum  sites  the  adequacy  of 
rehousing  provisions  for  any  displaced  fami- 
lies, particularly  where  minority  groups  are 
involved,  and  the  consideration  given  by  the 
local  program  to  the  use  of  vacant  sites  to 


minimize  hardship  in  rehousing  displaced 
families  and  to  help  assure  an  adequate  supply 
of  standard  housing  for  them.  Such  review  will 
include  the  relation  between  displacement 
from  public  housing  construction  on  slum  sites 
and  that  resulting  from  Title  I  clearance  of 
slum  areas  and  the  measures  taken  to  give 
effect  to  the  statutory  preferences  for  occu- 
pancy of  public  housing  accorded  to  eligible 
families  displaced  from  slum  areas  cleared  for 
either  public  housing  or  for  redevelopment 
under  Title  I.  The  PHA  will  consider  each 
stage  of  demolition  on  a  slum  site  separately, 
with  appropriate  provision  for  deferring  demo- 
lition if  relocation  activity  would  produce  ex- 
cessive hardship  on  the  families  involved.  Con- 
tracts for  any  additional  slum  sites  for  public 
housing  will  not  be  approved  until  the  progress 
being  made  in  the  existing  relocation  problem 
resulting  from  redevelopment  or  public  hous- 
ing, and  in  increasing  the  general  housing 
supply  for  displaced  families  in  the  locality, 
particularly  minority  groups,  indicates  that 
the  families  to  be  displaced  can  be  rehoused 
without  undue  hardship. 

The  Division  of  Slum  Clearance  and  Urban 
Redevolpment  will  not  approve  a  loan  and 
grant  application  for  the  redevelopment  of 
slum  areas  unless  relocation  plans  indicate  the 
ability  of  the  community  to  provide  decent, 
safe,  and  sanitary  housing  within  the  means  of 
families  to  be  displaced.  Ordinarily  such  plans 
must  include  evidence  of  an  expanding  hous- 
ing supply  in  the  locality  and  particularly 
compensating  expansion  of  living  areas  for 
racial  minorities  when  such  families  are  to  be 
displaced.  Scheduling  of  demolition  will  be  in 
accordance  with  the  locality's  ability  to  carry 
out  relocation  adequately.  The  Division  will 
also  take  into  consideration,  and  in  appropri- 
ate cases  will  require  measures  established 
locally  to  provide  effective  enforcement  of  local 
housing  ordinances,  especially  in  so-called 
"transition"  areas  where  families  may  be  re- 
located, to  protect  them  against  illegal  con- 
versions of  dwelling  units,  overcrowding,  or 
other  measures,  which  would  tend  to  create 
substandard  housing  conditions  in  such  areas. 

Although  the  several  authorities  exercised 
in  these  various  steps  represent  administra- 
tively separate  operations,  their  coordinated 
use  recognizes  that  substantial  displacement 
of  families,  from  whatever  cause,  becomes  a 
common  problem  in  the  community,  and  that 
the  provision  of  an  adequate  supply  of  housing 
for  such  families,  particularly  minority  groups 
requires  the  concerted  effort  of  all  types  of 
Federal  assistance. 

The  coordinate  use  of  these  authorities  is 
explicitly  called  for  in  the  policy  set  forth  in 
the  Housing  Act  of  1949,  which  says  in  part : 
"The  Housing  and  Home  Finance  Agency  and 
its  constituent  agencies,  and  any  other  depart- 
ments or  agencies  of  the  Federal  Government 
having  powers,  functions,  or  duties  with  re- 


182 


HOUSING 


spect  to  housing,  shall  exercise  their  powers, 
functions,  or  duties  under  this  or  any  other 
law,  consistently  with  the  national  housing 
policy  declared  by  this  Act  and  in  such  man- 
ner as  will  facilitate  sustained  progress  in 
attaining  the  national  housing  objective 
hereby  established,  and  in  such  manner  as 
will  encourage  and  assist . . .  the  production 
of  housing  of  sound  standards  of  design,  con- 
struction, livability,  and  size  for  adequate 
family  life  . . .  (and)  the  development  of  well- 
planned,  integrated,  residential  neighborhoods 
and  the  development  and  redevelopment  of 
communities. . . ." 

This  application  of  the  coordinated  method, 
developed  under  the  sanction  of  the  operating 
heads  of  the  constitutents  and  the  HHFA  Ad- 
ministrator's coordinating  responsibility,  was 
instituted  initially  with  the  approval  of  four 
low-rent  public  housing  projects  and  notice  of 
approval  to  be  given  for  a  capital  grant  con- 
tract on  an  urban  redevelopment  project  in 
Chicago,  announced  on  November  5,  1951. 
The  method  and  underlying  policies,  however, 
are  generally  applicable  in  connection  with 
Federal  approvals  and  extension  of  Federal 
assistance  in  all  communities  faced  with  dis- 
placement and  relocation  problems  in  con- 
nection with  Federally-aided  low-rent  public 
housing  projects  or  slum  clearance  and  urban 
redevelopment  projects. 

FEDERAL  POLICIES  AND 
PROVISIONS 

Among  the  Federal  legislative  provi- 
sions and  policies  with  which  racial 
minorities  should  be  thoroughly  familiar 
are  the  following: 

Public  Law  171 — 81st  Congress.  Section 
105(c).  Contracts  for  financial  aid  shall  be 
made  only  with  a  duly  authorized  local  public 
agency  and  shall  require  that . . .  There  be  a 
feasible  method  for  the  temporary  relocation 
of  families  displaced  from  the  project  area, 
and  that  there  are  or  are  being  provided,  in 
the  project  area  or  in  other  areas  not  generally 
less  desirable  in  regard  to  public  utilities  and 
public  and  commercial  facilities  and  at  rents 
or  prices  within  the  financial  means  of  the 
families  displaced  from  the  project  area,  de- 
cent, safe,  and  sanitary  dwellings  equal  in 
number  to  the  number  of  and  available  to  such 
displaced  families  and  reasonably  accessible 
to  their  places  of  employment 

A  Guide  to  Slum  Clearance  and  Urban  Re- 
development (Revised  April  1950)  Office  of 
the  Administrator,  HHFA,  p.  24.  Every  con- 
tract for  financial  assistance  . . .  will  require 
that  the  local  public  agency  (a)  shall  cause 
to  be  removed  or  abrogated  any  covenant  or 
other  provision  in  any  agreement,  lease,  con- 
veyance or  other  instrument  restricting,  upon 
the  basis  of  race,  creed  or  color,  the  sale,  lease 


or  occupancy  of  any  land  which  it  acquires  as 
part  of  a  project;  and  (b)  shall  adopt  ef- 
fective measures  to  assure  that  no  covenant, 
agreement,  lease,  conveyance  or  other  instru- 
ment may  be  validly  executd  by  the  local  pub- 
lic agency,  the  redevelopers  or  his  successors 
in  interest,  restricting  the  sale,  lease  or  occu- 
pancy of  any  real  estate  in  the  project  areas 
upon  the  basis  of  race,  creed  or  color. 

Regulation  X,  Board  of  Governors  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  System,  Section  5(e),  Exemp- 
tions and  Exceptions — Casualties.  The  prohi- 
bitions of  subsections  (a)  and  (b)  of  Section 
4  of  this  regulation  shall  not  apply  to  any 
extension  of  real  estate  construction  credit  as 
to  which  the  Registrant  accepts  in  good  faith 
a  signed  statement  of  the  Borrower  certifying 
that  the  proceeds  thereof  are  to  be  used . . . 
solely  to  finance  the  purchase  or  construction 
of  a  residence,  multi-unit  residence  or  non- 
residential  structure  to  be  used  in  substitution 
for  a  similar  structure  of  which  the  borrower 
has  been  deprived  through  or  by  reason  of 
eminent  domain  or  condemnation  proceedings. 
(Italics  supplied.) 

ThePHA 

Low-Rent  Housing  Program:  Under 
the  low-rent  housing  laws  and  state- 
enabling  legislation,  local  communities 
may  set  up  housing  authorities  to  handle 
their  public  housing  programs.  These 
authorities  are  responsible  for  all  phases 
of  the  program,  including  initiating 
plans,  selecting  sites,  employing  archi- 
tects, building  contractors  and  other 
labor,  and  providing  for  financing,  con- 
struction, operation,  and  management. 
The  actions  of  the  housing  authority 
must,  however,  conform  with  certain 
PHA  policies  and  standards,  which  take 
into  account  the  requirement  for  partici- 
pation of  racial  minorities  in  the  pro- 
grams. PHA's  general  racial  policy  stipu- 
lates that: 

1)  Programs  for  the  development  of  low- 
rent  housing,  in  order  to  be  eligible  for  PHA 
assistance,  must  reflect  equitable  provision  for 
eligible  families  of  all  races  determined  on  the 
approximate   volume    and    urgency   of   their 
respective  needs  for  such  housing. 

2)  While  the  selection  of  tenants  and  the 
assigning  of  dwelling  units  are  primarily  mat- 
ters for  local  determination,  urgency  of  need 
and  the  preferences  prescribed  in  the  Housing 
Act  of  1949  are  the  basic  statutory  standards 
for  the  selection  of  tenants. 

Another  policy  is  specifically  con- 
cerned with  the  participation  of  racial 
minority  groups  in  programs  of  commu- 


FEDERAL  POLICIES  AND  PROVISIONS 


183 


Negro  Members  of  Local  Housing  Authorities1 


State 

Alabama 
Arizona 
California 
Connecticut 


District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Illinois 


Indiana 
Kentucky 
Maryland 
Michigan 


Missouri 
New  Jersey 

New  York 


North  Carolina 
Ohio 


Pennsylvania 


Tennessee 
Virginia 


West  Virginia 
Wisconsin 


City 
Ozark 
Phoenix 
Los  Angeles 
Hartford 

New  Haven 
Washington 
Daytona  Beach 
Chicago 

Joliet 

Springfield 

Gary 

Muncie 

Louisville 

Maysville 

Baltimore 

Cumberland 

Detroit 

Ecorse 

Hamtramck 

Inkster 

Pontiac 

River  Rouge 

Saginaw 
Ypsilanti 

Kansas  City 
St.  Louis 

Asbury  Park 

Camden 

Morristown 

Newark 

Orange 

Albany 

Hempstead 

Mount  Vernon 

New  Rochelle 

New  York 

Peekskill 

Tarrytown 

Yonkers 

Durham 

Greensboro 

Winston-Salem 

Canton 

Cincinnati 

Cleveland 

Columbus 

Hamilton 

Steubenville 

Toledo 
» 

Youngstown 
Harrisburg     . 
Philadelphia 

Pittsburgh 

Pottstown 

Nashville 

Hopewell 

Newport  News 

Richmond 

Roanoke 

Charleston 

Milwaukee 


Name 

D.  A.  Smith 
Wade  H.  Hammond 
George  A.  Beavers,  Jr. 
Frank  T.  Simpson 

Mrs.  Rosalind  L.  Putman 

Atty.  George  W.  Crawford 

Col.  Campbell  C.  Johnson 

Mrs.  Mary  McLeod  Bethune 

Mr.  Marion  L.  Smith 

John  Yancey 

John  O.  Holmes 

Major  Robert  A.  Byrd 

Rev.  Leon  Davis 

Dr.  J.  Sylvester  Smith 

Atty.  Everett  J.  Harris 

W.  H.  Humphrey 

Dr.  William  LeRoy  Berry 

Earle  L.  Bracey 

George  Isabelle 

Mrs.  Dona  Williams 

Mrs.  Marie  Strickland 

Gustavus  G.  Taylor 

Everett  G.  Spurlock 

William  M.  Duncan 

Namon  Smith 

Dr.  A.  A,  Claytor 

Amos  S.  Washington 

Dr.  Lawrence  C.  Perry 

Thomas  A.  Webster 

Rev.  James  M.  Bracy 

James  P.  Troupe 

Dr.  Ernest  A.  Robinson 

Dr.  Howard  E.  Primas 

Percy  H.  Steele,  Jr. 

Rev.  William  P.  Hayes 

Dr.  Walter  E.  Longshore,  Jr. 

Edward  F.  Kennell 

Mrs.  Alverta  Gray  Schultz 

Dr.  William  S.  Randolph 

Rev.  Huston  Crutchfield 

Frank  R.  Crosswaith 

George  T.  Jackson 

Mrs.  George  C.  Sandy 

Rev.  James  Clinton  Hoggard 

J.  J.  Henderson 

Dr.  G.  H.  Evans 

J.  Alston  Atkins 

Atty.  Clay  E.  Hunter 

Dr.  Ray  Eugene  Clarke 

Atty.  Charles  W.  White 

Rev.  Charles  F.  Jenkins 

Dr.  Henry  A.  Long 

Elmer  White 

Dr.  R.  F.  Pulley 

McClinton  Nunn 

Clarence  L.  Robinson 

C.  Sylvester  Jackson 

John  B.  Deans 

Donald  Carl  Jefferson 
Richard  F.  Jones 
Rev.  Marshall  W.  Lee 
Dr.  I.  L.  Moore 
Dr.  C.  A.  Robbins 
Leroy  F.  Ridley 
Dr.  Henry  Jared  McGuinn 
Atty.  Jacob  I.  Reid 

E.  L.  James,  Jr. 
E.  L.  Powell 

"  Rev.  Cecil  A.  Fisher 


Position 
Member 
Member 
Commissioner 
Treasurer 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 

Secretary-Treasurer 
Member 
Commissioner 
Treasurer 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Commissioner 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 

Director-Secretary 
Chairman 
Director-Secretary 
Vice-President 
Member 

Secretary-Director 
Vice-President 
Member 
Member 
Commissioner 
Treasurer 
Vice-Chairman 
Secretary 
Commissioner 
Vice-Chairman 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Vice-Chairman 
Member 
Chairman 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 

Executi  ve-Di  rector 
Member 
Member 
Asst.  Secretary  and 

Asst.  Treasurer 
Vice-Chairman 
Vice-Chairman 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Commissioner 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Member 
Vice-Chairman 


1  Prepared  by  Racial  Relations  Branch,  PHA,  June  1950;  Supplement  March  22,  1951. 


184 


HOUSING 


nities  with  small  racial-minority  popu- 
lation, and  outlines  certain  steps  to  be 
taken  to  ensure  that,  in  such  communi- 
ties, this  segment  of  the  population  is 
not  overlooked.  Still  another  policy,  spe- 
cifically mentioning  Negroes,  is  con- 
cerned with  the  relocation  of  occupants 
of  sites  selected  for  public  housing  and 
outlines  definite  steps  to  be  taken  by 
local  housing  authorities  to  ensure  that 
as  little  hardship  as  possible  is  suffered 
by  these  occupants. 

Racial  Representation — Local  Housing 
Authorities:  In  1940,  21  communities  in 
various  sections  of  the  country  had  ap- 
pointed Negroes  to  their  local  housing 
authorities.  As  of  1951,  approximately 
70  Negroes  are  members  of  local  housing 
authorities  in  more  than  60  communities 
of  20  states  and  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Many  of  these  hold  important  positions 
within  the  authorities,  such  as  chairman, 
executive  director,  treasurer,  or  secretary. 
Chicago  had  a  Negro  chairman  for  sev- 
eral years;  Pontiac,  Mich.;  Cleveland, 
Ohio;  and  Hopewell,  Va.,  have  Negro 
chairmen  now.  River  Rouge,  Mich.,  and 
Toledo,  Ohio,  have  Negroes  as  executive 
directors. 

Negro  Occupancy  of  Public  Housing 
Developments:  By  1940,  the  first  exclu- 
sive public  housing  agency,  the  U.  S. 
Housing  Authority,  had  approved  the 
development  of  134,056  low-rent  dwelling 
units  in  362  projects  in  162  different  com- 
munities. Of  these,  Negroes  occupied  44,- 
754  units  (about  one-third  of  the  total) 
in  116  communities  of  25  states  and  the 
District  of  Columbia.  As  of  June  30, 
1951,  all  the  programs  of  PHA  encom- 
passed 472,039  occupied  dwelling  units 
throughout  the  country.  Of  these  113,016, 
or  23.9%,  were  occupied  by  Negroes. 
The  United  States  Housing  Act  program 
(low-rent)  accounted  for  184,654  dwell- 
ing units,  and  of  these  Negroes  occupied 
68,415,  or  37.1%.  Veterans  Re-Use,  Pub- 
lic War  Housing  (constructed  under  the 
Lanham  Act  during  World  War  II), 
Homes  Conversion,  Subsistence  Home- 
steads, and  Greenbelt  Towns  accounted 
for  the  balance  of  the  total  units,  with 


Negro  participation  ranging  from  0.1% 
in  the  latter  to  16.4%  in  Public  War 
Housing. 

Integration  in  Public  Housing  Occu- 
pancy: In  the  North,  East,  and  West, 
there  is  a  steady  trend  toward  racially 
integrated  public  housing.  Evidence  of 
this  "is  reflected  in  the  passage  of  state 
legislation  outlawing  discremination  and 
segregation  in  housing  in  Connecticut, 
Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  and  Wisconsin.  Ordinances 
or  resolutions  to  the  same  effect  have 
been  passed  in  Boston,  Mass.;  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  and  Toledo,  Ohio;  Hartford, 
Conn.;  Newark,  N.  J.;  New  York  City; 
Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Pontiac,  Mich.;  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.;  San  Francisco  and  Los 
Angeles,  Calif.;  St.  Paul,  Minn.;  Pasco, 
Wash.;  and  Omaha,  Nebr.  As  of  June  30, 
1951,  Negroes  in  15  cities,  Hawaii,  and 
Puerto  Rico  occupied  units  in  approxi- 
mately 100  projects  that  were  integrated 
from  the  beginning.  About  80  other  cities 
which  had  segregated  programs  have 
now  either  changed  to  integration  or  are 
progressing  toward  it  by  changing  old 
programs  or  promising  non-segregation 
in  new  programs  under  the  1949  Housing 
Act.  Over  50  cities  which  have  had  no 
public  housing  projects  but  plan  pro- 
grams under  the  1949  Act  have  indicated 
that  their  projects  will  be  integrated. 

Employment  of  Negroes:  Implement- 
ing the  Executive  Order  prohibiting  ra- 
cial discrimination  in  Government  em- 
ployment, the  PHA  has  issued  orders  to 
all  its  personnel  outlining  its  nondis- 
criminatory  policy.  As  of  March  31,  1951, 
of  a  total  of  5.397  PHA  employees  in 
the  Central  and  field  offices,  810  were 
nonwhite  and  ranged  in  classification 
from  the  lowest  CPC-1  to  the  next-to-the- 
highest  GS-14.  Of  these  nonwhites,  157 
were  in  Central  Office  and  653  in  the 
field.  A  great  number  of  Negroes  are 
among  those  employed  in  management, 
clerical,  and  maintenance  fields  at  com- 
pleted projects.  It  is  not  possible  to 
estimate  the  number  of  clerical  and 
maintenance  workers,  but  as  of  Septem- 
ber 1951  approximately  250  Negroes 


FEDERAL  POLICIES  AND  PROVISIONS 


185 


were  employed  in  management  capacities 
on  projects  in  27  states. 

N ondiscrimination  in  Employment  of 
Construction  Workers:  The  policies  of 
PHA  require  that  there  be  no  discrimi- 
nation in  employment  of  labor  in  the  con- 
struction of  public  housing  projects.  To 
implement  this  policy,  a  general  non- 
discrimination  clause  and,  where  neces- 
sary, stipulated  percentages  (based  on 
Census  and  other  data  concerning  the 
availability  of  Negro  labor)  are  inserted 
in  all  construction  contracts.  Attainment 
of  these  percentages  is  accepted  by  the 
PHA  as  prima  facie  evidence  that  Negro 
labor  has  not  been  discriminated  against. 
This,  however,  does  not  affect  the  right 
of  individuals  to  submit  a  case  seeking 
to  establish  an  act  of  discrimination  gen- 
erally or  within  the  framework  of  local 
fair-employment  laws.  Building  construc- 
tion employment  under  public  housing 
programs  since  1934  has  resulted  in  the 
payment  of  $65,814,280  to  Negro  work- 
ers as  of  June  31,  1951.  This  is  11.9% 
of  the  total  payrolls  of  construction 
workers.  Negro  skilled  workers  received 
a  total  of  $13,179,394,  or  3.4%  of  the 
total  paid  all  skilled  workers. 

The  FHA 

Minority  Group  Housing:  The  Federal 
Housing  Administration  is  responsible 
for  encouraging  construction  of  housing 
in  every  way  consistent  with  the  provi- 
sions of  the  National  Housing  Act  and 
is  especially  concerned  with  the  urgent 
need  for  improved  housing  conditions  for 
minority  groups. 

Negroes  particularly  have  had  access 
to  a  disproportionately  limited  part  of 
the  housing  supply,  and  the  amount  of 
new  housing  available  to  them  is  entirely 
inadequate. 

An  increasing  amount  of  sale  and 
rental  housing  open  to  occupancy  by 
minority  groups  has  been  built  in  various  ' 
parts  of  the  country  with  FHA-insured 
financing.  In  general,  this  housing  has 
proved  to  be  a  sound  investment  and 
gives  evidence  of  a  substantial  market 
among  Negroes  and  other  racial  minori- 


ties for  the  purchase,  rental,  and  main- 
tenance of  standard  housing. 

With  particular  reference  to  the  hous- 
ing market  among  minority  groups,  a 
marked  improvement  is  notable  in  the 
basic  problems  of  site  selection  and 
financing. 

New  areas  have  been  opened.  FHA 
offices  and  racial  relations  advisors  have 
facilitated  housing  for  racial  minorities 
by  assistance  in  locating  and  laying  out 
acceptable  sites,  although  many  avail- 
able sites  are  undeveloped  and  often 
objections  have  been  raised  against  de- 
velopment of  a  particular  subdivision 
open  to  racial  minorities. 

Availability  to  minority  groups  of 
financing  for  housing  has  also  improved. 
An  increasing  number  of  lenders  are 
going  into  this  field  and  favorable  experi- 
ence has  given  them  growing  confidence. 
In  1949,  approximately  13,000  housing 
units  using  FHA  insurance  were  made 
available  for  minority  groups,  and  in 
1950  this  number  was  over  20,000  units. 

Following  are  some  FHA  policies  and 
regulations  bearing  on  racial  considera- 
tions: 

Letter  from  Commissioner,  FHA,  to  Direc- 
tors and  Chief  Underwriters  of  all  Field  Of- 
fices, Feb.  18,  1949.  No  application  for  mort- 
gage insurance  shall  be  rejected  solely  on  the 
grounds  that  the  subject  property  or  the  type 
of  occupancy  might  affect  the  market  attitude 
toward  other  properties  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood. . . . 

. . .  mortgage  insurance  shall  not  be  pre- 
cluded (1)  because  of  a  different  type  of 
occupancy  regardless  of  whether  or  not  it  is  in 
violation  of  a  restrictive  covenant,  (2)  nor 
shall  such  insurance  be  precluded  on  the 
ground  that  the  introduction  of  a  different 
occupancy  type  may  affect  the  values  of  other 
properties  in  the  area. 

Amendments  to  Underwriting  Manual, 
FHA,  Dec.  16,  1949.  Section  242.  Under- 
writing considerations  shall  recognize  the 
right  to  equality  of  opportunity  to  receive  the 
benefits  of  the  mortgage  insurance  system  in 
obtaining  adequate  housing  accommodations 
irrespective  of  race,  color,  creed  or  national 
origin.  Underwriting  considerations  and  con- 
clusions are  never  based  on  discriminatory 
attitudes  or  prejudice. 

Section  303.  Requirements  and  standards 
applying  to  real  estate  pertain  to  character- 
istics of  the  property  and  neighborhood  in 
which  the  real  estate  is  located,  and  are  tech- 


186 


HOUSING 


nical  in  character.  They  do  not  pertain  to  the 
user  groups,  because  homogeneity  or  hetero- 
geneity of  neighborhoods  as  to  race,  creed, 
color,  or  nationality  is  not  a  consideration  in 
establishing  eligibility. 

Amendments  to  Administrative  Rules,  FHA, 
Dec.  16,  1949.  A  mortgagor  must  certify  that 
until  the  mortgage  has  been  paid  in  full,  or  the 
contract  of  insurance  otherwise  terminated, 
he  will  not  file  for  record  any  restriction  upon 
the  sale  or  occupancy  of  the  mortgaged  prop- 
erty on  the  basis  of  race,  color,  or  creed  or 
execute  any  agreement,  lease,  or  conveyance 
affecting  the  mortgaged  property  which  im- 
poses any  such  restriction  upon  its  sale  or 
occupancy. 

CHANGING  ATTITUDE  OF 
PRIVATE  ENTERPRISE 

The  following  quotations  from  nongov- 
ernment organizations  are  indicative  of 
changing  attitudes  toward  the  housing  of 
racial  minorities: 

National  Association  of  Real  Estate  Boards 
News  Service  (Release  for  June  14,  1949). 
The  National  Association  of  Real  Estate 
Boards,  representing  the  organized  real  estate 
industry,  announced  that  it  is  recommending 
to  local  real  estate  boards  throughout  the  na- 
tion that  they  undertake  to  provide  better 
housing  for  Negro  families. . . .  Reluctance  of 
financial  institutions  to  purchase  mortgages 
on  Negro  property  must  be  gradually  over- 
come. Such  facts  as  we  now  have  in  hand 
indicate  that  the  Negro  is  a  good  economic 
risk Responsible  builders  should  be  en- 
couraged to  undertake  the  construction  of 
Negro  housing,  both  in  areas  now  available 
and  in  the  form  of  new  neighborhood  projects. 
. . .  Management  of  Negro  rental  properties 
should  be  of  a  kind  and  character  which  is  on 
a  parity  with  that  given  to  other  types  of 
property.  We  believe  that  it  will  be  found 
that  Negroes  will  respond  if  given  opportunity 
to  avail  themselves  of  facilities  and  services 
of  modern  character. 

The  Mortgage  Banker  (December  1949, 
p.  9).  It  is  the  policy  of  the  Mortgage  Bankers 
Association  of  America  to  make  loans  avail- 
able to  all  people  without  distinction  as  to 
race,  color  or  creed,  within  the  limitations  of 
sound  lending  practices. 

NAHB  Correlator,  March  1950  (Memoran- 
dum to  members  of  National  Association  of 
Home  Builders  from  Frank  Cortright,  Presi- 
dent) .  Housing  for  minority  groups  and  lower 
income  families  comprise  a  vast  new  market 

for  home  builders In  order  to  encourage 

more  construction  of  sale  and  rental  housing 


for  the  lower  income  groups . . .  regardless  of 
race,  color  or  creed  ...  we  are  now  advocating 
a  new  insuring  device  to  be  used  exclusively 
for  financing  minimum  housing  projects  in 
Federally  subsidized  slum-cleared  land.  This 
is  our  NEW  frontier  in  housing  construction 
. . .  Supplying  homes  ...  for  rent  and  for  sale 
...  for  minority  groups  and  families  farther 
and  farther  down  the  income  scale ...  is  a 
challenge  to  the  ingenuity  and  capacity  of  our 
industry. 


SOME  HOUSING  PROJECTS 
FOR  NEGROES1 

During  and  since  World  War  II,  the 
housing  situation  of  the  Negro,  though 
still  acute,  has  greatly  improved.  Gov- 
ernment agencies  and  private  enterprise 
have  been  responsible  for  this  social 
change.  Although  such  building  is  pro- 
portionately far  below  the  volume  of  new 
construction  for  white  families,  the  hous- 
ing boom  opened  up  homes  for  colored 
families  that  were  previously  unavailable. 
A  sampling  of  recent  construction  illus- 
trates this  improvement. 

In  1950,  the  FHA  approved  projects 
for  Negroes  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  to  cost  sev- 
eral million  dollars,  namely,  a  $2,500,000 
project  comprising  452  units  on  South 
Pryor  Road  known  as  High  Point  Apart- 
ments, a  separate  project  of  213  modern 
elevator-type  apartments  costing  $1,053,- 
000  known  as  Waluhaje  Apartments,  and 
80  garden-type  apartments  in  the  Simp- 
son Heights  area  costing  $490,000  and 
called  West  Lake  Apartments. 

In  Miami,  Fla.,  in  the  same  year,  a 
Negro  physician,  Dr.  W.  B.  Sawyer,  took 
the  lead  in  providing  housing  for  his 
people.  With  FHA  assistance  and  financ- 
ing, his  80-unit  development,  known  as 
Alberta  Heights,  occupies  almost  three 
acres  of  land.  Planned  for  efficiency  as 
well  as  beauty,  it  is  equipped  with  Vene- 
tian blinds,  gas  refrigerators,  stoves,  and 
automatic  hot  water  heaters.  The  thought 
and  planning  that  went  into  construction 
details  make  this  development  a  sub- 
stantial assistance  in  relieving  one  of 


1  Editorial  Note:  Not  part  of  data  furnished  by  contributor.  Sources:  The  Atlanta  Constitution,  March  15,   1950; 
The  Atlanta  Daily  World,  /an.  12,  1950,  Nov.  6,  1951 ;  The  Evening  Star,  June  16,  1951. 


HOUSING  PROJECTS  FOR  NEGROES 


187 


Miami's  most  serious  and  pressing  social 
problems. 

In  Memphis,  Tenn.,  Castalia  Heights, 
the  largest  privately  built  low-cost  hous- 
ing development  for  Negroes  in  the  nation, 
was  built  at  a  cost  of  more  than  $2,000,- 
000.  Dedicated  in  July  1951,  it  is  com- 
posed of  426  rental  units  on  a  35-acre 
site,  facing  seven  streets.  All  roads  are 
paved  and  have  curbs  and  gutters.  Of 
its  426  units,  30  have  one  bedroom  and 
rent  for  $33.50;  the  others  have  two  bed- 
rooms and  rent  for  $41  a  month. 

Since  May  22,  1946,  the  date  when 
FHA's  postwar  apartment  program  was 


launched,  the  District  of  Columbia  FHA 
office  has  committed  itself  to  insure 
mortgages  for  a  total  of  2,723  colored 
units  in  both  garden  and  elevator  apart- 
ments. As  of  June  16,  1951,  all  these 
were  either  completed  or  underway  ex- 
cept one  549-unit  development,  to  be 
known  as  Parkland  Manor,  located  on 
Alabama  Avenue,  S.  E.,  near  Camp  Sims. 
In  addition  to  the  above,  private  build- 
ers have  provided  a  considerable  number 
of  apartments  and  houses  without  FHA 
aid,  and  several  remodeling  projects  have 
been  made  available  for  Negro  occu- 
pancy. 


75 

Social  Welfare 


PROVISIONS  for  the  security  of  the  indi- 
vidual in  the  United  States  have  been 
steadily  enlarged  to  minimize  want  and 
disadvantage.  Social  welfare  programs 
have  been  developed  through  the  coopera- 
tion of  Federal,  state,  and  local  govern- 
ments. Predicated  on  the  constitutional 
responsibility  of  government  for  the  gen- 
eral welfare,  the  Social  Security  Act  of 
1935,  last  amended  by  the  81st  Congress 
in  1950,  is  the  basic  law  on  which  the 
national  social  welfare  program  operates. 
Supplemented  by  housing,  health,  and 
wage  programs  provided  for  in  legisla- 
tion, much  of  the  population  of  the  coun- 
try shares  these  benefits.  Recent  reports 
of  the  several  administrative  agencies  do 
not  include  statistical  summaries  on  par- 
ticipation according  to  race,  making  it 
necessary  to  draw  implications  of  pro- 
grams for  Negroes  rather  than  stating 
exact  figures. 

SOCIAL  SECURITY 
LEGISLATION 

Provisions  of  the  latest  Social  Security 
legislation,  Public  Law  734,  include  old- 
age  and  survivors'  insurance,  public 
assistance  to  needy  individuals  who  are 
permanently  and  totally  disabled,  un- 
employment insurance,  and  maternal  and 
child  welfare  services.  Significantly,  10,- 
000,000  additional  workers  were  brought 
under  Social  Security  by  the  new  law, 
including  agricultural  workers  and  do- 
mestic servants,  two  employment  cate- 
gories in  which  there  are  many  Negroes.1 

Unemployment  Insurance 

Each  state  has  its  own  unemployment 
insurance    law,    generally    providing    an 


employment  service  which  refers  involun- 
tary unemployed  to  new  jobs  and  pays 
the  unemployed  worker  benefits  until 
re-employed.  The  Federal  government 
participates  by  grants  for  administering 
state  systems  dependent  upon  set  stand- 
ards. Funds  are  provided  by  a  payroll 
tax  on  employee  and  employer. 

Old-Age  and  Survivors 
Insurance2 

The  1950  law  liberalized  provisions 
for  retirement  pay  and  payments  to 
survivors.  The  approximately  10,000,000 
additional  persons  covered  include  non- 
farm  self-employed,  except  doctors,  law- 
yers, engineers,  and  other  specified 
professional  groups.  Also  covered  are 
regularly  employed  domestic  workers, 
farm  workers,  and  employees  of  the 
Federal  government  who  are  not  under 
other  retirement  systems.  Voluntary  par- 
ticipation is  permitted  in  the  law  to  em- 
ployees of  nonprofit  organizations  and 
those  employees  of  state  and  local  gov- 
ernments who  are  not  under  retirement 
systems. 

The  amounts  paid  to  retired  workers 
and  to  widows  and  orphans  were  sub- 
stantially increased  by  the  new  law. 
Benefit  payments  also  go  to  dependent 
husbands  and  dependent  widows  and  to 
children  of  insured  women  in  certain 
circumstances.  These  groups  had  not 
been  covered  previously.  Such  changes 
in  the  Social  Security  law  have  great 
value  for  the  majority  of  Negro  workers 
found  in  the  low  income  brackets. 

Public  Assistance 

The  new  law  provides  important 
changes  for  several  categories  of  needy 


1  See  chapter  on  EMPLOYMENT. 

*  Cohen,  Wilbur  J.,  and  Myers,  Robert  J.,  "Social  Security  Act  Amendments  of  1950:  A  Summary  and  Legislative 
History,"  Social  Security  Bulletin,  Vol.  13,  No.  10,  p.  3,  October  1950. 


188 


WELFARE  OF  CHILDREN 


189 


people  not  covered  by  the  insurance  pro- 
visions of  the  law  or  whose  benefits  are 
inadequate  for  their  needs.  These  are 
the  aged,  blind,  totally  disabled,  and 
children  who  are  without  parental  sup- 
port under  certain  conditions. 

Maternal  and  Child  Health; 
Child  Welfare  Services 

The  law  authorizes  increased  Federal 
grants  for  these  services,  to  be  matched  by 
state  funds.  The  Children's  Bureau  grants 
funds  to  state  welfare  agencies  to  bring 
crippled  children  to  diagnostic  clinics 
and  give  them  care  and  treatment.  These 
provisions  expand  work  already  in  pro- 
cess.1 In  1949,  special  projects  for  cere- 
bral-palsied children  were  in  operation 
in  Alabama,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  Min- 
nesota, Mississippi,  Montana,  New  Jer 
sey,  Hawaii,  California,  and  New  York. 
Twenty-five  states  or  territories,  aided 
by  Federal  funds,  established  special 
programs  for  children  with  rheumatic 
fever,  polio,  hearing  defects,  cleft  palates, 
and  dental  troubles.  Mildred  M.  Arnold 
pointed  out  that:  1 

The  81st  Congress  took  another  long  and 
important  step  in  further  recognizing  the 
responsibility  of  the  Federal  Government  for 
the  public  welfare  when  it  increased  the  au- 
thorization for  grants-in-aid  to  the  states  for 
child-welfare  services  from  $3,500,000  to 
$10,000,000.  The  basis  of  allotment  of  these 
funds  was  changed  to  a  flat  grant  to  each 
state  of  $40,000  instead  of  $20,000,  with  the 
remainder  allotted  on  the  basis  of  the  rural 
child  population  of  the  state  to  the  rural 
child  population  of  the  United  States,  rather 
than  on  the  basis  of  the  rural  population,  as 
heretofore.2  » 

All  but  three  states  provide  profes- 
sional training  of  child-welfare  workers 
through  the  use  of  Federal  funds.  The 
1951  budget  amounted  to  approximately 
$765,000,  adequate  to  train  550  workers. 
In  June  1950,  42%  of  the  counties  of 
the  United  States  were  being  served  by 
full-time  child-welfare  workers  employed 
by  individual  states.8 


WELFARE  OF  CHILDREN 

Child  Labor1 

Federal  child-labor  laws  applied  only 
to  industries  shipping  commodities  in 
interstate  commerce  prior  to  Jan.  25, 
1950,  when  amendments  to  the  Fair 
Labor  Standards  Act  went  into  effect. 
Of  great  importance  to  Negro  children 
in  the  rural  South  is  the  revision  of  the 
law  on  employment  of  children  in  agri- 
culture. "The  revised  agricultural  cov- 
erage, which  applies  where  the  crop 
production  is  for  interstate  commerce, 
means  that  the  law  is  applicable  during 
school  hours  in  all  states  and  for  all 
children  under  sixteen  except  when 
working  for  their  own  parents  on  their 
home  farms."5 

The  National  Child  Labor  Committee 
reported  in  November  1950  that  a  total 
of  20  states  had  laws  forbidding  the  em- 
ployment of  children  under  16  during 
school  hours.  However,  only  six  of  these, 
including  Maryland  and  Virginia,  in- 
cluded agricultural  and  domestic  service 
in  the  proscribed  occupations.  In  45 
states  the  enforcement  of  the  child-labor 
laws  is  vested  in  labor  departments  or 
industrial  commissions.  Only  Mississippi 
and  the  District  of  Columbia  have  no 
labor  department  of  any  kind.  Enforce- 
ment of  the  Federal  law  comes  under  the 
responsibility  of  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Labor. 

During  the  1949  cotton  picking  season, 
150  children  in  eight  Alabama  counties 
were  found  picking  cotton  in  violation 
of  the  child-labor  provisions  of  the  Fair 
Labor  Standards  Act.  On  33  of  the  50 
farms  where  investigations  were  made, 
the  children  employed  were  white.  Negro 
children  only  were  working  on  15  farms, 
and  children  of  both  races  on  two.  Fur- 
ther spot  investigations  found  children 
employed  contrary  to  the  law  in  other 
parts  of  the  country.  Enforcement  of 


1  The  Child,  Vol.  14,  No.  6,  pp.  86-87,  December  1949. 

2  Arnold,  Mildred  M.,  "State  Public  Welfare  Agencies  Develop  Their  Services  for  Children,"  The  Child,  p.  174, 
July  1951. 

3  Ibid.,  «p.    177. 

4  Markoff,   Sol:   "Child  Labor  Laws;  Passed  and   Bypassed,"   The  Child,  Vol.   14,   No.  9,  pp.   136-140,   March   1950. 
6  Tobin,  Maurice  J.,  "Child  Labor  and  the  Law,"  National  Parent-Teacher,  April  1950. 


190 


SOCIAL  WELFARE 


child-labor  laws  continues  lax  due  either 
to  indifference  or  to  lack  of  personnel. 

Juvenile  Delinquency1 

The  numbers  of  all  children  coming 
before  courts  handling  juvenile  delin- 
quency cases  during  1938-48  increased 
during  the  war  years  to  a  peak  in  1945, 
and  has  decreased  since.  The  pattern  for 
the  Negro  child  is  not  downward  but 
remains  high. 

Detailed  studies  of  Negro  children 
whose  problems  make  them  a  community 
concern  reveal  that  in  addition  to  the 
inadequate  situations  usually  found  in 
the  family  and  community  life  of  juve- 
nile delinquents,  the  Negro  child's  con- 
dition is  complicated  further  by  his 
minority  status.  This  may  mean  anything 
from  inadequate  and  inferior  care  to  a 
complete  absence  of  social  services  for 
his  family's  problems. 

White  House  Conference  on 
Children  and  Youth 

The  fifth  decennial  White  House  Con- 
ference on  Children  and  Youth  convened 
in  Washington  in  December  1950.  The 
conference  was  distinctive  in  the  repre- 
sentative character  of  its  personnel, 
which  included  Negro  authorities  in  vari- 
ous fields  as  discussants  and  consultants, 
Negro  membership  on  all  state  delega- 
tions,2 and  Negroes  among"  the  youth  rep- 
resentatives. One  result  of  the  Conference 
was  a  prospectus  for  a  10-year  program 
for  work  with  America's  children  and 
youth.  A  strong  stand  against  discrimi- 
nation was  taken  by  the  Conference,  and 
opposition  to  segregation  was  registered 
by  representatives  but  did  not  get  in- 
cluded in  the  recommendations  adopted. 
Emphasis  was  placed,  however,  on  all 
children's  sharing  in  recommended  pro- 
grams. 


PUBLIC  HEALTH4 

The  crippled-children  program  is  a  boon 
to  Negro  and  other  low-income  groups, 
who  otherwise  could  not  secure  for  their 
children  the  expensive  treatments  avail- 
able through  private  agencies. 

Another  important  development  in 
public  health  facilities  has  been  the 
hospital  and  health-center  construction 
program4  under  the  Hill-Burton  Act  of 
1946.  The  first  state  to  complete  its  sur- 
vey and  have  a  state  plan  for  hospital 
and  health-center  construction  approved 
was  Mississippi,  in  July  1947.  The  great 
need  of  such  health  facilities  in  the  South 
is  revealed  in  the  fact  that  71%  of  the 
projects  there  have  been  for  new  hospi- 
tals as  contrasted  to  the  New  England 
and  Middle  Atlantic  states,  where  almost 
all  the  projects  are  for  replacement  of 
existing  facilities  or  additions  to  them. 
It  is  significant  that  the  majority  of  pro- 
jects are  in  small  towns  and  small  cities. 
Only  12%  have  been  constructed  in 
places  of  more  than  10,000  population. 

This  development  of  public  facilities 
is  of  importance  to  Negroes  for  two  rea- 
sons: (1)  People  in  many  rural  areas 
and  small  towns  have  had  to  travel  con- 
siderable distances  to  secure  hospital 
services,  and  (2)  many  private  hospitals 
in  the  South  make  no  provisions  for  the 
treatment  and  care  of  Negroes,  whereas 
facilities  built  with  public  funds  can 
scarcely  avoid  accepting  the  responsi- 
bility of  providing  for  them.  Federal 
funds  are  being  used,  however,  not  only 
for  public  facilities  but  for  nonprofit 
facilities  as  well.  For  the  country  as  a 
whole,  43.6%  of  the  projects  have  been 
nonprofit  and  56.4%  public;  for  the 
South,  more  than  70%  of  the  projects 
have  been  public. 

State  programs  of  disease  control  have 
encouraged  detection  and  treatment  of 
syphilis,  tuberculosis,  diabetes,  and  can- 

*  Diggs,  Mary  Huff,  "Some  Problems  and  Needs  of  Negro  Children  As  Revealed  by  Comparative  Delinquency  and 
Crime  Statistics,"  The  Journal  of  Negro  Education,  Vol.  19,  No.  3,  pp.  290-297,  Summer  1950. 

Governor  Talmadge  of  Georgia  refused  to  name  Negroes  to  the  official  state  delegation,  creating  an  unpleasant 
situation  which  was  adjusted  by  the  naming  of  Negro  delegates  from  Georgia  directly  by  Oscar  Ewing,  Federal 
Security  Administrator,  General  Chairman  of  the  Conference. 

•  See  chapter  on  HEALTH  AND  MEDICAL  FACILITIES. 

Cronin,  John  W.,  Reed,  Louis.  S.,  and  Hollingsworth,  Helen,  "Hospital  Construction  Under  the  Hill-Burton 
Program,  Public  Health  Reports,  Vol.  65,  No.  20,  pp.  743-753,  June  9,  1950. 


SOCIAL  WORK  AMONG  NEGROES 


191 


cer  through  voluntary  or  mandatory  ex- 
amination. Publicly  maintained  treatment 
centers  for  venereal  diseases  and  an 
aggressive  educational  program  have  con- 
tributed to  the  decline  in  the  incidence 
of  venereal  diseases  among  Negroes. 

SOCIAL  WORK  AMONG 
NEGROES 

Administration  of  the  public  social  wel- 
fare programs  described  above  as  well 
as  of  the  older  voluntary  programs  repre- 
sented by  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  the  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Association,  the  Red  Cross,  Travelers 
Aid,  social  settlements,  youth  programs, 
and  day  nurseries,  depend  upon  interested 
and  trained  personnel. 

Such  organizations  as  the  YMCA,  YWCA, 
churches,  private  clubs  or  community  clubs 
have  in  most  communities  afforded  the  only 
opportunities  for  Negro  youth  to  participate 
in  an  organized  recreational  program.  These 
agencies  are  to  be  commended  highly  for  their 
efforts  and  accomplishments.  The  difficulty 
rises  from  the  fact  that  these  agencies  are  able 
at  best  to  serve  only  a  small  number  of  the 
total  population  in  any  given  community.  The 
small  budget,  limited  space,  and  inadequate 
facilities,  along  with  the  small  number  of  full- 
time  workers,  are  factors  contributing  to  this 
difficulty.1 

Much  of  the  recreational  and  charac- 
ter-building activity  for  children  and 
youth  carried  on  in  Negro  communities 
is  supported  by  the  church  or  provided 
by  voluntary  agencies  affiliated  with 
local  community  chests.  These  have  tra- 
ditionally been  urban  activities  depend- 
ing to  a  large  measure  upon  voluntary 
financial  support  and  volunteer  workers. 
A  recent  development  is  the  inauguration 
of  community  social  work  among  rural 
people.  The  programs  are  almost  entirely 
church-related  activities.  The  Methodist 
Church's  Bureau  of  Town  and  Country 
Work,  The  Congregational  -  Christian 
Church's  American  Missionary  Associa- 
tion, the  Catholic  Church,  the  Church 
of  the  Brethren,  the  Quakers,  the  Town 
and  Country  Church  of  the  Evangelical 


and  Reformed  Church,  the  National 
Town-Country  Institute  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church — all  have  some  social 
welfare  services  for  Negroes  in  rural  com- 
munities. This  worthy  work  suffers  from 
the  same  limitations  as  the  work  of  volun- 
tary agencies  in  cities — small  budgets, 
poor  facilities,  and  the  limited  numbers 
that  could  be  properly  served. 

Professional  Workers 

The  chief  problems  attacked  today  by 
social  work  agencies  among  Negroes  are: 
limited  job  opportunities;  sub-standard 
housing;  lack  of  wholesome  recreation 
for  adults,  "teen-agers,"  and  young  chil- 
dren; physical  ill  health,  especially 
among  mothers  of  the  low-income  group; 
mental  ill  health,  frequently  growing  out 
of  discrimination,  segregation,  and  in- 
hibited aggression;  juvenile  delinquency; 
unwed  mothers;  and  "slums,"  the  patho- 
logical breeding  grounds  created  by  the 
ghetto  life  forced  on  Negroes  in  many 
sections  of  the  country. 

To  carry  out  this  program,  there  are 
approximately  700  agencies  devoted 
solely  to  a  Negro  clientele,  and  an  un- 
known number  of  agencies  that  do  not 
confine  their  services  to  any  one  race. 
The  number  of  social-work  organizations 
devoting  their  services  exclusively  to 
Negro  clients  is  decreasing  because  of 
the  tendency  toward  integration  in  the 
North.  The  largest  category  of  the  all- 
Negro  agencies  is  comprised  of  the  26 
Negro  branches  of  the  YMCA,  next  are 
119  social  settlements,  and  third  are  the 
87  branches  of  the  YWCA.  Orphanages 
for  Negro  children  should  probably  come 
after  the  YMCA  figure,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine  even  the  approxi- 
mate number  because  not  one  Negro 
orphanage  is  connected  with  a  national 
organization  and  only  a  few  are  included 
in  local  community  chests  or  social  plan- 
ning councils.  The  58  branches  of  the 
National  Urban  League  constitute  the 
fourth  largest  group  serving  an  all-Negro 
or  nearly  all-Negro  clientele. 


1  Clift,  Virgil  A.,  "Recreational  and  Leisure-Time  Problems  and  Needs  of  Negro  Children  and  Youth,"  Journal  of 
Negro  Education,  Vol.  19,  No.  3,  p.  337,  Summer  1950. 


192 


SOCIAL  WELFARE 


For  a  number  of  years  most  YMCA 
and  YWCA  branches  in  so-called  Negro 
districts  have  refused  to  accept  racial 
designations  such  as  "Negro  branch"  or 
"Negro  Y,"  even  when  their  clientele  is 
entirely  Negro.  (Many  of  them,  estab- 
lished to  serve  Negroes  only,  are  now 
serving  members  of  other  races  in  vary- 
ing degrees.)  This  understandable  atti- 
tude makes  it  difficult  to  give  accurate 
figures  for  YMCA  branches  serving  an 
all-Negro  membership. 

The  trend  to  integration,  noted  in  the 
YMCA,  is  probably  even  greater  in  the 
YWCA.  More  Negroes  act  as  paid  leaders 
of  YWCA  activities  in  which  the  bulk  of 
the  membership  is  white  than  is  true  in 
the  YMCA.  A  young  Negro  woman  on 
the  paid  staff  of  the  Minneapolis  YWCA 
is  the  secretary  for  a  city-wide  teen-age 
program  including  over  3,000  girls, 
among  whom  there  are  not  a  dozen 
Negroes. 

YWCA,    Negro  Branches 

Alabama 

Eighth  Ave.  Branch 

500  8th  Ave.,  N.,  Birmingham  4 
Juliette  Derricotte  Branch 

552  St.  Frances  St.,  Mobile  13 
Arkansas 

Margie  Harrison  Branch 

715  North  H  St.,  Fort  Smith 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

924  Gaines  St.,  Little  Rock 
California 
Watts  Center 

1709^  E.  103rd  St.,  Los  Angeles  2 
Woodlawn  Branch 

4260  Woodlawn  Ave.,  Los  Angeles  11 
Southeast  Branch 

1012  C  St.,  San  Diego  1 
Colorado 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

2460  Welton  St.,  Denver  5 
Delaware 

Walnut  St.  Branch 

10th  &  Walnut  Sts.,  Wilmington  30 
Florida 

Second  Ave.  Branch 

715  2nd  Ave.,  Daytona  Beach 
A.  L.  Lewis  Branch 

1215  Lee  St.,  Jacksonvile  4 
Murrell  Branch 

340  N.W.  13th  St.,  Miami  36 
Sojourner  Truth  Branch 

420  North  C  St.,  Pensacola 
Lauffer  Branch 

317  10th  St.,  S.,  St.  Petersburg 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

1008  Kay  St.,  Tampa  2 
4th  &  Sapodilla  Sts.  Branch 

West  Palm  Beach 


Georgia 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

599  Tatnall  St.,  Atlanta 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

1237  Gwinnett  St.,  Augusta 
Lucy  Laney  Branch 

831  Forsylth  St.,  Macon 
Illinois 

South  Parkway  Center 

4559  S.  Parkway,  Chicago  15 
Indiana 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

653  N.  West  St.,  Indianapolis  2 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 
1301  E.  1st  St.,  Muncie 
Kansas 

Yates  Branch 

644  Quinador  Blvd.,  Kansas  City  2 
Mary  B.  Talbert  Branch 

818  N.  Water  St.,  Wichita  5 
Kentucky 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

402  N.  Upper  St.,  Lexington  43 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

_528  S.  6th  St.,  Louisville  2 
Louisiana 

Mary  McLeod  Bethune  Branch 

815  Cass^n  St.,  Alexandria 
130  S.  Clairborne  St.  Branch 

New  Orleans  16 
Milan  St.  Branch 

1637  Milan  St.,  Shreveport  30 
Maryland 

Madison  Ave.  Branch 

1912  Madison  Ave.,  Baltimore  17 
Michigan 

Lucy  Thurman  Branch 

569  E.  Elizabeth  St.,  Detroit  1 
Mississippi 

Bettie  C.  Marino  Branch 

501  N.  Parish  St.,  Jackson  19 
611  S.  Maple  St.  Branch 

Laurel 
Missouri 

Paseo  Branch 

1903  Paseo  Blvd.,  Kansas  City  8 
Blue  Triangle  Branch 

110  S.  13th  St.,  St.  Joseph  13 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

2709  Locust  St.,  St.  Louis  3 
Nebraska 

North  Side  Branch 

2306  N.  22nd  St.,  Omaha  10 
New  Jersey 

285  Berry  St.  Branch 

Hackensack 

Sojourner  Truth  Branch 
52  Jones  St.,  Newark  3 
Oakwood  Branch 

66  Oakwood  Ave.,  Orange 
E.  Fifth  St.  Branch 

300  E.  5th  St.,  Plainfield 
New  York 

Harlem  Branch 

179  W.  137th  St.,  New  York  30 
North  Carolina 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

356-60  College  St.,  Asheville 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

411  S.  Brevard  St.,  Charlotte  2 
Harriet  Tubman  Branch 

312  E.  Umstead  St.,  Durham 
Susie  B.  Dudley  Branch 

327  N.  Dudley  St.,  Greensboro 


SOCIAL  WORK  AMONG  NEGROES 


193 


North  Carolina  (cont.) 
Mary  Bethune  Branch 

605  y2  E.  Washington  St.,  High  Point 
Sojourner  Truth  Branch 

310  E.  Davie  St.,  Raleigh 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

519  S.  8th  St.,  Wilmington 
Chestnut  St.  Branch 

619  Chestnut  St.,  Winston-Salem  4 
Ohio 

West  End  Branch 

702  W.  8th  St.,  Cincinnati  3 
Blue  Triangle  Branch 

690  E.  Long  St.,  Columbus  IS 
West  Side  Branch 

236  S.  Summit  St.,  Dayton  7 
Belmont  Branch 

248  Belmont  Ave.,  Youngstown  2 
Oklahoma 

Stiles  St.  Center 

300  N.  Stiles  St.,  Oklahoma  City  4 
North  Tulsa  Branch 

621  E.  Oklahoma  Place,  Tulsa  6 
Pennsylvania 

Germantown  Branch 

6128  Germantown  Ave.,  Germantown  44 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

800  Cowden  St.,  Harrisburg 
Elm  St.  Branch 

140  Elm  St.,  New  Castle 
Southwest-Belmont  Branch 

1605  Catharine  St.,  Philadelphia  46 
Centre  Ave.  Branch 

2044  Centre  Ave.,  Pittsburgh  19 
Lincoln  St.  Branch 

c/o  W.  Maiden  St.,  Washington 
South  Carolina 

Coming  St.  Branch 

106  Coming  St.,  Charleston  10 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

1429  Park  Ave.,  Columbia  6 
106  N.  Calhoun  Branch 

Greenville 
Tennessee 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

924  E.  8th  St.,  Chattanooga  3 
702  Temperance  St.  Branch 

Knoxville  15 
Vance  Ave.  Branch 

541  Vance  Ave.,  Memphis  5 
Blue  Triangle  Branch 

436  5th  Ave.,  N.,  Nashville  3 
Texas 

East  Austin  Branch 

1401  E.  12th  St.,  Austin  22 
Frances  Morris  Branch 

653  College  St.,  Beaumont 
Maria  Morgan  Branch 

3525  State  St.,  Dallas  4 
Crump  St.  Branch 

1916  Crump  St.,  Fort  Worth  3 
Mary  Patrick  Branch 

2823  K  St.,  Galveston 
Blue  Triangle  Branch 

1419  Live  Oak  St.,  Houston  3 
Pine  St.  Branch 

328  N.  Pine  St.,  San  Antonio  2 
Blue  Triangle  Branch 

301  Cherry  St.,  Waco 
Virginia 

Mary  McLeod  Bethune  Branch 

404-406  N.  Alfred  St.,  Alexandria 
214  N.  Ridge  St.  Branch 
Danville 


Virginia  (cont.) 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

600  Monroe  St.,  Lynchburg 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

2702  Orcutt,  Newport  News 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

729  Washington  Ave.,  Norfolk  4 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Branch 

515  N.  7th  St.,  Richmond  19 
Lula  Williams  Memorial  Branch 

394  2nd  St.,  N.E.,  Roanoke  12 
Washington 

East  Side  Branch 

102  21st  Ave.,  N.,  Seattle  2 
West  Virginia 
Ben  St.  Center 

449  Ben  St.,  Clarksburg 
Blue  Triangle  Branch 

108  12th  St.,  Wheeling 

YMCA,  Negro  Branches 

Alabama 

Acipco  Branch 

2930  16th  St.,  N.,  or  P.O.  Box  2603,  Bir- 
mingham 4 
Stockham  Branch 

4000  N.  10th  Ave.,  or  P.O.  Box  2592,  Bir- 
mingham 2 
Community  Branch 

406  Masonic  Temple,  17th  &  4th  Ave.,  Bir- 
mingham 3 
Dearborn  Branch 

306  N.  Dearborn  St.,  Mobile  16 
19  N.  McDonough  St.  Branch 

Montgomery 
Arkansas 

George  W.  Carver  Branch 

1100  W.  9th  St.,  Little  Rock  4 
California 

Carver  Branch 

300  Hayes  St.,  Bakersfield 
S.  Berkeley  Center  Branch 

290  California  St.,  Berkeley 
28th  St.  Branch 

1006  E.  28th  St.,  Los  Angeles  11 
Northwest  Branch 

3265  Market  St.,  Oakland  8 
Central  Branch 

1115  Eighth  Ave.,  San  Diego 
Colorado 

Glenarm  Branch 

2800  Glenarm  Place,  Denver  5 
Connecticut 
Central  Branch 

651  State  St.,  Bridgeport  3 
Delaware 

Walnut  St.  Christian  Association 

10th  &  Walnut  Sts.,  Wilmington  30 
District  of  Columbia 

Veterans  Memorial  Branch 

Box  6065,  Fairlington  Sta.,  Arlington,  Va. 
Twelfth  St.  Branch 

1816  Twelfth  St.,  N.W.,  Washington  9 
Florida 

Northwest  Branch 

1408    NW.    14th    Terrace,    or    P.O.    Box 

1200,  Fort  Lauderdale 
Davis  St.  Branch 

1203  Davis  St.,  Jacksonville 
George  W.  Carver  Branch 

340  13th  St.,  N.W.,  Miami  36 
Melrose  Park  Branch 

1801  Melrose  Ave.,  S.,  St.  Petersburg  7 


194 


SOCIAL  WELFARE 


Georgia 

Butler  St.  Branch 

22  Butler  St.,  NE.,  Atlanta  3 
Ninth  St.  Branch 

917  Ninth  St.,  Augusta 
Ninth  St.  Branch 

521  Ninth  St.,  Columbus 
W.  Broad  St.  Branch 

714  W.  Broad  St.,  Savannah  (Suspended) 
Illinois 

Maxwell  St.  Branch 

1012  Maxwell  St.,  Chicago  8 
Wabash  Ave.  Department 

3763  S.  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago  15 
Washington  Park  Branch 

5000  Indiana  Ave.,  Chicago  15 
Emerson  St.  Department 

1014  Emerson  St.,  Evanston  (Suspended) 
Southside  Branch 

Joliet 
S.  Genesse  St.  Branch 

724  S.  Genesse  St.,  Waukegan 
Indiana 

Senate  Ave.  Branch 

450  N.  Senate  Ave.,  Indianapolis 
Madison  St.  Branch 

900  S.  Madison  St.,  Muncie 
Iowa 

Crocker  St.  Branch 

1333  Keosauqua  Way,  Des  Moines  14 
Kansas 

George  Carver  Branch 

112  Kansas  Ave.,  Topeka 
Hutcherson  Branch 

1221  Cleveland  St.,  Wichita  6 
Kentucky 

544  Georgetown  St.  Branch 

Lexington  43 
Chestnut  St.  Branch 

920  W.  Chestnut  St.,  Louisville 
Louisiana 

Baranco-Clark  Memorial  Branch 

850  Terrace  St.,  Baton  Rouge 
Franklin  St.  Branch 

301  Franklin  St.,  Lake  Charles 
Dryades  St.  Branch 

2220  Dryades  St.,  New  Orleans  13 
George  W.  Carver  Branch 

105 \y2  Texas  Ave.,  Shreveport  6 
Maryland 

Turner  Station  Branch 

411-A  N.  Pitsburgh  Ave.,  Baltimore  2 
Druid  Hill  Ave.  Branch 

1619  Druid  Hill  Ave.,  Baltimore  17 
North  St.  Branch 

Hagerstown 
Michigan 

St.  Antoine  Branch 

635  E.  Elizabeth  St.,  Detroit  1 
Mississippi 

10th  Ave.  Branch 

Columbus 
Parish  St.  Branch 

806  N.  Parish  St.,  Jackson  45 
Jackson  St.  Branch 

923  Walnut  St.,  Vicksburg 
Rowan  Memorial  Branch 

608  Nelson  St.,  Washington  County 

(Greenville) 
Missouri 

Paseo  Department 

1824  Paseo  Blvd.,  Kansas  City  8 
Messanie  St.  Branch 

1622  Messanie  St.,  St.  Joseph  28 


Missouri  (cont.) 
Pine  St.  Branch 

2846  Pine  St.,  St.  Louis  3 
Webster  Groves  Branch 

17  E.  Lockwood  Ave.,  Webster  Groves  19, 

St.  Louis 
Nebraska 

Near  North  Side  Branch 

2213  Lake  St.,  Omaha  10 
New  Jersey 

Arctic  Ave.  Branch 

1711  Arctic  Ave.,  Atlantic  City  87 
South  Camden  Branch 

1300  S.  6th  St.,  Camden  14 
Community  Branch 

Second  and  Clay  Sts.,  Hackensack 
Central  Branch 

654  Bergen  Ave.,  Jersey  City  4 
Washington  St.  Branch 

39  Washington  St.,  Montclair  40 
Court  St.  Branch 

153  Court  St.,  Newark  3 
Oakwood  Branch 

84  Oakwood  Ave.,  Orange  32 
Moorland  Branch 

644  W.  4th  St.,  Plainfield 
Princeton  Branch 

120  John  St.,  Princeton 
West  Side  Branch 

144  W.  Bergen  Place,  Red  Bank 
Lincoln  Branch 

393  Broad  St.,  Summit 
Carver  Branch 

40  Fowler  St.,  Trenton  8 
New  York 

Carlton  Ave.  Branch 

405  Carlton  Ave.,  Brooklyn  5 
Michigan  Ave.  Branch 

585  Michigan  Ave.,  Buffalo  3 
West  Side  Branch 

249  S.  7th  Ave.,  Mount  Vernon 
Harlem  Branch 

180  W.  135th  St.,  New  York  31 
West  Side  Branch 

100  Gibbs  St.,  Rochester  1 
Fisher  Ave.  Branch 

65  Fisher  Ave.,  White  Plains 
North  Carolina 
Market  St.  Branch 

39  S.  Market  St.,  Asheville 
Henry  McCrorey  Branch 

300  S.  Caldwell  St.,  Charlotte 
E.  White  Oak  Branch 

1618  llth  St.,  Greensboro 
Hayes-Taylor  Memorial  Branch 

1101  E.  Market  St.,  Greensboro  2 
Carl-Chavis  Branch 

722  E.  Washington  St.,  High  Point 
Henry  St.  Branch 

Leaksville 
Bloodworth  St.  Branch 

600  S.  Bloodworth  St.,  Raleigh 
Patterson  Ave.  Branch 

410  N.  Church  St.,  Winston-Salem  3 
Ohio 

Glendale  Branch 

80  W.  Center  St.,  Akron  8 
Ninth  St.  Branch 

636  W.  Ninth  St.,  Cincinnati  3 
Lockland  Branch 

310  N.  Wayne  Ave.,  Cincinnati  15 
Walnut  Hills  Branch 

2840  Melrose  Ave.,  Walnut  Hills,  Cincin- 
nati 16 


SOCIAL  WORK  AMONG  NEGROES 


195 


Ohio  (cont.) 

Cedar  Ave.  Branch 

7615  Cedar  Ave.,  Cleveland  3 
Glenville  Branch 

10211-13  St.  Clair  Ave.,  Cleveland  8 
Spring  St.  Branch 

202  E.  Spring  St.,  Columbus  15 
Fifth  St.  Branch 

907  W.  5th  St.,  Dayton  7 
Center  St.  Branch 

521  S.  Center  St.,  Springfield 
Indiana  Ave.  Branch 

609  Indiana  Ave.,  Toledo  2 
West  Federal  St.  Branch 

962  W.  Federal  St.,  Youngstown  10 
Oklahoma 

Muskogee 

208^  N.  Second  St.  Branch 
Community  Branch 

300  N.  Stiles  St.,  Oklahoma  City  4 
W.  L.  Hutcherson  Branch 

331  N.  Greenwood  St.,  Tulsa  3 
Pennsylvania 
West  Branch 

7th  &  Flower  Sts.,  Chester 
W.  Rittenhouse  St.  Branch 

132  W.  Rittenhouse  St.,  Germantown 

(Philadelphia  44) 
Forster  St.  Branch 

614  Forster  St.,  Harrisburg 
Shenango  St.  Branch 

202  N.  Shenango  St.,  New  Castle 
Parkside  Community  Branch 

712  N.  3rd  St.,  Philadelphia  4 
Columbia  Community  Branch 

1639  N.  Broad  St.,  Philadelphia  22 
Christian  St.  Branch 

1724  Christian  St.,  Philadelphia  46 
Centre  Ave.  Branch 

2621  Centre  Ave.,  Pittsburgh  19 
Central  Branch 

338  King  St.,  Pottstown 
South  Branch 

434  S.  Main  St.,  Wilkes-Barre 
Community  Work 

YMCA,  Wilmerding 
South  Carolina 

Cannon  St.  Branch 

61  Cannon  St.,  Charleston  15 
Tennessee 

J.  A.  Henry  Branch 

793  E.  9th  St.,  Chattanooga  3 
Charles  W.  Cansler  Branch 

208  E.  Vine  St.,  Knoxville  15 
Lauderdale  Branch 

254  S.  Louderdale  Ave.,  Memphis  5 
Texas 

Neches  St.  Branch 

776  Neches  St.,  Beaumont 
Moorland  Branch 

2700  Flora  St.,  Dallas  4 
Wm.  McDonald,  Jr.,  Branch 

1600  Jones  St.,  Fort  Worth  2 
Gibson  Branch 

Bay  View  Homes,  Galveston 
Bagby  St.  Branch 

1217  Bagby  St.,  Houston  3 
41&y2  Elm  St.  Branch 

Texarkana 
Doris  Miller  Branch 

202  Clay  Ave.,  Waco 
Virginia 

P.  S.  Broadnax  Branch 

657  High  St.,  Danville 


Virginia  (cont.) 
Hunton  Branch 

821  Jackson  St.,  Lynchburg 
Hunton  Branch 

440  E.  Brambleton  Ave.,  Norfolk  4 
Harding  St.  Branch 

453  Harding  St.,  Petersburg 
Chestnut  St.  Branch 

1300  Chestnut  St.,  Portsmouth 
Leigh  St.  Branch 

214  E.  Leigh  St.,  Richmond  19 
William  A.  Hunton  Branch 

416  Gainsboro  Road,  NW.,  Roanoke  17 
Washington 

East  Madison  Branch 

23rd  &  E.  Olive  Sts.,  Seattle  22 
West  Virginia 

510  Capitol  St.  Branch 

Charleston 
Wisconsin 

Northside  Branch 

535  W.  North  Ave.,  Milwaukee  12 

National  Urban  League 

The  National  Urban  League  was  es- 
tablished more  than  40  years  ago  to 
assist  Negro  migrants  from  the  rural 
South  to  make  satisfactory  adjustments 
to  city  life.  It  was  recognized  that  these 
newcomers  were  confronted  with  serious 
problems  in  the  areas  of  health,  housing, 
recreation,  and  family  organization  as 
well  as  employment.  Assistance  to  these 
bewildered  people  in  all  these  fields  was 
considered  by  pioneers  in  the  Urban 
League  movement  as  the  goal  of  their 
organization,  and  for  a  long  time  the 
League  was  the  largest  organization  de- 
voting itself  solely  to  an  all-around  pro- 
gram of  social  work  among  Negroes. 
However,  in  recent  years,  while  some  of 
the  local  branches  of  the  League  continue 
constantly  to  survey  their  communities 
for  all  the  unmet  social  welfare  prob- 
lems of  the  Negro  and  to  attempt  to  pro- 
vide a  solution  for  them,  the  larger 
number  of  League  branches,  probably 
as  a  result  of  the  pattern  set  by  the 
National  organization,  seem  to  be  con- 
centrating on  the  problem  of  unemploy- 
ment and  under-employment  in  industry 
and  business,  which,  of  course,  is  only 
one  phase  of  the  Negro's  maladjustment. 
At  the  same  time,  an  increasing  number 
of  nonracial  organizations,  as  for  instance 
certain  social  planning  councils,  are 
appropriating,  as  part  of  their  programs, 
the  field  of  all-around  social  welfare 
planning  and  community  organization  for 


196 


SOCIAL  WELFARE 


Negroes  which  was  formerly  the  goal  of 
the  Urban  League. 

The  activities  of  the  League  are 
planned  to  promote  inter-racial  organi- 
zation and  action;  to  improve  economic 
and  social  conditions  among  Negro  popu- 
lations in  cities;  to  conduct  social  re- 
search and  planning  in  behalf  of  the 
Negro  population;  to  promote  specific 
social  work  activities  among  Negroes 
until  other  agencies  are  found  to  accept 
responsibility  for  such  programs;  to  pro- 
mate  the  occupational  advancement  of 
Negroes  by  industrial  relations,  voca- 
tional guidance,  and  public  education 
programs;  and  to  encourage  the  training 
of  Negro  workers  through  fellowships  in 
accredited  schools  of  social  work. 

In  its  report  for  1950,  entitled  OUT 
Fortieth  Year  in  Race  Relations,  the 
League  summarizes  its  accomplishments: 

Interviewed  for  employment          57,715 

Applicants  referred          21  ',270 

Job  orders  received  14'325 

Negro  workers  placed  12^820 

Negro  employed  in  companies  or  jobs 
formerly  closed  to  them        285 

Job  development  visits  made  to  solve 

job  and  personnel  problems  ....     8,115 

Persons  helped  in  housing,  health, 

personal  and  family  problems          685,000 

Young  people  helped  in  choosing  and 

preparing  for  careers 350,000 

Studies  completed  of  social  and  economic 

conditions  by  the  National  Office 9 

Miles  covered  by  National  staff  members 
to  service  local  Urban  League  pro- 
grams and  promote  racial  understand- 
ing in  non-League  communities 141,000 

Written  requests  answered  by  the  Na- 
tional Office  for  information  3,850 

Pieces  of  informational  material  dis- 
tributed through  the  National  Office. . .  8,770 


Local  Urban  Leagues 

Akron  4,  Ohio 

Akron  Community  Service  Center 

250  E.  Market  St. 

Raymond  R.  Brown,  Exec.  Dir. 
Anderson,  Indiana 

Anderson  Urban  League 

11 00  W.I  4th  St. 

William  B.  Harper,  Exec.  Secy 
Atlanta  3,  Georgia 

Atlanta  Urban  League 

239  Auburn  Ave.,  NE. 

Mrs.  Grace  T.  Hamilton,  Exec.  Secy 
Baltimore  17,  Maryland 

Baltimore  Urban  League 

2404  Pennsylvania  Ave. 

Furman  L.  Templeton,  Exec.  Secy 


Boston  8,  Massachusetts 

Urban  League  of  Greater  Boston 
14  Somerset,  Suite  520 
Edward  L.  Cooper,  Exec.  Secy 
Buffalo  4,  New  York 

Buffalo  Urban  League,  Inc. 
155  Cedar  St. 

William  L.  Evans,  Exec.  Secy 
Canton  4,  Ohio 

Canton  Urban  League 
819  Liberty  Ave.,  SE. 

John  W.  Crawford,  Exec.  Secy 
Chicago  16,  Illinois 
Chicago  Urban  League 

3032  S.  Wabash  Ave. 

Sidney  Williams,  Exec.  Secy 
Cincinnati  2,  Ohio 

Urban  League  of  Greater  Cincinnati 

312  W.  9th  St. 

Joseph  Hall,  Exec.  Secy 
Cleveland  4,  Ohio 

Cleveland  Urban  League 

8311  Quincy  Ave. 

Arnold  B.  Walker,  Exec.  Secy 
Columbus  3,  Ohio 

Columbus  Urban  League 

107  N.  Monroe  Ave. 

Nimrod  B.  Allen,  Exec.  Secy 
Dayton  6,  Ohio 

Dayton  Urban  League 

409  W.  Fifth  St. 

Charles  W.  Washington,  Exec.  Secy 
Denver  2,  Colorado 

Denver  Urban  League 

314  Fourteenth  St. 

W.  Miller  Barbour,  Exec.  Secy 
Detroit  1,  Michigan 

Detroit  Urban  League 

208  Mack  Ave. 

John  C.  Dancy,  Director 
Elizabeth,  New  Jersey 

Urban  League  of  Eastern  Union  County 

8  W.  Jersey  St. 

William  M.  Ashby,  Exec.  Secy 
Englewood,  New  Jersey 

Englewood  Urban  League 

28  N.  Van  Brunt  St. 

Mrs.  Albert  Metzger,  Act.  Exec.  Secy 
Flint  3,  Michigan 

Urban  League  of  Flint 

200  E.  Kearsley  St. 

Charles  Eason,  Exec.  Secy 
Fort  Wayne  2,  Indiana 

Fort  Wayne  Urban  League 

436  E.  Douglas  Ave. 

Robert  E.  Wilkerson,  Exec.  Secy 
Fort  Worth  3,  Texas 

Forth  Worth  Urban  League 

41  IK  E.  Ninth  St. 

Velma  T.  McEwen,  Exec.  Secy 
Gary,  Indiana 

Gary  Urban  League  '"*•'»     ', 

1448  Broadway 

Clifford  E.  Minton,  Exec.  Secy 
Grand  Rapids  6,  Michigan 

Grand  Rapids  Urban  League 

554  Henry  St.,  NE. 

Paul  I.  Phillips,  Exec.  Secy 
Jacksonville  2,  Florida 

Jacksonville  Urban  League 

610  W.  DuvalSt. 

Levin  W.  Armwood,  Exec.  Secy 


SOCIAL  WORK  AMONG  NEGROES 


197 


Kansas  City  8,  Missouri 

Urban  League  of  Kansas  City  . 

1805  Vine  St. 

Thomas  A.  Webster,  Exec.  Secy 
Lincoln,  Nebraska 

Lincoln  Urban  League 

2030  T  St. 

Lynwood  Parker,  Exec.  Secy 
Little  Rock,  Arkansas 

Urban  League  of  Greater  Little  Rock 

914  Gaines  St. 

W.  H.  Bass,  Jr.,  Exec.  Secy 
Los  Angeles  11,  California 

Urban  League  of  Los  Angeles 

251  OS.  Central  Ave. 

Wesley  R.  Brazier,  Act.  Exec.  Dir. 
Louisville  2,  Kentucky 

Louisville  Urban  League 

418  S.  Fifth  St. 

Charles  T.  Steele,  Exec.  Secy 
Marion,  Indiana 

Marion  Urban  League 

Room  11,  Resnick  Bldg. 

Kenneth  O.  Wilson,  Exec.  Secy 
Massillon,  Ohio 

Massillon  Urban  League 

821  Walnut  Rd.,  SE. 

Wesley  Scott,  Exec.  Secy 
Memphis,  Tennessee 

Memphis  Urban  League 

546  Beale  Aye. 

J.  A.  McDaniel,  Exec.  Secy 
Miami  36,  Florida 

Greater  Miami  Urban  League 

340  NW.  13th  St. 

Walter  C.  Pinkston,  Exec.  Secy 
Milwaukee  5,  Wisconsin 

Milwaukee  Urban  League 

904  W.  Vine  St. 

William  V.  Kelley,  Exec.  Secy 
Minneapolis  1,  Minnesota 

Minneapolis  Urban  League 

510  Pence  Bldg. 

Ashby  Gaskins,  Act.  Exec.  Secy 
Morristown,  New  Jersey 

Morris  County  Urban  League 

55  Park  Place 

Percy  H.  Steele,  Jr.,  Exec.  Secy 
Muskegon  Heights,  Michigan 

Urban  League  of  Greater  Muskegon 

1260  Jefferson  St. 

William  Layton,  Exec.  Secy 
New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey 

New  Brunswick  Urban  League 

122  New  St. 

Eric  B.  Chandler,  Exec.  Secy 
New  Orleans  13,  Louisiana 

New  Orleans  Urban  League 

712  N.  ClaiborneSt. 

J.  Westbrook  McPherson,  Exec.  Secy 
New  York  30,  New  York 

Urban  League  of  Greater  New  York 

202  W.  136  St. 

Edward  S.  Lewis,  Exec.  Dir. 
Newark  3,  New  Jersey 

Urban  League  of  Essex  County 

58  Jones  St. 

George  H.  Robinson,  Exec.  Secy 
Oklahoma  City,  Oklahoma 

Oklahoma  City  Urban  League 

300  N.  Stiles  St. 

Mrs.  Cernoria  Johnson,  Exec.  Secy 


Omaha  10,  Nebraska 

Omaha  Urban  League 

416  Karback  Block 

Whitney  M.  Young,  Jr.,  Exec.  Secy 
Phoenix,  Arizona 

Phoenix  Urban  League 

702  E.  Adams  St. 

Alton  W.  Thomas,  Exec.  Secy 
Pittsburgh  19,  Pennsylvania 

Pittsburgh  Urban  League 

1300  Fifth  Ave. 

Alexander  J.  Allen,  Exec.  Secy 
Pontiac  15,  Michigan 

Urban  League  of  Pontiac 

120  Bagley  St. 

Everett  C.  Spurlqck,  Exec.  Secy 
Portland  4,  Oregon 

Portland  Urban  League 

202  McKay  Building 

Edwin  C.  Berry,  Exec.  Secy 
Providence  3,  Rhode  Island 

Providence  Urban  League 

433  Westminster  St. 

James  N.  Williams,  Exec.  Secy 
Richmond  20,  Virginia 

Richmond  Urban  League 

900  St.  James  St. 

Wiley  A.  Hall,  Exec.  Secy 
St.  Louis  3,  Missouri 

Urban  League  of  St.  Louis 

3017  Delmar  Blvd. 

M.  Leo  Bohanon,  Exec.  Secy 
St.  Paul  1,  Minnesota 

St.  Paul  Urban  League 

402  First  Federal  Bank  Bldg. 

S.  Vincent  Owens,  Exec.  Secy 
San  Francisco  3,  California 

San  Francisco  Urban  League 

2015  Steiner  St. 

Seaton  W.  Manning,  Exec.  Secy 
Seattle  22,  Washington 

Seattle  Urban  League 

421  E.  Pine  St. 

Lewis  G.  Watts,  Exec.  Secy 
Springfield,  Illinois 

Springfield  Urban  League 

234  S.  15th  St. 

G.  B.  Winston,  Exec.  Secy 
Springfield  9,  Massachusetts 

Urban  League  of  Springfield 

33  Oak  St. 

Alexander  B.  Mapp,  Exec.  Secy 
Tampa  2,  Florida 

Tampa  Urban  League 

1615  Lamar  Ave. 

Perry  Taylor,  Exec.  Secy 
Warren,  Ohio 

Warren  Urban  League 

479  Second  St.,  SW. 

W.  Robert  Smalls,  Exec.  Secy 
Washington  1,  D.C. 

Washington  Urban  League 

1103V  St.,  NW. 

Llewellyn  K.  Shivery,  Exec.  Secy 
White  Plains,  New  York 

Urban  League  of  Westchester  County 

6  Depot  Plaza 

Marion  S.  English,  Exec.  Secy 
Winston-Salem,  North  Carolina 

Community  Relations  Project 

Pepper  Building,  6th  Floor 

Samuel  D.  Harvey,  Exec.  Secy 


198 


SOCIAL  WELFARE 


Housing 

Many  public  low-cost  housing  projects 
have  been  established  in  various  sections 
of  the  country  to  meet  the  fearful  prob- 
lems of  ill  health  and  delinquency  caused 
by  the  relegation  of  the  masses  of  Ne- 
groes to  overcrowded  substandard  homes. 
For  the  most  part,  the  administration  of 
these  public  housing  projects  has  been 
such  as  to  justify  their  inclusion  in  the 
category  of  social  work.  There  is  a  grow- 
ing opposition,  however,  to  the  extension 
of  segregated  public  housing  projects, 
based  upon  the  fear  that  they  will  per- 
petuate racial  distinctions  and  misunder- 
standing. 

Negro  Social  Workers 

According  to  the  study  just  completed 
by  the  Atlanta  University  School  of  So- 
cial Work,  there  are  approximately  5,000 
Negroes  engaged  in  the  various  fields  of 
social  work  in  America.  There  has  been 
a  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  Negro 
social  workers  during  the  last  10  years. 
There  are  several  reasons  for  this  expan- 
sion, one  of  which  is  the  ever  increasing 
migration  of  Negroes  into  large  urban 
and  industrial  centers.  This  has  increased 
the  case  loads  of  many  social  work  agen- 
cies, and  their  executives  seem  to  have 
concluded  that  the  most  effective  treat- 
ment of  social  problems  growing  out  of 
this  augmentation  of  the  Negro  popula- 
tion is  the  employment  of  Negro  social- 
work  practitioners.  A  second  reason  is 
the  increasing  number  of  Negroes  inter- 
ested in  social  work  as  a  career.  A  third 
reason  is  the  growing  tendency  to  employ 
Negro  social  workers  to  work  with  people 
of  all  races  rather  than  only  with  Ne- 
groes. There  is  evidence  also  of  the  atti- 
tude in  some  areas  that  there  should  be 
Negro  workers  in  a  community  as  a  mat- 
ter of  racial  justice. 

At  the  present  time  about  60%  of  these 
Negro  social  workers  are  employed  in 
the  North  and  40%  in  the  South.  A  few 
years  ago  only  10%  more  Negroes  were 
employed  in  social  work  in  the  North 
than  in  the  South.  The  20%  variation 
results  from  the  rapidly  increasing  em- 


ployment of  Negroes  in  the  North  in 
nonracial  social-work  jobs. 

Conditions  of  employment  of  social 
workers  in  the  North  vary  very  little  as 
regards  race.  Salaries  are  practically  the 
same  for  Negroes  and  whites  in  inte- 
grated social-work  agencies.  In  the  South 
there  is  still  a  great  deal  of  segregation 
of  Negro  social  workers  and  clients,  par- 
ticularly in  smaller  cities  and  towns.  On 
the  other  hand,  working  conditions  are 
rapidly  improving  in  the  South,  even  in 
such  nonsalary  conditions  as  the  type  of 
premises  provided  Negro  workers  and 
clients.  Here  again,  the  presence  of 
white  and  Negro  case-workers  working 
in  the  same  offices  in  many  sections  of 
the  South  can  be  attributed  to  the  fact 
that  social  work  is  not  rooted  in  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  Old  South  as  is  true  of  the 
public  schools  and  even  the  churches. 

While  in  the  past  social  work  has  not 
been  a  highly  paid  occupation  and  while 
salaries  in  industry  and  business  continue 
to  increase  at  a  much  more  rapid  rate, 
nevertheless,  through  the  influence  of 
national,  state,  and  local  governments 
the  salaries  in  social  work  are  rapidly 
increasing,  with  Negroes  benefiting  along 
with  other  social  workers. 

In  the  population  in  general,  there 
have  always  been  more  women  employed 
in  social  work  than  men,  but  in  the 
Negro  group  the  proportion  of  male 
workers  is  higher  than  the  proportion  of 
white  male  social  workers  because  of 
limited  opportunities  in  other  careers  for 
Negro  men. 

About  50%  of  the  Negroes  engaged 
in  social  work  are  trained.  This  is  a 
larger  percentage  than  for  all  social 
workers,  but  it  is  understandable  since 
social  work  has  long  been  one  of  the 
few  professions  for  which  Negroes  could 
afford  to  train  in  any  large  numbers  and 
in  which  there  was  a  reasonable  chance 
of  employment. 

The  average  annual  salary  paid  Negro 
social  workers  throughout  the  country 
was  found  by  the  Atlanta  study  to  be 
$3,000.  Formerly  the  South  paid  a  much 
lower  average  wage  to  Negro  social  work- 


SOCIAL  WORK  AMONG  NEGROES 


199 


ers  than  the  North,  but  in  recent  years, 
largely  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Fed- 
eral government  upon  southern  public- 
welfare  agencies  to  which  it  contributes, 
the  differential  had  decreased  tremen- 
dously. According  to  the  Atlanta  study, 
the  southern  average  for  Negro  social 
workers  is  now  about  $2,400. 

Now  that  social  workers  are  no  longer 
employed  by  race  in  the  North,  top  sala- 
ries paid  Negroes  are  going  higher,  with 
many  over  $6,000  a  year  and  some  rang- 
ing from  $7,000  to  $8,500. 

Principal  Specializations:  The  largest 
number  of  Negro  social  workers,  70%, 
is  found  in  the  general  category  known 
as  social-case  work,  and  for  the  same 
reason  that  the  largest  number  of  white 
social  workers  is  found  in  this  category — 
because  this  was  the  first  of  the  three 
major  disciplines  in  social  work  to  crys- 
tallize into  a  profession.  There  are  about 
three  times  as  many  Negroes  in  social- 
case  work  as  in  social-group  work,  and 
six  times  as  many  in  social-case  work  as 
in  community  organization.  The  Atlanta 
study  reveals  that  of  2,300  Negro  case 
workers,  public  assistance,  private  family 
welfare,  departments  of  public  welfare, 
and  child  welfare  agencies  had  600;  pro- 
bation and  parole,  254;  medical  and  psy- 
chiatric social  work  in  hospitals  and 
clinics,  150.  Some  are  employed  in  such 
branches  of  case  work  as  the  Home  Serv- 
ice of  the  Red  Cross,  Travelers  Aid,  and 
work  with  training  schools  for  delin- 
quents. 

The  study  revealed  a  little  over  1,500 
Negroes  employed  as  social-group  work- 
ers, of  which  about  300  were  paid  head 
residents  and  leaders  of  clubs  and  classes 
in  social  settlements.  Approximately  150 
were  YMCA  workers  (exclusive  of  execu- 
tive secretaries),  100  were  YWCA  work- 
ers (exclusive  of  secretaries),  and  the 
rest  were  supervisors  and  workers  with 
the  Boy  Scouts  and  the  Girl  Scouts,  Camp 
Fire  Girls,  Boys  Clubs  of  America,  and 
many  public  recreational  organizations. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  one  wished  to  count 
as  a  group  worker  every  playground 
leader  or  athletic  director  connected 


with  a  public  playground  or  a  commu- 
nity center,  there  would  be  more  Negro 
group  workers  than  case  workers.  How- 
ever, only  those  are  counted  as  group 
workers  who  have  had  some  training  in 
the  field  of  social-group  work. 

"Community  organization"  in  social 
work  aims  at  coordinating  the  resources 
of  an  entire  community  toward  solving 
a  social  problem.  The  smallest  number  of 
Negro  workers,  535,  is  engaged  in  this 
work.  Most  Negro  community-organiza- 
tion social  workers  are  employed  by  Ur- 
ban League  branches,  local  tuberculosis 
associations,  or  one  of  the  social  and 
community  planning  councils.  There  are 
male  and  female  Negro  community- 
organization  social  workers  on  the  staffs 
of  state  departments  of  public  welfare 
throughout  the  North  and  in  certain 
southern  states,  for  instance  North  Caro- 
lina. Many  private,  national  social-work 
agencies  employ  Negro  community- 
organization  social  workers  on  headquar- 
ters and  regional  staffs,  for  instance  the 
National  Tuberculosis  Association,  the 
National  Travelers  Aid  Association,  and 
the  National  Office  of  the  Boy  Scouts. 

Until  public  social-work  agencies  be- 
gan recently  to  employ  Negroes  in  large 
numbers,  administrative  jobs  for  them 
in  this  field  were  largely  confined  to 
executive  positions  with  organizations  or 
branches  with  an  all-  or  nearly  all-Negro 
clientele.  Now  that  the  greater  proportion 
of  Negro  social  workers  are  employed 
under  public  auspices,  Negroes  are  found 
in  a  wide  variety  of  administrative  posi- 
tions throughout  the  country. 

The  majority  of  the  teaching  staffs  of 
the  Atlanta  University  School  of  Social 
Work  and  the  Howard  University  School 
of  Social  Work  are  Negro.  In  addition, 
there  are  Negroes  teaching  in  nonracial 
schools  of  social  work,  including  the  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota  and  Wayne  Univer- 
sity. 

'Workers  in  Nonracial  Jobs:  The  num- 
ber of  Negroes  entering  nonracial  social- 
work  employment  in  the  North  is  increas- 
ing so  rapidly  that,  in  the  case-work  field 
at  least,  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that 


200 


SOCIAL  WELFARE 


an  agency  hires  a  Negro  to  handle  a  case 
load  made  up  of  all  races  or  one  without 
Negro  individuals  or  families.  Group- 
work  agencies  in  the  North  are  increas- 
ingly employing  Negroes  to  lead  and 
direct  clubs  and  classes  in  settlements 
and  community  centers  having  only  small 
Negro  attendance. 

In  community-organization  work  also, 
a  growing  number  of  Negroes  are  em- 
ployed in  nonracial  jobs,  some  in  super- 
visory positions,  for  instance  Robert  Neal 
of  Chicago,  who  is  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Group  Work  Division  of  the  Com- 
munity Planning  Council. 

In  such  widely  scattered  and  typical 
cities  as  Minneapolis,  Minn.;  Hartford, 
Conn.;  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  and  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  over  75%  of  Negro  social 
workers  are  no  longer  confined  to  work 
with  their  own  people.  Because  of  this 
increasing  integration,  it  is  becoming 
more  and  more  difficult  to  number  social 
workers  by  race. 

Workers  in  Foreign  Employment: 
There  is  increasing  opportunity  for 
Negroes  in  social-work  employment  in 
foreign  countries  and  the  insular  posses- 
sions of  the  United  States.  The  first 
trained  Negro  social  workers  went  abroad 
to  fill  jobs  created  by  the  Armed  Services 
and  the  Red  Cross  during  the  Second 
World  War.  A  number  of  the  Red  Cross 
workers  remained  with  the  occupation 
forces  at  the  end  of  the  war  and  others 
have  been  employed  since  not  only  for 
group  work  and  recreation  but  for  family 
and  community  rehabilitation  in  war- 
devastated  countries  of  Europe  and  the 
Orient. 

Negroes  are  engaged  in  social  work  in 
various  insular  possessions  of  the  United 
States.  In  the  Virgin  Islands,  from  Com- 
missioner of  Welfare  down  to  practicing 
case  worker,  all  workers  are  Negroes.  In 


Puerto  Rico  Negroes  are  employed  in  a 
wide  variety  of  social-work  positions, 
including  an  instructor  in  social-group 
work  at  the  University  of  Puerto  Rico. 
In  Hawaii  Negroes  are  employed  as  case 
workers  in  the  public-assistance  agency. 

Outstanding  Positions  Held:  Many 
high-ranking  positions  in  social  work  on 
both  national  and  local  levels  are  now 
held  by  Negroes.  There  are  Negro  social 
workers  in  Washington  on  the  national 
staffs  of  the  FSA,  the  U.  S.  Children's 
Bureau,  the  FHA,  and  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Labor.  Many  private  social  agen- 
cies of  national  scope  employ  Negroes 
on  their  headquarters  staff.  Among  these 
are  such  character-building  and  recrea- 
tional associations  as  the  Boy  Scouts,  the 
Girl  Scouts,  and  the  National  Recreation 
Association,  and  such  health  agencies  as 
the  National  Tuberculosis  Association. 
There  are  Negro  staff  members  in  several 
northern  and  at  least  one  southern  state 
departments  of  public  welfare.  There  are 
Negro  executives  of  many  state  schools 
for  delinquents,  some  of  which  are  of 
considerable  size,  for  instance  the  Boys' 
Republic  of  the  State  of  Maryland  and 
the  Kruse  School  for  Girls  in  Delaware. 
There  are  Negro  supervisors  in  county 
departments  of  public  welfare  all  over 
the  country,  including  states  in  the  deep 
South,  such  as  Georgia,  and  in  the  South- 
west, such  as  Oklahoma.  There  are  Negro 
heads  of  personnel  training  in  certain 
state  departments  of  public  welfare  and 
in  the  FSA  at  Washington,  and  Negro 
department  heads  of  welfare  councils  in 
cities  the  size  of  New  York  and  Chicago. 

A  distinctive  honor  and  responsibility 
came  to  the  veteran  Lester  B.  Granger, 
Executive  Secretary  of  the  National 
Urban  League,  with  his  election  to  the 
presidency  of  the  National  Conference 
of  Social  Work  for  the  year  1951. 


Dr.  Raymond   M.   Williams,   an   inspector  in   a  Chicago  packing   house   since    1927, 

is    one    of    about    200    Negro    veterinarians    and    lay    meat    inspectors    in    the    meat 

packing  industry.  USDA  Photo 


PLATE  XVII 


Edward    P.    Boyd    (right),    assistant    sales    manager    of    the    Pepsi-Cola    Co.,    plans 
promotional    campaigns    with    other    members    of    the    staff.    Afro-American    Photo 


Dr.  Frank  G.  Davis,  appointed  economic 

adviser   to   Liberia    under   the    Point    IV 

program.    Afro-American    Photo 


Mrs.   Mary   Tobias   Dean,   named   mana- 
ger of  Macy's  handkerchief  department, 
New  York.  Pittsburgh  Courier  Photo 


PLATE  XVIII 


C.  C.  Spaulding,  well-known  financier,  is  president  of  the  North  Carolina  Mutual 
Life    Insurance   Co.    Pittsburgh   Courier   Photo 


Lemuel     A.     Bowman     has     opened     the 

modern     Parkway     Hotel     in     Nashville, 

Tenn.   Pittsburgh   Courier   Photo 


Mrs.   Mary   T.   Washington,  a   CPA,   has 

her    own    firm    of    public    accountants    in 

Chicago. 


PLATE  XIX 


Miss   Dorothy   Williams   is  a   chemist   in 

the     Bureau     of     Human     Nutrition     and 

Home    Economics,    U.S.    Department    of 

Agriculture.  USDA  Photo 


Lemuel  E.  Graves,  appointed  Deputy 
Chief  of  the  News  and  Writing  Section, 
Economic  Cooperation  Administration 
headquarters,  Paris,  France.  EC  A  Photo 


PLATE  XX 


Midshipman  J.  L.  Brown,   Hattiesburg,  Miss.,  is  sworn  in  as  ensign  aboard   U.S.S. 

Leyte  in  1949,  making  him  the  first  Negro  naval  aviator.  Brown  was  later  killed  in 

the  Korean  fighting.  U.S.  Navy  Photo 


PLATE  XXI 


Thurgood    Marshall    (right),    chief    legal    counsel    for    the    NAACP,    with    Colonel 

Darwin  D.  Martin  of  the  Army  Inspector  General's  Office,   investigates   the  courts 

martial  of  Negro  soldiers  in  Korea  and  Japan.  Afro-American  Photo 


Lt.  Laurene   Martin    (left)   and   Captain  Rosalie  Wiggins  are  members  of  the  U.S. 
Army  Nurse  Corps  in  hospitals  in  Tokyo,  Japan.  Afro-American  Photos 


PLATE  XXII 


PLATE  XXIII 


Dr.  John  W.  Chenault  (left), 
the  late  Dr.  Midian  O.  Bous- 
field,  and  Mr.  Basil  O'Connor 
(second  from  right)  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Founda- 
tion for  Infantile  Paralysis, 
visit  polio  patients  at  Tuske- 
gee  Institute's  John  A.  An- 
drew Hospital. 


Dr.  T.  K.  Lawless  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  foremost  skin 
specialists  in  the  United 
States.  Liggett  &  Myers  To- 
bacco Co. 


PLATE  XXIV 


A  low  cost,  experimental  farm  home  (above)  nears  completion  under  Tuskegee 
Institute's  HHFA  farm-construction  research  project.  (Below)  A  farm  youth  builds 
house  walls  on  his  father's  farm  with  Tuskegee  concrete  blocks  as  (left  to  right) 
Ernest  E.  Neal,  co-director  of  the  HHFA  project,  George  Williams,  project  con- 
struction superintendent,  and  a  visitor  from  India  look  on. 


PLATE  XXV 


PLATE  XXVI 


PLATE  XXVII 


PLATE  XXVIII 


PLATE  XXIX 


PLATE  XXX 


Washington  High  School,  Shreve- 
port,  La.,  (left)  built  at  a  cost  of 
$1.5  million,  was  occupied  for  the 
1950-51  school  term,  but  schools 
like  the  one  above  still  remain  too 
numerous  as  the  only  obtainable  fa- 
cilities where  Negro  children  are 
taught.  Time,  Inc.  &  Jenkins  Photo 
Studios 


Mrs.      Ethel      Butler     adopts      little 
Haesi,  6,  and   Ute,  5,  the  first  Ger- 
man  "brown  babies"   to  reach   Chi- 
cago. Doyle  Stewart  Photo 


PLATE  XXXI 


Bishops  W.  J.  Walls,  AMEZ 
Church,  and  S.  L.  Greene, 
AME  Church,  lead  the  pro- 
cession of  signers  (above)  to 
the  charter  establishing  the 
National  Council  of  Churches. 
Bishop  B.  W.  Doyle,  CME 
Church,  is  seen  over  Bishop 
Greene's  left  shoulder.  Miller- 
Ertler  Photo 


Three  generations  examine 
photograph  of  Major  R.  R. 
Wright,  Sr.,  which  hangs  in 
the  White  House  reception 
room.  Bishop  R.  R.  Wright, 
Jr.,  holds  his  father's  picture 
as  his  grandsons,  Phillip  (ex- 
treme left)  and  R.  R.  Wright 
IV  (extreme  right)  look  on 
with  their  father,  R.  R. 
Wright  III. 


PLATE  XXXII 


16 
Education 


ELEMENTARY  AND 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION1 

Separate  Schools  Maintained 

Segregation  of  white  and  Negro  pupils 
in  public  and  nonpublic  schools  is  prac- 
ticed in  17  states  and  the  District  of 
Columbia,  necessitating  separate  grounds, 
buildings,  equipment,  and  instructional 
personnel.  Numerous  noteworthy  differ- 
ences because  of  this  separation  are  found 
between  the  two  systems  of  schools.  Some 
of  these  are  indicated  by  differentials  in 
average  length  of  school  term,  average 
number  of  days  attended  by  each  pupil 
enrolled,  average  pupil-teacher  load,  cur- 
rent expenditure  per  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance,  average  salary  per 
member  of  instructional  staff,  and  in 
many  other  ways. 

A  United  Press  survey  in  11  southern 
cities  during  August  1951  revealed  that 
the  cost  of  providing  separate  but  equal 
facilities  for  Negroes  would  be  ap- 
proximately $400,000,000.  The  estimate 
showed  that  the  value  of  school  buildings, 
grounds,  and  plant  facilities  for  Negroes 
lags  that  much  behind  facilities  for 
whites  in  proportion  to  the  enrollment 
of  both  races.  It  was  concluded  that  to 
bring  Negro  facilities  up  to  equal  level, 
even  if  white  schools  remained  at  the 
present  level,  would  take  ten  years. 

The  survey  pointed  out  that  a  Federal 
court  ruling  in  favor  of  separate  but 
equal  facilities  in  South  Carolina  has 
spurred  southern  states  to  take  action. 
Negroes  make  up  30%  of  the  7,500,000 
students  enrolled  in  the  public  school 
systems  of  the  11  states.  The  property 


value  of  Negro  schools  is  about  15% 
of  the  total  for  both  racial  groups.  School 
property  for  whites  in  the  State  of  Geor- 
gia was  reported  to  be  valued  at  five 
times  that  of  Negro  facilities.  Negroes 
comprise  one-third  of  the  Georgia  school 
enrollment. 

In  Mississippi,  where  the  number  of 
white  and  Negro  students  is  about  equal, 
the  white  school  property  is  reported  as 
being  valued  at  four  times  as  much  as 
the  Negro  school  property. 

North  Carolina's  figures  approximate 
those  for  Georgia.  Arkansas'  facilities 
for  white  children  are  valued  at  eight 
times  those  for  Negro  children,  although 
only  three  times  as  many  whites  are  en- 
rolled in  school  as  Negroes. 

In  order  to  maintain  segregation  in  the 
public  schools,  some  states  are  moving 
to  bring  Negro  school  facilities  up  to 
those  of  whites.  Among  these  states  are 
Georgia,  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and 
Alabama. 

Pertinent  data  issued  by  the  U.  S. 
Office  of  Education  on  elementary  and 
secondary  education  in  17  states  and  the 
District  of  Columbia  describe  below  some 
phases  of  this  education  as  they  relate 
to  Negroes. 

Enrollment:2  The  highest  total  enroll- 
ment of  Negro  pupils  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  District  of  Columbia  and 
the  17  states  which  maintain  segregated 
schools  was  in  1935-36,  when  it  reached 
2,438,981.  This  enrollment  decreased 
through  1945-46,  but  increased  to  2,353,- 
505  in  1948-49.  Negro  public  elementary 
schools  reached  their  highest  enrollment 
in  1933-34,  2,266,913,  decreased  in  1945- 


1  Sources :  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  286,  Statistical  Circular  No.  293,  Directory  of  Second- 
ary Schools  in  the   United  States  Circular  No.  250;   Bureau   of  the  Census,   Current  Population  Reports,   Population 
Characteristics  Series  P-20,  No.  34,  July  26,  1951;  Birmingham  World,  Aug.  28,  1951. 

2  The  1948-49  reports  issued  by  the  U.S.  Office  of  Education  are  the  latest  complete,  available  sources. 


201 


202 


EDUCATION 


46,  but  had  increased  to  2,026,000  by 
194849. 

Negro  public  secondary  enrollment 
has  continued  to  increase  except  for  a 
drop  of  26,000  during  World  War  II. 
Enrollment  in  public  secondary  schools 
has  shown  a  remarkable  growth  since 
1919-20,  when  it  was  only  33,341.  This 
number  increased  to  327,000  in  1948-49, 
the  first  time  the  number  has  passed  the 
300,000  mark.  See  Table  1. 

TABLE  1 
ENROLLMENT  IN  NEGRO  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  IN  17 

STATES  AND  THE  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA 
BY  PERIODS1 


Periods 

Elementary 

Secondary 

Total 

1933-34 
1935-36 
1943-44 
1945-46 
1947-48 
1948-49 

2,266,913 
2,250,045 
2,029,362 
1,994,057 
2,006,836 
2,026,327 

163,185 
188,936 
247,373 
272,163 
299,226 
327,178 

2,430,098 
2,438,981 
2,276,735 
2,266,220 
2,306,062 
2,353,505 

Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical 
Circular  No.  286,  January  1951. 

1  Elementary  includes  grades  K  to  8  ( or  K  to  7 ) . 
Secondary  includes  first  4  years  after  elementary. 

Enrollment  by  States:  The  enrollment 
for  1948-49,  all  grades  by  states,  is  pre- 
sented in  Table  2. 


Enrollment,  Total  and  by  Color:  The 
Bureau  of  the  Census  reports  a  record 
number  of  30,000,000  persons  5  to  29 
years  old  enrolled  in  school  or  college  in 
October  1950,  the  beginning  of  the  1950- 
51  school  year.  In  the  age-group  of 
7  to  13  years,  99%  were  enrolled  in  1950. 
Nonwhites,  however,  were  still  enrolled 
in  smaller  proportion  than  whites.  The 
1950  figures  also  show  that  among  those 
14  to  29  years  old.  more  nonwhites  were 
in  lower  grades,  for  a  given  age,  than 
whites. 

In  almost  all  of  the  age  groups  from 
5  to  24  years,  for  both  males  and  females, 
the  enrollment  rate  for  the  whites  was 
greater  than  that  for  nonwhites.  As  com- 
pared with  1940,  however,  some  of  the 
differences  in  1950  were  substantially 
narrower.  There  is  a  tendency  for  whites 
and  nonwhites  to  start  school  at  more 
nearly  the  same  age  and  for  more  nearly 
the  same  proportion  to  remain  in  school 
until  they  have  passed  the  compulsory 
school  age. 

Among  white  persons  under  the  age 
of  18  years,  the  proportion  attending 


TABLE  2 

ENROLLMENT  IN   NEGRO   ELEMENTARY   AND  SECONDARY    DAY  SCHOOLS, 
17  STATES  AND  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA,  1948-49 


State 

Total 

Kinder- 
garten and 
Elementary1 

Secondary  Pupils  a 

Per  Cent 
Total  Enroll- 
ment, Secon- 
dary Grades 

Total 

Total 

Boys 

Girls 

Alabama  

233,699 
110,992 
7,602 
44,456 
111,781 
255,273 
37,124 
172,677 
69,522 
261,805 
50,738 
261,535 
36,214 
215,559 
104,704 
201,281 
152,951 
25,592 

202,347 
100,004 
6,475 
36,252 
94,031 
218,607 
30,364 
156,642 
51,713 
243,353 
41,117 
221,070 
28,729 
192,971 
87,975 
167,605 
130,130 
16,942 

31,352 
10,988 
1,127 
8,204 
17,750 
36,666 
6,760 
16,035 
17,809 
18,452 
9,621 
40,465 
7,485 
22,588 
16,729 
33,676 
22,821 
8,650 

12,606 
4,751 
585 
3,408 
7,965 
14,716 
3,152 
6,146 
7,731 
7,382 
4,235 
16,468 
3,551 
8,695 
7,318 
14,913 
9,573 
4,118 

18,746 
6,237 
542 
4,796 
9,785 
21,950 
,    3,608 
9,889 
10,078 
11,070 
5,386 
23,997 
3,934 
13,893 
9,411 
18,763 
13,248 
4,532 

13.4 
9.9 
14.8 
18.5 
15.9 
14.4 
18.2 
9.3 
25.6 
7.0 
19.0 
15.5 
20.7 
10.5 
16.0 
16.7 
14.9 
33.8 

Arkansas 

Delaware  

District  of  Columbia  . 
Florida  

Georgia  

Kentucky  

Louisiana  

Maryland  

Mississippi  

Missouri  

North  Carolina  

Oklahoma  

South  Carolina  

Tennessee  

Texas  

Virginia  

West  Virginia  

TOTAL  

2,353,505 

2,026,327 

327,178 

137,313 

189,865 

13.9 

Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  286,  January  1951. 
'Elementary  includes  kindergarten  through  grade  8  (or  grade  7  in  11 -grade  system). 
•  Secondary  includes  1st  4  years  after  elementary. 


ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


203 


TABLE  3 

PER  CENT  DISTRIBUTION  BY  SCHOOL  ENROLLMENT  OF  PERSONS  5  TO  29  YEARS  OLD,  BY  AGE 

AND  COLOR,  FOR  U.S.:  CIVILIAN  NON-INSTITUTIONAL  POPULATION,  OCTOBER  1950; 

TOTAL  POPULATION,  APRIL  1940 


Age 

October  1950 

April 

1940 

White 

Nonwhite 

White 

Nonwhite 

En- 
rolled 

Not  En- 
rolled 

En- 
rolled 

Not  En- 
rolled 

En- 
rolled 

Not  En- 
rolled 

En- 
rolled 

Not  En- 
rolled 

Total  5  to  29     ... 

51.6 
64.3 
89.0 
84.4 
30.5 
9.5 
3.0 

48.4 
35.7 
11.0 
15.6 
69.5 
90.5 
97.0 

51.2 
61.4 
86.8 
75.5 
23.3 
6.3 
3.0 

48.8 
38.6 
13.3 
24.5 
76.7 
93.7 
97.0 

(2) 
58.3 
84.8 
80.7 
29.8 
6.9 
(2) 

(2) 
41.7 
15.2 
19.3 
70.2 
93.1 
(2) 

(2) 
53.4 
79.0 
68.2 
21.1 
3.8 
(2) 

(2) 
46.6 
21.0 
31.8 
78.9 
96.2 
(2) 

5  to  24  

5  to  13  years1 

14  to  17  years    

18  and  19 

20  to  24  

25  to  29  

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Current  Population  Reports,  Series  P-20,  No.  34. 

1  Per  cent  enrolled  for  1940  includes  a  small  proportion,  of  5-  and  6-year  olds  enrolled  in  kinder- 
garten, which  was  excluded  in   1950. 

2  Not  available. 


school  was  approximately  the  same  for 
both  sexes.  However,  for  those  18  to  29 
years  old  the  proportion  of  males  enrolled 
exceeded  that  for  females.  Among  non- 
whites,  enrollment  rates  for  males  and 
females  were  roughly  equal  in  the  group 
5  to  13  years.  A  larger  proportion  of 
nonwhite  females  in  the  age  group  20  to 
29  were  enrolled.  See  Table  3. 

Attendance:  In  Negro  schools  the  pupil 
load  per  teacher  in  average  daily  attend- 
ance in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the 
17  states  in  1948-49  was  28.2.  Table  4 
gives  comparison  of  teacher  load  for 
white  and  Negro  schools  by  states;  and 
Table  5  gives  the  attendance  record  in 
Negro  public  schools  for  1948-49.  Not  all 
figures  for  1949-50  were  readily  available, 
but  for  the  District  of  Columbia  and  14 
states  reporting  the  average  daily  attend- 
ance for  that  year  indicated  an  increase 
for  all  except  Texas,  which  showed  a 
small  decrease  of  914. 

Expenditures  per  pupil:  The  highest 
average  current  expenditure  per  Negro 
child  in  1948-49  was  $175.32  in  Okla- 
homa; the  lowest,  $26.81,  was  in  Missis- 
sippi. Comparable  figures  for  white  pu- 
pils in  eight  states  reporting  for  that 
year  were  $188.35  in  Florida  and  $111.15 
in  Arkansas.  Comparative  figures  for 
1948-49  and  1949-50  for  states  reporting 
are  in  Table  6.  Obvious  disparities  be- 
tween expenditures  for  white  and  Negro 


TABLE  4 

PUPILS  IN  AVERAGE  DAILY  ATTENDANCE  PER 

TEACHER,  WHITE  AND  NEGRO  SCHOOLS,  17 

STATES  AND  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA,  1948-49 * 


State 

White 
Schools 

Negro 
Schools 

Alabama 

26.0 

27.8 

Arkansas 

26.0 

31.3 

Delaware 

21.2 

24.4 

District  of  Columbia 

23.3 

26.6 

Florida 

23.8 

25.4 

Georgia 

23.2 

27.9 

Kentucky 

26.1 

23.5 

Louisiana 

22.8 

30.3 

Maryland 

26.3 

27.7 

Mississippi 

27.3 

34.4 

Missouri 

24.6 

27.1 

North  Carolina 

28.7 

30.8 

Oklahoma 

25.1 

22.7 

South  Carolina 

23.3 

25.8 

Tennessee 

25.8 

27.7 

Texas 

24.7 

22.9 

Virginia 

27.1 

31.9 

West  Virginia 

28.0 

29.5 

Source:    U.S.    Office    of 

Education, 

Statistical 

Circular  No.  286,  January  1951. 
1  Figures    only   for   those   states    that 

furnished 

basic  data. 

children  are  apparent  for  both  years.  In 
1948-49,  however,  Oklahoma  spent  $9.01 
more  per  Negro  child  in  average  daily 
attendance  than  for  the  white  child  in 
average  daily  attendance,  a  most  unusual 
circumstance. 

Teachers'  Salaries:  In  1948-49,  the 
highest  and  lowest  state  average  salaries 
for  white  staff  were,  respectively,  Louisi- 
ana $2,938  and  Arkansas  $1,718.  The 
highest  and  lowest  for  Negro  staff  were 


204 


EDUCATION 


TABLE  5 

ATTENDANCE  IN  NEGRO  FULL-TIME  SCHOOLS  IN  17  STATES  AND  DISTRICT  OF 
COLUMBIA  WHICH  HAVE  SEGREGATED  SCHOOLS,  1948-49 


Attendance 

State 

Average  Daily 
Attendance 

Average  Number 
Days  Schools 
were  in  Session 

Average  Number 
Days  Attended 
per  Pupil  Enrolled 

Per  Cent 
Attendance  is 
of  Enrollment 

Alabama  

195,697 

176.5 
171.3 
182.4 
177.5 
180.5 
178.0 
176.8 
180.0 
185.5 
148.0 
194.7 
179.9 
180.0 
170.3 
180.0 
172.4 
180.0 
173.6 

147.8 
124.1 
163.0 
153.6 
161.8 
139.5 
149.6 
154.3 
163.2 
124.4 
169.1 
154.1 
159.0 
135.2 
157.4 
145.2 
156.4 
160.9 

83.7 
72.5 
89.4 
86.5 
89.6 
78.4 
84.6 
85.7 
87.9 
84.1 
86.9 
85.7 
88.4 
79.4 
87.5 
84.2 
86.9 
92.7 

Arkansas 

80417 

Delaware  

6793 

District  of  Columbia  .  .  . 
Florida  

38,463 
100,185 

Georgia  

200  075 

Kentucky  

31,415 

Louisiana  

148,039 

Maryland  

61,140 

Mississippi  

220,142 

Missouri  

44075 

North  Carolina 

225  082 

Oklahoma  

31,993 

South  Carolina  

171,191 

Tennessee  

91,609 

Texas  

169,525 

Virginia  

132,935 

West  Virginia  

23,711 

TOTAL 

1  971  487 

174.4 

146.1 

83.8 

Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  286,  January  1951. 


TABLE  6 
CURRENT  EXPENDITURES  PER  PUPIL  IN  AVERAGE  DAILY  ATTENDANCE 


State 


1949-50 


1948-49 


White 


Negro 


White 


Negro 


Alabama  

$144.38 

$  80.76 

$114.21 

$  77.75* 

Arkansas  

— 

.  . 

111.15 

62.22 

District  of  Columbia  

270.71 

209.45 

281.41 

210.42 

Florida  

185.89 

131.32 

188.35 

131.67 

Georgia  

131.67 

70.99 

— 

Maryland  

187.82 

172.11 

— 

— 

Mississippi  f  

119.09 

27.45 

122.74 

26.81 

North  Carolina  

153.00 

113.00 

131.85 

115.02 

Oklahoma  

— 

— 

166.31 

175.32 

South  Carolina  

— 

— 

148.48 

69.65 

Source:  State  Depts.  of  Education  and  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical 
1951. 

Note:  Figures  not  available  for  either  year  for  Del.,  Ky.,  La.,  Mo.,  Tenn., 

*  Corrected  figures  for  1948-49. 

t  In  1950-51,  the  figures  are  white  $122.49;  Negro  $38.25. 


Circular  No.  286,  January 
Texas,  Va.,  W.  Va. 


Missouri  $2,793  and  Mississippi  $682. 
Comparative  figures  for  states  reporting 
194849  and  1949-50  are  shown  in  Table 
7.  Teachers  salaries  in  the  South  as  else- 
where have  increased  greatly  since  1925, 
in  spite  of  the  disparity  in  most  cases 
between  salaries  for  white  and  Negro 
teachers. 

Instructional  Staff 

The  instructional  staff  in  Negro  public 
schools  numbered  72,803  in  1948-49.  This 


is  greater  than  in  any  previous  year. 
Table  8  shows  instructional  personnel, 
including  supervisors,  principals,  and 
men  and  women  teachers,  for  the  17 
states  and  the  District  of  Columbia  hav- 
ing segregated  schools.  The  percentage 
of  men  teachers,  14.9,  is  also  given. 

Educational  Attainment 

The  average  educational  attainment  of 
the  nonwhite  population  continues  to  be 
lower  than  that  of  the  white  population 


ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


205 


at  each  age  level,  but  at  the  younger  ages 
the  differences  were  somewhat  smaller  in 
1947  than  in  1940,  though  still  marked. 
Of  all  white  persons  25  years  old  and 
over,  approximately  35%  had  completed 
4  years  or  more  of  high  school,  whereas 
only  about  13%  of  nonwhites  in  the 
same  age  group  had  this  amount  of  edu- 
cation. In  terms  of  persons  who  had  had 
some  college  education,  the  difference 
was  just  as  striking — about  13%  for 
white  persons,  as  against  5%  for  non- 
whites.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  educa- 
tional scale,  the  differences  were  also 
sharp.  About  one  white  person  in  every 
10  had  less  than  five  years  of  schooling, 
that  is,  was  "functionally  illiterate,"  as 
compared  with  about  3  nonwhite  persons 
in  every  10.  The  median  years  of  school 
completed  for  adult  whites  and  non- 
whites  were  9.4  and  6.9  respectively. 

At  each  age,  the  median  educational 
attainment  of  white  persons  was  higher 
than  that  of  nonwhite  persons.  As  indi- 
cated by  the  median,  more  whites  25  to  29 
years  old  had  completed  high  school,  as 
compared  with  the  completion  of  ele- 


TABLE  7 

AVERAGE  SALARY  PER  MEMBER  OF  INSTRUC- 
TIONAL STAFF,  1948-49  AND  1949-50  * 


1949-50 

1948-49 

State 

White 

Negro 

White 

Negro 

Ala.  .  . 

.   $2,157 

$1,870 

3,853 
2,616 
1,655 
2,329 
3,549 
764 
2,788 
2,650* 
2,707 

2,976 

$2,163 
1,718- 
3,840 
2,935 

2,938 

1,841 
2,265 
2,429 
2,299 
2,019 
1,845 
2,579 
2,439  f 

$1,778 
1,262 
3,619 
2,535 

2,388 

682 
2,793 
2,464 
2,174 
1,403 
1,843 
2,175 
2,364  f 

Ark  

Dist.  Col.  .  . 
Fla. 

.     4,003 
3  030 

Ga  

2  148 

La  

.     2,957 

Md  

.     3  574 

Miss  

.     1,946 

Mo  

2  325 

N.  G  

.     2,600 

Okla.  .  . 

.     2,769 

S.C  

Tenn  

Texas 

.     3,051 

Va  

Sources:  State  Dept.  of  Education;  U.S.  Office 
of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  286,  January 
1951. 

1  Figures  only  for  those  states  that  furnished 
basic  data. 

*  Estimate. 

t  Corrected  salaries  for  1948-49. 

mentary  school  by  nonwhites  of  the  same 
age.  Among  whites  65  years  old  and 
over  the  median  educational  attainment 
was  7.8  years,  as  compared  with  only  4.0 
years  for  nonwhites.  Among  whites  who 


TABLE  8 

INSTRUCTIONAL  STAFF  AND  PERCENTAGE  OF  MEN  TEACHERS  IN  NEGRO  FULL-TIME  DAY  SCHOOLS 
IN  17  STATES  AND  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA  WHICH  HAVE  SEGREGATED  SCHOOLS,  1948-49 


State 

Instructional  Staff 

Total 

Supervisors 

Principals 

Teachers 

Total 

Men 

Women 

Per  Cent 
Men 
Teachers 

Alabama  

7,175 
2,663 
302 
1,531 
4,095 
7,336 
1,397 
5,050 
2,293 
6,496 
1,741 
7,590 
1,635 
6,738 
3,311 
7,616 
4,866 
968 

44 
1 
6 
21 
21 
91 
5 
32 

23 

10 
9 
34 

27 
83 
2 

95 
89 
18 
62 
128 
73 
56 
133 
87 
69 
116 
306 
219 
60 

189 
618 
162 

7,036 
2,573 
278 
1,448 
3,946 
7,172 
1,336 
4,885 
2,206 
6,404 
1,625 
7,274 
1,407 
6,644 
3,311 
7,400 
4,165 
804 

873 
399 
64 
300 
501 
810 
245 
661 
404 
841 
303 
1,136 
255 
924 
614 
1,339 
490 
180* 

6,163 
2,174 
214 
1,148 
3,445 
6,362 
1,091 
4,224 
1,802 
5,563 
1,322 
6,138 
1,152 
5,720 
2,697 
6,061 
3,675 
624* 

12.4 
15.5 
23.0 
20.7 
12.7 
11.3 
18.3 
13.5 
18.3 
13.1 
18.6 
15.6 
18.1 
13.9 
18.5 
18.1 
11.8 
22.4 

Arkansas  

Delaware  

District  of  Columbia 

Florida  

Georgia  

Kentucky  

Louisiana  

Maryland  

Mississippi  

Missouri  

North  Carolina  

Oklahoma  

South  Carolina  

Tennessee  

Texas  

Virginia  

West  Virginia  

TOTAL  

72,803 

409 

2,480 

69,914 

10,339 

59,575 

14.9 

Source:   U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  286,  January  1951. 
*  Estimated. 


206 


EDUCATION 


obtained  most  of  their  education  more 
than  a  generation  ago    (those  64  years 


old  and  over) ,  the  proportion  completing 
less  than  5  years  of  elementary   school 


TABLE  9 

YEARS  OF  SCHOOL  COMPLETED  BY  PERSONS  14  YEARS  OLD  AND  OVER,  BY  AGE,  COLOR,  AND  SEX, 

FOR  U.S.:  CIVILIAN  POPULATION,  APRIL  1947;  TOTAL  POPULATION,  APRIL  1940 

(Per  Cent  not  shown  where  less  than  0.1) 


Year,  Age,  Color  and  Sex 

Elementary  School 

High  School 

College 

School 
years 
not 
re- 
ported 

Less 
than  5 
years1 

5  and  6 
years 

7  and  8 
years 

1  to  3 
years 

4 
years 

1  to  3 
years 

4  years 
or  more 

PER  CENT—  1947 
White 
Total,  1  4  and  over  

6.9 
2.6 
1.7 
2.0 
8.3 
2.5 
2.9 
4.5 
8.8 
14.4 
18.8 

25.9 
11.6 
11.1 
12.3 
31.4 
18.9 
20.3 
23.8 
38.2 
44.5 
60.8 

8.8 
3.9 
3.0 
2.9 
10.8 
3.4 
4.5 
7.8 
13.9 
16.7 
20.0 

36.0 
24.8 
21.5 
24.7 
41.1 
26.7 
30.1 
37.1 
46.4 
54.6 
70.8 

7.2 
7.1 
3.3 
3.2 
7.9 
3.3 
4.3 
5.7 
9.4 
11.5 
13.7 

18.0 
21.9 
11.7 
16.8 
18.1 
16.2 
13.7 
20.8 
21.2 
17.5 
15.0 

9.3 
8.9 
4.4 
4.4 
10.4 
5.5 
6.8 
9.3 
12.0 
13.7 
15.8 

21.3 
25.1 
19.2 
20.1 
21.1 
21.9 
23.1 
23.4 
21.3 
18.6 
12.6 

28.7 
34.2 
13.6 
13.0 
31.1 
16.2 
21.7 
30.5 
37.0 
38.7 
38.8 

23.3 
32.9 
16,8 
22.9 
22.4 
20.6 
28.0 
27.3 
20.5 
20.0 
10.4 

33.1 
32.4 
17.3 
20.6 
36.1 
26.6 
31.0 
37.1 
39.0 
40.3 
41.1 

20.8 
25.3 
21.1 
21.4 
19.9 
23.3 
23.5 
22.2 
18.6 
15.4 
9.1 

21.2 
53.5 
35.9 
24.6 
16.7 
22.9 
22.1 
19.4 
16.1 
10.9 
7.9 

17.1 
30.9 
35.9 
25.7 
12.3 
2.8 
15.9 
13.0 
7.4 
8.1 
5.6 

20.7 
50.5 
33.9 
23.7 
15.6 
22.9 
21.6 
17.5 
13.0 
10.3 
7.2 

12.3 
22.4 
25.6 
17.8 
8.5 
14.7 
11.9 
8.4 
5.8 
4.3 
2.2 

23.1 
2.2 
37.8 
43.5 
21.7 
38.8 
33.1 
22.9 
15.5 
12.9 
10.3 

9.1 
2.2 
18.8 
14.4 
8.5 
15.8 
13.2 
8.4 
4.8 
3.5 
3.2 

17.0 
3.3 
33.2 
34.2 
15.1 
26.8 
20.6 
15.1 
11.4 
9.8 
7.7 

5.1 
1.3 
9.2 

10.5 
4.4 
7.8 
5.7 
4.0 
3.2 
2.5 
1.3 

7.0 
0.2 
7.4 
10.5 
7.1 
9.8 
8.3 
8.6 
6.6 
5.2 
3.7 

2.6 
0.1 
5.1 
5.0 
2.3 
3.4 
2.8 
2.3 
1.8 
2.0 
1.2 

5.8 
0.4 
7.5 
9.8 
5.8 
7.8 
7.9 
6.5 
5.0 
4.1 
3.2 

1.9 

0.2 
2.4 
3.4 
1.9 
2.7 
2.5 
1.9 
1.6 
1.3 
0.7 

4.7 

2.6 
5.7 
5.9 
7.0 
7.6 
5.0 
3.9 
3.5 

1.9 

1.3 
2.4 
2.7 
3.8 
2.3 
2.9 
1.3 
0.6 

4.0 

0.2 
3.6 
4.9 
6.3 
6.8 
5.5 
4.2 
3.5 
2.7 

1.0 

0.1 
0.9 
1.3 
1.6 
1.6 
1.3 
1.2 
1.0 
0.6 

1.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.7 
1.5 
0.7 
0.6 
0.8 
1.5 
2.4 
3.2 

2.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.5 
2.5 
1.6 
2.3 
2.3 
3.2 
3.1 
3.2 

1.2 
0.6 
0.6 
0.7 
1.4 
0.8 
0.9 
1.2 
1.5 
1.7 
2.3 

1.5 
0.8 
0.9 
1.2 
1.8 
1.3 
1.5 
1.7 
1.9 
2.2 
2.8 

14  to  17.  . 

18  and  19  . 

20  to  24  

25  and  over  

25  to  29  

30  to  34  

35  to  44 

45  to  54  

55  to  64 

65  and  over  

Nonwhite 
Total,  14  and  over 

14  to  17.  . 

18  and  19   .      .. 

20  to  24  

25  and  over  

25  to  29  

30  to  34  

35  to  44  

45  to  54  

55  to  64  

65  and  over 

PER  CENT—  1940 
White 
Total,  14  and  over  

14  to  17  

18  and  19  

20  to  24  

25  and  over  

25  to  29  

30  to  34  

35  to  44  

45  to  54  .. 

55  to  64  

65  and  over. 

Nonwhite 
Total,  14  and  over  
14  to  17  

18  and  19  

20  to  24  

25  and  over  

25  to  29  

30  to  34  

35  to  44  

45  to  54  

55  to  64  

65  and  over  

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Current  Population  Reports,  Series  P-20,  No.  15. 
1  Includes  persons  reporting  no  school  years  completed. 


ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


207 


TABLE  10 

PER  CENT  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PERSONS  5  TO  24  YEARS  ENROLLED  IN  SCHOOL,  BY  TYPE  OF 
SCHOOL,  AGE  AND  COLOR  FOR  U.S.:  CIVILIAN  NON -INSTITUTIONAL  POPULATION, 

OCTOBER  1950;  TOTAL  POPULATION,  APRIL  1940 
(Per  Cent  not  shown  where  base  is  less  than  100,000) 


White 

Nonwhite 

Year  and  Age 

Elementary 
School 

High 
School 

College  or 
Professional 
School 

Elementary 
School 

High 
School 

College  or 
Professional 
School 

October  1950 

70.4 

23.0 

6.6 

79.4 

17.8 

2.8 

5  to  13  years   

98.1 

1.9 

97.9 

2.0 

14  to  17  years 

12.5 

84.8 

2.7 

38.3 

60.4 

1.4 

1  8  to  24  years  

0.3 

21.3 

78.8 

3.5 

49.1 

47.4 

April  1940 
5  to  24  years1         

66.6 

27.1 

6.2 

83.2 

14.6 

2.1 

96.8 

3.2 

98.4 

1.6 

14  to  17  years      

21.5 

75.3 

3.2 

58.1 

40.4 

1.5 

18  to  24  years 

1  7 

36.6 

61.7 

18.0 

51.4 

30.6 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Current  Population  Reports,  Series  P-20,  No.  34. 
1  Excludes  persons  for  whom  type  of  school  was  not  reported. 


is  approximately  equal  to  that  of  non- 
whites  who  were  recently  educated  (those 
now  25  to  29  years  old). 

The  slightly  higher  educational  attain- 
ment level  of  women  than  of  men  was 
evident  in  both  the  white  and  nonwhite 
population.  At  each  age,  median  years 
of  schooling  of  females  was  a  little 
higher  than,  or  at  least  equal  to,  that 
of  males.  See  Table  9. 

Retardation:  A  relatively  high  degree 
of  retardation  in  grades  of  school  among 
nonwhites  as  compared  with  whites 
existed  in  1950.  Among  children  14  to  17 
years  old,  38%  of  nonwhites  were  in 
elementary  school  as  compared  with  13% 
of  whites.  Also,  49%  of  enrolled  non- 
whites  18  to  24  years  old  were  in  high 
school  as  compared  with  21%  for  whites. 
A  comparison  of  the  1950  data  with  those 
for  1940,  however,  shows  marked  prog- 
ress has  been  achieved  in  diminishing 
the  amount  of  retardation  among  non- 
whites. 

In  1950,  58.1%  of  nonwhites  14  to  17 
years  old  were  in  elementary  school  as 
compared  with  22%  of  whites.  Of  the 
age  group  18  to  24  years  old,  51%  of 
nonwhites  were  enrolled  in  high  school; 
for  whites  the  percentage  was  38.  Com- 
parable figures  for  1940  and  1950  for  all 
age  groups  5  to  24  appear  in  Table  10. 


TABLE  11 

JEANES  TEACHERS,  1951 


State           No. 

of  Teachers 

No.  of  Counties 

Alabama 

49 

44 

Arkansas 

0 

0 

Florida 

21 

21 

Georgia 
Kentucky 
Louisiana 

94 
4 
34 

98 
5 
30 

Mississippi 
Missouri 

62 
3 

65 
9 

North  Carolina 

58 

64 

Oklahoma 

11 

11 

South  Carolina 

34 

34 

Tennessee 

29 

36 

Texas 

45 

33 

Virginia 

62 

65 

TOTAL 

506 

sTs 

Source:  The  Southern  Education  Foundation. 

Illiteracy:  In  1947,  it  was  estimated 
that  the  illiteracy  rate  for  whites  14  years 
old  and  over  was  1.8%,  whereas  for  non- 
whites  it  was  11%,  or  6  times  as  high. 
This  ratio  held  approximately  for  each 
of  the  specific  age  groups  as  well.  How- 
ever, although  32%  of  nonwhites  65 
years  old  were  illiterate  only  4%  of  non- 
whites  14  to  24  years  old  could  not  read 
or  write.  It  seems  reasonable  to  assume 
that  further  reduction  of  illiteracy  among 
nonwhites  will  continue,  but  the  progress 
will  be  less  dramatic,  resembling  instead 
the  progress  recently  made  by  the  white 
population. 


208 


EDUCATION 


Jeanes  Teachers 

On  April  18,  1907,  Miss  Anna  T. 
Jeanes  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  created  an 
endowment  fund  in  perpetuity,  the  in- 
come of  which  was  to  be  applied  toward 
the  maintenance  and  assistance  of  ele- 
mentary rural  schools  for  Negroes  in  the 
southern  states.  During  the  year  1950-51, 
506  Jeanes  Teachers  working  in  515 
counties  in  13  states  cooperated  with 
public  school  superintendents  in  improv- 
ing rural  schools.  These  teachers  by 
states  are  shown  in  Table  11. 

Since  1937  the  fund  has  been  admin- 
istered by  the  Southern  Education  Foun- 
dation, Inc.,  with  headquarters  at  918  Cy- 
press Street,  N.E.,  Atlanta  5,  Ga. 

In  1949,  Miss  Virginia  Randolph,  a 
native  of  Richmond,  Va.,  who  became  the 
first  Jeanes  Supervisor  in  1908,  submitted 
her  resignation  to  the  Henrico  County, 
Va.,  School  Board  after  teaching  57  years. 
Then  75  years  old,  Miss  Randolph  began 
her  teaching  career  at  a  little  school 
known  as  the  Mountain  Road  School  for 
Negroes.  From  her  modest  salary,  she 
purchased  gravel  to  cover  the  muddy 
road.  In  later  years,  she  taught  at  a  four- 
room  Henrico  County  school.  This  school 
had  a  dormitory  built  by  the  funds  which 
she  and  other  teachers  donated.  In  1929, 
the  wooden  building  burned.  Her  latest 
school  was  a  modern  brick  high  school 
built  on  50  acres  through  gifts,  including 
one  from  Miss  Randolph. 

School  Lunch  Program 

Public  Law  No.  320,  Section  32,  passed 
in  1935  by  the  U.S.  Congress,  authorized 
the  use  of  an  amount  of  money  equal  to 
30%  of  the  yearly  customs  receipts  for 
the  development  of  new  outlets  for  farm 
products.  These  foods,  supplied  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  helped  a 
great  deal  in  expanding  the  school  lunch 
program.  President  Truman  signed  the 
National  School  Lunch  Act  on  June  6, 
1946.  Over  six  million  children  through- 
out the  United  States  now  get  a  well- 
balanced  hot  lunch  in  a  joint  endeavor 


TABLE  12 

APPORTIONMENT  OF  FUNDS  IN  SOUTH  FOR 

NATIONAL  SCHOOL  LUNCH  PROGRAM,  BY 

STATES  AND  ESTIMATED  PARTICIPATION  OF 

NEGRO  CHILDREN,  1951-52 


State 

Apportionment 

Estimated  Negro 
Participation 

Ala. 

$  2,476,367 

26,700 

Ark. 

1,535,127 

12,500 

Fla. 

1,197,452 

14,000 

Ga. 

2,297,469 

20,600 

Ky. 

2,083,856 

5,300 

La. 

1,619,286 

100,000 

Miss. 

2,185,658 

35,000 

Mo. 

1,402,200 

21,000 

N.  C. 

2,883,099 

24,000 

Okla. 

1,260,228 

8,000 

S.  G. 

1,826,302 

32,000 

Tenn. 

2,223,479 

35,000 

Texas 

3,397,057 

29,000 

Va. 

1,714,715 

29,000 

TOTALS    $28,102,295* 

392,100  f 

Source:   U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Release  No. 
2376-51,  p.  1,  June  1951. 

*  For  all  school  children  in  the  states  listed, 
t  School  year,  1949-50. 


of  the  Federal  and  state  governments. 
State  and  county  boards  of  education  are 
responsible  for  carrying  out  the  program 
under  the  direction  of  the  Production  and 
Marketing  Administration  of  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  Table  12  shows 
funds  appropriated  for  school  lunches  in 
14  states  and  the  number  of  Negro  chil- 
dren being  benefited. 

High  Schools 

The  Directory  of  Secondary  Schools  in 
the  United  States,  Circular  No.  250,  is- 
sued by  the  U.S.  Office  of  Education, 
January  1949,  gives  a  total  of  10,617  high 
schools  in  the  17  southern  states  and  the 
District  of  Columbia  for  1946.  Of  these, 
8,798  were  for  whites  and  1,819  for  Ne- 
groes. Later  figures  are  not  readily  avail- 
able, but  since  1948  numbers  of  high 
schools  for  both  races  have  been  built. 

Approved  Secondary  Schools: 1  In 
December  1950,  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee of  the  Southern  Association  of 
Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  voted 

(Continued  on  page  213) 


1  Source:  The  Southern  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools,  Frank  C.  Jenkins,  230  Spring  Street,  N.W., 
Atlanta  3,  Ga. 


ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


209 


Approved  Secondary  Schools,  1950-51 


Location,  Name  and 
Superintendent 

Rating 

Principal 

Date 

Approvtd 

Alabama 

Anniston,  Cobb  Ave.  H.S., 

B 

M.  M.  Smith 

1949 

R.  S.  Owings 

Athens,  Trinity  School, 

B 

W.  Judson  King 

1950 

Floyd  R.  Johnson 

Birmingham,  Rosedale  H.S., 

B 

B.  N.  Montgomery 

1946 

I.  F.  Simmons 

Birmingham,  Wenonah  H.S., 

B 

Leon  Kennedy 

1950 

I.  F.  Simmons 

Brewton,  South.  Normal  H.S., 

B 

Andrew  Branche 

1939 

Andrew  Branche 

Mobile,  Central  H.S., 

A 

B.  F.  Baker 

1947 

K.  J.  Clark 

Montgomery,  Ala.,  Lab.  Sch.  A.S.C., 

A 

Thomas  J.  Mayberry,  Jr. 

1931 

H.  C.  Trenholm 

Montgomery,  St.  Jude  Ed.  Inst., 

A 

Rev.  C.  F.  Mensing 

1949 

Rev.  Leo  Byrnes 

Normal,  Council  Trg.  Sch.  A.&M.  Col., 

A 

C.  W.  Orr 

1931 

E.  A.  Anderson 

Plateau,  Mobile  Cty.  Trg.  Sch., 

A 

J.  T.  Gaines 

1934 

K.  J.  Clark 

Sayreton,  Hooper  City  H.S., 

B 

P.  L.  Ware 

1947 

I.  F.  Simmons 

Selma,  R.  B.  Hudson  H.S., 

B 

R.  W.  Stone 

1950 

W.  E.  Snuggs 

Talladega,  Westside  H.S., 

A 

B.  N.  Mabro 

1948 

F.  L.  Harwell 

Troy,  E.  Academy  St.  H.S., 

B 

Cecil  Griffin 

1950 

Roy  E.  Jeffcoat 

Tuscaloosa,  Tuscaloosa  Ind.  H.S., 

A 

McDonald  Hughes 

1943 

J.  H.  Hadley 

Tuscumbia,  Trenholm  H.S., 

B 

P.  H.  Wesley 

1946 

Boyd  Puryear 

Tuskegee,  Tuskegee  Inst.  H.S., 

A 

K.  B.  Young 

1931 

B.  L.  Balch 

Westfield,  Westfield  H.S., 

A 

C.  L.  Reeves 

1947 

I.  F.  Simmons 

Florida 

Fort  Myers,  Dunbar  H.S., 

B 

Edgar  L.  Barker 

1941 

Charles  Bevis 

Jacksonville,  Stanton  H.S., 

A 

J.  L.  Terry 

1931 

W.  Daniel  Boyd 

Miami,  B.  T.  Washington  H.S., 

A 

Charles  L.  Williams 

1940 

James  T.  Wilson 

Miami,  Dorsey  H.S., 

A 

D.  H.  Dobbs 

1946 

James  T.  Wilson 

Miami,  G.  W.  Carver  H.S., 

B 

Mrs.  F.  S.  Tucker 

1948 

James  T.  Wilson 

St.  Petersburg,  Gibbs  H.S., 

A 

A.  J.  Pope 

1950 

Floyd  T.  Christian 

Tallahassee,  Lincoln,  H.S., 

A 

G.  L.  Porter 

1942 

A.  P.  Godby 

Tampa,  Middleton  Sen.  H.S., 

A 

G.  V.  Stewart 

1948 

Crockett  Farnell 

Georgia 

Athens,  Athens  High  &  Ind.  Sch., 

H.  T.  Edwards 

1946 

Fred  Ayers 

Atlanta,  B.  T.  Washington  H.S., 

C.  N.  Cornell 

1932 

Dr.  Ira  Jerrell 

Atlanta,  D.  T.  Howard  H.S., 

G.  L.  Gideons 

1947 

Dr.  Ira  Jerrell 

Brunswick,  Risley  H.S., 

J.  S.  Wilkerson 

1932 

R.  E.  Hood 

Carrollton,  Carroll  Cty.  Trg.  Sch., 

L.  S.  Molette 

1948 

J.  M.  Chalker 

Cedartown,  Cedar  Hill  H.S., 

R.  A.  Bryant 

1946 

L.  H.  Gray 

Columbus,  Spencer  H.S., 

C.  W.  DuVaul 

1941 

W.  H.  Shaw 

210 


EDUCATION 


Approved  Secondary  Schools,  1950-51   (Cont.) 


Location,  Name  and 
Superintendent                                             Rating 

Principal 

Date 

Approved 

Georgia  (cont.) 

Cordele,  Gillcspie-Selden  H.S., 

L.  S.  Brown 

1939 

D.  H.  Standard 

Dalton,  Emery  St.  H.S., 

James  R.  Hightower 

1942 

C.  G.  Hale 

Decatur,  Herring  St.  H.S., 

Chas.  M.  Clayton 

1946 

O.  L.  Amsler 

Forsyth,  Hubbard  Trg.  Sch. 

Samuel  Hubbard 

1946 

J.  H.  Clarke 

Gainesville,  Fair  St.  H.S., 

C.  W.  Daniels 

1946 

C.  J.  Cheves 

Keysville,  Boggs  Acad., 

H.  N.  Stinson 

1942 

A.  H.  Guann 

Macon,  Ballard  H.S., 

R.  J.  Martin 

1933 

Mark  A.  Smith 

Moultrie,  Moultrie  H.S., 

George  W.  Parker,  Jr. 

1942 

E.  V.  Whelchel 

Newman,  H.  Warner  H.S., 

Frank  A.  Dodson 

1946 

W.  H.  Drake 

Sandersville,  T.  J.  Elder  H.S., 

Edgar  W.  Lash 

1946 

J-  C.  Page 

Swainsboro,  Swainsboro  H.S., 

Nathan  F.  Williams 

1947 

W.  O.  Phillips 

Thomasville,  Douglass  H.S. 

M.  D.  Roberts 

1946 

R.  D.  Blakeney 

Waycross,  Center  H.S., 

J.  C.  Reese 

1946 

J.  D.  Salter 

Kentucky 

Bowling  Green,  State  St.  H.S., 

E.  T.  Buford 

1942 

L.  C.  Curry 

Covington,  W.  Grant  H.S., 

H.  R.  Merry 

1932 

G.  O.  Swing 

Henderson,  Douglass  H.S., 

H.  B.  Kirkwood 

1943 

H.  L.  Smith 

Hopkinsville,  Attucks  H.S., 

Jacob  L.  Bronaugh 

1936 

Gladstone  Koffman 

Lexington,  P.  L.  Dunbar  H.S., 

P.  L.  Guthrie 

1931 

Ben  B.  Hen- 

Lincoln  Ridge,  Lincoln  Inst., 

W.  H.  Young 

1937 

R.  B.  Atwood 

Louisville,  Central  H.S., 

A.  S.  Wilson 

1932 

Omer  Carmicheal 

Madisonville,  Rosenwald  H.S., 

Mrs.  Pearl  A.  Patton 

1942 

T.  C.  Gilbert 

Maysville,  John  G.  Fee  Ind.  H.S., 

A.  W.  Whyte 

1935 

Owensboro,  West.  Jun.-Sen.  H.S., 

H.  E.  Goodloe 

1933 

R.  W.  Cherry     ' 

Paducah,  Lincoln  H.S., 

E.  W.  Whiteside 

1936 

Mark  F.  Scully 

Paris,  Western  H.S., 

Miss  M.  E.  Kellis 

1946 

Lee  Kirkpatrick 

Winchester,  Golivar  St.  H.S., 

G.  W.  Adams 

1934 

F.J.  Ogden 

Louisiana 

Baton  Rouge,  Southern  Univ.  H.S..                        A 

Miss  A.  A.  Boley 

1937 

F.  G.  Clark 

Bogalusa,  Central  Memorial  H.S.,                           A 
M.  J.  Isreal 

A.  L.Jordan 

1946 

Lake  Charles,  Sacred  Heart  H.S.,                           A 

Sister  Mary  Frances 

1940 

Mother  M.  Agatha 

Lake  Charles,  W.  O.  Boston  H.S.,                           A 

R.  C.  Reynaud 

1950 

C.  W.  Ford 

Natchitoches,  Natchitoches  Parish  Trg.  Sch.          A 

F.  M.  Richardson 

1946 

A.  E.  Lee 

New  Orleans,  Gaudet  Episcopal  H.S.,                    A 

A.  P.  Pertee 

1950 

Rev.  Girault  M.  Jones 

New  Orleans,  L.  B.  Landry  H.S.,                            A 

Isreal  M.  Augustine 

1938 

L.  J.  Bourgeois 

ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


211 


Approved  Secondary  Schools,  1950-51   (Cont.) 


Location,  Name  and 
Superintendent 


Rating 


Principal 


Date 

Approved 


Wes 


Louisiana  (cont.) 

New  Orleans,  St.  Mary's  Acad., 

Mother  Mary  Philip 
New  Orleans,  Xavier  Univ.  H.S., 
Mother  M.  Agatha 

Mississippi 

Edwards,  Southern  Christian  Inst., 

John  Long 
Jackson,  Lanier  H.S., 

K.  P.  Walker 
Meridian,  T.  J.  Harris  H.S., 

H.  M.  Ivy 
Okolona,  Okolona  Col.  H.S., 

W.  M.  Davis 
Oxford,  Oxford  Trg.  H.S., 

R.  E.  Keye 
Tougaloo,  Tougaloo  Col.  Pract.  H.S., 

J.  F.  Owens 
/est  Point,  Mary  Holmes  Junior 

College  H.S. 

North  Carolina 

Asheville,  Allen  H.S., 

Mrs.  Claire  Lennon 
Asheville,  Stephens-Lee  H.S., 

J.  W.  Byers 
Burlington,  Jordan-Sellers  H.S., 

L.  E.  Spiles 
Chapel  Hill,  Lincoln  H.S., 

C.  W.  Davis 
Charlotte,  Second  Ward  H.S., 

Dr.  E.  H.  Garinger 
Charlotte,  W.  Charlotte  H.S., 

Dr.  E.  H.  Garinger 
Durham,  Hillside  H.S., 

L.  S.  Weaver 
Fayetteville,  E.  E.  Smith  H.S., 

Horace  Sisk 
Gastonia,  Highland  H.S., 

F.  M.  Waters 
Goldsboro,  Dillard  H.S., 

Ray  Armstrong 

Greensboro,  Immanuel  Lutheran  H.S., 
Greensboro,  J.  B.  Dudley  H.S., 

B.  L.  Smith 

Greenville,  C.  M.  Eppes  H.S., 

J.  H.  Rose 
Henderson,  Henderson  Inst., 

E.  M.  Rollins 
High  Point,  W.  Penn  H.S., 

Charles  F.  Carroll 
Kannapolis,  G.  W.  Carver  H.S., 

W.  J.  Bullock 
Kings  Mountain,  Lincoln  Acad., 

Hunter  Huss 
Lexington,  Dunbar  H.S., 

L.  E.  Andrews 
Mount  Olive  ,Carver  H.S., 

R.  S .  Proctor 
Oxford,  Mary  Potter  H.S., 

C.  G.  Credle 
Raleigh,  Washington  H.S., 

J.  O.  Sanderson 
Reidsville,  Washington  H.S., 

C.  C.  Lipscomb 

Rocky  Mount,  B.  T.  Washington  H.S.; 

D.  S. Johnson 
Salisbury,  J.  C.  Price  H.S. 

J.  H.  Knox 


A  Sister  Mary  Rosetta 

A  Sister  M.  Bernice 

A  C.  C.  Mosley 

A  I.  S.  Sanders 

A  W.  A.  Reed,  Jr. 

A 

B  S.  G.  Gooden 

A  Mrs.  Annie  F.  Davis 

A  Margaret  E.  Hill 

Miss  Julia  Titus 
Frank  A.  Tolliver 
H.  C.  Goore 
C.  A.  McDougle 
J.  E.  Grigsby 
C.  L.  Blake 
H.  M.  Holmes 
E.  E.  Miller 
T.  Jeffers 
H.  V.  Brown 

William  H.  Kampschmidt 
J.  A.  Tarpley 

W.  H.  Davenport 
L.  E.  Spencer 
S.  E.  Burford 
W.  L.  Reid 
E.  D.  Wilson 
A.  B.  Bingham 
Spencer  E.  Durante 
H.  S.  Davis 
C.  H.  McLendon 
H.  K.  Griggs 
R.  D.  Armstrong 
O.  C.  Hall 


1947 
1937 

1931 
1946 
1946 
1946 
1946 
1931 
1943 


212 


EDUCATION 


Approved  Secondary  Schools,  1950-51   (Cont.) 


Location,  Name  and 
Superintendent 

Rating                               Principal 

Date 
Approved 

North  Carolina  (cont.) 

Sanford,  Lee  Cty.  Trg.  Sch., 

W.  B.  Wicker 

1946 

J.  J.  Lentz 

Sedalia,  Palmer  Memorial  Inst., 

J.  H.  Brockett 

1931 

Mrs.  G.  Hawkins  Brown 

Selma,  R.  B.  Harrison  H.S., 

M.  L.  Wilson 

1950 

H.  B.  Marrow 

Wake  Forest,  DuBois  H.S., 

L.  R.  Best 

1947 

Randolph  Benton 

Wilmington,  Williston  Ind.  H.S., 

F.  J.  Rogers 

1937 

H.  M.  Roland 

Wilson,  C.  H.  Darden  H.S., 

E.  M.  Barnes 

1942 

S.  G.  Chappell 

Winston-Salem,  Atkins  H.S., 

J.  A.  Carter 

1931 

J.  W.  Moore 

South  Carolina 

Charleston,  Avery  Inst., 

•                       J.  F.  Potts 

1933 

G.  C.  Rogers 

Charleston,  Burke  Ind.  H.S., 

W.  C.  Nichols 

1949 

G.  C.  Rogers 

Chester,  Finley  H.S., 

S.  L.  Finley 

1936 

M.  E.  Brock  man 

Columbia,  B.  T.  Washington  H.S., 

Harry  V.  Rutherford 

1933 

A.  C.  Flora 

Columbia,  C.  A.  Johnson  H.S., 

C.  J.  Johnson,  Jr. 

1949 

A.  C.  Flora 

Denmark,  Voorhees  Sch.  &  Jr.  Col., 

T.  H.  Moore 

1933 

C.  D.  Halliburton 

Florence,  Wilson  H.S., 

Gerard  A.  Anderson 

1950 

John  M.  Harllee 

Greenville,  Sterling  H.S., 

J.  E.  Beck 

1944 

W.  F.  Loggins 

Orangeburg,  Wilkinson  H.S., 

J.  C.  Parler 

1946 

E.  W.  Rushton 

Spartanburg,  Carver  H.S., 

C.  C.  Woodson 

1946 

J.  G.  McCracken 

Tennessee 

Chattanooga,  Howard  H.S., 

A                    W.  J.  Davenport 

1933 

C.  G.  Derthick 

Johnson  City,  Langston  H.S., 

A                   J.  N.  Armstrong 

1944 

John  H.  Arrants 

Knoxville,  Austin  H.S., 

A                   O.  T.  Hogue 

1934 

Wilson  New 

Morristown,  Morristown  H.S., 

B                    S.  A.  Cain 

1946 

A.  B.  Wallen 

Nashville,  Pearl  H.S., 

A                   J.  A.  Galloway 

1941 

W.  A.  Bass 

Rogersville,  Swift  Memorial  H.S., 

A                   R.  E.  Lee,  Pres. 

1933 

J.  O.  Harville 

Texas 

Austin,  Anderson  H.S., 

W.  B.  Campbell 

1933 

Irby  B.  Carruth 

Beaumont,  Charlton-Pollard  H.S., 

H.  C.  Johnson 

1935 

R.  L.  Williams 

Dallas,  B.  T.  Washington  H.S., 

J.  L.  Patton,  Jr. 

1946 

W.  T.  White 

Dallas,  Lincoln  H.S., 

B                    T.  D.  Marshall 

1946 

W.  T.  White 

Fort  Worth,  I.  M.  Terrell  H.S., 

H.  L.  King 

1934, 

Joe  P.  Moore 

Galveston,  Central  H.S., 

L.  A.  Morgan 

1933 

J.  D.  Hill 

Gladewater,  Weldon  H.S., 

E.  F.  Green 

1942 

Houston,  B.  T.  Washington  H.S., 

I.  B.  Bryant 

1933 

W.  E.  Moreland 

Houston,  Jack  Yates  H.S., 

Win.  S.  Holland 

1933 

W.  E.  Moreland 

ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


213 


Approved  Secondary  Schools,  1950-51 


Location,  Name  and 
Superintendent 

Rating                             Principal 

Date 

Approved 

Texas  (cont.) 

Houston,  Phyllis  Wheatley  H.S., 

J.  E.  Codwell 

1933 

W.  E.  Moreland 

Jefferson,  Central  H.S., 

J.  C.  Pitts 

1937 

L.  B.  Landers 

Marshall,  H.  B.  Pemberton  H.S., 

G.  A.  Rosborough 

1942 

V.  H.  Hackney 

San  Antonio,  Phyllis  Wheatley  H.S., 

G.  P.  Inge,  Jr. 

1933 

San  Antonio,  St.  Peter  Claver  H.S., 

Sister  Mary  Ita 

1942 

Tyler,  Emmett  Scott  H.S., 

A.  G.  Hilliard 

1950 

Waco,  A.  J.  Moore  H.S., 

J.  J.  Wilson 

1946 

E.  N.  Dennard 

Wichita  Falls,  B.  T.  Washington  H.S. 

C.  Emerson  Jackson 

1936 

J.  B.  McNiel 

Virginia 

Alexandria,  Parker-Gray  H.S., 

W.  H.  Pitts 

1942 

T.  C.  Williams 

Cambria,  Christiansburg  Ind.  Inst.  H.S., 

J.  F.  Banks 

1942 

S.  T.  Godbey 

Charlottesville,  Jefferson  H.S., 

Owen  J.  Duncan,  Jr. 

1942 

H.  L.  Sulfridge 

Franklin,  Hayden  H.S., 

S.  P.  Morton 

1944 

F.  F.  Jenkins 

Fredericksburg,  Walker  Grant  H.S., 

John  G.  Johnson 

1946 

G.  H.  Brown 

Hampton,  G.  P.  Phenix  H.S., 

Clifford  B.  Howlette 

1933 

C.  Alton  Lindsay 

Lynchburg,  Dunbar  H.S., 

C.  W.  Seay 

1936 

Paul  M.  Munro 

Manassas,  Manassas  Regional  H.S., 

C.  N.  Bennett 

1941 

R.  Worth  Peters 

Newport  News,  Huntington  H.S., 

W.  D.  Scales 

1931 

R.  O.  Nelson 

Norfolk,  B.  T.  Washington  H.S., 

Winston  Douglas 

1932 

J.  J.  Brewbaker 

Petersburg,  Peabody  H.S., 

A.  M.  Walker 

1933 

John  D.  Meade 

Richmond,  Armstrong  H.S., 

George  Peterson,  Jr. 

1933 

H.  I.  Willett 

Richmond,  M.  L.  Walker  H.S., 

J.  E.  Seagear 

1942 

Roanoke,  Lucy  Addison  H.S., 

Miss  Sadie  V.  Lawson 

1940 

D.  E.  McQuilkin 

Rock  Castle,  St.  Francis  de  Sales  H.S., 

Sister  M.  Eugene 

1940 

Mother  M.  Agatha 

Staunton,  B.  T.  Washington  H.S., 

S.  E.  Smith 

1940 

L.  F.  Shelburne 

to  grant  the  high  schools  listed  above  the 
ratings  indicated.  The  year  1950-51  is 
the  last  in  which  B  rating  was  granted. 
Negro  colleges  and  secondary  schools  are 
not  members  of  the  Association  but  are 
visited  and  inspected  by  the  Committee 
on  Approval  of  Negro  Schools.  "A"  rat- 
ing means  that  the  school  is  fully  accred- 
ited and  students  are  admitted  to  college 
without  any  condition.  "B"  rating  indi- 
cates that  the  school  is  lacking  in  suffi- 
cient equipment,  in  number  of  teachers 
or  perhaps  number  of  teachers  with  re- 
quired preparation,  and  the  like.  Schools 


with  rating  not  indicated  do  not  come 
up  to  standards  of  the  Association  in  one 
or  more  important  requirements. 

Private  High  Schools  and  Academies: 
The  increase  in  the  number  of  public  high 
schools  for  Negroes  has  accompanied  a 
rapid  decline  in  the  number  of  privately 
conducted  schools  on  the  secondary  level. 
The  Negro  Year  Book,  1931-32  listed  160 
private  institutions  having  a  high  school 
enrollment  of  10,876  students  and  a  total 
enrollment,  including  elementary  grades, 
of  32,777.  In  1951,  29  of  these  institutions 
had  a  high  school  enrollment  of  4,276 


214 


EDUCATION 


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TOTALS 

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t  This  figure  was  no 

ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  215 

and  a  total  enrollment,  including  ele-  operate  without  them  financially.  There 
mentary  grades,  of  7,848.  Some  of  the  is  a  possible  third  group  which  main- 
existing  schools  are  in  the  process  of  tains  them  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  certain 
being  absorbed  by  public  school  systems.  group  of  their  clientele. 
See  Table  13.  High  School  Graduates:  The  number 
Colleges  with  High  School  Depart-  of  high  school  graduates  increased  from 
ments:  Of  the  118  Negro  colleges  of  all  30,009  in  1939-40  to  40,841  in  1948-49, 
types  in  the  United  States  in  1951,  39  had  an  increase  of  36.1%.  Table  15  gives 
a  total  of  at  least  7,400  high  school  stu-  these  graduates  by  states, 
dents  enrolled,  indicating  that  high  school  State  Agents  and  Other  Supervisors  for 
departments  still  have  a  place  in  their  Negro  Schools:1  Thirteen  states  maintain 
programs.  Some  colleges  utilize  their  agents  whose  specific  duty  is  to  supervise 
secondary  school  departments  as  labora-  the  separate  school  systems  for  Negroes, 
tories  for  teacher  training;  others  have  These  persons  are  usually  responsible  to 
not  yet  reached  the  point  where  they  can  the  State  Superintendent  of  Education. 

TABLE  14 
COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  HAVING  HIGH  SCHOOL  DEPARTMENTS,  1950-51 


Institutions  (39) 

Male 

Female 

Total 

A.M.&N.  College,  Pine  Bluff,  Ark. 

86 

96 

182 

Alabama  A.&M.  College,  Normal,  Ala. 

205 

326 

531 

Alabama  State  Teachers  College,  Montgomery,  Ala. 

(N) 

(N) 

(N) 

Alcorn  A.&M.  College,  Alcorn,  Miss. 

15 

47 

62 

Arkansas  Baptist  College,  Little  Rock,  Ark. 

46 

29 

75 

Bettis  Academy  and  Junior  College,  Trenton,  S.C. 

— 

— 

118 

Campbell  College,  Jackson,  Miss. 

55 

40 

95 

College  of  Education  &  Industrial  Arts  (now 

Central  State  College),  Wilberforce,  Ohio 

15 

21 

36 

Conroe  N.&I.  College,  Conroe,  Tex. 

1 

1 

2 

Daniel  Payne  College,  Birmingham,  Ala. 

112 

40 

152 

Delaware  State  College,  Dover,  Del. 

68 

40 

108 

Edward  Waters  College,  Jacksonville,  Fla. 

49 

14 

63 

Florida  A.&M.  College,  Tallahassee,  Fla. 

117 

113 

230 

Grambling  College,  Grambling,  La. 

65 

97 

162 

Harbison  Junior  College,  Irmo,  S.C. 

— 

— 

56 

Immanuel  Lutheran  College,  Greensboro,  N.C. 

33 

59 

92 

Kansas  City  Kansas  Junior  College,  Kansas  City,  Kans. 

3 

— 

3 

Leland  College,  Baker,  La. 

10 

15 

25 

Lincoln  Junior  College,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

422 

665 

1,087 

Lincoln  University,  Jefferson  City,  Mo. 

63 

63 

126 

Lomax-Hannon  College,  Greenville,  Ala. 

20 

42 

62 

Mary  Allen  Senior  College,  Crockett,  Tex. 

2 

8 

10 

Mary  Holmes  Junior  College,  West  Point,  Miss. 

17 

50 

67 

Morris  Booker  Memorial  Baptist  College,  Dermott,  Ark. 

15 

17 

32 

Morristown,  N.&I.  College,  Morristown,  Tenn. 

143 

62 

205 

Oakwood  College,  Huntsville,  Ala. 

41 

42 

83 

Okolona  College,  Okolona,  Miss. 

110 

127 

237 

Piney  Woods  School  (Junior  College),  Piney  Woods,  Miss. 

80 

150 

230 

Prairie  View  A.&M.  College,  Prairie  View,  Tex. 

64 

69 

133 

Prentiss  N.&I.  Institute,  Prentiss,  Miss. 

327 

241 

568 

Rust  College,  Holly  Springs,  Miss. 

9 

17 

26 

Selma  University,  Selma,  Ala. 

60 

50 

110 

Southern  Christian  Institute,  Edwards,  Miss. 

55 

125 

180 

Southern  University  A.&M.  College,  Baton  Rouge,  La. 

93 

124 

217 

Swift  Memorial  Junior  College,  Rogersville,  Tenn. 

33 

47 

80 

Tougaloo  College,  Tougaloo,  Miss. 

70 

74 

144 

Voorhees  School  and  Junior  College,  Denmark,  S.C. 

71 

111 

182 

Washington  Junior  College,  Pensacola,  Fla. 
West  Virginia  State  College,  Institute,  W.  Va. 

696 
45 

823 
65 

1,519 
110 

TOTAL: 

— 

— 

7,400 

Source:  Questionnaire. 
(N)  No  report  received. 

1  Source:  Southern  Education  Foundation,  Inc. 


216 


EDUCATION 


Listed  here  are  these   agents  and   their 
associates  for  1949-50: 

Alabama:  Dr.  J.  C.  Blair,  St.  Agt.  for  Negro 
Schs.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Montgomery ; 
T.  F.  Burnside,  Ass.  St.  Agt.;  Robert  C. 
Hatch,  Colored  St.  Worker. 

Florida:  D.  E.  Williams,  St.  Agt.  for  Negro 
Schs.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Tallahassee; 
W.  E.  Combs,  Colored  St.  Worker. 

Georgia:  R.  L.  Cousins,  St.  Agt.  for  Negro 
Schs.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Atlanta;  Mrs. 
Meanelle  Dempsey,  Colored  St.  Worker, 
223  Chestnut  St.,  SW.,  Atlanta. 

Kentucky:  Sam  B.  Taylor,  St.  Agt.  for  Negro 
Schs.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Frankfort ;  Whit- 
ney M.  Young,  Ass.  St.  Agt.,  Lincoln  Ridge. 

Louisiana:  L.  L.  Kilgore,  St.  Agt.  for  Negro 
Schs.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Baton  Rouge. 

Mississippi:  P.  H.  Easom,  St.  Agt.  for  Negro 
Schs.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Jackson;  E.  P. 
Rawson,  Ass.  St.  Agt. ;  Miss  Forence  Alex- 
ander, Colored  St.  Worker,  1120  W.  Pas- 
cagoula  St.,  Jackson. 

Missouri:  Hubert  Wheeler,  Conim.  of  Educ., 
St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Jefferson  City;  H.  Pat 
Wardlaw,  Ass.  Comm.  of  Educ. ;  D.  F.  Mar- 
tinez, St.  Supv.  of  Negro  Schs. 

North  Carolina:  N.  C.  Newbold,  St.  Agt.  for 
Negro  Schs.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Raleigh ; 
G.  H.  Ferguson,  Ass.  St.  Agt. ;  Miss  Minnie 
R.  Lawrence,  Colored  St.  Worker. 

Oklahoma:  Clifford  Powell,  St.  Agt.  for  Ne- 
gro Schs.,  St.  Dept  of  Educ.,  Oklahoma 
City  ;  Ira  D.  Hall,  Negro  H.S.  Insp. 

South  Carolina:  C.  ].  Martin,  St.  Agt.  for 
Negro  Schs.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Columbia. 

Tennessee :  W.  E.  Turner,  St.  Agent  for  Ne- 
gro Schs.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Nashville ; 
R.  E.  Clay,  Colored  St.  Worker,  Tenn.  A.&I. 
St.  Univ.,  Nashville ;  Dr.  Eunice  S.  Mat- 
thews ;  Miss  Charity  Mance. 

Texas:  J.  B.  Rutland,  St.  Agt.  for  Negro  Schs., 
St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Austin;  J.  C.  McAdams, 
Ass.  Supv.  of  Negro  Educ.,  Prairie  View 
Col.,  Prairie  View. 

Virginia:  Thomas  T.  Hamilton,  Dir.  of  Sec- 
ondary Educ.,  St.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Richmond  ; 
A.  G.  Richardson,  Ass.  Supv.  of  El.  and  Sec. 
Educ. ;  Mrs.  Margaret  T.  Haley,  Ass.  Supv. 
of  El.  Schs.,  Room  400,  214  E.  Clay  St., 
Richmond. 

Integration  and  Public  Schools 

A  nationwide  survey  made  by  the  pub- 
lic-opinion-sampler Elmo  Roper  for  Life 
magazine  just  before  the  opening  of 
school  in  1950,  and  published  in  the  Oct. 
16,  1950,  issue  of  that  magazine,  gives 
an  idea  of  the  attitude  of  the  people  of 
the  country  by  age  groups,  race,  educa- 
tion, and  geographic  area  concerning 
integration  in  public  education. 

Three  questions  were  asked:  (1) 
Should  children  of  all  races  and  colors 
be  allowed  to  go  to  the  same  schools 
everywhere  in  the  country?  (2)  Should 


TABLE  15 

NEGRO  H.S.  GRADUATES  FOR  17  STATES  AND 
DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA,  1948-49 


State 

Total 

Boys 

Girls 

Alabama 

4133* 

1638* 

2495* 

Arkansas 

1629 

675 

954 

Delaware 

165 

79 

86 

Dist.  of  Col. 

944 

390 

604 

Florida 

2741* 

1308* 

1433* 

Georgia 

3422 

1294 

2128 

Kentucky 

1218 

513 

705 

Louisiana 

687 

235 

452 

Maryland 

1410 

563 

847 

Mississippi 

2290 

883 

1407 

Missouri 

1369 

572 

797 

North  Carolina 

5779 

2273 

3506 

Oklahoma 

1102 

535 

567 

South  Carolina 

2084 

769 

1315 

Tennessee 

2202 

935 

1267 

Texas 

5228 

2123 

3105 

Virginia 

3471 

1365 

2106 

West  Virginia 

917 

396 

521 

TOTAL  40,841          16,546          24,295 

Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Cir- 
cular No.  286,  January  1951. 
*  Figures  estimated. 


children  of  all  races  and  colors  be  allowed 
to  go  to  the  same  public  schools  together 
except  in  the  South,  where  white  and 
Negro  children  should  go  to  separate 
schools?  (3)  Should  white  children  and 
Negro  children  be  required  to  go  to 
separate  schools  everywhere  in  the  coun- 
try? The  answers  are  revealing,  as  indi- 
cated by  Table  16. 

By  age  groups,  the  younger  people  21 
to  24  years  old  showed  the  most  liberal 
attitudes  toward  these  questions.  By  race, 
Negroes  were  overwhelmingly  for  inte- 
gration. By  education,  college-trained 
persons  were  the  most  liberal;  those  with 
an  eighth-grade  education  or  less  the 
least  liberal.  By  geographic  area,  a  ma- 
jority of  the  people  interviewed  in  the 
Northeast  were  for  mixed  schools  every- 
where. In  the  South,  only  a  minority  held 
that  the  children  of  all  citizens  regard- 
less of  race  or  color  should  attend  the 
same  schools.  The  survey  itself  indicates 
that  the  American  people  generally  are 
ready  to  give  democracy  a  chance  to 
operate  in  the  public  schools  of  the 
country. 

Federally  Operated  Schools  in  South: 
An  Associated  Press  story  appearing  Oct. 
14,  1951,  renorted  the  opening  of  the 


HIGHER  EDUCATION 


217 


TABLE  16 

ATTITUDE  TOWARD  INTEGRATION  IN  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  U.S.  BY  AGE,  RACE, 
EDUCATION  AND  GEOGRAPHIC  AREA 


All  Races  and 
Colors  Should  At- 
tend Same  Schools 
Everywhere  in  the 
Country 

All  Races  and 
Colors  Should  At- 
tend Same  Schools 
Except  in  the  South 

All  Races  and 
Colors  Should  be 
Required  to  Attend 
Separate  Schools 
Everywhere  in  the 
Country 

Don't 

Know, 
and  No 
Answer 

Total  Percentage  

41.3 

16.7 

35.1 

6.9 

Age 

21-34  

47.1 

15.1 

33.8 

4.0 

35-49  

40.4 

19.0 

34.2 

6.4 

50  and  Over  

36.6 

16.1 

37.2 

10.1 

Race 

White  

39.0 

17.0 

37.5 

6.5 

Negro  

64.5 

13.3 

11.8 

10.4 

Education 

—  — 

8th  Grade  or  Less  

31.7 

12.2 

46.0 

10.1 

High  School  

43.2 

17.3 

35.4 

4.1 

College  

52.7 

22.5 

20.7 

4.1 

Geographic  Area 

Northeast  

57.0 

18.9 

15.3 

8.8 

Midwest  

48.1 

12.7 

32.6 

6.6 

South  

17.1 

14.6 

62.5 

5.8 

Far  West  

43.5 

25.4 

25.2 

5.9 

Source:  Life,  Oct.  16,  1950.  Copyright  by  Time.  Inc. 


Federally  operated  elementary  schools 
at  Fort  Bragg,  N.C.,  on  Sept.  6,  1951,  to 
both  white  and  Negro  children  without 
segregation.  These  schools  enrolled  1,175 
white  children  and  33  colored  children. 
There  were  no  Negro  students  of  high 
school  age.  The  67  white  students  attend 
Fayetteville  high  school. 

Of  the  43  teachers,  one  is  a  Negro  who 
teaches  25  white  children  and  one  colored 
child  in  the  kindergarten.  The  director 
of  education  on  the  post  reported  only 
one  complaint  when  the  announcement 
was  made  that  the  schools  would  abolish 
segregation  completely.  The  children's 
reaction  to  the  change  was  spontaneous 
and  unaffected  friendship. 

Other  Federally  operated  schools  in- 
clude those  at  Fort  Knox  and  Fort 
Campbell,  Ky.,  and  at  the  Quantico,  Va., 
Marine  base. 

On  Nov.  2,  1951,  President  Truman 
refused  to  sign  a  Federal-aid-to-education 
bill  passed  by  Congress  in  October  just 
before  it  adjourned.  This  bill  would  have 
In  no  phase  of  the  Negro's  progress  has 


required  racial  segregation  on  Federal 
property  in  17  states  having  segregation 
laws.  If  it  became  law,  the  schools  now 
operating  without  separation  of  races  on 
such  property  would  have  to  discontinue 
integration  of  white  and  Negro  children 
and  of  teaching  personnel.  Such  a  step, 
as  was  pointed  out,  would  be  away  from 
equality  of  opportunity  in  education. 

HIGHER  EDUCATION1 

In  no  phase  of  the  Negro's  progress  has 
there  been  more  remarkable  development 
than  in  higher  education.  In  students, 
graduates,  staff,  income,  expenditures, 
property,  and  endowments,  Negro  institu- 
tions have  made  great  advances.  The  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  institutions  has 
been  slow,  from  99  in  1900  to  108  in 
19502,  but  development  has  been  in  size 
and  facilities  of  existing  institutions 
rather  than  in  their  number.  The  accom- 
panying tabulations  present  data  begin- 
ning with  1899-1900  and  continuing  to 
1949-50,  or  the  nearest  date  for  which 
figures  are  available. 


1  Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,   Henry   C.   Badger,   Specialist  in  Education  Statistics,   Circular  No.  293,  April 
1951. 

2  Table  23  shows  118  institutions  and   71,000   students  for   itemized   institutions.   Enrollment   for  a    few  institutions 
was  not  obtained. 


218 


EDUCATION 


Enrollment 

Enrollment  increased  from  2,624  in 
1899-1900  to  an  estimated  74,526  in  1950- 
51.  The  later  figure  is  28.4  times  that  for 
the  earlier  year.  For  all  higher  education 
(Negro,  white,  and  nonsegregated  insti- 
tutions) the  1950-51  estimated  enrollment 
was  10.7  times  that  for  1899-1900. 

No  less  noteworthy  is  the  fact  that 
whereas  in  1900,  41  of  the  99  so-called 
colleges  for  Negroes  had  no  students  of 
college  grade,  in  1947-48  every  institu- 
tion listed  had  college  students.  In  1951, 
only  a  minority  of  these  institutions  ac- 
cept students  of  below-college  grade. 

Decline  in  Enrollment:  The  percentage 
decline  in  students  reported  for  the  Fall 
of  1950  by  108  institutions  for  Negroes 
was  considerably  smaller  than  that  ob- 
served for  all  institutions.  Against  a  gen- 
eral drop  of  6.5%  in  total  fall  enrollment 
for  all  institutions,  the  drop  among  Ne- 
gro institutions  was  only  1.1%.  While  the 
number  of  men  students  reported  in  the 
fall  of  1950  dropped  6.8%  from  that  for 

1949,  the  number  of  women  students  in- 
creased 5.4%  in  the  same  period.  New 
students  in  Negro  institutions  increased 
3.6%  as  compared  with  a  drop  of  7.4% 
for  all  institutions.  Although  the  number 
of  male  students  entering  college  for  the 
first  time  in  Negro  institutions  was  5.3% 
lower  than  in  1949,  the  number  of  women 
increased  12.5%. 

Veteran  Students:  During  the  fall  of 

1950,  veteran  students  enrolled  in  Negro 
colleges  numbered  13,242.  Of  these  13,080 
were  men  and  162  were  women.  In  only 
three  institutions  did  the  enrollment  ex- 
ceed 500  in  that  year.  Howard  University 
had   1,297,   Tuskegee  Institute   820,   and 
A.&T.  College  of  North  Carolina  80S.1 

Degrees  Conferred 

Bachelors'  degrees  were  conferred  on 
156  persons  in  1900  and  on  13,108  in 
1950.  For  every  person  who  in  1900  re- 
ceived a  bachelor's  degree  at  one  of  the 
Negro  institutions,  84  received  that  degree 
50  years  later.  Corresponding  figures  for 
all  higher  education  (continental  U.S.) 


TABLE  17 

HISTORICAL  SUMMARY  OF  EARNED  DEGREES 
CONFERRED,  1900  TO  1950 


Bachelor's  Degree 

Master's  Degree 

Year 

Men   Women 

Total 

Men 

Women 

Total 

1900 

134* 

22 

156 

i 

1 

i 

1910 

233  f 

277* 

510* 

l 

1 

i 

1920 

818 

191f 

l,009f 

4f 

If 

5f 

1930 

l,200f 

977  f 

2,177  f 

14f 

5f 

19f 

1940 

2,463 

3,244 

5,707 

58 

94 

152 

1942 

2,011 

4,414 

6,425 

22 

75 

97 

1944 

840 

4,036 

4,876 

46 

86 

132 

1946 

1,165 

4,741 

5,906 

88 

223 

311 

1948 

3,062 

5,442 

8,504 

184 

249 

433 

1949 

4,692 

6,618 

11,310 

242 

405 

647 

1950 

6,467 

6,641 

13,108 

335 

433 

768 

Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Cir- 
cular No.  293,  April  1951. 

1  Data  not  available. 

*  Includes  120  men  and  28  women  taking  the 
bachelor's  degree,  and  113  men  and  249  women 
taking  normal  school  diplomas. 

t  Estimated. 

for  1900  and  1950  were  27,410  and  432,- 
058  respectively,  the  latter  figure  being 
approximately  16  times  the  former. 

The  date  of  first  conferment  of  the 
master's  degree  at  Negro  colleges  is  not 
definitely  known.  There  are  indications 
that  it  was  conferred  at  one  or  two  col- 
leges as  early  as  1879,  but  in  1920  the 
master's  degree  was  conferred  on  five 
persons  by  these  institutions.  In  1950, 
it  was  conferred  on  768. 

Table  18  shows  institutions  offering 
graduate  work  in  1951,  with  degrees  con- 
ferred 1949-50  and  enrollment  1950-51, 
when  reported. 

The  doctorate  is  not  at  present  con- 
ferred by  Negro  institutions.  However,  in 
1951  it  was  reported  North  Carolina  had 
on  August  6  set  aside  $271,000  for  a  Doc- 
tor of  Philosophy  program  at  the  North 
Carolina  College  at  Durham.  This  will  be 
the  first  doctorate  training  for  Negroes 
in  a  southern  school  for  Negroes  sup- 
ported by  public  or  private  funds.  This 
move  is  not  expected  to  prevent  Negro 
students  from  attending  other  colleges 
already  set  up  for  whites  at  Raleigh, 
Greensboro,  and  Chapel  Hill  that  are  also 
a  part  of  the  state's  public  educational 
system. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  first 
doctorate  in  the  United  States  given  to  a 
white  person  was  in  1866;  the  first  to  a 


1  Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  293. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION 


219 


Negro  was  awarded  in  1876,  only  ten 
years  later.  Forty-five  years  later,  in  1921, 
this  degree  was  conferred  for  the  first 
time  on  three  Negro  women :  Miss  Georgi- 
ana  Rosa  Simpson,  by  the  University  of 
Chicago,  June  14,  Mrs.  Sadie  T.  Mossell 
Alexander,  by  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, June  15,  and  Miss  Eva  B.  Dykes, 
by  Radcliffe  College,  June  22. 

Faculty 

An  analysis  of  faculty  members  in 
1899-1900  by  race  shows  that  in  the  24 
institutions  under  public  control,  nearly 


85%  of  the  teachers  were  Negroes. 
Among  the  75  institutions  under  private 
control  the  distribution  was  almost  ex- 
actly equal  between  the  races. 

For  the  99  institutions  as  a  group, 
56.8%,  or  approximately  four-sevenths 
of  the  faculty  members,  were  Negroes.  It 
is  believed  that  Negroes  now  constitute 
approximately  90  to  95%  of  the  faculty 
of  these  institutions. 

The  increase  in  faculty  members  from 
1899-1900  to  1947-48  is  also  noteworthy. 
In  1899-1900,  a  total  of  1,555  faculty 
members  were  reported;  in  1947-48  the 


TABLE  18 

NEGRO  INSTITUTIONS  OFFERING  GRADUATE  WORK,  DEGREES  CONFERRED  1949-50  AND 

ENROLLMENT  1950-51 


Institution1 

Master's  Degrees 
Conferred  1949-50 

Enrollment 
1950-51 

Men 

Women 

A.  &  T.  College  of  N.  Carolina 

3 

8 

145 

Alabama  State  Teachers  College 

20 

42 

(N) 

Atlanta  University 

72 

108 

459 

Bishop  College 

— 

— 

76 

Florida  A.  &  M.  College 

2 

2 

52 

Fisk  University 

13 

11 

59 

Hampton  Institute 

13 

27 

(N) 

Howard  University 

52 

58 

266 

Lincoln  University  (Mo.) 

— 

— 

(N) 

N.  Carolina  College  at  Durham 

25 

15 

89 

Prairie  View  A.  &  M.  College 

41 

25 

52 

State  A.  &  M.  College  of  S.  Carolina 

6 

5 

152 

Tennessee  A.  &  I.  State  College  (now  Tennessee  State  University) 

19 

5 

407 

Texas  State  University  for  Negroes  (now  Texas  Southern  University) 

38 

86 

407 

Tuskegee  Institute 

18 

13 

70 

Virginia  State  College 

9 

17 

102 

Xavier  University 

4 

7 

18 

Sources:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  293,  April  1951,  and  questionnaire. 

( N )  Enrollment  not  reported. 

1  For  presidents  and  location,  see  Table  23 . 

TABLE  19 

HISTORICAL  SUMMARY  OF  SELECTED  FINANCIAL  DATA,  1899-1900 
TO  1947-48  IN  NEGRO  INSTITUTIONS  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION 


Year 

Education 
and  General 
Income 

Educational 
and  General 
Expenditures 

Physical 
Property 

Endowment  and 
other  Nonex- 
pendable Funds* 

1899-1900 
1909-1910 
1919-1920 
1929-1930 
1939-1940 
1941-1942 
1943-1944 
1945-1946 
1947-1948 

$  1,111,783 
3,037,118 
4,193,333tt 
11,880,641  tt 
11,889,977 
13,141,771 
15,427,072 
25,538,631 
38,318,254 

(t) 
(t) 
$  3,729,960  tt 
8,158,313tt 
11,007,479 
12,190,257 
10,676,784 
22,968,642 
36,215,919 

$  7,930,949 
13,143,181 
21,151,425tt 
57,327,354  tt 
76,343,816 
79,398,552 
82,976,515 
99,726,563  tt 
119,857,859 

(t) 
$  2,155,014 

12,915,015tt 
36,604,552  tt 
39,607,319 
39,018,303 
45,676,900 
49,308,992  tt 
53,229,897 

Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  293,  April  1951. 
*  Values  at  end  of  fiscal  year, 
t  Data  not  available, 
t t  Estimated. 


220 


number  reported  on  a  full-time  equiva- 
lency basis  was  5,851.  The  figure  for  the 
later  year  was  3.8  times  that  for  the 
earlier  year.  This  increase  becomes  more 
striking  when  it  is  recalled  that  in  1899- 
1900  fewer  than  10%  of  the  students  at 
these  institutions  were  of  college  grade. 
If  the  faculty  were  reduced  in  the  same 
proportion,  it  is  probable  that  fewer  than 
150  teachers  on  a  full-time  equivalency 
basis  would  have  been  necessary  to  admin- 
ister and  instruct  the  college  portion  of 
the  institutions  involved. 

Ph.D.'s  and  Other  Doctorates:  A  survey 
of  118  Negro  colleges  and  universities 
in  1951  shows  that  at  least  553  persons 
with  the  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  Doctor  of 
Education,  or  other  earned  doctorate 
teach  in  58  institutions  (the  number  that 
reported  having  such  scholars).  A  few 
white  faculty  members  are  included  in 
the  group  but  their  number  is  compara- 
tively small.  Some  institutions  known  to 
have  personnel  with  these  degrees  did  not 
respond.  Howard  University,  Washington, 
D.C.,  leads  with  111  doctorates;  Morgan 
State  College,  Baltimore,  has  37 ;  and  Fisk 
University,  Nashville,  33. 

Finances  and  Physical  Property 

Great  strides  in  finances  have  like- 
wise been  made  during  the  past  50  years. 


Increases  have  been  somewhat  irregular, 
but  they  have  occurred  in  all  phases  of 
finance  for  which  data  are  available. 
The  educational  and  general  income  of 
institutions  for  higher  education  of  Ne- 
groes increased  from  $1,111,783  in  1899- 
1900  to  $38,318,254  in  1947-48,  or  34 
times.  Remarkable  as  this  growth  was, 
it  was  at  a  somewhat  slower  rate  than 
has  been  characteristic  of  higher  educa- 
tion as  a  whole,  for  which  the  1947-48 
figure  was  nearly  44  times  that  for  1899- 
1900. 

The  physical  property  of  Negro  col- 
leges had  a  total  value  of  $119,857,859 
in  1947-48.  This  was  15.1  times  the  $7,- 
930,949  reported  by  these  institutions  in 
1899-1900.  This  increase  is  similar  to  that 
for  all  higher  education,  for  which  the 
1947-48  figure  was  15.8  times  that  for 
1899-1900. 

Analyses  of  current  income  for  the 
various  types  of  Negro  colleges  for  1947- 
48,  by  source  of  income,  appear  in  Table 
20.  Similar  analyses  of  current  expendi- 
tures appear  in  Table  21.  The  percentages 
in  these  tables  should  be  taken  not  as 
standards  but  rather  as  measures  of  com- 
mon practice. 

Endowment:  In  the  summer  of  1951, 
out  of  118  Negro  colleges  surveyed,  46, 
or  38.6%,  reported  having  endowment 


TABLE  20 
ANALYSIS  OF  CURRENT  INCOME  OF  103  INSTITUTIONS,  1947-48 


Per  cent  of 


Item 


Amount 


Educational  and    Total  Current 
General  Income         Income 


Educational  and  general  income: 

Students  fees $  7,312,075 

Federal  Government: 

Veterans'  education 6,581 ,892 

Other  purposes 4,273,509 

State  governments 10,881,932 

Local  governments 1,052,656 

Endowment  earnings 2,1 59,536 

Private  benefactions 3,71 5,734 

Sales  and  services 1 ,348,906 

Miscellaneous  sources 992,014 

Total  educational  and  general 38,318,254 

Auxiliary  enterprises  and  activities 17,060,107 

Other  noneducational  income 545,881 

Total  current  income $55,924,242 


19.1 

17.2 

11.2 

28.4 

2.7 

5.6 

9.7 

3.5 

2.6 

100.0 


13.1 

11.8 
7.6 

19.4 
1.9 
3.9 
6.6 
2.4 
1.8 

68.5 

30.5 

1.0 

100.0 


Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  293,  April  1951. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION 


221 


TABLE  21 
ANALYSIS  OF  CURRENT  EXPENDITURES  OF  103  INSTITUTIONS,  1947-48 


Item 

Amount 

Per  Cent  of— 
Educational  and  General 
Expenditures 

Total  Cur- 
rent Expen- 
ditures 

Except  Exten- 
sion and 
Research 

All 

Educational  and  general  expenditures: 
Administration  and  general  expense  
Resident  instruction                      

$  5,058,546 
18,233,634 
1,217,651 
6,717,785 
1,245,030 

15.6 
56.2 
3.7 
20.7 
3.8 

14.0 
50.3 
3.5 
18.5 
3.4 

9.2 
33.2 
2.2 
12.3 
2.3 

Libraries        

Plant  operation  and  maintenance      

Organized  activities  related  to  instruction  .  . 
Subtotal  

32,472,646 
1,520,915 
2,222,358 

100.0 

89.7 
4.2 
6.1 

59.2 
2.8 
4.0 

Organized  research                   

Extension  9  

Total  educational  and  general  
Auxiliary  enterprises  and  activities        

36,215,919 
17,248,601 
1,432,486 

100.0 

66.0 
31.4 
2.6 

$54,897,006 

—                   — 

100.0 

Source:  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Statistical  Circular  No.  293,  April  1951. 


funds.1  These  sums  ranged  from  $2,232  to 
$10,000,000.  The  total  endowment  re- 
ported by  these  institutions  was  $59,091,- 
395.14.  See  Table  22. 

Negro  Colleges  in  the  U.S. 

The  information  on  Negro  colleges 
presented  in  Table  23  is  based  on  three 
sources:  Statistical  Circular  No.  293,  by 
Henry  G.  Badger,  U.S.  Office  of  Educa- 
tion; a  survey  of  the  colleges  during  the 
summer  of  1951;  and  data  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Records  and  Research,  Tuskegee 
Institute. 

Land  Grant  Colleges:2  The  term  "land 
grant  college  or  university"  is  applied  to 
any  institution  of  higher  education  that 
has  been  designated  by  the  legislature  of 
the  state  in  which  it  is  located  as  being 
eligible  to  receive  the  benefits  of  either 
or  both  of  the  Morrill  Acts.  The  term 
originated  from  the  wording  of  the  first 
Morrill  Act  adopted  by  Congress  in  1862, 
which  provided  for  a  grant  of  30,000  acres 
of  land  or  its  equivalent  in  scrip  to  the 
several  states  for  each  representative  and 
senator  in  Congress,  to  be  used  for  ".  .  . 
the  endowment,  support,  and  maintenance 
of  at  least  one  college  ...  in  each  State 


.  .  .  where  the  leading  object  shall  be, 
without  excluding  other  scientific  and 
classical  studies,  and  including  military 
tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning 
as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts  ...  in  order  to  promote  the 
liberal  and  practical  education  of  the 
industrial  classes  in  the  several  pursuits 
and  professions  in  life." 

Land-grant-college  funds  are  now  re- 
ceived by  all  the  48  states  and  3  territories 
for  69  institutions,  17  of  which  are  de- 
voted exclusively  to  the  education  of  Ne- 
groes. These  17  institutions  are:  Alabama 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College, 
Normal;  Agricultural,  Mechanical  and 
Normal  College,  Pine  Bluff,  Ark.;  Dela- 
ware State  College,  Dover;  Florida  Agri- 
cultural and  Mechanical  College,  Talla- 
hassee; Fort  Valley  State  College,  Fort 
Valley,  Ga.;  Kentucky  State  College, 
Frankfort;  Southern  University,  Baton 
Rouge,  La.;  Maryland  State  College. 
Princess  Anne;  Alcorn  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College,  Alcorn,  Miss.;  Lin- 
coln University,  Jefferson  City,  Mo.; 
North  Carolina  Agricultural  and  Tech- 
nical State  College,  Greensboro;  Lang- 
ston  University,  Langston,  Okla.;  South 


1  This  is  10  more  than  the  number  reported  by  108  colleges  in  1950. 

2  Contributed  by  Pres.  R.  B.  Atwood,   Secy.,   Conference  of  Presidents  of  Negro  Land  Grant  Colleges.  For  presi- 
dents, enrollment,  and   other  data,  see  Table  23,  this  chapter. 


222  EDUCATION 

Carolina  State  College,  Orangeburg;  nance  of  a  college  where  a  distinction  of 
Tennessee  Agricultural  and  Industrial  race  or  color  is  made  in  the  admission  of 
State  University,  Nashville;  Prairie  View  students,  but  the  establishment  and  main- 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  tenance  of  such  college  separately  for 
Prairie  View,  Texas;  Virginia  State  Col-  white  and  colored  students  shall  be  held 
lege,  Petersburg;  West  Virginia  State  to  be  a  compliance  with  the  provisions 
College,  Institute.  of  this  act  if  the  funds  received  in  such 
The  17  land-grant  institutions  devoted  State  or  Territory  be  equitably  divided 
to  the  education  of  Negroes  came  into  .  .  .  ."  The  Act  then  gives  a  definition  of 
being  as  a  result  of  the  second  Morrill  what  shall  constitute  an  equitable  divi- 
Act  passed  by  Congress  in  1890.  This  Act  sion.  This  provision  was  the  result  of  a 
contained  a  provision  that  "no  money  failure  on  the  part  of  many  of  the  south- 
shall  be  paid  under  this  act  to  any  state  ern  states  to  give  adequate  recognition 
or  territory  for  the  support  and  mainte-  to  the  Negro^  under  the  first  Morrill  Act. 

TABLE  22 
ENDOWMENT  OF  46  NEGRO  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES,  1951 

Institution  Amount 


Atlanta  University,  Atlanta,  Ga $6,635,200.00 

Barber-Scotia  College,  Concord,  N.C 850,000.00 

Benedict  College,  Columbia,  S.C 353,906.79 

Bennett  College,  Greenboro,  N.C 1,050,932.00 

Bethune-Cookman  College,  Daytona  Beach,  Fla 536,060.00 

Bettis  Academy  and  Junior  College,  Trenton,  S.C 35,075.28 

Bishop  College,  Marshall,  Texas 22,463.33 

Claflin  University,  Orangeburg,  S.C 180,000.00 

Clark  College,  Atlanta,  Ga 1 1,007,093.91 

Dillard  University,  New  Orleans,  La 3,300,000.00 

Fisk  University,  Nashville,  Tenn 4,485,000.00 

Fort  Valley  State  College,  Fort  Valley,  Ga 63,824.86 

Gammon  Theological  Seminary,  Atlanta,  Ga 607,000.00 

Hampton  Institute,  Hampton,  Va 10,000,000.00 

Howard  University,  Washington,  D.C 1,669,595.00 

Jarvis  Christian  College,  Hawkins,  Texas 450,000.00 

Johnson  C.  Smith  University,  Charlotte,  N.C 2,000,000.00 

Knoxville  College,  Knoxville,  Tenn 536,800.00 

Lane  College,  Jackson,  Tenn ". 36,667.21 

Leland  College,  Baker,  La • 109,000.00 

LeMoyne  College,  Memphis,  Tenn 2,232.00 

Lincoln  University,  Lincoln  University,  Pa 1,012,416.00 

Livingstone  College,  Salisbury,  N.C 75,000.00 

Mississippi  Vocational  College,  Itta  Bena,  Miss 147,000.00 

Morehouse  College,  Atlanta,  Ga 2,000,000.00 

Morris  Booker  Memorial  Baptist  College,  Dermott,  Ark 125,000.00 

Morris  Brown  College,  Atlanta,  Ga 18,000.00 

Morristown  N.  and  I.  College,  Morristown,  Tenn 82,928.12 

Paine  College,  Augusta,  Ga 795,360.75 

Philander  Smith  College,  Little  Rock,  Ark 2,500,000.00 

Rust  College,  Holly  Springs,  Miss 29,099.82 

Samuel  Houston  College,  Austin,  Texas 8,943.96 

Shaw  University,  Raleigh,  N.C 500,000.00 

Spelman  College,  Atlanta,  Ga , 3,327,563.01 

St.  Augustine's  College,  Raleigh,  N.C 213,000.00 

Stillman  College,  Tuscaloosa,  Ala 128,935.67 

Talladega  College,  Talladega,  Ala 3,730,000.00 

Tillotson  College,  Austin,  Texas '. 1,500,000.00 

Tougaloo  College,  Tougaloo,  Miss 48,521 .08 

Tuskegee  Institute,  Tuskegee  Institute,  Ala 6,913,911.15 

Virginia  State  College,  Petersburg,  Va 173,000.00 

Virginia  Union  University,  Richmond,  Va 1,000,000.00 

Voorhees  School  and  Junior  College,  Denmark,  S.C 55,000.00 

Wilberforce  University,  Wilberforce,  Ohio 7 76,865.20 

Wiley  College,  Marshall,  Texas 600,000.00 

Winston-Salem  Teachers  College,  Winston-Salem,  N.C 100,000.00 

TOTAL:  $59,091,395.14 


HIGHER  EDUCATION 


223 


The  data  on  the  allocation  of  Federal 
funds  made  available  under  the  second 
Morrill  Act  in  those  states  in  which  sepa- 
rate schools  for  the  races  are  maintained 
indicate  that  this  restriction  has  been 
effective.  The  Federal  contribution  to  the 
cost  of  resident  instruction  in  the  69  land 
grant  colleges  now  amounts  to  approxi- 
mately one-twenty-fifth  of  such  cost.  The 
remainder  is  provided  by  direct  appropri- 
ation by  the  states  and  territories  or 
through  income  from  endowments  and 
student  payments. 

However,  the  land  grant  colleges  for 
Negroes  have  not  developed  as  rapidly 
as  those  for  white  persons  in  the  17 
states  where  separate  institutions  are 
maintained  for  the  races.  While  these 
colleges  for  Negroes  have  received  a  more 
equitable  share  of  Federal  funds  made 
available  under  the  second  Morrill  Act, 
this  has  not  been  true  of  other  Federal 
funds,  notably  funds  for  agricultural  ex- 
periment stations  made  available  tinder 
the  Hatch  Act  of  1887  and  funds  for  Co- 
operative Extension  Service  made  avail- 
able under  the  Smith-Lever  Act  of  1914. 

In  each  of  the  17  southern  states,  pro- 
grams of  agricultural  experimentation 
and  extension  are  carried  on  under  con- 
trol and  direction  of  the  white  land-grant 
colleges  and  universities,  with  exclusion 
of  land-grant  institutions  for  Negroes. 

For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1950,  the 
white  land-grant  institutions  in  the  17 
southern  states  received  $43,536,688  in 
Federal  funds;  in  these  same  17  states 
and  for  the  same  year  the  land-grant  in- 
stitutions for  Negroes  received  $2,370,- 
915  in  Federal  funds.  The  17  Negro  in- 
stitutions received  approximately  5%  of 
the  Federal  funds  which  came  into  the 
area,  even  though  they  constituted  ap- 
proximately 22%  of  the  total  population 
of  the  area.  They  should  have  received 
at  least  $11,000,000  instead  of  $2,000,000. 

In  1949-50,  the  value  of  the  physical 
plants  of  the  17  white  institutions  was 
$362,718,526;  and  in  the  same  states  the 
value  of  the  physical  plants  of  the  Negro 
institutions  was  only  $49,130,091.  H 
equity  had  been  provided,  the  plant  value 


of  the  Negro  institutions  would  be  $90,- 
606,695.74.  This,  of  course,  indicates  dis- 
crimination against  the  Negro  institutions 
at  the  state  level,  since  Federal  funds 
cannot  be  used  for  physical  plants. 

In  1923,  the  president  of  the  land-grant 
colleges  for  Negroes  organized  the  Con- 
ference of  Presidents  of  Land-Grant  and 
Associated  Institutions.  The  associated  in- 
stitutions are:  Atlanta  University,  At- 
lanta, Ga. ;  Central  State  College,  Wil- 
berforce,  Ohio ;  Hampton  Institute,  Hamp- 
ton, Va. ;  Howard  University,  Washing- 
ton, B.C.;  Savannah  State  College,  Sav- 
annah, Ga. ;  Texas  Southern  University, 
Houston;  and  Tuskegee  Institute,  Tuske- 
gee  Institute,  Ala.  Among  other  things, 
this  body  has  devoted  its  efforts  to  the 
elimination  of  inequities  in  distribution 
of  land-grant  funds  as  described  above. 
The  Conference  meets  annually  in  Octo- 
ber, usually  in  Washington,  D.C.  Its 
annual  proceedings,  available  without 
charge  to  libraries,  organizations,  and 
interested  individuals,  may  be  secured 
from  the  Secretary,  R.  B.  Atwood,  Ken- 
tucky State  College,  Frankfort,  Ky. 

Professional  Schools:  Information  on 
institutions  in  this  class  is  shown  in 
Tables  24  and  25.  It  is  notably  that  at 
least  15  professions,  in  addition  to  cur- 
ricula traditionally  offered,  are  now  being 
taught  by  at  least  14  institutions,  not 
including  those  offering  theological 
courses.  Students  enrolled  in  professional 
schools  and  departments  numbered  3,886 
in  1950-51.  Twenty-six  institutions  giving 
courses  in  theology,  including  theological 
seminaries,  reported  an  enrollment  of  700 
students  in  the  same  year. 

The  exact  number  of  Negro  students 
taking  professional  or  other  courses  in 
interracial  colleges  is  not  known,  but  it 
is  considerable.  Securing  adequate  figures 
from  these  institutions  on  enrollment  is 
getting  more  and  more  difficult.  Many  in- 
stitutions have  discontinued  keeping  rec- 
ords by  race.  In  those  states  with  anti- 
discrimination laws,  some  institutions  do 
not  even  bother  to  attempt  an  estimation 
of  the  number  of  Negro  students  in  at- 

(Continued  on  page  228) 


224 


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EDUCATION 


tendance.  With  this  healthy  trend,  figures 
on  Negro  student  enrollment  in  these  in- 

TABLE  24 
PROFESSIONS  OFFERED  BY  NEGRO  COLLEGES 

AND  UNIVERSITIES,  1951 1 


Professions  and  Institutions 


Students 
Fall  1950-51 


stitutions  in  the  future  will  be  a  mere 
guess.  However,  in  1951,  in  95  "white" 
seminaries  having  an  enrollment  of  21,036 
students,  205,  or  slightly  less  than  1%, 
were  Negroes.  Of  these  seminaries,  35 
had  no  Negro  students.  Of  those  that  had 
no  Negro  students,  21  reported  that  they 
encouraged  Negroes  to  enroll,  6  did  not 
encourage  them,  and  the  others  were  non- 
committal. In  the  60  seminaries  which 
Negroes  attend,  the  enrollment  was  16,- 
685;  students  enrolled  in  the  seminaries 
not  attended  by  Negroes  numbered  6,351. 

From  1946  to  1951,  451  Negroes,  246 
of  them  college  graduates,  graduated 
from  Negro  seminaries.  Records  of  gradu- 
ates from  other  institutions  were  not 
available,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  during 
the  past  six-year  period,  not  more  than 
660  Negroes,  or  110  per  year,  graduated 
from  all  the  seminaries.  The  demand  far 
exceeds  100  per  year.  Of  the  660,  approxi- 
mately half  were  college  graduates. 

The  inadequacy  in  the  number  of  per- 
sons being  properly  trained  to  enter  the 
Christian  ministry  results  in  numbers  of 
Negroes  who  have  no  organized  spiritual 
guidance  or  are  misguided  by  charlatanry, 
according  to  a  survey  and  statement  by 
R.  R.  Wright,  Jr.,  Bishop  of  the  A.M.E. 
Church. 

The  SACSC  and 
Negro  Institutions1 

The  Southern  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Secondary  Schools  is  the  accrediting 
agency  for  the  majority  of  the  Negro  in- 
stitutions. In  1949,  the  Association  of 
Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  for  Ne- 
groes made  a  formal  request  for  mem- 
bership in  the  Southern  Association.  In 
part,  this  request  said: 

We  think  that  the  time  has  come  when  all  of 
us  engaged  in  the  same  work  should  share  our 
experiences  and  joinly  face  our  common  prob- 
lems. We  request,  therefore,  that  the  separate 
members  of  the  Association  of  Colleges  and 
Secondary  Schools  be  considered  for  full  mem- 
bership in  said  Southern  Association ;  and  this 
Association  authorizes  its  Liaison  Committee 
to  work  toward  this  end  without  hesitation  and 
with  our  complete  endorsement. 

1  Sources :  SACSC  Proceedings  of  the  Fifty-fifth  Annual  Meeting,  December  1950,  and  Journal  of  Negro  Education, 
pp.  1-7,  Winter  1951. 


Anesthesia: 

Meharry  Medical  College  (1876) 
Chemical  Laboratory  Technology: 

Meharry  Medical  College 
Dental  Hygiene: 

Meharry  Medical  College 
Dental  Technology: 

Meharry  Medical  College 
Dentistry: 

Howard  University 

Meharry  Medical  College 
Engineering: 

A.&T.  College  of  N.  Carolina 

Hampton  Institute 

Howard  University 

Lincoln  University  (Mo.) 

Prairie  View  A.&M.  College 

State  A.&M.  College  of  S.  Carolina 

Tuskegee  Institute 
Journalism: 

Lincoln  University  (Mo.) 

Texas  Southern  University 
Law: 

Florida  A.&M.  College 

Howard  University 

North  Carolina  at  Durham 

Lincoln  University  (Mo.) 

Southern  University  and  A.&M.  Col. 

State  A.&M.  College  of  S.  Carolina 

Texas  Southern  University 
Library  Science: 

Atlanta  University 

N.  Carolina  College  at  Durham 

State  A.&M.  College  of  S.  Carolina 

Texas  Southern  University 
Medicine: 

Howard  University 

Meharry  Medical  College 
Nurse  Training: 

Florida  A.&M.  College 

Hampton  Institute 

Howard  University 

Meharry  Medical  College 

Prairie  View  A.&M.  College 

Tuskegee  Institute 
Pharmacy: 

Howard  University 

Xavier  University 

Texas  Southern  University 
Social  Work: 

Atlanta  University 

Howard  University 
Theology: 

(see  Table  10) 
Veterinary  Medicine: 

Tuskegee  Institute 


15 

203 
130 

97 
33 

326 
8 

213 
38 
11 

31 
30 


120 
26 
30 

14 
19 
29 

37 
12 
34 
10 

290 
251 

94 
49 
36 
49 
74 
132 

214 

185 
60 

117 
117 

700 
35 


TOTAL:      3,886 


Source:  Questionnaire. 

1  For  location  and  presidents,  see  Table  23. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION 


229 


After  a  discussion,  by  committees  from 
both  organizations,  of  possible  issues  in- 
volved in  carrying  out  the  request,  the 
Southern  Association's  Special  Commit- 
tee decided  to  recommend  the  request 
formally  to  its  Association,  with  a  time 
schedule  and  general  conditions  under 
which  it  could  be  accepted.  Nevertheless 
it  made  clear  its  conviction  that  present 
acceptance  would  be  untimely.  Emphasis 
was  placed  by  the  Committee  on  the  con- 
sideration that  this  was  a  professional 
matter  to  be  treated  professionally. 

It  was  recognized  that  many  social  and  non- 
professional  problems  might  be  involved  in 
granting  full  membership  to  Negro  institu- 
tions, but  the  representatives  of  Negro  insti- 
tutions would  have  to  take  upon  themselves 
the  burden  of  seeing  that  difficult  and  embar- 
rassing situations  did  not  arise.  [It  was  sug- 
gested that]  further  study  be  given  to  the 
problem,  including  the  original  problem  of 
relationship  with  Negro  education  in  the  sec- 
ondary and  higher  schools  throughout  the 
South,  before  final  action  regarding  member- 
ship by  the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Sec- 
ondary Schools  for  Negroes  is  taken.  Such 


study  should  include  a  careful  analysis  of  the 
attitudes  and  opinions  of  the  educational 
leaders  within  the  several  states. 

An  editorial  in  the  Winter  1951  Jour- 
nal of  Negro  Education,  by  Dr.  Chas.  H. 
Thompson,  points  out: 

To  put  this  action  in  its  proper  perspective, 
it  should  be  noted  that,  up  until  1930,  the 
Southern  Association  refused  to  rate  the  Negro 
secondary  schools  and  colleges  in  its  region. 
However,  beginning  in  1930  the  Association 
agreed  to  rate  the  Negro  institutions  with  the 
specific  understanding  that  such  rating  would 
not  carry  with  it  membership  status  and  the 
privileges  incident  thereto. . . . 

One  of  the  primary  reasons,  if  not  the  main 
reason,  why  the  Southern  Association  refused 
to  rate  Negro  schools  and  colleges  prior  to 
1930,  was  that  the  present  formula  had  not 
been  devised  so  that  Negro  institutions  could 
be  rated  but  denied  membership,  which  car- 
ried with  it  the  privilege  of  attendance  and 
participation  at  meetings  of  the  Association. 
For,  as  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Approval  of  Negro  Schools  noted,  at  the  end 
of  the  eighth  year  of  activity:  The  indirect 
result  of  the  work  of  the  Committee  has  been 
to  cause  the  men  of  the  Southern  Association 
to  change  their  former  attitude  of  hostility 
toward  Negro  higher  education  to  one  of  co- 


TABLE  25 
THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  DEPARTMENTS,  1951 


Institutions 


Students  En- 
Denomination       President  or  Head     rolled  Fall 

1950-51 


American  Baptist  Theological  Seminary, 

Nashville,  Tenn. 

Nat.  Baptist 

Ralph  W.  Riley 

57 

Benedict  College,  Columbia,  S.C. 

Baptist 

J.  A.  Bacoats 

72 

Bishop  College,  Marshall,  Texas 

Nat.  Baptist 

Earl  L.  Harrison 

25 

Butler  College,  Tyler,  Texas 

Baptist 

William  Singleton 

18 

Campbell  College,  Jackson,  Miss. 

A.M.E. 

R.  R.  Moran 

50 

Conroe  N.  and  I.  College,  Conroe,  Texas 

Baptist 

W.  S.  Brent 

10 

Daniel  Payne  College,  Birmingham,  Ala. 

A.M.E. 

J.  King  Chandler  III 

40 

Edward  Waters  College,  Jacksonville,  Fla. 

A.M.E. 

J.  B.  Epperson 

15 

Gammon,  Theological  Seminary,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Methodist 

Harry  V.  Richardson 

59 

Howard  University,  Washington,  D.C. 

Non-Sectarian 

F.  T.  Wilson 

40 

Immanuel  Lutheran  College,  Greensboro,  N.C. 

Lutheran 

William  H.  Kampschmidt 

9 

Johnson  C.  Smith  College,  Charlotte,  N.C. 

Presbyterian 

A.  H.  George 

29 

Lincoln  University,  Lincoln  University,  Pa. 

Non-Denom. 

Andrew  Murray 

13 

Livingstone  College,  Salisbury,  N.C. 
Lomax-Hannon  College,  Greenville,  Ala. 
Morris  Booker  Memorial  College,  Dermott,  Ark. 

A.M.E.Z. 
A.M.E.Z. 
Baptist 

J.  H.  Satterwhite 
J.  Van  Catledge 
P.  L.  Rowe 

23 
5 

24 

Natchez  College,  Natchez,  Miss. 

Baptist 

W.  L.  Nelson 

— 

Paul  Quinn  College,  Waco,  Texas 

A.M.E. 

John  B.  Isaacs 

25 

Selma  University,  Selma,  Ala. 

Baptist 

C.  Lopez  McAllister 

47 

Shaw  University,  Raleigh,  N.C. 

Nat.  Baptist 

Wm.  R.  Strassner 

22 

Shorter  College,  North  Little  Rock,  Ark. 

A.M.E. 

Robert  H.  Alexander 

(N) 

Simmons  University,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Miss.  Baptist 

M.  B.  Lanier 

(N) 

St.  Augustine's  Seminary,  Bay  St.  Louis,  Miss. 

R.C. 

Lawrence  Walsh,  S.V.D. 

(N) 

Virginia  Theological  Seminary,  Lynchburg,  Va. 

Nat.  Baptist 

W.  H.  R.  Powell 

(N) 

Virginia  Union  University,  Richmond,  Va. 

Nat.  Baptist 

J.  Malcus  Ellison 

30 

Wilberforce  University,  Wilberforce,  Ohio 

A.M.E. 

J.  H.  Lewis 

87 

TOTAL: 

700 

Source:  Questionnaire. 
(N)  No  report  received. 


230 


EDUCATION 


operation They  no  longer  fear  that  recog- 
nition of  Negro  colleges  as  honest-to-goodness 
educational  institutions  will  result  in  any  color 
line  social  complications  at  the  meeting  of 
the  Southern  Association.  [The  editorial  con- 
cludes:] It  would  appear ...  that  in  1950  not 
enough  members  of  the  Association  had  over- 
come their  phobia  of  the  30' s. 

Interracial  Honor  Societies 

Prior  to  1951,  numbers  of  Negroes  in 
attendance  at  northern  institutions  had 
been  initiated  into  Phi  Beta  Kappa,  the 
oldest  American  college  Greek-letter  fra- 
ternity, and  into  other  honor  societies 
in  various  fields  operating  on  a  national 
basis.  However,  scholars  in  Negro  colleges 
received  no  such  recognition,  except  in 
the  societies  formed  among  the  Negro 
institutions.  The  raising  of  the  educa- 
tional standards  in  institutions  of  higher 
learning  for  Negro  youth  in  recent  years, 
due  in  large  measure  to  the  more  ad- 
vanced training  of  their  faculties  and  the 
improvement  in  facilities  and  instruction, 
is  bringing  these  societies  to  the  cam- 
puses of  Negro  colleges  and  universities. 
Military  organizations  are  the  result  of 
war  conditions. 

The  institutions  that  follow  are  known 
to  have  generally  recognized  national 
honorary  societies  on  their  campuses. 
Dates  given  show  year  founded: 

A.&T.  College  of  N.  Carolina: 

Arnold  Air  Society 
Atlanta  University : 

Alpha  Kappa  Delta  (Sociology) 
Fisk  University 

Alpha  Kappa  Delta  (Sociology) 
Hampton  Institute: 

Scabbard  and  Blade  (Military,  1949) 
Howard  University: 

Arnold  Air  Society 

Delta  Phi  Alpha  (German) 

Omicron  Kappa  Epsilon  (Dental) 

Phi  Kappa  Lambda  (Music,  1948) 

Phi  Mu  Epsilon  (Mathematics) 

Psi  Chi  (Psychology,  1947) 

Scabbard  and  Blade  (Military) 

Sigma  Pi  Sigma  (Physics) 

Sigma  Xi  (Science,  1947) 
Shaw  University: 

Sigma  Rho  Sigma  (Social  Science,  1947) 
Tennessee  A.&I.  State  College: 

Arnold  Air  Society 

Gamma  Theta  Upsilon  (Geography,  1949) 

Kappa  Delta  Pi  (Education,  1940) 

Pi  Omega  Pi  (Business,  1951) 


Sigma  Delta  Pi  (Spanish,  1951) 

Theta  Alpha  Phi  (Drama,  1951) 
Tuskegee  Institute : 

Arnold  Air  Society  (1949) 

The    American    Veterinary    Medical    Ass. 

(1951) 
Virginia  State  College: 

Pershing  Rifles  (Military,  1949) 

Scabbard  and  Blade  (Military,  1950) 

Sigma  Pi  Sigma  (Physics,  1951) 

REGIONAL  EDUCATION 

Out-of  -State  Scholarships 

Out-of-state  scholarship  aid  was  orig- 
inated by  the  southern  states  to  help 
Negro  students  secure  graduate  and  pro- 
fessional training  not  offered  to  them 
within  these  states.  At  the  time  of  the 
passage  of  the  acts  granting  this  assist- 
ance, Negro  students  were  not  admitted 
to  white  state  institutions  which  offered 
the  courses  they  needed  and  these  courses 
were  not  a  part  of  the  curricula  of  the 
Negro  institutions.  In  most  cases,  these 
scholarships  make  up  the  difference  be- 
tween what  it  would  cost  Negro  students 

TABLE  26 
OUT-OF-STATE  SCHOLARSHIP  AID  BY  STATES 


State 

Date 
Program 
Began 

Negro  Stu- 
dents Aided 
through  1951 

Amount 
Appropriated 
1950-51 

Ala. 

1945 

413 

$54,000 

Ark. 

1943 

1,000 

20,000 

DeU 

— 

— 

— 

Fla. 

1945 

895 

10,0002 

Ga. 

1944 

3,931 

100,000 

Kv.3 

1936 

1,200 

10,000 

La. 

1946 

1,135 

75,000 

Md. 

1935 

2,477 

189,236* 

Miss. 

1948 

482 

24,000 

N.C. 

19395 

2,220s 

69,337 

Okla. 

1935 

1,495 

30,000 

S.C. 

1946 

60 

25,000 

Tcnn. 

1937 

1,500 

(7) 

Texas 

1939 

3,000s 

110,000 

Va. 

1936 

4,1  63» 

127,323.62 

W.Va. 

1927 

6710 

10,000 

1  Out-of-state    aid   has    not   been    provided   for 
several  years. 

2  And  additional  funds  as  needed. 

8  1951-52  is  last  year  of  this  program. 

4  The  amount  actually  used;  $100,000  was  ap- 
propriated. 

5  Program     administered     by     A.&T.     College, 
Greensboro  and  N.  Carolina  College  at  Durham; 
the  program  at  A.&T.  College  began  1943. 

8  Students  aided  through  A.&T.  College  not  in- 
cluded. 

7  Unlimited  appropriation. 

8  An  approximation. 

•  Number  for  1940-51  only. 
1°  For  1940-51  only. 


REGIONAL  EDUCATION 


231 


to  study  in  the  white  institutions,  and 
their  expenses  at  other  colleges  where 
racial  segregation  is  not  required. 

It  is  to  he  noted  that  all  but  five  of 
the  16  states  giving  such  aid  have  opened 
certain  graduate  and  professional  courses 
to  Negro  students  when  these  are  not 
offered  in  the  Negro  state  institutions. 
At  the  same  time,  they  are  willing  to  as- 
sist students  applying  for  out-of-state  aid 
to  go  elsewhere  for  their  training.  Dela- 
ware admits  Negro  students  to  all  courses. 
See  Table  26  for  states  giving  such  as- 
sistance. 

Regional  Education  Summary1 

Development  of  a  regional  program  for 
professional  training  in  the  South  has 
proceeded  and  taken  form  in  the  midst 
of  controversy  which  began  with  the 
earliest  announcement  of  explorations  of 
ways  and  means  of  implementing  the  idea. 
Of  four  methods  of  providing  for  profes- 
sional and  technical  education  considered, 
contracts  on  an  interstate  basis,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  program,  seemed  the 
most  feasible.  Progress  has  been  definite 
since  1945: 

Chronological  Review  of  Developments 

December  7, 1945 

The  Southern  Governors'  Conference  meet- 
ing at  New  Orleans  received  a  comprehensive 
report  entitled,  "Concerning  Regional  Educa- 
tion," submitted  by  the  Committee  on  Regional 
Education.  The  report  recognized  the  "dis- 
parity of  higher  education  offerings  to  whites 
and  Negroes"  in  the  conference  states,  re- 
ferred to  the  common  "practice  of  segrega- 
tion" among  them,  offered  regional  education 
as  one  solution  but  acknowledged  that : 

"The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
has  ruled  unequivocally  that  every  state  must 
maintain  equal  educational  facilities  within  its 
borders,  if  demanded,  to  all  citizens  who  are 
similarly  qualified.  The  Negro's  need  and 
eligibility  for  higher  education  are  steadily 
growing,  and  we  desire  and  must  meet  that 
need  and  that  eligibility." 
October  19-21, 1947 

The  Southern  Governors'  Conference,  meet- 
ing in  Asheville,  N.C.,  came  to  formal  agree- 
ment upon  ".  .  .  the  provision,  either  within 
the  several  states  or  without,  of  adequate  fa- 
cilities for  higher  education  for  both  whites 


and  Negroes,"  and  appointed  a  committee  to 
study  this  question. 

February  7-8, 1948 

A  regional  compact  for  the  consideration  of 
the  governors'  meeting  in  Tallahassee,  Fla., 
was  presented,  designed  to  provide  "greater 
educational  advantages  and  facilities  for  the 
citizens"  of  the  region ;  provide  for  "the  plan- 
ning and  establishment  of  regional  educational 
facilities,"  and  implement  the  proposal  of 
Meharry  Medical  College  (Nashville,  Tenn.) 
for  Negro  students,  that : 

".  .  .  its  lands,  building,  equipment  and  the 
net  income  from  its  endowment  be  turned 
over  to  the  Southern  States  or  to  an  agency 
acting  in  their  behalf,  to  be  operated  as  a  re- 
gional institution  for  medical,  dental  and  nurs- 
ing education  upon  terms  and  conditions  to  be 
hereafter  agreed  upon  between  the  Southern 
States  and  Meharry  Medical  College,  which 
proposal,  because  of  the  present  financial  con- 
dition of  the  institution,  has  been  approved  by 
the  said  States  who  are  -parties  hereto  .  .  ."  a 

The  governors  agreed  to  the  compact  and 
the  proposal  to  present  it  to  Congress  for  ap- 
proval and  to  their  respective  state  legislatures, 
the  regional  plan  to  become  operative  under  a 
Board  of  Control  for  Southern  Regional  Edu- 
cation as  soon  as  the  compact  should  be  ap- 
proved by  any  six  legislatures  in  the  region 
and  in  the  interim  to  be  operated  by  a  regional 
council  for  education.  Within  a  week,  the  gov- 
ernors of  14  of  the -IS  interested  states  signed 
the  compact,  which  was  then  immediately  sub- 
mitted to  Congress. 

February  16, 1948 

House  Joint  Resolution  334  on  the  regional 
compact  was  reported  favorably  by  the  House 
Committee  on  the  Judiciary  without  prelimi- 
nary public  hearings.  On  February  25,  Senate 
Joint  Resolution  191  was  presented  and  re- 
ferred to  the  Committee  on  the  Judiciary. 
February  1948 

The  Regional  Council  for  Education  was 
established  by  the  Southern  Governors'  Con- 
ference ".  .  .  to  consist  of  the  governor  and 
two  designees  from  each  of  the  states  signing 
this  compact."  The  announcement  received 
nation-wide  comment  that  all  the  members 
were  white  and  no  Negro  leader  had  been  ap- 
pointed by  any  state.  The  Council  was  in- 
structed by  the  Southern  Governors'  Confer- 
ence : 

".  .  .  to  make  a  thorough-going  survey  of 
higher  education  in  the  signatory  states  .  .  . 
that  within  the  overall  survey  the  Council  be 
instructed  to  direct  immediate  attention  to  the 
necessity  for  the  early  establishment  of  re- 
gional schools  or  institutions  covering  the 
fields  which  have  been  indicated  by  the  sub- 
committee as  being  urgent,  including  the  Me- 
harry institution." 

March  4,  1948 

The  Council  convened  some  350  to  400  lead- 
ing educators  from  various  parts  of  the  nation 
at  Gainesville,  Fla.,  to  consider  regional  edu- 
cation in  detail.  Minutes  of  the  meeting  show 
agreement  to : 


1  Sources:  American  Council  on  Race  Relations;  Journal  of  Negro  Education,  Winter   1949;   Regional  Action  in 
Higher  Education;  Records  and  Research  Source  materials. 

2  This  original  plan  has  been  modified  and  ".  .  .  the  only  proposal  which  the  Council  has  agreed  to  with  Meharry 
•would  provide   for  services  under  contract,   leaving   the   school  under   private   operation    by    its    Board    of   Trustees." 


232 


EDUCATION 


".  .  .  improve  the  economic  and  cultural 
status  of  the  Southern  States  we  need  the  best 
possible  educational  opportunities  for  whites 
and  Negroes.  In  areas  of  higher  and  profes- 
sional education  in  which  objective  studies 
show  there  is  not  now  enough  demand  to  jus- 
tify establishing  schools  in  each  state,  plans 
for  regionally  sponsored  schools  should  be 
developed. 

"Endorse  attempts  already  made  to  get  con- 
gressional approval  of  Interstate  Compact. 

".  .  .  bring  into  the  discussion  representa- 
tives of  the  various  groups :  all  planning  for 
education  of  Negroes  should  not  be  done  by 
whites  only." 

Following  the  participation  of  three  Negro 
educators  present,  President  Clement  of  At- 
lanta University,  President  Patterson  of  Tus- 
kegee  Institute,  and  President  Trenholm  of 
Alabama  State  Teachers  College  at  Mont- 
gomery, a  motion  was  unanimously  carried 
"requesting  the  governor  of  each  state  to  ap- 
point an  outstanding  Negro  educator  from  his 
state  to  compose  a  consultant  group  to  work 
with  the  Council."  * 

Minutes  further  show  that  at  this  meeting: 
"In  order  that  the  Council  might  proceed  with 
the  necessary  study  of  higher  education,"  a 
Study  Committee  of  the  Council,  to  be  com- 
posed of  one  member  from  each  state,  was 
authorized  and  the  Executive  Committee  em- 
powered to  make  the  appointments. 

March  8, 1948 

Articles  of  incorporation  were  filed  and  a 
charter  of  incorporation  was  secured  in  Florida 
for  the  Regional  Council  for  Education,  Inc. 

March  12-13, 1948 

The  Committee  on  the  Judiciary  of  the  U.S. 
Senate  held  hearings  on  Senate  Joint  Resolu- 
tion 191  requesting  the  consent  of  Congress  to 
the  regional  compact.  An  impressive  number 
of  southern  governors,  congressmen,  and  edu- 
cators appeared  before  the  Committee  to  speak 
in  favor  of  the  compact. 

Among  the  agencies  and  organizations  whose 
representatives  appeared  in  opposition  to  the 
compact  were :  Civil  Rights  Division  of  the 
Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations,  Confer- 
ence of  Presidents  of  Negro  Land  Grant  Col- 
leges, National  Alliance  of  Postal  Employees, 
National  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Colored  People,  National  Association  of  Col- 
ored Graduate  Nurses,  National  Constitutional 
Liberties  Committee  of  the  National  Lawyers' 
Guild,  National  Dental  Assoication,  National 
Medical  Association,  National  Negro  Insur- 
ance Association,  Negro  Newspaper  Publish- 
ers' Association,  Washington  Bureau  National 
Fraternal  Council  of  Negro  Churches  of 
America. 

Mr.  Thurgood  Marshall,  witness  for  the 
NAACP,  reaffirmed  that  "there  is  only  one 
sure  way  of  equality,  and  that  is  that  the 
two  people  may  get  the  same  thing  at  the 
same  place  at  the  same  time,"  and  advocated 
either  admitting  Negroes  to  the  existing  white 
facilities,  or  setting  up  regional  schools  on 
a  non-segregated  basis. 

In  a  prepared  joint  statement,  Mr.  George 
M.  Johnson  and  Mr.  James  M.  Nabrit,  Jr., 


representing  the  Conference  of  Presidents  of 
Negro  Land  Grant  Colleges,  urged  that  the 
resolution  not  be  approved,  or  if  approved, 
with  amendments : 

". .  .  to  the  effect  that  no  regional  school 
shall  be  established  for  Negroes  except  where 
one  already  exists  for  whites  or  where  simul- 
taneously one  is  created  for  whites ;  and  pro- 
viding further  that  the  establishment  of  a 
regional  school  for  Negroes  shall  in  no  wise 
be  deemed  to  deny  Negroes  the  right  to  be 
educated  in  the  State  of  their  residence  in  a 
State  school  of  each  type  established  and 
maintained  in  the  State  for  whites  ;  and,  pro- 
viding further  that  this  consent  of  Congress 
shall  not  be  interpreted  or  construed  to  con- 
stitute an  approval  by  Congress  in  any  manner 
whatsoever  of  the  policy  of  segregation  in 
education. 

"We  wish  to  make  it  clear  to  the  committee 
that  these  college  presidents  are  opposed 
absolutely  to  segregation  in  all  forms,  and 
certainly  in  education.  They  are  presidents  of 
institutions  in  a  segregated  system,  and  neces- 
sarily are  working  to  make  these  institutions 
as  efficient  as  possible,  but  in  line  with  all 
other  thoughtful  members  of  the  Negro  peo- 
ple urge  this  Government  not  to  lend  its  aid 
and  support  to  segregation,  either  in  the  per- 
petuation of  it  or  in  the  extension  of  it,  and, 
therefore,  urge  that  this  resolution  be  not 
approved." 

Two  representatives  of  governmental  agen- 
cies, Dr.  John  Dale  Russell,  Director  of  the 
Division  of  Higher  Eduucation,  U.S.  Office 
of  Education,  FSA,  and  Frank  Chambers, 
attorney,  Department  of  Justice,  gave  state- 
ments neither  directly  supporting  nor  directly 
opposing  the  compact  as  it  stood  but  support- 
ing the  concept  of  regional  education. 
May  4,  1948 

House  Joint  Resolution  334  was  amended 
in  the  House  by  adding :  "This  consent  of  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  of  America 
shall  not  constitute  nor  be  construed  to  con- 
stitute an  endorsement  of  the  principle  of 
segregation  in  education"  and  was  then  ap- 
proved by  the  House  by  a  vote  of  236  to  45. 
May  13,  1948 

The  Senate  by  a  margin  of  only  one  vote 
(38  to  37)  recommitted  the  Resolution  to  the 
Judiciary  Committee.  The  reasons  given  in- 
lude :  Congress  should  not  approve  or  con- 
done or  in  any  way  reinforce  the  segregation 
patterns  of  the  South ;  the  plan  would  be  un- 
constitutional if  separate  facilities  prove  un- 
equal ;  regional  schools  do  not  meet  require- 
ments that  facilities  offered  within  the  state 
be  immediately  available  to  one  race  if  avail- 
able to  the  other ;  if  the  Supreme  Court  de- 
clares segregation  unconstitutional  and/or 
state  laws  requiring  it  are  voided  or  repealed, 
the  need  for  and  the  scope  of  regional  facil- 
ities will  be  substantially  changed ;  and  ap- 
proval by  Congress  may  not  be  necessary. 
August  1,  1948 

Dr.  John  Ivey,  Jr.,  of  the  University  of 
North  Carolina,  was  appointed  Director  of  the 
Regional  Council  for  Education.  During  Sep- 
tember he  secured  a  staff  and  set  up  a  central 


1  This  action  did  not  at  that  time  give  any  Negro  the  status  of  membership  on  the  Council  but  only  the  status  of 
consultant.  The  action  was  subsequently  modified  at  the  Dec.  13,  1948,  meeting  of  the  Regional  Council  for  Education 
to  provide  for  possible  Negro  membership  but  did  not  stipulate  that  membership  must  include  a  Negro  or  Negroes 
from  each  state. 


REGIONAL  EDUCATION 


233 


office  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  to  operate  on  a  budget 
anticipating  a  $3,000  contribution  from  each 
participating  state. 

October  11,  1948 

The  Regional  Council  for  Education  met  in 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  approved  a  number  of 
policies  for  the  guidance  of  the  Board  and 
staff.  Policies  4,  5,  and  6  appear  to  be  goals  of 
primary  relevance : 

"4.  Adequate  educational  services  are  made 
available  for  all  citizens. 

"5.  Insofar  as  possible,  needed  regional 
educational  services  are  provided  through 
special  arrangements  among  existing  institu- 
tions. Regional  facilities  are  established  and 
directed  by  the  Board  only  when  no  existing 
institution  can  satisfactorily  provide  needed 
services  under  a  system  of  regional  collabora- 
tion, or  whe_n  because  of  statutory  or  consti- 
tutional limitations,  states  cannot  collaborate 
in  supporting  existing  institutions. 

"6.  Regional  services,  whether  developed  at 
existing  institutions  or  directed  by  the  Board, 
are   subject  to   applicable    State   and    Federal 
laws  and  court  decisions." 
November  1948 

The  Regional  Council  for  Education, 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  published  a  pamphlet  entitled, 
Regional  Council  for  Education,  in  which 
it  describes  the  steps  taken  to  initiate  the 
Council  program  and  its  approach  as  one  of 
defining  the  problem  before  taking  action. 
December  13,  1948 

The  Regional  Council  for  Education  met 
at  Savannah,  Ga.,  and  agreed  that  the  matter 
of  seeking  congressional  approval  of  the  com- 
pact be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  chairman 
and  staff.  It  made  an  amendment  to  the  inter- 
state compact  to : 

"Increase  the  membership  of  the  Board 
to  include  the  Governor  and  three  additional 
citizens  of  each  State,  instead  of  two  addi- 
tional citizens  of  each  State"  as  presently 
provided.  Mr.  Cecil  Sims,  attorney,  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  explained  that  this  amendment  was 
recommended  in  order  to  enable  those  gover- 
nors who  wished  to  do  so  to  appoint  a  Negro 
to  the  policy-making  board  without  making 
it  necessary  for  any  present  member  to  resign. 
January  10,  1949 

The  Regional  Council  for  Education  stated 
it  was  continuing  its  efforts  to  secure  the 
wholehearted  collaboration  of  Negro  educa- 
tors in  the  South  and  was  hopeful  that  some 
of  those  who  had  refused  appointment  might 
reconsider.1 

June  11,  1949 

At  a  meeting  at  Daytona  Beach,  Fla.,  the 
Regional  Council  for  Education  was  super- 
ceded  by  the  Board  of  Control  for  Southern 
Regional  Education  and  the  staff  of  the  Coun- 
cil became  the  staff  of  the  Board. 
July  1949 

The  Director  of  the  Board  of  Control  stated  : 
"The  Board  has  never  enunciated  a  policy 
which  is  for  or  against  segregation.  Because 
the  program  has  operated  wholly  through  ex- 
isting institutions,  it  has  considered  segrega- 
tion  a  matter  which  is  controlled  by  the  laws 


under  which  the  institutions  operate  and  the 
admission  policies  which  they  establish.  The 
Board  does  not  consider  that  its  primary  func- 
tion is  to  force  the  modification  of  those 
policies,  whether  they  relate  to  segregation  or 
to  academic  prerequisites. 

"Arrangements  made  by  the  Board  do  not 
crystallize  segregation  patterns.  Contracts 
with  institutions  do  not  designate  the  kind  of 
students  to  be  admitted.  The  state  of  Okla- 
homa, for  example,  has  approved  the  Compact, 
and  at  the  same  time,  has  relaxed  its  statutes 
dealing  with  segregation  in  graduate  and  pro- 
fessional schools.  The  decision  is  a  state 
matter. 

"Within  its  own  operations,  the  Board  has 
moved  ahead  of  customary  practice  in  the 
Southern  States  by  consistently  following  a 
policy  of  bi-racial  participation  in  its  affairs 
and  deliberations." 

September  1949 

First  students  began  study  under  regional 
plan.  Approximately  350  studied  under  the 
plan  during  the  school  term  1949-50.  Schools 
participating :  Vanderbilt  University ;  Tus- 
kegee  Institute ;  Duke  University ;  Alabama 
Polytechnic  Institute;  Meharry  Medical  Col- 
lege ;  Emory  University ;  University  of 
Georgia ;  Medical  College  of  Virginia ;  Uni- 
versity of  Maryland. 

October  10,  1949 

The  Board  of  _  Control  for  Southern  Re- 
gional Education  intervened  in  the  mandamus 
hearing  as  friend  of  the  court  in  a  suit  insti- 
tuted by  Esther  McCready,  18  years  old,  of 
Baltimore,  Md.  Miss  McCready  charged  that 
she  had  been  refused  admission  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Maryland's  nursing  school  only 
because  of  her  race  and  color.  She  asked  a 
court  order  compelling  her  admission,  mean- 
while refusing  an  offer  of  a  regional  scholar- 
ship in  the  nursing  school  of  Meharry  Medical 
College,  which  participates  in  the  regional 
program.  Both  .sides  to  the  suit  agreed  that 
there  was  only  one  issue :  "Can  an  applicant 
be  required  to  go  out  of  his  state  for  education 
available  at  home."  The  Court  decided  that 
the  State  of  Maryland  was  not  guilty  of  dis- 
crimination in  offering  Miss  McCready  the 
regional  scholarship  and  the  suit  was  dismissed. 

The  intervention  of  the  Board  of  Control  for 
Southern  Regional  Education  stated :  "It  is 
not  the  board's  purpose  that  the  regional  pro- 
gram shall  serve  any  State  as  legal  defense 
for  avoiding  responsibilities  under  the  exist- 
ing State  and  Federal  laws  and  court  deci- 
sions." Further,  the  director  of  the  program 
said :  "The  program  cannot  and  will  not  de- 
velop if  this  one  issue  is  allowed  to  blight  its 
over-all  purpose." 

November  27,  1949 

Educators  and  governors  meeting  at  Charle- 
ston, S.C.,  voted  to  begin  a  long-range  program 
of  joint  planning  and  specialization  by  insti- 
tutions. 

In  opposition  to  the  Regional  Education 
Plan.  Dr.  Charles  H.  Thompson,  editor  of 
the  Journal  of  Negro  Education,  in  the  Winter 
1949  issue,  asks : 


1  The  appointment  of  five  Negroes  to  the  Council  (and  its  successor,  the  Board  of  Control)  was  announced  by  the 
Director  in  July  1949.  Alabama:  Dr.  J.  F.  Drake,  Pres.,  State  A.&M.  Institute,  Normal;  Florida:  Dr.  William  H.  Gray, 
Jr.,  Pres.,  Florida  A.&M.  College,  Tallahassee;  Louisiana:  Dr.  Ralph  W.  E.  Jones,  Pres.,  Grambling  College, 
Grambling;  Oklahoma:  Dr.  G.  L.  Harrison,.  Pres.,  Langston  University,  Langston;  Tennessee:  Dr.  Hollis  F.  Price, 
Pres.,  LeMoyne  College,  Memphis. 


234 


EDUCATION 


"Why  are  Negroes  opposed  to  segregated 
regional  graduate  and  professional  work  ?  The 
answer  briefly  is  that  they  are  opposed  only 
to  the  segregated  aspect  of  it.  They  have  no 
objection  to  and  see  considerable  advantage 
in  regional  services  which  are  based  upon  a 
principle  which  looks  forward  to  a  greater 
educational  future  for  the  South,  rather  than 
backward  to  a  decade  or  more  ago. 

"More  specifically,  Negroes  are  opposed  to 
segregated  regionalism,  (1)  Because  they  are 
convinced  that  equal  educational  opportunity 
cannot  be  provided  for  Negroes  under  the 
theory  of  'separate  but  equal,'  and  thus  they 
refuse  to  cooperate  in  its  very  conception. 
(2)  Negroes  are  convinced  by  recent  events 
and  the  present  climate  of  public  opinion  that 
segregated  graduate  and  profesional  work  in 
the  South  is  unnecessary,  and  constitutes  a 
backward  step  in  the  educational  progress  of 
the  South.  (3)  Negroes  have  concluded  that 
even  if  'separate  but  equal'  educational  oppor- 
tunity were  at  all  possible  in  theory,  it  would 
be  definitely  uneconomical  and  actually  unat- 
tainable in  practice.  (4)  Empirical  evidence 
obtained  during  the  past  ten  years  has  con- 
vinced Negroes  that  the  old  cliche — a  half  loaf 
is  better  than  no  bread — as  far  as  segregated 
graduate  and  professional  work  is  concerned, 
is  fallacious.  The  extention  of  grossly  inferior 
graduate  and  professional  work,  and  particu- 
larly at  the  expense  of  the  undergraduate  pro- 
gram is  short  sighted — so  much  so,  that  no 
segregated  gradute  and  professional  work  for 
the  time  being  is  better  than  what  is  con- 
templated." 

September  4-11,  1950 

At  Daytpna  Beach,  Fla.,  200  educators  from 
45  institutions  in  14  states  took  further  steps 
toward  (1)  extending  the  regional  program  of 
education  into  the  graduate  fields,  through  "re- 
gional centers" ;  (2)  bringing  more  govern- 
mental and  industrial  contracts  for  research  to 
southern  universities  and  colleges,  by  recom- 
mending that  an  Office  fo  Research  Relations 
be  created  within  the  regional  educational  pro- 
gram ;  (3)  refining  a  tentative  guide  for  insti- 
tutional self-evaluation  by  which  graduate 
schools  may  study  themselves  to  identify 
strengths  and  weaknesses  and  plan  improve- 
ments. 

November  21,  1950 

The  Regional  Board  agreed  at  its  Biloxi, 
Miss,,  meeting  to:  (1)  Extend  the  contracts- 
for-services  plan  to  social  work  education ; 

(2)  continue  a  study  of  possible  regional  ar- 
rangements in  the  field  of  forestry  training; 

(3)  establish  regional  arrangements  among  the 
compact    states    in    nursing    where    desired ; 

(4)  continue  "survey  of  graduate  study  in  the 
South,  recognizing  the  need  for  regional  co- 
operation in  this  field." 

January  5,  1951 

A  Committee  on  Defense  Programs  was  ap- 
pointed, to  be  "concerned  with  Federal  projects 
in  research  and  development,  training,  civil 
defense,  the  Point  Four  Program  and  materials 
priorities."  :  •.  . 

February  1951 

Announcement  was  made  that  contracts  for 
584  students  had  been  handled  through  the 
Regional  Education  prog_ram  for  the  year  1950- 
51  to  provide  training  in  medicine,  dentistry, 
and  veterinary  medicine  at  16  colleges  and 


universities ;  1 3  states  pay  the  institutions 
$764,625  for  the  training.  The  students  pay  no 
out-of-state  fees. 

"This  year  402  white  and  182  Negro  student 
places  were  provided  under  regional  contracts, 
under  which  the  states  pay  $1,500  per  year 
per  student  for  medical  and  dental  training; 
$1,000  annually  for  veterinary  medicine." 

"Most  of  the  places  under  regional  contracts 
are  for  medical  training.  Of  the  242  places  for 
this  training,  134  are  for  White  and  108  for 
Negro  students.  For  veterinary  medicine,  180 
places — 153  for  White  and  27  for  Negroes. 
For  dental  training,  162  places — 115  for  White 
and  47  for  Negroes." 

Figures  on  the  numbers  of  student  places 
provided  and  amounts  being  paid  institutions 
in  the  regional  program  are  :  "Emory  Univer- 
sity, 61  dentistry,  40  medical,  $145,500; 
Loyola  University,  22  dentistry,  $33,000  ;  Uni- 
versity of  Maryland,  8  dentistry,  $12,000; 
Medical  College  of  Virginia,  16  dentistry 
$33,250;  Meharry  Medical  College,  47  den- 
tistry, 108  medical,  $220,875;  University  of 
Tennessee,  8  dentistry,  32  medical,  $60,000 ; 
University  of  Alabama,  4  medical,  $6,000 ; 
Duke  University,  12  medical,  $18,000;  Loui- 
siana State  University,  8  medical,  $12,000; 
Tulane  University,  28  medical,  $42,000 ;  Van- 
derbilt  University,  10  medical,  $15,000;  Ala- 
bana  Polytechnic  Institute,  79  veterinary, 
$76,000 ;  University  of  Georgia,  59  veterinary, 
$58,000;  Oklahoma  A.  and  M.  College,  5  vet- 
erinary, $3,750;  Texas  A.  and  M.  College,  10 
veterinary,  $9,000  ;  and  Tuskegee  Institute,  27 
veterinary,  $20,250." 
March  20,  1951 

Dr.  George  F.  Gant,  General  Manager  of 
TVA,  announced  his  resignation  to  join  the 
Southern  Regional  Education  program  to  assist 
building  graduate-program  distinction  in  re- 
search, training,  and  service  to  the  region  and 
the  nation. 

March  21  and  March  24,  1951 

Three  hundred  educators  participated  in  con- 
ferences in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  Memphis,  Tenn., 
at  which  government  spokesmen  outlined  the 
needs  o_f  the  defense  program  and  how  colleges 
and  universities  can  servve  those  needs. 
May  1951 

Announcement  was  made  that  the  Board  of 
Control  for  Southern  Regional  Education  had 
named  a  group  of  11  distinguished  scientists 
and  educators  to  the  Commission  on  Graduate 
Programs,  among  whom  are :  S.  M.  Nabrit, 
Dean  of  the  Graduate  School,  Atlanta  Uni- 
versity ;  and  Charles  S.  Johnson,  President, 
Fisk  University. 

August  1951 

Announcement  was  made  that  Texas,  through 
its   Legislature,   had   formally  joined   the  re- 
gional education  program. 
October  1951 

With  850  students  enrolled  under  regional 
contracts  to  provide  educations  not  available 
in  their  home  state,  the  Board  of  Control  an- 
nounced its  readiness  to  expand  with  the 
graduate  fields. 

Negro  participation  in  1951  was:  Board  of 
Control  Members:  Alabama — F.  D.  Patterson, 
Pres.,  Tuskegee  Inst. ;  Arkansas — Lawrence  A. 
Davis,  Pres.,  A.M.&N.  College;  Florida- 
George  W.  Gore,  Jr.,  Pres.,  Fla.  A.&M.  Col- 
lege :  Louisiana — Ralph  W.  E.  Jones,  Pres., 


REGIONAL  EDUCATION 


235 


Grambling  College ;  Maryland — Martin  D. 
Jenkins,  Pres.,  Morgan  State  College ;  Missis- 
sippi— J.  H.  White,  Pres.,  Miss.  Vocational 
College ;  North  Carolina — F.  D.  Bluford,  Pres., 
A.&T.  College  of  N.C. ;  Oklahoma— G.  L. 
Harrison,  Pres.,  Langston  Univ. ;  Tennessee — 
Hollis  F.  Price,  Pres.,  LeMoyne  College ; 
Texas — R.  O'Hara  Lanier,  Pres.,  Texas  South- 
ern Univ. ;  Virginia — Prof.  George  G.  Single- 
ton, Dept  of  Business  Administration,  Va. 
State  College,  Commission  on  Graduate  Pro- 
grams :  Charles  S.  Johnson,  Pres.,  Fisk  Univ. ; 
S.  M.  Nabrit,  Dean,  Graduate  School,  Atlanta 
Univ.  Committee  on  University-Agency  Rela- 
tions :  Russell  W.  Brown,  Dir.,  Agr.  Res.  and 
Ex.  Sta.,  Tuskegee  Inst. 

President's  Commission  on 
Higher  Education 

In  July  1946,  President  Harry  S.  Tru- 
man appointed  a  commission  of  28  out- 
standing citizens,  headed  by  the  late 
George  F.  Zook,  President  of  the  Amer- 
ican Council  on  Education,  to  consider 
the  crucial  problems  facing  the  institu- 
tions of  higher  education  in  the  United 
States.  The  first  report  of  the  Commission 
was  published  in  December  1947,  the  last 
in  March  1948,  in  six  volumes  under  the 
general  title,  Higher  Education  for  Amer- 
ican Democracy, 

While  the  whole  report  is  pertinent  to 
the  education  of  Negroes,  the  treatment 
of  barriers  to  equal  opportunities  that 
prevent  young  people  from  obtaining  all 
the  education  of  which  they  are  capable 
is  of  special  interest.  The  Commission's 
discussion  of  this  point  is  based  on  the 
premise  that  "equal  educational  oppor- 
tunity for  all  persons,  to  the  maximum 
of  their  individual  abilities  and  without 
regard  to  economic  status,  race,  creed, 
sex,  national  origin,  or  ancestry  is  a  major 
goal  of  American  democracy."  John  Dale 
Russell,  Director  of  the  Division  of  High- 
er Education,  U.S.  Office  of  Education, 
summarizes  the  Commission's  discussion 
of  these  barriers  in  the  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Sociology,  April  1949: 

Economic  Barriers:  "By  allowing  the 
opportunity  for  higher  education  to  de- 
pend so  largely  on  the  individual's  eco- 
nomic status,  we  are  not  only  denying  to 
millions  of  young  people  the  chance  in 
life  to  which  they  are  entitled;  we  are 
also  depriving  the  Nation  of  a  vast  amount 
of  potential  leadership  and  potential 


social  competence  which  is  sorely  needs." 
Publicly  controlled  institutions  should 
eliminate  all  fees  for  students  through 
the  fourteenth  grade  (sophomore  year), 
and,  should  roll  back  fees  for  other  levels 
of  higher  education  so  that  they  will  not 
be  larger  than  they  were  in  1939.  The 
hope  is  expressed  that  the  private  col- 
leges will  do  all  in  their  power  to  keep 
costs  to  students  as  low  as  possible. 

A  second  and  more  general  solution 
proposed  for  removing  the  economic  bar- 
rier is  ".  .  .  as  rapidly  as  possible,  to 
raise  economic  and  cultural  levels  in  our 
less  advanced  areas,  and  in  the  meantime 
to  provide  outside  assistance  that  will 
enable  these  areas  to  give  their  children 
equal  educational  opportunities  with  all 
others  in  the  Nation." 

One  element  of  the  financial  program 
involves  instituting  a  system  of  scholar- 
ships and  fellowships  financed  by  Federal 
funds.  This  proposal  is  one  of  the  major 
recommendations.  The  suggestion  is  made 
that  the  number  of  students  aided  by 
scholarships  should  reach  20%  of  the 
non-veterans  enrolled  at  any  one  time.  An 
annual  appropriation  for  scholarships  is 
suggested,  starting  at  $120,000,000  and 
increasing  in  subsequent  years. 

Discriminations  in  Admissions:  Racial 
discrimination  is  discussed  primarily  with 
respect  to  the  plight  of  Negro  students. 
The  inadequate  provisions  for  the  educa- 
tion of  Negroes  in  the  states  maintaining 
segregated  systems  are  severely  criticized, 
and  stress  is  laid  upon  the  fact  that  Negro 
youth  in  states  where  segregation  is  not 
legalized  also  frequently  lack  opportuni- 
ties given  white  students.  The  Commis- 
sion concludes  "that  there  will  be  no 
fundamental  correction  of  the  total  condi- 
tion until  segregation  legislation  is  re- 
pealed." Pending  this  action,  the  "Com- 
mission urges  that  the  separate  educa- 
tional institutions  for  Negroes  be  made 
truly  equal  in  facilities  and  quality  to 
those  for  white  students." 

A  dissenting  opinion  to  the  report  on 
racial  discrimination  is  entered  by  four 
members  of  the  Commission,  three  of 
them  presidents  of  universities  in  states 


236 


EDUCATION 


where  segregation  is  the  practice.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  two  of  these  three 
presidents  announced,  subsequent  to  the 
publication  of  the  Commission's  report, 
that  their  own  universities  would  admit 
Negro  students  in  certain  graduate  fields 
of  professional  study. 

Religious  Barriers:  Two  recommenda- 
tions are  made  on  this  point:  (1)  "...  the 
removal  from  application  forms  of  all 
questions  pertaining  to  religion,  color, 
and  national  or  racial  origin",  and  (2) 
".  .  .  that  educators  support  in  their  re- 
spective States  the  passage  of  carefully 
drawn  legislation  designed  to  make 
equally  applicable  in  all  institutions  of 
higher  learning  the  removal  of  arbitrary 
discriminatory  practices  in  the  carrying 
out  of  admissions  policies." 

Arbitrary  Discriminations:  Other  arbi- 
trary discriminations  in  the  admission  of 
students  condemned  are  those  with  re- 
spect to  sex,  geographic  barriers,  non- 
veteran  status,  unwarranted  academic  re- 
quirements, and  fixed-number  quotas  by 
accrediting  organizations  in  certain  pro- 
fessional fields.  The  lack  of  adequate 
guidance  is  also  cited  as  a  real  barrier 
to  continued  educational  opportunity. 

Restricted  Curriculum:  The  Commis- 
sion states:  "If  the  colleges  are  to  edu- 
cate the  great  body  of  American  youth, 
they  must  provide  programs  for  the  devel- 
opment of  other  abilities  than  those  in- 
volved in  academic  aptitude,  and  they 
cannot  continue  to  concentrate  on  stud- 
ents with  one  type  of  intelligence  to  the 
neglect  of  youth  with  other  talents." 

Southern  Members  of  the  Commission 
Dissent:  The  Commission's  stand  on  seg- 
regation brought  dissent  from  four 
southern  members :  Goodrich  White,  pres- 
ident, Emory  University,  Atlanta;  Arthur 
H.  Compton,  chancellor,  Washington  Uni- 
versity, St.  Louis;  Douglas  S.  Freeman, 
editor,  the  Richmond  News  Leader,  Va.; 
and  Lewis  W.  Jones,  president,  University 
of  Arkansas,  Fayetteville.  Their  state- 
ment, a  footnote  in  Volume  II,  said : 

The  undersigned  wish  to  record  their  dissent 
from  the  Commission's  pronouncements  on 
"segregation,"  especially  as  these  pronounce- 


ments are  related  to  education  in  the  South. 
We  recognize  that  many  conditions  affect  ad- 
versely the  lives  of  our  Negro  citizens  and 
that  gross  inequality  of  opportunity,  economic 
and  educational,  is  a  fact.  We  are  concerned 
that  as  rapidly  as  possible  conditions  should 
be  improved,  inequalities  removed  and  greater 
opportunity  provided  for  all  people. 

But  we  believe  that  efforts  toward  these  ends 
must,  in  the  South,  be  made  within  the  estab- 
lished patterns  of  social  relationships,  which 
require  separate  educational  institutions  for 
whites  and  Negroes.  We  believe  that  pro- 
nouncements such  as  those  of  the  commission 
on  the  question  of  segregation  jeopardize  these 
efforts,  impede  progress  and  threaten  tragedy 
to  the  people  of  the  South,  both  white  and 
Negro. 

We  recognize  the  high  purpose  and  the 
theoretical  idealism  of  the  commission's  rec- 
ommendations. But  a  doctrinaire  position 
which  ignores  the  facts  of  history  and  the 
realities  of  the  present  is  not  one  that  will 
contribute  constructively  to  the  solution  of 
difficult  problems  of  human  relationships. 

Southern  Educators  Oppose  Commis- 
sion's Report:  According  to  the  findings 
of  Benjamin  Fine,  writing  in  the  New 
York  Times,  Dec.  23,  1947,  leading 
southern  educators  voiced  their  opposition 
to  the  recommendation  of  the  President's 
Commission  on  Higher  Education  that  the 
dual  system  of  schools  now  in  effect  in 
17  states,  be  eliminated.  In  agreeing  with 
the  four  southern  members  of  the  Com- 
mission, the  college  presidents  declared 
that  the  question  of  segregation  could 
not  be  settled  by  any  outside  agency  nor 
by  a  commission's  report.  The  impetus 
toward  a  solution  would  have  to  come 
from  the  southern  people. 

The  educators  stressed  that  they  were 
for  an  abolition  to  segregation  and  the 
dual  system  of  education  in  theory,  but 
that  from  a  practical  standpoint  this  step 
would  be  dangerous  and  impossible  at  this 
time.  Educators  expressing  this  point  of 
view  were:  Colgate  W.  Darden,  Jr.,  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia;  Bennett  H.  Brans- 
comb,  Vanderbilt  University;  Isaiah  Bow- 
man, Johns  Hopkins  University;  Hamil- 
ton Holt,  Rollins  College;  John  D.  Wil- 
liams, University  of  Mississippi;  Father 
Patrick  J.  Holloran,  St.  Louis  University; 
Rufus  C.  Harris,  Tulane  University;  T. 
S.  Painter,  University  of  Texas ;  and 
Lewis  W.  Jones,  University  of  Arkansas. 


INTEGRATION  IN  EDUCATION 


237 


INTEGRATION  IN 
EDUCATION 

Southern  states  operating  under  the  dual 
system  of  education  have  within  the  past 
few  years  admitted  Negro  students  for 
the  first  time  in  their  history.  Although 
the  barriers  are  not  down  everywhere, 
an  unmistakable  trends  is  evident.1  Im- 
petus for  the  present  advance  came  from 
the  decisions  handed  down  by  the  U.S. 
Supreme  Court,  June  5,  1950,  in  the 
Sweatt  and  McLaurin  cases. 

The  New  York  Times  Survey 

The  New  York  Times  made  a  survey  in 
1950  in  which  100  representative  southern 
colleges  and  universities  and  commission- 
ers of  education  or  state  superintendents 
of  schools  in  the  southern  states  were 
reached.  It  showed  that  1,000  Negroes 
were  attending  classes  in  white  southern 
institutions.  The  various  educators 
reached  declared  that  the  Supreme  Court 
decision  was  only  partly  responsible  for 
the  admittance  of  Negro  students  to 
southern  institutions.  The  Court's  deci- 
sion was  applicable  only  to  public  insti- 
tutions, yet  a  growing  number  of  private 
colleges  and  universities  are  enrolling 
Negroes  in  their  graduate  or  undergrad- 
uate divisions. 

This  situation  would  have  been  considered 
impossible  ten  years  ago.  Responsible  educa- 
tors had  warned  that  any  breaching  of  the 
segregation  line  would  prove  dangerous  and 
might  even  lead  to  campus  or  community 
riots.  Today,  these  same  officials  report  that 
the  Negroes  have  not  disturbed  normal  col- 
legiate life  in  any  manner. 

The  picture  in  Arkansas  is  typical.  Dr. 
A.  B.  Bonds,  Jr.,  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, noted  that  in  1949  and  1950  approxi- 
mately 200  Negro  students  were  enrolled 
for  graduate  and  professional  work  in  the 
state  university.  Four  law  students,  two 
medical  students  and  one  agriculture 
student  were  in  residence  on  the  campus 
in  1950.  Dr.  Bonds  gave  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  changes  made: 


"This  .  .  .  democratic  procedure  to 
modify  old  practices  and  open  up  better 
educational  opportunities  for  Negroes  .  .  . 
has  come  about  without  court  suits.  Ac- 
ceptance of  these  students  by  faculty  and 
student  body  has  been  much  more  pleas- 
ing and  satisfactory  than  was  indicated 
by  our  earlier  misgivings  . . ." 

The  University  of  Kansas  City  took  the 
lead  in  that  city  in  opening  its  doors  to 
Negro  students.  They  were  first  admitted 
in  1948.  In  1950,  12  were  in  the  day 
division  and  42  in  the  evening  division. 
Dr.  Clarence  R.  Decker,  president  of  the 
university,  reported  no  visible  evidence 
of  prejudice.  "Not  only  has  no  problem 
yet  arisen  on  the  campus,"  he  said,  "bat 
the  students  and  faculty  generally  are 
proud  of  themselves,  of  their  trustees,  and 
of  their  university  for  being  the  first  in 
the  State  of  Missouri  to  accept  Negroes 
without  special  reservation." 

Most  of  the  educators  surveyed  felt 
that  the  dual  system  in  higher  education 
was  on  its  way  out. 

The  trustees  of  the  University  of  Louisville 
voted  to  admit  Negro  students  in  the  fall  of 
1950  to  the  graduate  and  professional  schools 
of  medicine,  law,  dentistry,  social  work,  music 
and  science.  That  year  there  were  40  Negroes 
enrolled  in  the  graduate  schools.  The  Louis- 
ville Municipal  College  (for  Negroes  only)  is 
to  be  closed  at  the  end  of  the  1950-51  academic 
year  and  qualified  Negro  students  will  be  ad- 
mitted to  all  schools  of  the  University  of 
Louisville  at  the  beginning  of  the  1951-52 
term.2 

Student  Opinion:  Student  opinion  gen- 
erally favors  the  admission  of  Negroes 
to  the  universities.  The  president  of  the 
University  of  Louisville  found  the  great- 
est prejudice  among  the  older  alumni 
"in  the  top  economic  stratum." 

Sometimes  there  is  a  show  of  prejudice, 
as  at  Ursuline  College,  with  a  small  en- 
rollment of  300.  When  three  Negro  stu- 
dents were  admitted,  a  few  freshmen  from 
the  "Deep  South"  were  "slightly  awkward 
in  their  relations  with  the  new  students." 
Several  threatened  to  quit  school,  but 
only  one  actually  left.  The  upperclassmen 
were  undisturbed. 


1  Source :  New  York  Times,  Oct.  23,  1950,  article  by  Benjamin  Fine. 

2  This  plan  has  been  carried  out. 


238 


EDUCATION 


Some  Educators  Voice  Opposition:  Not 
all  southern  educators  accept  the  break- 
down of  the  segregation  barriers.  Several 
warned  that  education  generally,  and 
their  colleges  in  particular,  would  suffer. 
A  spokesman  for  the  University  of  Texas, 
where  14  Negroes  were  enrolled  in  1950, 
asserted  that  the  general  attitude  of  the 
community  and  of  parents  of  students  was 
unfavorable. 

Dr.  M.  D.  Collins,  State  Superintendent 
of  Schools  in  Georgia,  warned  that  ad- 
mittance of  Negroes  to  the  educational 
institutions  in  his  state  would  have  "more 
serious  repercussions  than  you  could  pos- 
sibly imagine;  it  would  be  tragic." 

Dr.  J.  M.  Tubb,  Mississippi  State 
Superintendent  of  Education,  held  that 
the  breakdown  of  segregation  would  serve 
no  good  purpose  but  "would  retard  the 
fine  progress  we  are  now  making  in  the 
field  of  Negro  education."  Dr.  A.  R. 
Meadows,  Alabama  State  Superintendent 
of  Education,  voiced  the  same  opinion. 

Outspoken  opposition  was  expressed  by 
Dr.  Perry  B.  James,  president  of  Athens 
College,  Athens,  Ga.  He  said:  "I  do  not 
foresee  any  possible  chance  of  admitting 
Negroes  to  colleges  and  universities  in  the 
near  future  and  the  sooner  we  realize 
this,  both  regionally  and  nationally,  and 
begin  providing  schools  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  Negroes,  the  better  off  they  will 
be  and  the  quicker  we  will  arrive  at  a 
sound  solution  to  the  problem." 

Following  the  opening  up  of  Louisiana 
State  University  to  Roy  S.  Wilson  by 
order  of  the  U.S.  Fifth  Circuit  Court  of 
Appeals,  six  students  were  enrolled  in  the 
University  in  September  1951.  In  the 
Graduate  School  were:  Leslie  Barnum  of 
Natchitoches,  journalism;  Louis  L.  Eames 
of  Baton  Rouge,  commerce;  Charles  E. 
Harrington  of  New  Orleans,  education. 
Registering  for  law  were :  Robert  Collins, 
Ernest  N.  Morial,  and  Pierre  S.  Charles, 
all  of  New  Orleans. 

White  Institutions  in 
South  Admitting  Negroes 

Public  Institutions:  Table  27  shows 
that  at  least  20  public  institutions  in  the 


South  admit  Negro  students,  and  it  gives 
the  dates  these  colleges  and  universities 
were  opened  to  them,  dates  they  were  ac- 
cepted or  enrolled,  fields  of  study  opened, 
and  first  Negro  students  to  enroll,  where 
these  date  were  available. 

Private  Institutions:  At  least  27  south- 
ern, white,  private  institutions,  including 
theological  seminaries,  admit  Negro  stu- 
dents. In  more  than  half  of  them  Negroes 
are  able  to  enter  without  restrictions.  In 
others,  they  may  enter  only  for  graduate 
study  or  in  certain  specified  departments. 

As  among  the  public  institutions,  policy 
on  the  use  of  campus  facilities  varies. 
At  some  institutions  Negro  students  live 
in  the  dormitories  and  eat  in  the  dining 
rooms;  in  others,  they  are  denied  the  use 
of  these  facilities. 

The  Catholic  University  of  America,  in 
Washington,  D.C.,  which  has  no  quotas  or 
limitations,  has  admitted  Negroes  to  all 
departments  since  it  was  founded  in  1889. 
Between  200  and  300  Negro  students  at- 
tend the  University,  which  keeps  no  na- 
tionality 01  racial  records.  All  services 
and  facilities  are  open  to  them.  Approxi- 
mately 500  have  received  degrees  from 
this  institution. 

St.  Louis  University,  Mo.,  another 
Catholic  institution,  also  admits  Negroes 
to  all  facilities.  At  this  institution  351 
Negro  students  were  enrolled  in  1950. 

The  majority  of  these  colleges  and 
theological  seminaries  are  church-related 
institutions — Catholic,  Presbyterian,  Bap- 
tist, and  Methodist.  The  Catholic  institu- 
tions show  the  most  liberality  in  their 
admissions  and  in  throwing  open  their 
facilities  without  discrimnation. 

On  Oct.  24,  1951,  the  twenty-fourth 
Synod  of  the  Episcopal  Church  adopted 
a  resolution  recommending  that  the 
Board  of  Trustees  of  the  University  of 
the  South  at  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  consider 
accepting  Negro  candidates  to  be  trained 
for  the  ministry  in  its  two  southern 
seminaries  not  presently  accepting  Negro 
students.  The  vote  of  the  delegates  was 
66  for  and  25  against  the  resolution. 

Table  28  gives  information  showing 
dates  private  institutions  were  opened  to 


INTEGRATION  IN  EDUCATION 


239 


TABLE  27 

WHITE  PUBLIC  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN  SOUTH  OFFICIALLY  ADMITTING  NEGROES,  1951 


Date  Opened     Date  Students 
Institution  to  Accepted  or 

Negro  Students        Admitted 


Fields  of  Study  Opened 


First  Students 


Arkansas: 

Univ.  of  Ark., 

Jan.  30 

,  19482 

Feb.  2,  1948 

Law3-4 

Silas  Hunts 

Fayetteville 

1948-49 

Medicine6 

Edith  May  Irby 

Graduate 

Delaware: 

Univ.  of  Del., 

Jan.  31, 

1948 

1948 

Graduate,7  Academic  Exten- 

(Not given) 

Newark 

sion,  Engineering   (Under- 

graduate) 

Aug.    8, 

1950 

1950 

All  fields: 

Undergraduate7 

Homer  Minus 

Kentucky: 
Univ.  of  Ky., 
Lexington 


Mar.  30,  1949    June  19,  1949     Graduate    and    Professional 

Schools  ;3-7 

Agricultural  Education 
Education 


Univ.  of  Louisville, 
Louisville 


Louisiana: 

La.  State  Univ., 
Baton  Rouge 


Fall 


Maryland: 
Univ.  of  Md., 

Baltimore  Branch 
College  Park 
Branch 


1950 


1950 


1935 
1950 


History 

Mathematics 
Music  Education 
Sociology 

Sept.  1950     Graduate,    Medicine,    Law, 
Dentistry,       Social       Work, 
Music  and  Sciences 
Summer  1951     All  schools  and  divisions: 

1951          Medicine 
1951-52         All  fields. 9 


Nov.    9,  1950 
June         1951 


Sept.  25,  1935 
1950 


1951 


Law 

Medicine 
Graduate  Schools: 
Agriculture 


Law 
Graduate: 

Sociology 
Nursing 
Medicine 


Apr.  27,  1951 


Undergraduate: 

Engineering 
—         All  Professional  Schools 


Cora  L.  Watson 


Willie  Lee  Jackson 
Mattie  I.  Ballew;  Gwendolyn 
V.     Boulden;     Roberta     A. 
Buford;    Frank    R.    Conner; 
(Miss)  Charles  F.  Chenault; 
Willie  Ben   Chenault;   Anna 
M.   Dalton;   George  H.   Ed- 
wards;     Susie     J.      Elster; 
William  H.  Elster;  Levela  L. 
Goodwin;     George     H.     F. 
Green;     Laura    L.     Griffin; 
Mildred    E.    Hall;   Katie   B. 
Jackson;  Mattie  R.  Jackson; 
James  W.  Johnson;  Augustus 
Mack;   Matthew  L.  Mastin; 
Clara    B.    O'Neal;    William 
M.  Sanders;  David  A.  Single- 
ton;   Katherine    E.    Taylor; 
Odie  L.  Walker. 
Lyman  Tefft  Johnson 
Eleanor  Taylor  Lewis 
Ruby  F.  Dixon 
Cleo  R.  Johnson; 
Joseph  R.  Patterson 
Leandrew  Green; 
Bernice  Nichols8 


Joseph  L.  Alexander 

All  Students 

Roy  S.  Wilson" 


Amos  Lutril  Payne 


Donald  Gaines  Marray 

Parren  J.  Mitchell 
Esther  McCready 
Donald  W.  Stewart; 
Roderick  E.  Charles 

Hiram  T.  Whittle 


Sources:  Questionnaire;  press  releases. 

1  In  a  few  cases  previously,  universities  and  colleges  had  admitted  students  unofficially. 

2  First  state  to  voluntarily  admit  students  without  court  action. 

3  On  segregated  basis. 

*  Some  universites  admitting  Negro  students  on  a  segregated  basis  have  removed  these  restrictions 
without  or  with  court  order. 

5  Born  March  1,  1922,  Silas  Hunt  died  April  2,  1949,  at  O'Riley  Veteran's  Hospital,  Springfield,  Mo. 
8  Without  segregation. 

7  For  courses  not  available  in  Negro  state  institutions. 

8  Three  others,  names  not  given,  are  studying  music. 

9  Louisville  Municipal  College  for  Negroes  closed  1951. 

10  Withdrew  on  January  16,  1951,  because  of  personal  record  before  entering. 

11  Under  contract  between  Texas  State  University,  the  Negro  institution,  and  the  University  of  Texas. 

12  St.  Philip's  School  of  Nursing  was  opened  in  1920.  "All  schools  and  courses  are  open  to  Virginians 
first  (or  for  white  students)  from  1951." 


240 


EDUCATION 


TABLE  27  (Continued) 
WHITE  PUBLIC  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN  SOUTH  OFFICIALLY  ADMITTING  NEGROES,  1951 


Institution 

Date  Opened     Date  Students 
to                  Accepted  or            Fields  of  Study  Opened 
Negro  Students       Admitted 

First  Students 

Missouri: 
Univ.  of  Kansas 
City, 
Kansas  City 

1948 

1948 

All  Divisions: 
Education 
Law 
Music 

Clarence  E.  Gantt 
Harold  Lee  Holiday 
Paris  M.  Jones 

Psychology 

Horton  Win.  Dunn 

Univ.  of  Mo., 

Fall 

1950 

Fall          1950 

Graduate: 

Columbia 

Art 

Grant  Isiah  Ridgel; 

Frank  W.  Logan 

Educational  Guidance 

Melbourne  C.  Langford 

History 

Robert  Lee  Lilland 

Industrial  Education 
Speech  and  Dramatics 

Samuel  Jones 
Hazel  McDaniel 

Spanish 

Bettye  Jean  Bankston 

North  Carplina: 

Univ.  of  N.  C., 

June  11, 

1951 

June  11,  1951 

Law 

James    Lassiter;    Harvey    E. 

Chapel  Hill 

Beech;  J.  Kenneth  Lee;  Floyd 

B.      McKissick.      James     R. 

Oklahoma: 

Walker,  Jr. 

Okla.  A.  &  M., 

Summer 

1949 

Summer  1949 

Graduate7 



Col.,  Still  water 

Univ.  of  Okla., 

Oct. 

1948 

Oct.   14,  1948 

Graduate:3-4-7 

Norman 

School  Administration 

G.  W.  McLaurin 

Feb. 

1949 

Feb.          1949 

School  of  Social  Work 

Opherita  Eugenia  Daniels 

June  16,  1949 

June         1949 

Law3-4 

Ada  Lois  Sipuel  Fisher 

Nursing 

— 

Medicine 

— 

Pharmacy 

— 

Tennessee: 

Univ.  of  Tenn., 

Jan.  10, 

1952 

— 

— 

— 

Knoxville 

Texas: 

Howard  Cty.  Jr. 

Sept. 

1951 

Sept.  17,  1951 

Pre-Medical 

Robert  L.  Brown; 

Col.,  Big  Spring 

Gwendell  White 

Pre-Nursing 

Frances  Louise  Stewart 

Sept.  18,  1951 

Education 

Jessie  Mae  Davis 

Sept.  21,  1951 

Business  Administration 

Ervin  D.  Butler,  Jr. 

Univ.  Texas,  Austin 

| 

1949 

1949 

Medicine:3-11 

Herman  A.  Barnett 

Dec.  31, 

1949 

Feb.     6,  1950 

Law3 

W.  Astor 

June    5, 

1950 

June    6,  1950 

Graduate  and  Professional:4-6-7 

Architecture 
Government 

John  Saunders  Chase 
Horace  L.  Heath 

June          1950 
July          1950 

Mathematics 
Education 

Walter  D.  McClennon 
Mrs.  Emma  L.  Harrison 

English 

L.  June  Brewer 

Sept.  18,  1950 

Law 

Heman  Marion  Sweatt 

Virginia: 

Col.  of  William  and 

1951 

Summer  1951 

Physical  Education 

Hulon  La  Von 

Mary, 

1951-52 

Civil  Law  (Undergraduate) 

Edward  Augustus  Travis 

Williamsburg 

Med.  Col.  of  Va.,i2 

1920 

1920 

Nursing 

— 

Richmond 

Jan.  12, 

1951 

Sept.        1951 

Medicine 

Jean  L.  Harris 

Medical  Technology 

Vela  Taylor 

Physical  Therapy 

Marjorie  Louise  Vaughan; 

Henderson  A.  Johnson,  III 

Chemistry  (Pharmacy  School) 

Lin  wood  M.  Mosby 

Richmond  Pro- 

1951 

1951 

Extension 

— 

fessional  Inst., 

Richmond 

Univ.  of  Va., 

Sept.    5, 

1950 

Sept.    5,  1,951 

Graduate  and  Professional: 

Charlottesville 

Law7 

Gregory  H.  Swanson 

Extension  courses  in  Edu- 

cation for  Ph.  D. 

Walter  N.  Ridley 

Va.  Polytechnic 

Aug.  8-25, 

Specialized  intensified  statis- 

Inst., Blacksburg 

— 

1951 

tical  course 

Dr.  Harry  W.  Roberts 

West  Virginia: 

Univ.  of  W.  Va., 

June    6, 

1940 

June    6,  1940 

Graduate7 

Willis  Wilbur  Tones 

Morgan  town 

Jan.  29,  1946 

Law 

James  Alexander  Creasey 

Sept.  15,  1947 
Sept.  13,  1948 

Engineering 
Mines 

Thomas  Jefferson  Matterson 
Alphonso  Carlton,  Jr. 

Sept.  18,  1950 

Journalism 

Jackson  Lee  Hodge 

Negro  students,  dates  students  were  ac- 
cepted or  enrolled,  fields  of  study  opened, 
and  first  students,  where  these  data  were 
available. 


Table  28  also  indicates  the  increasing 
liberalization  of  segregation  policies.  Nev- 
ertheless, non-discrimination  is  the  excep- 
tion in  the  South,  not  the  rule. 


INTEGRATION  IN  EDUCATION 


241 


TABLE  28 

WHITE  PRIVATE  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH  OFFICIALLY  ADMITTING  NEGROES, 

1951 


Institution 

Date  Opened 
to  Negro 
Students 

Date  Students 
Accepted, 
Admitted  or 
Enrolled 

Fields  of  Study 
Opened 

First  Students 

District  of  Columbia: 

American  Univ.,  Washington     (No  report) 
The  Catholic  Univ.  of 

(No  report) 

(No  report) 

(No  report) 

America,  Washington 
Dunbarton  College  of  Holy 

1889 

1889 

No  restrictions 

No  race  or  creed  records  kept 

Cross  (Women's), 

Washington 

1835 

1947 

Liberal  Arts: 

English 

Patricia  Coins 

Georgia: 

Columbia  Theological  Sem- 

inary (Presbyterian), 

Decatur 

1948 

Sept.  1948 

Theology 

E.  E.  Newberry 

Kentucky: 

Bellarmine  College, 

Louisville 

Oct.  1950 

Oct.  1950 

No  restrictions: 

Business  Adminis- 

tration 

Theodore  Wade 

Pre-Medical 

Robert  L.  Robinson 

Berea  College1,  Berea 

Sept.  1950 

Sept.  1950 

Lib.  Arts 
No  restrictions 

Joseph  Mill 
William  R.  Ballew, 

Mary  E.  Ballard 

Louisville  Presbyterian 

Theological  Seminary, 

Louisville 

May  1950 

Sept.  1950 

Theology 

Snowden  I.  McKinnon 

Nazareth  Women's  Col- 

lege, Louisville 

June  1950 

June  1950 

No  restrictions: 

Elementary  Educa- 

tion 

Mrs.  Sadie  P.  Gulley 

Mrs.  Helena  V.  Lawson 

Nursing 
Library  Science 

Mrs.  Elenora  Higgins 
Mrs.  Barbara  Miller 

Southern  Baptist  Theolo- 
gical Seminary,  Louisville  Sept.  10,  1951 

Ursuline  College  (Women's), 

Louisville  Sept.  1950 


Louisiana:3 

New  Orleans  Baptist  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New 
Orleans  Sept.  4,  1951 

Maryland: 

Johns  Hopkins  Univ.,  Bal- 
timore 1 946 


Sept.  10,  1951     No  restrictions  B.  J.  Miller;  Claude  Taylor; 

W.  L.  Holmes;  J.  V.  Bottoms" 

Fall  1951  Lib.  Arts: 

Business  (Special)       Mrs.  Dollye  Cunningham 
Education  (Special)  Jessie  Camp;  Ethel  Kilgore 


(None  to  da*e)   Graduate 


(No  report) 


Loyola  College  Eve.  Sch. 
and  Graduate  Div.,  Bal- 
timore 


1943 


Saint  John's  College, 
Annapolis 
Missouri: 
Conservatory  of  Music, 
Kansas  City 

Sept.  1948 
1945 

Kansas  City  Art  Inst.  and 
Sch.  of  Design,  Kansas 
City 
Park  College,  Parkville 

1884 
June  5,  1950 

Rockhurst  College4, 
Kansas  City 

June  6,  1949 

(No  report)     Undergraduate  and 

Graduate  (No  report) 


1947  Lib.  Arts  and  Gra- 

duate Joseph  Richardson 

Sept.  24,  1948     Undergraduate  Martin  A.  Dyer,  Jr. 

Not  given        No  restrictions: 


Piano 


Mrs.  Desdemona  Davis 


Not  known      No  restrictions  Not  known 

Sept.  1950  College  of  Lib.  Arts:      Lawrence  Weaver 

English  Marvin  Brooks 


June  6,  1949       No  restrictions: 
Liberal  Arts 


Barbara  Jean  Armstrong; 
Robert  L.  Bennett;  Monroe 
L.  Burrows;  Effie  Geraldine 
Irvin;  Alma  Ruth  King 


Sources:  Questionnaire;  The  New  South,  Aug.-Sept.  1951,  published  by  the  Southern  Regional  Council, 
Atlanta,  Ga.;  press  releases. 

1  Berea  College  admitted  Negroes  1866  to  1904,  when  it  was  prohibited  by  the  Kentucky  "Day  Law." 
After  law  was  amended  in  Spring  1950,  Trustees  voted  to  admit  them  again. 

2  Previously  enrolled  in  Extension  Department.  Three  will  receive  degrees  in  May  1952. 

8  Another  college  in  Louisiana  admits  a  limited  number  of  Negro  students  but  does  not  wish  publicity. 
4  William  Louis  Blake,  Liberty.  Mo.,  enrolled  September  19,  1949,  as  transfer  student;  received  B.S. 
degree,  with  education  as  major,  Aug.  31,  1951. 


242 


EDUCATION 


TABLE  28  (Continued) 


Date  Opened     Date  Students 

Institution 

to  Negro 
Students 

Accepted, 
Admitted  or 

Fields  of  Study 
Opened 

First  Student! 

Enrolled 

Missouri  (cont.~): 

St.  Louis  Univ.,  St 
Washington  Univ., 

.  Louis           (No  report) 
St.  Louis  June  11,  1947 

(No  report) 
June  1947 

(No  report) 
Medicine 

(No  report) 
James  W.  Nofles 

Graduate: 

Spring  1948 

Social  Work 

Leona  Evans 

Summer  1948 

Arts  and  Sciences 

Raymond  R.  Palmer 

Fall  1949 

Business  and  P.A. 

N.  F.  Davis 

Fall  1949 

Law 

George  L.  Vaughn 

Fall  1950 

Engineering 

.Ulysses  Donaldson 

(Women's),  St.  Louis 

Texas: 

Amarillo  College,  Amarillo    Oct.  1,  1951 


Austin  Theological  Seminary 

(Presbyterian),  Austin         Sept.  1950 

Southwestern  Baptist  Sem- 
inary, Fort  Worth  May  25,  1951 


University  College 

Evening  Division    (No  report) 


Southern  Methodist  Univ., 
Dallas 


1950 


Wayland  College,  Plainview  June  5,  1951 


Oct.  3,  1951 

Pre-Medical 
Pre-Nursing 
Home  Economics 

Sept.  1950 

Theology 

May  25,  1951 
Sept.  10,  1951 

No  restrictions 

(No  report) 
June  5,  1951 

Graduate: 
Theology 
No  restrictions: 
Education 

West  Virginia: 

Wesleyan  College,  Buck- 
hannon 


June  1,  1949       Sept.  1949 


No  restrictions: 
Education 
Pre-Engineering 
Pre-Medical 
Secretarial  Studies 


Celia  Ann  Bennett 
Johnnie  Mae  Cartez 
Dorothy  Reese 

Daniel  Clark 

Chester    Brookings;     S.     M. 
Lockeridge;    Getral    Wright 


(No  report) 

Mrs.  Bessie  Williams;  Mrs. 
Annie  Taylor;  Ernest  Dykes; 
Mrs.  Ernest  Dykes 


Charles  W.  Johnson 


John  S.  Chic 
Wm. 


Corner  Thomas,  II 
Bernadine  Hutchison 


Negro  Teachers  in 
White  Institutions 

Historically,  Negroes  have  maintained 
connections  with  white  colleges  even  in 
the  South,  but  such  connections  have 
been  unofficial.  George  Moses  Morton's 
relationship  with  the  University  of  North 
Carolina  at  Chapel  Hill  may  be  cited  as 
an  example.  Born  a  slave  about  1797,  his 
master  permitted  him  to  hire  his  service 
to  the  president  of  the  university,  who 
taught  him  to  read  and  write.  He  pos- 
sessed a  gift  for  poetry  and  soon  was 
composing  love  poems  "for  the  local 
gallants,"  and  it  is  said  he  often  helped 
students  who  needed  assistance  with  their 
lessons. 

Another  pioneer  in  the  education  of 
white  youth,  although  not  a  member  of  a 
college  staff,  was  John  Chavis.  After 
securing  his  freedom,  he  attended  Wash- 
ington Academy  (now  Washington  and 


Lee  University),  Lexington,  Va.  He 
opened  a  school  for  both  white  and  Negro 
children  in  Raleigh,  N.C.,  in  1808  but 
soon  closed  it  because  of  the  objection  of 
white  patrons.  He  opened  another  for 
Negro  children  only.  However,  many 
prominent  families  in  the  state  sent  their 
sons  to  him  for  instruction. 

Charles  L.  Reason  was  probably  the 
first  Negro  to  be  appointed  to  regular 
teaching  duties  in  a  white  college.  In 
1849,  he  was  "called  to  the  professorship 
of  mathematics  and  belles-lettres"  by 
New  York  Central  College  at  McGraw- 
ville.  This  institution,  established  by 
abolitionists,  employed  two  other  Ne- 
groes, William  G.  Allen  and  George  B. 
Vashon.  Vashon  served  as  a  professor  of 
classics. 

Another  college  of  liberal  abolitionist 
sentiment,  Oberlin,  at  Oberlin,  Ohio,  had 
admitted  Negro  students  before  the  Civil 
War.  During  the  five  years  she  was  there, 


1  Source:  Taylor,  Ivan  E.,  "Negro  Teachers  in  White  Colleges,"  School  and  Society,  Vol.  65,  No.  1691,  May  24, 
1947;  and  press  releases. 


INTEGRATION  IN  EDUCATION 


243 


1860-65,  although  not  a  regular  member 
of  the  faculty,  Fanny  Jackson  (Coppin) 
tutored  a  class  of  freedmen  and  taught  a 
group  of  whites  in  the  preparatory  de- 
partment of  the  college. 

Richard  T.  Greener,  the  first  Negro 
graduate  of  Harvard  College,  served  for 
a  time  as  a  professor  at  the  University  of 
South  Carolina  during  the  period  of  Re- 
construction. A  graduate  of  the  law  school 
of  the  university,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  and  Greek.  During  his 
tenure,  he  catalogued  the  30,000  volumes 
in  the  university  library.  W.  E.  B.  DuBois 
was  appointed  assistant  instructor  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1896  for 
one  year  but  taught  no  classes. 

For  over  50  years,  appointments  to 
significant  posts  on  the  faculties  of  white 
institutions  were  closed  as  far  as  the 
Negro  scholar  was  concerned,  but  it  was 
not  unusual  for  Negroes  to  be  invited  to 
lecture  or  to  conduct  regular  classes  for 
credit  during  the  period  prior  to  World 
War  II.  The  late  Hubert  Harrison  and 
James  Weldon  Johnson  were  among  those 
who  served  at  New  York  University  and 
Columbia  University.  Walter  White  was 
frequently  invited  to  lecture  at  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University.  The  Col- 
lege of  the  City  of  New  York  has  for  a 
long  period  welcomed  Negro  lecturers. 

Role  of  Educational  Funds:  The  Gen- 
eral Education  Board,  a  Foundation 
located  in  New  York  City,  in  1945  made 
a  grant  of  $18,000  to  New  York  Uni- 
versity for  the  support  of  a  visiting  pro- 
fessorship in  Negro  Culture  and  Educa- 
tion for  a  three-year  period.  Ira  De  A. 
Reid,  professor  of  sociology  at  Atlanta 
University,  received  the  appointment. 

William  C.  Haygood,  director  of  fellow- 
ships for  the  Julius  Rosenwald  Fund, 
said: 

The  Foundation  has  tried  in  all  possible 
ways  to  urge  and  promote  the  appointment  of 
qualified  Negro  scholars  to  wlyte  faculties. 
One  device  we  have  used  is  to  send  out,  pe- 
riodically, lists  to  college  presidents,  calling 
their  attention  to  the  availability  of  such 
scholars.  We  have  in  certain  cases,  in  order  to 


secure  important  appointments,  provided 
funds  to  supplement  instructors'  salaries  for  a 
period  of  time.  This  was  notably  true  in  the 
appointments  of  Allison  Davis  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  and  of  Hale  Woodruff  at  New 
York  University. . . . 

The  American  Friends  Service  Com- 
mittee makes  a  more  leisurely  but  none- 
theless effective  approach  to  achieve  the 
same  ends.  It  has  organized  a  Visiting 
Lectureship  for  Schools  and  Colleges 
which  is  designed  to  introduce  the  Negro 
scholar  to  the  white  college.  Each  visiting 
lecturer,  for  a  week  or  more,  lives  on  the 
campus,  conducts  classes,  speaks  at 
chapel  exercises,  and  participates  in  the 
life  of  the  community. 

Universities  Take  Initiative:  With  mo- 
tives of  their  own  and  without  assistance 
or  subsidy  from  the  philanthropic  or- 
ganizations, individual  colleges  have  ap- 
pointed Negro  scholars  to  their  faculties. 
A  unique  institution  in  the  latter  category 
is  Black  Mountain  College  in  North 
Carolina.  This  school  has  engaged  at  one 
time  or  another  several  outstanding 
artists  and  scholars.  The  colleges  em- 
ploying Negro  scholars  are  among  the 
best  and,  in  some  instances,  the  most 
conservative  in  America.  The  Negro 
scholars  invited  to  their  campuses  stand 
high  in  American  education  and  have 
made  splendid  records  as  teachers.  Al- 
most without  exception  they  have  made 
scholarly  contributions. 

White  Colleges  and  Universities  Em- 
ploying Negroes?  During  the  period 
1947-51,  at  least  106  white  universities 
employed  Negroes  in  a  professional  ca- 
pacity. Their  rank  ranged  from  teaching 
fellows,  lectures,  or  instructors  to  visiting 
professors  and  full  professors.  Some  were 
employed  as  librarians,  assistant  libra- 
rians, or  research  workers  in  various 
fields.  In  addition,  there  were  medical 
personnel  in  several  cases.  Many  were 
temporarily  employed.  Others  have  at- 
tained permanent  tenure.  Universities 
employing  these  workers,  with  names  of 
persons  employed  and  dates  of  employ- 
ment, are  given  in  Table  29. 


1  For  universities  and  colleges  employing  Negro  professional  workers  before  1947  see  Negro  Year  Book  1947  and  the 
Journal  of  Negro  Education,  Vol.  18,  pp.  559-567,  Fall  1919. 


244 


EDUCATION 


TABLE  29 

EMPLOYMENT  NEGRO  TEACHERS  BY  WHITE  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES, 

1947-1951 1 


Institution 

Name 

Field  of  Instruction  or 
Specialization2 

Teachers  Serving 
1947-19513 

Antioch  Col.,  Yellow  Springs,  O. 

Walter  F.  Anderson 

Music 

1946- 

Aquinas  Col.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Barnard  Col.,  New  York  City 

Dean  Yarborough 
Elizabeth  G.  Hightower 
William  M.  Boyd 

Sociology 
Library  Science 
Political  Science 

1948-49 
1947 
1949 

Bennington  Col.,  Bennington,  Vt. 

John  Caswell  Smith,  Jr. 

Sociology 

1947- 

Bloomfield  Col.  and  Seminary, 

Bloomfield,  N.J. 

Elder  Hawkins 

Sociology 

1948- 

Boston  Univ.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Charles  W.  Anderson 

T 

Law 

1948 

Roland  Hayes 

Music 

1950 

Bill  Simms 

Public  Relations 

1948 

Bradley  Univ.,  Peoria,  111. 

Romeo  Garret 

Sociology 

1947- 

Brandeis  Univ.,  Waltham,  Mass. 

Robert  A.  Thornton 

Physics 

1950 

Brooklyn  Col.,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

Marguerite  D.  Cartwright 
Marian  Cuthbert 

Education 
Sociology 

1948-50 
1946- 

Maurice  Eastmond 

English 

Feb.  1949- 

William  Henry  Grayson 

Education 

Feb.  1950- 

Charles  R.  Lawrence 

Sociology 

1948- 

Mark  Parks 

Biology 

1946- 

Danetta  Marie  Sanders 

Education 

April  1951- 

Marion  Watson  Starling 

English 

1946- 

Brown  Univ.,  Providence,  R.I. 
Catholic  Teachers  Col.  of  New 

Mrs.  Mabel  M.  Snythe 
J.  Saunders  Redding 

Economics 
English 

Feb.-June  1947 
1949-50 

Mexico,4  Alburquerque,  N.M. 
Catholic  Univ.,  Washington,  D.C. 

Mary  Louise  Young 
Ira  L.  Gibbons 

Education 
Sociology 

1  947-50 
Summer  1951 

Chapman  Col.,  Los  Angeles,  Gal. 
Chicago  Col.  of  Optometry, 

Lionel  L.  Hoffman 

Romance  Language 

1946-48 

Chicago,  111. 

Junius  P.  Brodnax 

Optometry 

1948- 

Chicago  Medical  Col.,  Chicago,  111. 

Clayborne  Tartt 
Clarence  E.  Mansfield 

Optometry 
Medicine 

1947-48 
1948 

H.  H.  Morrison 

Medicine 

1948 

Chicago  Teachers  Col.,  Chicago, 

111. 

Mrs.  Henrietta  H.  McMillan 

English 

1947- 

City  Col.  of  N.Y.,  New  York  City 

Joseph  A.  Borome 

History 

1950- 

Thomas  H.  Bembry 

Chemistry 

1947- 

Warren  Brown 

Sociology 

1948- 

Mrs.  Marian  Palmer  Capps 

Education 

1950- 

Kenneth  B.  Clark 

Psychology 

1947- 

Evan  Gordon 

Geology 

(e) 

Gerald  Greenidge 

Electrical  Engrg.  (Tutor)6 

1947 

Alain  L.  Locke 

Philosophy 

1948-49 

Maynor  Payne 

Electrical  Engrg.  (Tutor)6 

1947 

Lawrence  D.  Reddick 

History 

1947-51 

Staunton  L.  Wormley 

Romance  Languages 

Summer  1948 

Columbia  Univ.,  New  York  City 

Joseph  A.  Borome 

Librarian,  Burgess  Library 

1942-50 

Kenneth  A.  McClane 

Medicine 

1949- 

Columbia  Univ.,  Teachers  Col., 

New  York  City 

Ruth  Johnson 

Nursing  Education 

1951- 

Robert  E.  Weaver 

Economics 

Summer  1947,48 

Connecticut  Col.,  New  London, 

Conn. 

Helen  F.  Chisholm 

Chemistry 

1947- 

Cornell  Univ.,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Carrell  Peterson 

Sociology  and  Anthropology 

1949-50 

Des  Moines  Still  Col.  of  Osteop- 

Stanley Griffin 

Pharmacology 

1949- 

athy  &  Surgery,  Des  Moines, 

Leon  S.  Jones 

Physiology 

1947-49 

Iowa 

WilliamJ.  Reese 

Biochemistry 

1946-47 

Drew  Univ.,  Madison,  N.J. 

George  D.  Kelsey 

Christian  Ethics 

1951- 

Fenn  Col.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

Clifford  L.  Graves 

— 

1947 

Mrs.  Sammie  Lee  Harris 

— 

1947 

Sarah  M.  Pereira 

Romance  Languages 

1947 

1  The  term  "teachers"  is  used  for  all  professionals  employed. 

2  Subject  taught,  given  when  field  of  specialization  not  known. 
8  A  hyphen  after  the  year  indicates  teacher  is  still  in  service. 
4  Now  known  as  The  College  of  St.  Joseph  on  the  Rio  Grande. 

6  Indicates  date  of  appointment,  served,  or  serving,  not  available. 

8  A  tutor  at  City  College  of  N.  Y.  is  much  like  an  assistant  instructor. 

7  Appointed  to  a  professorship  in  government  Jan.  16,  1950;  confirmed  by  Board  of  Overseers  in  April 
1950;  to  begin  duties  when  his  active  service  with  United  Nations  is  terminated. 

8  Has  been  in  charge  of  laboratory  at  Harvard  Medical  School.  Tufts  College,  Mass.,  appointed  him 
instructor  in  Medicine  1941-42,  but  this  was  cancelled  at  his  request.  Has  longest  experience  of  working 
in  white  institution  of  higher  learning.  Retired  by  Harvard,  1950. 

9  This  college  has  been  closed. 

10  Has  Faculty  status  but  does  not  teach. 

11  On  leave  with  Atomic  Energy  Commission,  1951. 

12  Offered  position  Sept.  1951;  called  to  Army  with  rank  of  Captain. 
18  No  response  received  to  questionnaire.  Data  not  verified. 

14  On  leave  for  military  duty. 


INTEGRATION  IN  EDUCATION 


245 


TABLE  29  (Continued) 


Institution                                            Name 

Field  of  Instruction  or         Teachers  Serving 
Specialization*                      1947-19513 

Fordham  Univ.,  New  York  City      Dennis  Glennan  Baron 

Economics                                                        1  950- 

Corinne  Freeman 

Library  Science  (Librarian)                          1951 

Garrett  Biblical  Inst.,  Evanston,  111.  Ira  De  A.  Reid 

Sociologv                                           Summer  1948 

George  Williams  Col.,  Chicago,       Mrs.  Sybil  Jones 

Library  Science                                               1946-48 

111.                                                        Blanche  Leatherman 

Library  Science                                               1948-51 

Harvard  Univ.,  Cambridge,  Mass.  Ralphe  Bunche7 

Government                                                     1950 

William  A.  HintonS 

Medicine                                                          1923-50 

(Bacteriology  and  Immunology) 

Haverford  Col.,  Haverford,  Pa.        Ira  De  A.  Reid 

Sociology                                                          1946 

Hunter  Col.,  New  York  City            Edith  Audain 

Elementary  School                                 Sept.  1950 

Warren  Brown 

Sociology  and  Anthropology                         1944-48 

Marguerite  D.  Cartwright 

Sociology,  Anthropology, 

Education                                                        1948- 

Mary  Huff  Diggs 

Sociology  and  Anthropology                          1946- 

Katherine  Ward  Hinton 

Music                                                     Sept.  1951- 

Marie  Johnson 

Mathematics                                                       1945-47 

Alfred  E.  Martin 

Physics  and  Astronomy                                    1944 

Illinois  Inst.  of  Tech.,  Chicago,  111.  Frank  Crossley 

Engineering  (Metallurgical)                          1947-49 

Robert  A.  Eubanks 

Assistant  Research  Engineer                           1951- 

Iowa  State  Col.  of  Agr.  &                 Frederick  M.  Graham 

Engineering                                                         1949-50 

Mech.  Arts,  Ames,  Iowa                Armesia  C.  Harper 

Home  Economics                                            1949 

John  Marshall  Law  Sch.,                   Wendell  E.  Green 

Law                                                                   1951 

Chicago,  111.                                      James  Benton  Parson 

Law                                                                   1948 

Juilliard  School  of  Music,  New        Dean  Dixon 
York  City                                           Theodore  (Teddy)  Wilson 

Music                                                                1948-49 
Music                                                Summer  1946-50 

Kent  State  Univ.,  Kent,  Ohio         Oscar  W.  Ritchie 

Sociology                                          1946-48;  1949- 

Long  Beach  City  Col.,  Long 

Beach,  Cal.                                        Edwin  Jackson  Wilson 

Education                                Sept.  1946-Mar.  1948 

Long  Island  Univ.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Richard  S.  Grossley 
Mary  Helen  Harden 

Education                                               June  1948- 
Speech                                                    Sept.  1949 

Loras  Inst.  of  Liturgical  Music, 

Dubuque,  Iowa                                Rev.  Bartholomew  Sayles 

Music                                                                    1949 

Los  Angeles  City  Col.,  Los                Samuel  R.  Browne 

Music                                                                1947 

Angeles,  Cal.                                     John  C.  Long 

English                                                                 1947-51 

John  M.  May 

English                                                             1947-50 

Los  Angeles  State  Col.  of  App.  Arts 

Sciences,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.           James  C.  Williamson 
Loyola  Univ.  of  L.  A.,  Los                A.  Charles  Duval 

Psychology                                                          1948- 
Physical  Education                                           1948 

Angeles,  Cal.                                  James  Hobart  Kirk 

Sociology                                                             1951 

Mass.  Inst.  of  Tech.,  Cambridge, 

Mass.                                                  James  B.  Ames 

Engineering  (Research  Assistant)                    (8) 

The  Metropolitan  Music  School,     Edgar  R.  Clark 

Music                                                                    1947 

Inc.,  New  York  City                       Alain  L.  Locke 

Philosophy                                                           1947 

Theodore  (Teddy)  Wilson 

Music                                                                    1947 

Michigan  State  Col.,  East 

Lansing,  Mich.                                 David  W.  Dickson 

English                                                             1948 

Mohawk  College,9  Utica,  N.Y.        Ernest  F.  Stevenson 

Chemistry                                                            1947 

New  School  for  Social  Research,     Robert  Blackburn 

Art                                                           Spring  1951 

New  York  City                                 Sterling  Brown 
Edgar  R.  Clark 

English                                                   Spring  1947 
Music                                                   Spring  1946-47 

Kenneth  B.  Clark 

Social  Psychology                                Spring  1951 

Arthur  P.  Davis 

English                                                   Spring  1947 

W.  E.  B.  DuBois 

Sociology                                                 Fall  1948 

E.  Franklin  Frazier 

Sociology                                                          1947 

Alain  L.  Locke 

Philosophy                                             Spring  1947 

Lawrence  D.  Reddick 

History                                                   Spring  1947 

Francis  Smith 

Library  Science                                                  1947 

Robert  C.  Weaver 

Housing                                              Summer  1949 

(in  Europe) 

N.  Y.  School  of  Social  Work,           E.  Franklin  Frazier 
New  York  City                                 Mrs.  Alvin  J.  Martin 

Sociology                                                          1947 
Social  Work,  Field  Work                               1949- 

New  York  Univ.,  New  York  City     Anna  A.  Campbell 

English                                                             1946-48 

Mrs.  Hortense  S.  Cochrane 

Education                                           Summer  1949 

E.  Franklin  Frazier 

Sociology                                                          1  947-50 

Alphonse  Heningburg 
Mrs.  Estelle  M.  Osborne 

Educational  Sociology                                      1  944-48 
Nursing  Education                          Summer  1945; 

1950- 

Jewel  Plummer 

Biology                                                             1945-50 

Ira  De  A.  Reid 

Education                                                            1946-47 

Gerald  A.  Spencer 

Dermatology  and  Syphilogy                           1948- 

Nathaniel  P.  Tillman 

English  Education                            Summer  1950 

__.                                                                Mrs.  Sadie  G.  Washington 

Teaching  Fellow  in  Home  Eco- 

nomics                                                         1949-51 

Robert  Weaver 

Education                                                        1945-51 

Matthew  J.  Whitehead 

Education                                                            1945-51 

Hale  A.  Woodruff 

Art  Education                                       Sept.  1946-49 

Northwestern  Univ.,  Evanston,  111.  Edward  Beasley 

Pedria  tries                                                        1937- 

Notre  Dame  Col.,  South  Euclid, 

Ohio                                                 Bettye  Brown 

Art                                                           Jan.  1947-51 

Nursery  Trg.  School  of  Boston, 

Boston,  Mass.                                  George  Lythcott 

Medicine                                                          1947-51 

246 


EDUCATION 


TABLE  29  (Continued) 


Institution                                            Name 

Field  of  Instruction  or 
Specialization2 

Teachers  Serving 
1947-19513 

Oberlin  Col.,  Oberlin,  Ohio             Wade  A.  Ellis 

Mathematics 

1948 

Ohio  State  Univ.,  Columbus,  Ohio  John  A.  Davis 

Political  Science 

1950-51 

Olivet  Col.,  Olivet,  Mich.                 Catherine  Cater 

English 

1947-49 

Cornelius  L.  Golightly 

Philosophy 

1945-49 

Pasadena  City  Col.,  Pasadena,  Cal.  Jesse  Moses 

Social  Science 

1951 

Phila.  Divinity  Sch.,  Philadel- 

phia, Pa.                                             Rev.  Edgar  Charles  Young 

Old  Testament  Literature 

1949 

Queens  Col.,  Flushing,  N.Y.             Kenneth  B.  Clark 

Psychology 

1945-Jan.  1948 

Deborah  C.  Partridge 

Education 

1951- 

Roosevelt  Col.,  Chicago,  111.            Thelma  W.  Brown 

Music  (Voice) 

Sept.  1946- 

Edward  Chandler 

Chemistry 

1945- 

St.  Clair  Drake 

Sociology 

1947- 

Alyce  Graham 

Psychology 

1947 

Valarie  F.  Hill 

Education 

1948- 

Everett  F.  Mapp 

Biology 

1947 

Lewis  A.  McGee 

Philosophy 

1948 

Mrs.  Charlemae  Rollins 

Library  Science 

1946- 

Harriet  Trimmingham 

Library  Science10 

1946- 

Edwin  W.  Turner 

Physical  Education 

1947- 

Mrs.  Gladys  W.  Turner 

Library  Science10 

(6) 

Lorenzo  D.  Turner 

English 

1946- 

Harry  Walker 

Sociology 

1948- 

Louis  Washington 

Sociology 

1949- 

Rutgers  Univ.,  New  Brunswick,      Aldrich  B.  Cooper 

Microbiology 

1942- 

N.J.                                                   Clyde  Winkfield 

Music  (Piano) 

1947- 

St.  John's  Univ.,  Collegeville,           Frater  Bernadine  Patterson, 

Classics 

1950- 

Minn.                                                   O.  S.  B. 

Rev.  Bartholomew  Sayles, 

Music 

1947- 

O.  S.  B. 

St.  Louis  Univ.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.        Mrs.  Ray  Douglas  DuValle 
Merle  B.  Herriford 

Library  Science 
Medicine  (Urology) 

1950 
1950 

James  Hobart  Kirk 

Sociology 

lune  1951- 

August  T.  Piper 

Pediatrics 

1951  51 

Alvin  Walcott  Rose 

Sociology 

1951 

Alvin  Clifton  Stewart11 

Chemistry 

1950 

A.  N.  Vaughn 

Medicine  (Surgery) 

1949- 

H.  H.  Weathers 

v  Medicine  (Surgery) 

1948 

Walter  A.  Younge 

Medicine 

1948 

Sampson  Col,.9  Geneva,  N.Y.          Charles  A.  H.  Benjamin 

Romance  Languages 

1947 

Shelby  T.  Freeman,  Jr. 

Mathematics 

1947 

Lestine  Grant 

—, 

1947 

San  Diego  State  Col.,  San                 Leslie  Pinkney  Hill 

Consultant  Inter-Cultural 

Diego,  Cal. 

Relations 

1947 

Wendell  R.  Lipscomb 

Biology 

Feb.-Junel947 

San  Fran.  State  Col.,  San                  Katherine  Flippin 

Child  Care  Center 

1949- 

Francisco,  Cal.                                Helen  Hatchett 

Child  Care  Center 

1947- 

Paul  F.  Lawrence12 

Educational  Sociology 

Feb.  1,  1952 

Seaton  W.  Manning 

Social  Science 

Spring  1949-50; 

1951-52 

Gloria  Romine 

Asst.  Music  Librarian 

1950- 

Schauffler  Col.  of  Religion  & 

Social  Work,  Cleveland,  Ohio     Alice  Rose 

Physical  Education 

1947-49 

Sch.  of  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,          John  Wilson 

Oil  Painting 

Sept.  1949-June 

Boston,  Mass. 

1950 

Seton  Hall  Col.,  South  Orange,  N.J.  Marco  A.  Baeza 

Marketing 

1951- 

Francis  M.  Hammond 

Philosophy 

1946- 

Sheil  Sch.  of  Social  Studies, 

Chicago,  111.                                    Dora  B.  Somerville 

Education 

1950 

Simmons  Col.,  Boston,  Mass.            William  A.  Hinton 

Medicine 

1920- 

Mrs.  Mary  Parker  Johnson 

Biology 

1948- 

Smith  Col.,  Northampton,  Mass.     Adelaide  C.  Hill 

Sociology 

1945-47 

Springfield  Col.,  Springfield,  Mass.  Harold  Amos 

Biology 

1947-48 

Stanford  Univ.,  Stanford,  Cal.         David  Blackwell 

Mathematics 

Sept.  1950- 

Aug.  1951 

State  Teachers  Col.  of  N.J.,             Beatrice  H.  Daniels 

Testing  and  Remedial  Instruc- 

Trenton, N.J. 

tion  Demonstration  School 

1948-49 

State  Univ.  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,      Phillip  G.  Hubbard 
Iowa                                                    George  R.  Ragland,  Jr. 

Engineering  (Electronics) 
Social  Science 

Feb.  1946- 
1951- 

Howard  Thurman 

Religion 

1946;  1947;  1948 

Syracuse  Univ.,  Syracuse,  N.Y.       James  Burney 

Zoology 

(5) 

Gladys  Edna  Cooper 

Home  Economics 

1948 

William  Countryman 

Remedial  Reading 

(*) 

Julius  Horace  Hughes 

Education 

1950 

Charles  Vert  Willie 

Sociology 

1950 

Teachers  Col.  of  City  of  Boston, 

Boston,  Mass.                                  Emma  Taylor 

— 

1945- 

Tufts  Col.,  Medford,  Mass.              Charles  D.  Bonner 

Medicine 

1949- 

Ronald  Lovell 

Oral  Pediatric 

1951- 

Univ.  of  Akron,  Akron,  Ohio           Raymond  K.  Brown 

Sociology 

1947 

Univ.  of  Bridgeport,  Bridgeport,      William  B.  Pratt 

Romance  Languages 

1945- 

Conn.                                                  Arthur  D.  Wright 

Sociology 

1949-51 

INTEGRATION  IN  EDUCATION 


247 


TABLE  29  (Continued) 


Institution 

Name 

Field  of  Instruction  or 
Specialization2 

Teachers  Serving 
1947-19513 

Univ.  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal. 
Univ.  of  Chicago,13  Chicago,  111. 

Joseph  T.  Gier 
Nathaniel  O.  Galloway 
Allison  Davis 

Electrical  Engineering 
Medicine  (Pharmacology) 
Education 

1946- 
1942- 

Abram  L.  Harris 

Economics 

1946- 

Langston  Hughes 
William  M.  Jones 

Literature  (Resident  Poet) 
Medicine  (Surgery) 

1949 
1946- 

Julian  H.  Lewis 

Medicine 

— 

W.  Robert  Ming,  Jr. 

Law 

1946- 

Robert  Thornton 

Physics 

1948 

Univ.  of  Connecticut,  Storrs, 

Virginia  C.  Davison 

Physics 

Sept.  1951- 

Conn. 

Sara  M.  Kiston 

Home  Economics 

Aug.  1944- 

June  1948 

Univ.  of  Denver,  Denver,  Colo. 

W.  Miller  Barbour 

Sociology 

1948- 

Univ.  of  Illinois,  Urbana  and 
Chicago,  111. 

Paul  P.  Boswell 
Roosevelt  Brooks 
Nathaniel  O.  Galloway1* 

Medicine  (Dermatology) 
Medicine  (Ophthalmology) 
Medicine  (Internal) 

1944- 
1933- 
1945- 

Earl  W.  Renfroe 

Dentistry  (Orhtodontia) 

1946- 

Helen  R.  Rhetta 

Medicine  (Clinical) 

1944- 

Ralph  Scull 

Medicine  (Dermatology) 

1947-49 

Theodore  R.  Sherrod 

Pharmacology 

1941- 

J.  D.  Solomon 

Biochemistry 

1947-48 

Harold  W.  Woodson 

Biochemistry 

1942-49 

Ruth  Ellen  Yancey 

Staff  Nurse 

1944- 

Univ.  of  Massachusetts,  Amherst, 

Mass. 

Edwin  D.  Driver 

Sociology 

1948 

Univ.  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich. 

Edward  J.  Anderson 
Charles  J.  (Baker)  Bolero 

Dental  Surgery 
Shop  Technician 

1950- 
1948- 

Marjorie  Lee  Browne 

Teaching  Fellow 

1947-49 

Broadus  N.  Butler 

Philosophy 

1949-50 

Robert  H.  Davage 

Psychology 

1949- 

Allison  Davis 

Sociology 

1949-50 

John  D.  D.  Agyeman  Dickson 

Geography 

1949- 

Hazel  Garrison 

Botany 

1950-51 

Ralph  M.  Gibson 

Psychology 

1946-1947;  1951- 

Charles  B.  Lee 

Zoology 

1948-51 

Raleigh  Morgan,  Jr. 

French 

1950-51 

Paul  Poston 

Business 

1947-48 

James  A.  Randall 

Sociology 

1951 

Alfred  Stevenson 

Speech 

1948 

David  L.  Stratmon 

Research  Assistant 

1951 

Univ.  of  Minnesota,  Minne- 

Jean Turner  Coins 

Student  Counselor 

1949-50 

apolis,  Minn. 

Ruby  B.  Pernell 

Sociology 

1948- 

Forrest  O.  Wiggins 

Philosophy 

1946- 

Univ.  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

Whitney  Young 

Social  Work 

Summer  1951- 

Univ.  of  Notre  Dame,  South 

Bend,  Ind. 

Lois  G.  Dozier 

Librarian 

1947- 

Univ.  of  Penn.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

William  F.  Fontaine 

Philosophy 

1947- 

Mrs.  Laure  Drake  Nichols 

Social  Casework 

1950- 

Arthur  Thomas 

Medicine 

1946 

Marechal-Neil  E.  Young 

Social  Casework 

1949-51 

Univ.  of  Southern  Cal.,  Los 

Angeles,  Cal. 

E.  Franklin  Frazier 

Sociology 

Summer  1948 

Univ.  of  Toledo,  Toledo,  Ohio 

Constance  Heslip 

Social  Science 

1931- 

Richard  Huston 

Athletics 

1950- 

Garfield  E.  Weathers 

Sociology 

1948 

Univ.  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

Mrs.  Pauline  R.  Coggs 

Sociology 

1945-47 

Mrs.  Maggie  B.  Daniels 

English 

1946-47 

Betty  Hinkson 

Romance  Language 

1948-49 

Utah  State  Agricultural  Col., 

Logan,  Utah 
Vanport  Col.,  Portland,  Ore. 

Miss  Rhoda  Jordan 
Edwin  C.  Berry 

Drama 
Sociology  (Extension  Center) 

1951 
1947- 

Walter  Hervey  Jr.  Col.,  New 

York,  N.Y. 

Mark  Thaxton 

Science 

1947-51 

Washington  Univ.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Julian  Blache 
Arthur  C.  Gary 

Pathology 
Physics 

1949- 
1951- 

Conrad  H.  Cheek 

Chemistry 

1949-51 

G.  A.  Gaikins 

Surgery  (Clinical) 

1949- 

Charles  W.  Hargrave 

Chemistry 

1949- 

Ruth  Harris 

Education 

Summer  1950,  51 

Helen  Nash 

Pediatrics  (Clinical) 

1949- 

Ernest  Simms 

Surgery 

1949- 

William  H.  Sinkler 

Surgery  (Clinical) 

1950- 

William  L.  Smiley 

Obstetrics  and  Gynecology 

(Clinical) 

1950- 

Preston  T.  Talbert 

Chemistry 

1951- 

Edward  B.  Williams 

Medicine  (Clinical) 

1949- 

Wayne  Univ.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Esther  H.  Benjamin 
Charles  W.  Buggs 

Nursing 
Bacteriology 

1951- 
1943-49 

Sylvia  Massenburg 

Chemistry 

1946-49 

Paul  L.  Posten 

Mathematics 

1949- 

Beulah  T.  Whitby 

Social  Work 

1938- 

248 


EDUCATION 


TABLE  29  (Continued) 


Institution 

Name 

Field  of  Instruction  or 
Specialization  ! 

Teachers  Serving 
1947-19513 

Wellesley  Col.,  Wcllesley,  Mass. 

William  Cousins 

Sociology 

1949- 

Western  Michigan  Col.  of  Educ., 

Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

T.  C.  Gothran 

Sociology 

Summer  1950 

Western  Reserve  Univ.,  Cleve- 

Stanley E.  Brown 

Medicine  (Otolaryngology) 

1947- 

land,  Ohio 

Armen  G.  Evans 

Medicine  (Pediatrics) 

1947- 

Charles  H.  Garvin 

Medicine  (Genito-Urinary 

Surgery) 

1947- 

Middleton  H.  Lambright 

Medicine  (Surgery) 

1947- 

William  Penn  Col.,  Oskaloosa, 

Mrs.  Madeline  C.  Foreman 

Biology 

1945-48 

Iowa 

Roland  Sorenson 

History 

1948 

Willimantic  State  Teachers  Col., 

Cora  Moore 

Education 

Sept.  1950-May 

Willimantic,  Conn. 

1951 

Juliette  V.  Phifer 

Education 

1948- 

Wilson  Jr.  Col.,  Chicago,  111. 

Cecil  Lewis 

English 

1950- 

Sylvesta  C.  Scales 

Adult  Education 

1951 

Melvin  Sikes 

Counseling 

1949 

Women's  Medical  Col.  of  Penn., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Mildred  Mitchell  (Bateman) 

Medicine 

Oct.  1948 

Yeshiva  Univ.,  New  York  City 

Alphonse  Heningburg 

Education 

1949 

AGENCIES  AND 
FOUNDATIONS 

National  Scholarship  Service  and  Fund 
for  Negro  Students  (1947)  :x  31  West 
110  St.,  New  York  26,  N.  Y.  Harry  J. 
Carman,  Chairman;  Rev.  James  H. 
Robinson,  Secy.-Treas. ;  Richard  L.  Plaut, 
Exec.  Vice-Chairman.  A  social  welfare 
agency,  supported  by  grants  from  founda- 
tions, allocations  from  college  campus 
chest  drives,  and  individual  contributions, 
it  was  organized  by  seven  college  presi- 
dents for  the  broad  purpose  of  increasing 
opportunities  for  qualified  Negroes  to 
obtain  higher  education  in  interracial 
colleges.  At  the  present  time,  there  are  165 
college  presidents  who  serve  on  its  ad- 
visory board. 

Its  purpose  is  to  help  academically 
qualified  Negro  students  obtain  admission 
and  scholarship  assistance  at  institutions 
of  their  choice  and  to  help  them  make 
that  choice.  The  Service  brings  together 
the  large  group  of  colleges  who  welcome 
Negro  applicants  and  the  thousands  of 
Negro  students  who  need  to  know  how  to 
avail  themselves  of  existing  opportunities. 
The  need  for  this  kind  of  service  program 
lies  in  the  appallingly  low  percentage  of 
Negro  students  at  nonsegregated  colleges. 
They  comprise  less  than  1%  of  the  total 
enrollment,  although  over  10%  of  the 
national  population  is  Negro. 


Some  reasons  for  this  condition  are:  (1) 
Two-thirds  of  all  Negro  Americans  who 
live  in  the  South  receive  a  poor  to  medi- 
ocre elementary  and  secondary  educa- 
tion; (2)  most  Negro  students  in  the 
South  and  North  alike  lack  the  money 
for  a  college  education;  (3)  many  aca- 
demically qualified  Negroes  do  not  know 
that  both  the  administrations  and  the 
student  bodies  of  several  hundred  non- 
segregated  colleges  in  the  North,  Middle- 
West,  and  West  welcome  their  applica- 
tions; (4)  they  do  not  know  that  these 
colleges  and  universities  award  over 
$14,000,000  worth  of  scholarships  annu- 
ally, for  most  of  which  Negroes  are 
equally  eligible  with  all  other;  (5)  many 
students  lack  the  know-how  and  where- 
and-when  of  making  application  for  ad- 
mission for  scholarships. 

The  state  of  Negro  education  in  the 
South  is  a  deep-seated  national  problem 
far  beyond  the  capacity  of  any  private 
organization  to  resolve.  The  agency  is  con- 
cerned with  the  last  four  factors. 

A  Counseling  and  Referral  Service 
leading  towards  admission  to,  and  schol- 
arship aid  at,  the  colleges  and  universities 
in  the  nonsegregated  states  is  the  basic 
tool  of  the  agency.  The  Negro  student  is 
offered  general  orientation  and  advice  on 
choosing  and  gaining  admission,  with 
special  attention  to  whether  the  college 
chosen  or  some  other  source  awards  suffi- 


1  Source:  National  Scholarship  Service  and  Fund  for  Negro  Students. 


AGENCIES  AND  FOUNDATIONS 


249 


ciently  large  scholarships  for  which  he  is 
qualified  and  eligible.  The  agency  works 
with  more  than  12,000  high  schools 
throughout  the  country.  Information 
about  admission  and  scholarship  oppor- 
tunities at  more  than  200  interracial 
institutions  is  made  available  to  their 
students. 

A  Supplementary  Scholarship  Fund 
has  been  established  to  supplement  col- 
lege scholarships,  which  are  often 
awarded  in  amounts  insufficient  to  meet 
the  total  financial  needs  of  students. 
Supplementary  scholarships  are  awarded 
to  selected  southern  students  who  must 
go  the  farthest  from  home  at  the  greatest 
expense  to  attend  nonsegregated  colleges. 
Some  funds  are  also  available  to  meet  the 
needs  of  students  from  the  North  attend- 
ing specified  colleges  where  expenses  are 
unusually  high.  Many  such  students  are 
unable  to  take  advantage  of  admission 
and  scholarship  opportunities  which  they 
have  won,  for  the  lack  of  a  few  hundred 
dollars.  An  average  of  $400  per  student 
per  year  can  make  the  difference.  This 
the  agency  provides  whenever  possible. 

The  Field  Service  is  carried  out  by  the 
agency's  representatives,  who  visit  college 
campuses  all  over  the  country.  Staff  visits 
are  also  made  to  high  schools,  first,  to 
explain  the  service  more  fully,  to  encour- 
age the  cooperation  of  guidance  coun- 
selors, and  to  recruit  applicants,  and, 
later,  to  work  with  individual  students. 

The  Private  School  Program  is  a  lim- 
ited attempt  to  help  some  of  the  large 
numbers  of  Negro  students  in  the  South 
who  would  otherwise  reach  their  senior 
year  in  high  school  with  inadequate 
preparation  for  college.  To  attack  this 
problem  the  agency  has  enlisted  the  co- 
operation of  over  40  leading  preparatory 
schools.  These  accept  applications  from 
qualified  Negroes  on  an  equal  basis  with 
all  others  and  offer,  within  the  school's 
means,  full  or  partial  scholarships  to 
those  whom  they  accept  for  admission, 
making  it  possible  for  some  outstanding 
students  from  the  South  to  receive  better 
secondary-school  preparation. 


The  United  Negro  College  Fund 
(1943) :  22  E.  54th  St.,  New  York  22, 
N.Y.  F.  D.  Patterson,  Pres.;  George  H. 
Burchum,  Treas. ;  W.  J.  Trent,  Jr.,  Exec. 
Dir.1  As  the  nation's  only  organization  of 
its  kind  to  date,  the  United  Negro  Col- 
lege Fund  has  won  a  distinctive  place  for 
itself.  It  has  earned  widespread  recogni- 
tion, not  only  for  having  introduced  an 
entirely  new  formula  for  the  financing  of 
private  higher  education,  but  for  having 
demonstrated  in  the  relatively  short 
period  of  its  existence  the  soundness  of 
its  unique  cooperative  plan. 

Chartered  in  1944,  the  Fund  is  a  kind 
of  educational  community  chest.  It  has  a 
participating  membership  of  32  private 
accredited  colleges  and  universities  lo- 
cated in  12  states,  ranging  from  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Texas,  which  serve  an  average 
of  25,000  students  annually.  Through  the 
Fund,  these  32  institutions  make  one 
united  appeal  each  year  for  public  sup- 
port of  their  operating  expenses.  The 
amount  sought  nationally  represents  ap- 
proximately 10%  of  their  budgets,  and 
since  its  first  campaign  the  Fund  has 
raised  over  $8,000,000  for  its  members. 

The  idea  originated  with  Dr.  F.  D. 
Patterson,  President  of  Tuskegee  Insti- 
tute, in  1943.  At  that  time,  all  privately 
supported  institutions  of  higher  learning 
were  feeling  the  pinch  of  rising  costs  and 
declining  income.  For  the  Negro  colleges 
of  small  endowment  the  situation  was 
particularly  grave.  In  his  concern  for 
their  future,  Dr.  Patterson  called  publicly 
for  group  action,  in  a  newspaper  article 
which  appeared  in  the  Jan.  30,  1943, 
Pittsburgh  Courier  (Pa.).  Written  as  an 
open  letter  to  other  Negro  college  presi- 
dents, this  article  stressed  the  importance 
of  insuring  the  survival  of  these  colleges, 
pointing  out  that  they  had  "carried  the 
brunt  of  our  educational  effort  for  the 
better  part  of  this  experience,"  and  add- 
ing that  they  were  "still  educating  nearly 
half  of  those  who  received  college  train- 
ing." He  proposed  that  these  institutions 
"pool  their  small  monies  .  .  .  and  make  a 
united  appeal  to  the  national  conscience." 


1  Source:  W.  J.  Trent,  Jr.,  Executive  Director,  The  United  Negro  College  Fund. 


250 


EDUCATION 


The  interest  created  by  die  article  re- 
sufced  in  a  series  of  mrrrmgs  of  college 
presidents,  foundation  directors,  and 
odier  edneatonal  andiorities,  and  finally 
in  die  organization  of  die  United  Negro 
College  Fund  in  October  19431 

There  were  those,  however,  who  won- 
dered at  die  audacity  of  die  venture,  even 
while  diey  ipplandtJ  its  enterprising 
spirit.  For  not  only  was  die  idea  of  seek- 
ing financial  support  from  die  general 
public  for  private  education  whoDy  new 
and  untried,  but  die  nation  dien  still  at 
war,  America's  rrsynnst  to  die  first 
appeal  of  die  27  colleges  and  uni»eiMties 
diat  made  up  die  Fund  in  1944  more  dun 
justified  die  vision  and  fanh  of  Dr,  Pat, 
terson  and  die  odier  presidents.  Contribu- 
tions came  from  individual*  in  every  part 
of  die  country,  from  philanthropic  foun- 
dations, business  firms  and  corporations 
bodi  large  and  smaO,  from  chnrch  groups 
and  labor  organizations,  and  even  from 
members  of  die  armed  forces  abroad, 
that  first  effort  resulted  in  $765,567,63, 
Each  year  since,  over  one-million  dollars 
has  been  raised  dirough  die  Fund's  na- 
tion-wide campaigns,  now  conducted  in 
more  than  70  cities  and  towns. 

Since  its  beguming,  die  tfaited  Negro 
College  Tmd  has  bad  the  approval  and 
active  support  of  such  ifirtiif iii<h<  il 
Americans  a*  John  D,  Rockefeller,  Jr,, 
Thomas  A,  Morgan,  Winthrop  W,  Ald- 
rieb,  Chair  A,  Raroett,  Jesse  Jones,  Dr, 
Peter  Marshall  Murray,  Harvey  S,  Fire- 
•tone,  Jr,,  William  Green,  Pbiltip  Murray, 
C  C  Spaufding,  William  Dean  Embree, 
W,  C  Bnford,  T,  S,  Peterson,  Mrs, 
Chauneey  L,  Waddefl,  Dr,  ^"^^tf  H, 
Tobias,  and  many  odier  leaders  m  our 
national  fife. 

Some  measure  of  die  rfcWtiim*  of 
die  Fund's  financial  aid  may  be  taken 
from  Ute  fact  that  nine  of  die  original 
member  colleges  which  came  into  die 
Fund  with  a  "B"  rating  are  now  rated  as 
elass  "A"  institution*  The  money,  used 
<w«eb  items  as  scholarship  aid,  faculty 
*«laries,  teaching,  and  laboratory  and 
Kbrary  rtpiimmtM,  not  only  helps  die 
«wfleges  meet  dieir  annual  operating  ex- 


penses  but  enables  diem  to  improve  and 
expand  dieir  educational  services.  By 
helping  to  tram  more  sound  Negro 
IfinVniuji  and  by  bringing  together 
Hfgnpfa  and  whites,  northerners  and 
sondbenMnv  to  work  harmoniously  to- 
ward a  common  goal,  die  Fund  is  making 
a  positive  contribution  to  greater  inter- 
racial understanding. 

In  its  capacity  as  an  agency  of  public 
information,  die  Fund  has  served  to  focus 
national  attention  on  die  importance  of 
die  work  now  being  done  by  die  private 
Negro  colleges  and  dieir  potential  for  die 
future.  Thus  it  paved  die  way  for  a  new 
and  vital  part  of  its  program  for  strength- 
ening its  member  colleges,  die  recently 
launched  five-year  Capital  Funds  effort 

Opened  officially  on  March  5,  1951, 
with  die  announcement  of  a  $5,000,000 
gift  presented  by  John  D,  Rockefeller, 
Jr,,  die  Capital  Funds  campaign  will 
seek  $25,000,000  to  be  used  for  building 
purposes  by  die  32  united  colleges  and 
universities.  Commenting  on  this  second 
important  step  taken  by  die  member  col- 
leges under  die  leadership  of  die  Fund's 
founder  and  president,  die  New  York 
Time*  stated  in  its  editorial  columns  that 
the  first  gift  of  $5,000,000  by  Mr.  Rocke- 
feller to  this  important  venture  was  not 
notable  for  die  sum  alone,  but  that  "in  a 
time  when  die  role  of  freedom's  champion 
has  been  given  to  die  United  States,  die 
gift  is  a  moving  example  of  faith  in 
American  democracy,  whose  precept  is 
equality  of  opportunity  for  afl," 

Bill  Rotn*#m  Fonndotum  (1951):  home 
Office,  31 J-A  N,  2nd  St,  Rkbmowi,  Va.  A 
nmapfpnt  organization  to  perpetuate  ffcc  mem- 
ory of  Bifl  "Ve$M|fl*f"  KoJwmom,  It  propose* 
to  imj»»v»  "die  social  ami  1M»*  condition*  of 
mmgnifc  and  to  anmum  the  welt-being  of 

:.-     --..--.      r.V    '    .:       ,         V   -.-.-:    i,      ::-    :      V.'.. .-.I/    " 

jferow  /or  fnttrc«lt*ral  Education  (1999)  t 
Broadway,  JT,Y,  19,  ITY,  Tjms  of  serr- 
mdvde :  fcrvist  to  MMk  sdNwrf*  (from 
to  1 94tf  NMMrvk*  course*  were  Cfrcn  to 
1500  feacfaer*  m  nie  N,Y,  poMic  s4to«b  alone 
MI  the  techniques  «•  interct»h«ral  edocation)  ; 
4t**tofimut  of  technique*  through  experi- 
wents  m  selected  scfaoolsy  tuMttt  lessons 
learned  avaiJaMe  tbrow^i  die  Bnreati5*  ptiWica- 
tions;  and  stflmner  workshops  to  intercoltoral 
•-  -  ..  -  -  ,-.-  ,.--•:  .  -  -:  .  ."-.'/•.-;  ;.-  .-:  .-  ,T 
of  cofleces  and  tn»iver*itie», 

Corn***  Cor*,  of  W.Y.  O9J1)  s  original 
•xdsvment  |125XX»/»Oj  522  Fifth  Av*, 


AGENCIES  AND  FOUNDATIONS 


251 


N.Y.  18,  N.Y.  FflTiHhh+ri  by  Andrew  Carnegie 
to  advance  and  diffuse  knowledge  and  under- 
standingamong  the  people  of  the  U.S.  and  die 
British  Dominions  and  colonies.  Recent  grants 
have  been  chiefly  to  library  service,  the  arts, 
and  educational  and  scientific  research.  It 
operates  through  colleges,  universities,  national 
organisations,  and  professional  and  learned 
societies. 

Carmtgit  F&mdatitm  for  AdnMctmrtti  of 
Tracking  (1905):  original  endowment  $10,- 
000.000 ;  522  Fifth  Ave^  N.Y.  18,  N.Y.  It  pro- 
vides "retiring  pensions  nitJUMt  regard  to  race, 
sex,  creed  or  color,  for  teachers  of  universities, 
colleges  and  technical  schools  in  die  United 
States  and  Canada"  and  aims  "in  general  to  do 
and  perform  all  things  necessary  to  encourage, 
uphold,  and  dignify  die  profession  of  the 
teacher  and  die  cause  of  higher  education." 
During  die  period  1947-51,  die  Foundation  set 
aside  $235,000  toward  setting  up  a  five-year 
experimental  cooperative  grant-in-aid  program 
for  teachers  in  a  selected  group  off  Negro  col- 
leges in  die  Southeastern  states,  plus  expendi- 
tures to  programs  of  odier  Negro  organizations 
and  educational  institutions. 

FJortiM  Ltuktr  F«Jlmn*t*  Fttml  (1951): 
original  endowment  $25,000;  The  United 
Ne«ro  Cofleue  Fund,  21  E.  54  St.,  N.Y.  22, 
N.Y.  This  Fund  was  set  up  by  Miss  Lonla  D. 
Lasker  widi  a  grant  of  $25,000  from  a  special 
trust  designated  in  her  late  sister's  will  for 
social,  civic,  scientific  and  educational  pur- 
poses. Annual  fellowships  of  $2,000  and  $1.000 
are  awarded  to  two  women  graduates  from 
among  die  graduates  of  die  32  private,  accred- 
ited colleges  of  the  United  Negro  College  Fund. 

Ford  FovWotioN  (1936)  :  endowment  (Dec. 
31,  1949)  $232.000,000 :  Buhl  Bldg.,  Detroit 
21,  Mich.  The  purpose  is  "to  receive  and  ad- 
minister funds  for  scientific,  educational  and 
charitable  purposes.*"  Five  general  areas  are 
defined:  (1)  activities  that  promise  significant 
contributions  to  world  peace :  (2)  diose  diat 
safeguard  American  freedoms  in  all  fields; 
(3)  diose  that  seek  to  advance  die  economic 
well-being  of  people  everywhere;  (4)  educa- 
tion, including  a*  much-needed  aim  to  improve 
die  quality  and  quantity  of  teachers  and  to 
develop  generally  educated  students;  (5)  to 
increase  die  knowledge  of  factors  which  in- 
fluence or  determine  human  behavior,  emo- 
tionally, technologically,  psychologically,  and 
medically.  It  began  to  function  in  1950  after 
14  years'  existence, 

Gtmtrvt  E4wcm»io*  Board  (1902):  original 
grant  $129,209,117;  49  W.  49  St.,  N.Y.  19. 
N.Y,  By  its  imwoui.  contributions  to  Negro 
education,  and  more  recently  to  programs  look- 
ing toward  the  improvement  of  race  relations 
and  die  lifting  of  die  general  level  of  life  in 
die  southern  states,  die  General  Education 
Board  is  an  important  factor  in  die  field  of 
race  relations.  It  was  endowed  by  John  D. 
Rockefeller  with  the  stated  object  of  '"promot- 
ing education  within  die  United  States  widiout 
distinction  of  race,  sex  or  creed."  Its  present 
program  concentrates  especially  oa  graduate 
work  and  aid  to  a  few  strong  educational 
centers.  It  emphasizes  instruction  in  fields 
related  to  economic  development  of  the  South ; 
aids  research  in  die  social  and  natural  sciences, 
humanities,  and  agriculture,  and  promotes 
training  of  personnel  and  improvement  of 


library  service.  The  Board  "aids  development 
of  undergraduate  schools  and  helps  reinforce 
teaching  and  personnel  in  public  schools." 

Houston  Emdovement,  Imc.  (1937):  Box 
1414,  Houston  1,  Texas.  Organized  imriii  die 
laws  of  Texas  and  endowed  by  Jesse  H.  Jones. 
former  Secy,  of  OlMMirju  and  Mrs.  Jones. 
It  purposes  to  support  charitable,  educational, 
and  religious  undertakings.  Scholarships  are 
administered  and  die  grants  are  known  as  die 
"Jesse  H.  Jones  Scholarships," 

Jok*  Hay  ir*uwr  Fommiftiom  (1946)  :  30 
Rockefeller  Plaza.  N.Y.  20,  N.Y.  Purposes: 
"(1)  to  promore  die  de\^lopment  of  knowledge 
and  die  application  diereof  to  die  improvement 
of  social  welfare,  and  to  that  end  to  conduct 
and  to  assist  investigation,  study,  research. 
experiment  and  die  dissemination  of  informa- 
tion in  die  fields  of  medical  science,  social 
science  and  social  welfare,  and  (2)  to  give  aid 
and  assistance  to  organizations  and  institutions 
which  are  organized  and  operate  i  itlmihiilj 
for  religious,  charitable,  scientific,  literary, 
educational  or  other  benevolent  purposes  and 
are  exempt  from  taxation.*"  In  1949  this  Foun- 
dation MBnaimd  Opportunity  Fellowships  for 
Young  Americans  whose  racial  or  cultural 
backgrounds  have  hampered  their  opportunity 
for  personal  advancement,  widi  Dr.  Robert  C. 
Weaver  as  director. 

John  Simon  Gmoyfnmfim  Mtmtortot  F<XUM(«- 
tiom  (1925)  :  original  endowment  $3.000,000; 
551  Fifdi  Are.,  N.Y.  17,  N.Y.  Fellowships  are 
granted  to  citizens  and  permanent  residents  of 
the  U.S.  to  assist  research  in  any  field  of 
knowledge  and  creative  work  in  any  of  die  fine 
arts.  Fellows  must  have  demonstrated  unusual 
capacity  for  productive  scholarship  or  unusual 
creative  ability  in  die  fine  arts.  The  grants  are 
made  for  varying  periods,  depending  on  die 
time  needed  by  Fellows.  The  sum  of  $3.000  a 
year  is  usual.  A  limited  number  of  fellowships 
are  also  offered  to  some  foreign  students  for 
work  in  die  U.S. 

JmiSKtfd  Mttsfco!  FtttJMtowM  (1920)  :  origi- 
nal uaduwaurt  $12,000,000;  31  Nassau  St., 
N.Y.  5,  N.Y.  Maintains  die  Julliard  School 
of  Music,  aids  worthy  students  to  complete 
their  education,  and  provides  entertainment 
for  the  general  public. 

K*ff&t  FmoMMrwit  (1924)  :  original  endow- 
ment $1,557,376;  2727  Second  Aye.,  Detroit 
32,  Mich.  Created  for  "die  promotion  of  dee- 
mosynary.  philanthropic,  ana  charitable  means 
of  any  of  all  of  the  means  of  human  progress.** 

Jfifemft  Mfmonml  Fwrf  (1905):  original 
oadto*«eat  $3,000,000:  40  Wall  SU  N.Y.  5, 
N.Y.  Established  by  Mrs.  Elizabedi  Milbank 
Anderson  as  a  memorial  to  her  parents.  Pur- 
pose: To  improve  die  physical,  mental,  and 
moral  condition  of  humanity  and  generally  to 
advance  charitable  and  benevolent  objectives  ; 
to  assist  and  promote  MtadM  in  Aft  field  of 
public  health  and  medicine,  education,  social 
welfare,  and  research,  widi  emphasis  on  pre- 
ventive activities.  Widi  additional  gifts,  Mrs, 
Anderson  had  increased  the  original  endow- 
ment to  $9,315,175  in  1921,  die  year  of  her 


N9tJ9*»l  Foundation  for  Inftmtilf  PtnJysis 
(193$)  :  120  Broadway,  N.Y.  5,  N.Y.  Founded 
by  President  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt  to  fight 
infantile  paralysis.  Funds  are  obtained  through 
voluntary  contributions  to  die  annual  "March 


252 


EDUCATION 


of  Dimes"  drive  held  during  last  two  weeks  in 
January.  Of  funds  thus  raised,  half  goes  to  the 
National  Foundation  and  half  to  local  chapters 
for  care  and  treatment  of  polio  patients  and 
for  aid  during  epidemics.  Foundation  does  its 
work  through  institutions  throughout  the  coun- 
try, with  grants  for  investigations  on  the  cause, 
prevention,  and  cure  of  polio. 

National  Phyllis  Wheatley  Foundation,  Inc. 
(1950):  original  endowment  $25,000;  The 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Home,  4450  Cedar  Ave., 
Cleveland  Ohio.  The  Foundation  has  estab- 
lished two  $5,000  scholarships  named  in  mem- 
ory of  Lida  Russell  Hunter  of  Lexington,  Ky., 
and  the  late  Robert  A.  Penn,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Objective  is  to  advance  training  in  vocational 
education,  with  emphasis  on  home  economics, 
cosmetology,  nurse  training,  commercial  edu- 
cation, and  music.  Raised  to  $30,122.12  in 
1951,  Miss  Jane  E.  Hunter,  founder,  announced 
scholarships  would  be  issued  in  1954. 

Phelps-Stokes  Fund  (1911)  :  origin'al  endow- 
ment $936,000;  101  Park  Ave.,  N.Y.  17,  N.Y. 
The  Fund  has  devoted  its  major  attention  to 
Negro  education  and  race  relations  in  the 
U.S.  and  Africa,  and  the  improvement  of 
housing  conditions  in  New  York  City.  It  has 
sponsored  the  University  Commission  on  Race 
Relations ;  the  Commision  on  Interracial  Co- 
operation ;  the  Committee  on  Negro  Americans 
in  Defense  Industries ;  the  Committee  on 
Africa,  the  War,  and  Peace  Aims ;  and  various 
interracial  institutes.  The  Fund  is  now  espe- 
cially concerned  with  advancing  projects  in  the 
interest  of  improving  training  of  Negro  min- 
isters, in  promoting  mutually  sympathetic  race 
relations  through  education,  and  in  the  work 
of  advancing  education  in  Liberia. 

The  Rockefeller  Foundation  (1913)  :  origi- 
nal endowment  $182,814,000;  49  W.  49  St., 
N.Y.  20,  N.Y.  Purpose :  to  promote  the  well- 
being  of  mankind  throughout  the  world, 
through  the  advancement  of  knowledge  in  spe- 
cific fields,  especially  the  medical  sciences, 
the  natural  sciences,  public  health,  social  sci- 
ences, and  the  humanities.  Its  activities  are 
mainly  confined  to  the  support  of  other  agencies 
and  to  the  training,  through  post-doctoral  fel- 
lowships, of  competent  personnel. 

Rosenwald  Fund  (Julius  Rosenwald) 
(1917):  original  endowment  $20,000,000; 
Chicago,  111.  Ceased  operation  June  30,  1948. 
In  operation  31  years,  this  Fund  expended 
some  $22,500,000  on  varied  projects,  ranging 
from  rural  schools  for  Negroes,  to  coveted  fel- 
lowships for  writers,  artists,  musicians,  sci- 
entists, and  educators  of  all  races.  The  money 
came  from  the  capital  and  interest  on  the 
original  endowment  made  of  227,784  shares  of 
Sears,  Roebuck  &  Company  stock.  Rosenwald 
specified  that  returns  from  the  funds  set  aside 
for  this  purpose  be  spent  within  25  years  after 
his  death.  Negro  colleges,  especially  Howard, 
Dillard,  and  Fisk  Universities  and  the  six 


schools  of  the  Atlanta  Federation  of  Colleges 
received  $5,000,000  of  this  sum.  Another 
$5,184,381  went  to  stimulate  the  establishment 
of  5,357  Negro  public  and  rural  schools  in  15 
southern  states.  In  fellowships,  $2,000,000  has 
benefited  600  Negroes  and  250  Whites. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation  (1907)  :  original 
endowment  $15,000,000;  130  E.  22  St.,  N.Y. 
10,  N.Y.  Purpose _:  To  promote  the  improvement 
of  social  and  living  conditions  in  the  U.S.  by 
studying  social  conditions  and  methods  of 
social  work  ;  interpreting  the  findings  ;  making 
available  the  information  through  publications, 
conferences,  and  other  means ;  and  seeking 
to  stimulate  action  for  social  betterment. 

Sidney  Hillman  Foundation  (1948)  ;  orig- 
inal endowment  $1,000,000;  15  Union  Square, 
N.Y.  3,  N.Y.  Created  in  memory  of  the  late 
president  of  the  Amalgamated  Clothing  Work- 
ers of  America,  CIO.  Awards  will  be  distrib- 
uted yearly  for  25  years  to  schools  motivated 
by  the  aims  of  the  late  union  leader  and  hu- 
manitarian, who  died  in  1946.  It  allocates 
funds  for  scholarships,  grants-in-aid,  merit 
awards,  and  other  prizes.  It  seeks  out  excel- 
lence and  encourages  it  in  the  fields  of  en- 
lightened labor-management  relations,  race  re- 
lations, and  world  peace,  including  achieve- 
ment or  efforts  in  related  educational,  eco- 
nomic, and  political  fields. 

Sigmund  Livingston  Memorial  Fund (1947)  ; 
212  Fifth  Ave.,  N.Y.  10,  N.Y.  Maintained  by 
voluntary  contributions.  Allocates  fellowships 
to  selected  universities  having  graduate  social 
science  departments.  The  universities  appoint 
the  Fellows. 

Southern  Conference  Educational  Fund,  Inc. 
(1946)  ;  822  Perdido  St.,  New  Orleans  12,  La. 
Through  its  organ,  The  Southern  Patriot,  con- 
ferences, surveys,  etc.,  this  Fund  keeps  the 
public  informed  on  current  trends  in  educa- 
tion, race  relations,  and  other  social  and  eco- 
nomic problems,  in  order  to  eliminate  racial 
discrimination  by  educational  methods. 

The  Southern  Education  Foundation,  Inc. 
(1937);  original  endowment  $2,310,728;  913 
Cypress  St.,  N.E.,  Atlanta  5,  Ga.  This  Foun- 
dation is  composed  of  four  funds  as  follows : 
The  John  F.  Slater  Fund  (1882)  ;  The  George 
Peabody  Fund  (1918)  ;  The  Anna  T.  Jeanes 
Fund  (1907);  The  Virginia  Randolph  Fund 
(1943).  The  purpose  of  all  is  to  improve  the 
educational  and  living  conditions  of  the  Negro 
race.  At  present,  the  chief  activity  is  aid  in 
support  of  some  506  supervisors  of  Negro  rural 
schools. 

W.  C.  Handy  Foundation  for  the  Blind, 
Inc.;  established  1949  (reorganized  1950)  ; 
112  E.  19  St.,  N.Y.  3,  N.Y.  A  nation-wide 
agency  to  aid  the  blind  and  particularly  the 
Negro  blind,  established  by  William  C.  Handy, 
composer.  Supported  by  contributions.  Hon. 
Miles  A.  Paige,  Exec.  Secy. 


77  V         0 

The  Church  and  Religious  Work 


DENOMINATIONAL  organizations  among 
Negroes  started  because  Negroes  desired 
larger  participation  than  the  organized 
Churches  once  allowed  them.  The  first 
local  churches  were  formed  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  Virginia, 
Pennsylvania,  Georgia,  New  York,  and 
Maryland.  In  1816,  the  African  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  was  established  and 
elected  its  first  bishop  to  preside  over  the 
denomination.  In  1820,  the  African  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Zion  Church  was  estab- 
lished. Both  patterned  their  organizations 
after  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  of 
which  they  had  formerly  been  members. 

No  religious  denomination  is  desig- 
nated "The  Negro  Church."  Denomina- 
tions are  called  "Baptist,"  "Methodist," 
"African,"  "Primitive,"  "Holiness,"  and 
the  like.  Nor  are  local  churches,  so  far 
as  is  known,  called  "Negro."  The  term 
"Negro  Church"  is  simply  a  convenient 
way  to  designate  that  segment  of  the 
Christian  Church  set  apart  by  the  slowly 
vanishing  American  pattern  of  racial 
segregation,  emphasizing  the  racial  rather 
than  the  historical  and  theological  back- 
grounds of  denominations. 

Transplanted  from  Europe,  many  de- 
nominations have  a  history  of  bitterness, 
misunderstanding,  persecution,  and  hair- 
splitting biblical  interpretations  in  which 
Negroes  had  no  part.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
Negroes  do  not  have  the  bitterness  against 
Jews  which  many  white  Christians  have, 
both  in  Europe  and  America.  The  African 
Negro  was  never  involved  in  the  economic 
battles  fought  in  Europe  against  Jews. 
On  the  contrary,  mutual  experience  of 
mistreatment  as  minorities  in  America 
has  brought  Negroes  and  Jews  into  close 
fellowship,  notwithstanding  theological 
differences.  Negro  Protestants  do  not 
have  the  suspicion  and  hatred  against 


Catholics  held  by  many  other  churchmen. 
There  are  no  wars  of  Reformation  or  In- 
quisition in  their  racial  memory.  Tirades 
against  Jews  or  Catholics  are  seldom 
heard  in  Negro  churches. 

Three  main  purposes  for  which  all 
Negro  denominations  work  bring  Negroes 
together:  (1)  they  worship  God  in  their 
own  way,  a  God  who  is  the  Father  of  Ne- 
groes also;  (2)  they  encourage  and 
inspire  Negroes  to  live  the  good  life, 
which  includes  improvement  in  morals, 
social  life,  education,  health,  housing, 
politics,  business,  and  recreation,  as  well 
as  worship  (in  this  task,  the  dynamic 
idea  of  "getting  to  heaven,"  has  undoubt- 
edly been  the  greatest  motivating  force 
for  better  living  on  earth) ;  (3)  the 
"Negro  Church"  preaches  practical 
Christian  brotherhood  and  strives  to  have 
the  Negro  included  in  that  brotherhood. 
Regardless  of  theoretical  differences,  all 
Negro  Churches  easily  unite  to  urge 
American  acceptance  of  the  Negro  as  a 
Christian  brother  through  economic,  polit- 
ical, civic,  and  social  justice.  Thus  the 
"Negro  Church"  has  laid  the  spiritual 
foundation  for  many  fraternal,  business, 
civic,  and  political  movements.  Strange  as 
it  may  seem,  the  "Negro  Church"  is 
founded  more  largely  on  a  sociological 
than  on  a  theological  basis. 

STATISTICS  ON  NEGRO 
CHURCHES 

There  are  no  complete  statistics  on  Negro 
churches  because  most  of  them  do  not 
keep  accurate  records.  Churches  required 
to  make  a  per  capita  financial  report  to 
a  central  authority  with  power  to  remove 
the  pastor  are  apt  to  report  the  minimum 
number  of  members,  while  those  churches 
which  have  no  such  responsibilitiy  may 


253 


254 


THE  CHURCH,  RELIGIOUS  WORK 


report  maximum  membership.  The  U.S. 
Census  is  therefore  the  best  authority.1 

The  reports  of  the  Census  show  that  in 
1906,  36,563  Negro  churches  were  re- 
ported; in  1916,  39,592;  in  1926,  42,585; 
and  in  1936,  38,303.  In  1936,  there  were 
256  religious  bodies  in  the  United  States: 
59  were  demonimations  having  Negro 
churches;  33  were  exclusively  Negro, 
that  is,  had  no  churches  except  Negro 
churches,  and  26  had  one  or  more  Negro 
churches  among  so-called  white  religious 
bodies. 

The  Census  of  1936  showed  that  at 
least  7,000,000  Negroes  did  not  belong 
to  any  church.  The  largest  membership 
of  Negro  Churches  is  found  in  the  South. 
By  size  of  state  membership  they  are: 
Georgia,  Alabama,  Texas,  North  Caro- 
lina, Mississippi,  Louisiana,  South  Caro- 
lina, Virginia,  and  Arkansas.  The  follow- 
ing northern  and  southern  States  have 
over  100,000  Negro  members  each:  Penn- 
sylvania, Tennessee,  Florida,  New  York, 
Illinois,  and  Ohio.  However,  in  the  states 
of  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisi- 
ana, South  Carolina,  Arkansas,  Kentucky, 
and  Tennessee,  Negro  church  member- 
ship is  less  than  half  the  total  Negro 
population,  as  is  the  case  in  all  northern 
states.  In  Ohio,  Church  membership  is 
about  40%  of  the  Negro  population;  in 
Illinois  and  New  York,  approximately 
25%. 

Denominations  Belonging  to 
the  "Negro  Church" 

Information  concerning  denominations 
of  the  "Negro  Church"  is  taken  from  the 
Bureau  of  the  Census,  Religious  Bodies — 
1936,  published  in  1941;  the  Year  Book 
of  American  Churches  for  1951,  edited  by 
George  F.  Ketcham,  and  latest  published 
reports  and  information  furnished  by 
executives  of  the  several  denominations 
and  other  religious  organizations: 
The  African  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church 

This  church  started  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  in 
1787.  The  denomination  was  formed  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1816  and  extended  throughout  the 


North  before  the  Civil  War,  after  which  it 
made  great  progress  in  the  South.  Since  1887, 
it  has  also  operated  in  Africa.  In  1950  it  had 
7,265  churches;  inclusive  membership,  1,166,- 
301.  Membership  13  years  of  age  and  over, 
867,035 ;  African  and  foreign  membership, 
100,000.  Estimated  total  membership,  1,166,- 
301.  General  Conference,  quadrennial. 

OFFICERS  :  Chairman,  Bishops'  Council, 
Bishop  John  A.  Gregg,  1150  Washington  Blvd., 
Kansas  City,  Kans. ;  Secy.,  Bishops'  Council, 
Bishop  Sherman  L.  Greene,  1212  Fountain 
Drive,  Atlanta,  Ga. :  Chief  Secy,  of  Gen'l. 
Conference,  Rev.  Russell  Brown,  4000  Cook 
Ave.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

BISHOPS:  Dist.  1,  D.  Ward  Nichols,  209 
Edgecomb  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y. ;  Dist.  2,  L. 
H.  Hemmingway,  1620  15  St.,  N.W.,  Wash- 
ington, D.C. ;  Dist.  3,  A.  J.  Allen,  2193  E.  89 
St.,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Dist.  4,  George  W.  Ba- 
ber,  110  E.  Boston  Blvd.,  Detroit,  Mich.;  Dist. 
5,  D.  O.  Walker,  Wilberforce,  Ohio ;  Dist.  6, 
S.  L.  Greene,  Morris  Brown  Col.,  Atlanta, 
Ga. ;  Dist.  7,  F.  M.  Reid,  Allen  Univ.,  Colum- 
bia, S.C.;  Dist.  8,  M.  H.  Davis,  1226  Druid 
Hill  Ave.,  Baltimore,  Md. ;  Dist.  9,  W.  A. 
Fountain,  242  Blvd.,  N.E.,  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Dist. 
10,  Joseph  Gomez,  Paul  Quinn  Col.,  Waco, 
Texas;  Dist.  11,  J.  A.  Gregg,  Edward  Waters 
Col.,  Jacksonville,  Fla. ;  Dist.  12,  Richard 
R.  Wright,  Jr.,  2118  Cross  St.,  Little  Rock, 
Ark.;  Dist.  13,  J.  H.  Clayborn,  1800  Marshall 
St.,  Little  Rock,  Ark.;  Dist.  14,  Carey  A. 
Gibbs,  Monrovia,  Liberia,  W.  Africa ;  Dist. 
15,  I.  H.  Bonner,  28  Walmer  Road,  Wood- 
stock, Capetown,  S.  Africa;  Dist.  16,  W.  R. 
Wilkes,  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Dist.  17,  I.  H.  Bonner; 
Reverdy  C.  Ransom,  Director,  Bureau  of  Re- 
search and  History ;  Noah  W.  Williams  (Re- 
tired). 

GENERAL  OFFICERS  :  Business  Manager, 
A.M.E.  Book  Concern,  Rev.  P.  C.  Williams, 
716  S.  19th  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Ed.,  Chris- 
tian Recorder  and  Western  Christian  Re- 
corder, Rev.  Fred  Hughes,  716  S.  19  St., 
Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Secy.-Treas.,  Dept.  of  Mis- 
sions, Rev.  L.  L.  Berry,  112  W.  120  St.,  New 
York,  N.Y. ;  Secy.-Treas.,  Dept.  of  Finance, 
Dr.  A.  S.  Jackson,  1541  14  St.,  N.W.,  Wash- 
ington, D.C. ;  Secy.-Treas.,  Dept.  of  Educ., 
Dr.  E.  A.  Adams,  2113  Lady  St.,  Columbia, 
S.C. ;  Ed.,  A.M.E.^  Church  Review,  Dr.  J.  S. 
Brookens,  509  Weinacker  Ave.,  Mobile,  Ala. ; 
Dept.  of  Religious  Educ.,  Dr.  S.  S.  Morris, 
Direc.,  414  8th  Ave.,  S.,  Nashville,  Tenn. ; 
Secy.-Treas.,  Sunday  School  Union,  Dr.  E.  A. 
Selby,  414  8th  Ave.,  S.,  Nashville,  Tenn.; 
Secy.,  Dept.  of  Religious  Educ.,  Dr.  C.  W. 
Abington,  414  8th  Ave.,  S.,  Nashville,  Tenn.; 
Dept.  of  Church  Extension,  Dr.  P.  W.  Rogers, 
1535  14  St.,  N.W.  Washington,  D.C. ;  Ed., 
Southern  Christian  Recorder,  Dr.  E.  C. 
Hatcher,  414  8th  Ave.,  S.,  Nashville,  Tenn.; 
Secy.-Treas.,  Dept.  of  Pensions,  Dr.  J.  E. 
Beard,  414  8th  Ave.,  S.,  Nashville,  Tenn.; 
American  Bible  Society,  Rev.  V.  C.  Hodges, 
1373  E.  Blvd.,  Cleveland  4,  Ohio;  Connec- 
tional  Woman's  Missionary  Society,  Pres., 
Mrs.  Anne  E.  Heath,  Treas.,  Mrs.  Nora  W. 
Link,  716  S.  19  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Ed., 
Woman's  Missionary  Recorder,  Mrs.  A.  B. 


1  The  United  States  Census  of  Religious  Bodies — 1936,  contains  the  latest  Government   figures  on  churches  in   the 
U.S.  See  The  Negro  Year  Book  1947  for  1936  figures. 


STATISTICS  ON  NEGRO  CHURCHES 


255 


Williams,  Jacksonville,  Fla. ;  Dept.  of  Evan- 
gelism, Direc.,  Dr.  E.  J.  Odom,  716  S.  19  St., 
Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Supt.  of  Young  People's 
Dept.,  Missionary  Society,  Mrs.  Alma  A.  Polk, 
3103  Center  Ave.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Zion  Church 

This  Church  was  started  in  New  York  at 
"Mother  Zion  Church"  in  1796.  The  New  York 
and  several  other  Churches  broke  away  from 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and  organized 
in  1821,  setting  up  their  own  first  conference 
in  Philadelphia. 

Church  membership  758,158;  number  of 
churches  3,060 ;  number  of  ordained  Elders, 
3,500.  Gen'l.  Secy.  R.  Farley  Fisher  writes : 
"During  this  quadrennium.  we  have  carried 
on  an  extensive  building  program  .  .  .  costing 
more  than  $3,000,000.  To  standardize  some  of 
our  schools  on  the  Foreign  Field,  East  and 
West  Gold  Coast  Conferences,  Africa,  we  have 
raised  more  than  $53,000.  Church  property  is 
valued  at  more  than  $22,000,000.  In  the  field 
of  education,  we  have  contributed  more  than 
$5,000,000.  The  director  of  the  Bureau  of 
Evangelism  is  doing  much  constructive  work 
with  the  ministers  of  the  church."  This  shows 
the  progress  which  can  be  made. 

BISHOPS:  Dist.  1,  Benjamin  G.  Shaw,1  1210 
N.  Charles  St.,  Birmingham,  Ala.;  Dist.  2, 
William  Jacob  Walls,  4736  S.  Parkway, 
Chicago,  111.;  Dist.  3,  John  W.  Martin,  4550 
S.  Michigan  Blvd.,  Chicago,  111.;  Dist.  4, 
Cameron  C.  Alleyne,  5861  Haverford  Ave., 
Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Dist.  5,  William  C.  Brown, 
527  W.  Jefferson  Blvd.,  Los  Angeles,  Calif.; 
Dist.  6,  William  W.  Slade,  410  E.  First  St., 
Charlotte,  N.C. ;  Dist.  7,  Buford  F.  Gordon, 
527  Carmel  St.  Charlotte,  N.C. ;  Dist.  8,  Frank 
W.  Alstork,1  622  Keefer  Place,  N.W.,  Wash- 
ington, D.C. ;  Dist.  9,  Edgar  B.  Watson,1  515 
Bennett  St.,  Greensboro,  N.C. ;  Dist.  10,  James 
Clair  Taylor,  353  Boyd  St.  .Memphis,  Tenn. ; 
Dist.  11,  Raymond  L.  Jones,  916  W.  Horah 
St.,  Salisbury,  N.C. ;  Dist.  12,  Hampton  T. 
Medford,  715  Randolph  St.,  N.W.,  Washing- 
ton, D.C. 

GENERAL  OFFICERS  :  Gen'l.  Secy  .-Auditor, 
Rev.  R.  Farley  Fisher ;  Financial  Secy.,  Rev. 
George  F.  Hall ;  Mgr.  of  the  Publication 
House,  Rev.  William  A.  Blackwell,  III;  Ed., 
Star  of  Zion,  Rev.  Walter  R.  Lovell ;  Ed., 
Quarterly  Review,  Rev.  David  H.  Bradley ; 
Secy.,  Brotherhood  Pension,  Home  Missions  & 
Relief,  Rev.  Herbert  B.  Shaw ;  Secy.  Christian 
Educ.,  Dr.  James  W.  Eichelberger ;  Secy. 
Church  Extension,  Mr.  Daniel  W.  Andrews ; 
Direc.  of  Evangelism,  Rev.  W.  S.  Dacon ; 
Secy.-Treas.,  Foreign  Missions,  Rev.  Daniel  C. 
Pope ;  Pres.  of  Livingstone  Col.,  Dr.  W.  J. 
Trent ;  Ed.,  Church  School  Literature,  Dr.  J. 
S.  Nathaniel  Tross. 

OFFICERS  :  WOMEN'S  HOME  AND  FOREIGN 
MISSIONARY  SOCIETY  :  Pres.,  Mrs.  Rosa  L. 
Weller ;  Vice-Pres.,  Missouri  A.  Moore  ;  Exec. 
Secy.,  Emma  B.  Watson ;  Recording  Secy., 
Cynthia  G.  Waff ;  Treas.,  Julia  Baum  Shaw ; 
Secy.,  Young  Women,  Willie  M.  Bascom; 
Supt.,  Buds  of  Promise,  Edra  Mae  Hilliard ; 
Secy.,  Bur.  of  Supplies,  Martha  B.  Francis ; 
Chairman,  Life  Members  Council,  Daisy  E. 

1  Deceased. 


Rudd ;     Ed.,    Woman's    Section,    Missionary 
Seer,  Miss  Eula  M.  Brown. 

African  Orthodox  Church 

This  religious  organization  was  organized 
in  1921  by  George  Alexander  McGuire,  a  for- 
mer priest  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
with  orders  through  Archbishop  Vilatte  of  the 
Assyrian  Jacobite  Apostolic  Church.  This  body 
is  autonomous  and  independent  but  was  asso- 
ciated in  the  beginning  with  the  Marcus  Garvey 
Movement.  Churches,  30 ;  inclusive  member- 
ship, 6,021  (1950).  OFI^CERS:  Patriarch, 
Archbishop  William  E.  Robertson  (James  I), 
122  W.  129  St.,  New  York,  N.Y. ;  Primate 
Western  Province,  Archbishop  Richard  G. 
Robinson,  132  N.  57  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.; 
Chancellor,  Rev.  Fr.  R.  G.  Robinson,  Jr.,  132 
N.  57  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Secy.,  Rev.  Fr. 
A.  C.  Perry-Thompson,  73  West  115  St.,  New 
York,  N.Y. ;  Financial  Secy,  and  Treas.,  W. 
Selkridge,  122  W.  129  St.,  New  York,  N.Y. 

The  African  Union  First  Colored 
Methodist  Protestant  Church, 
U.S.A.  and  Canada 

A  Negro  body  formed  in  1805  out  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It  became  a  de- 
nomination in  1813.  Churches,  36 ;  inclusive 
membership,  2,597  (1944).  Estimated  mem- 
bership 13  years  of  age  and  over,  2,454.  Con- 
ference, annual.  Hq. :  702  Poplar  St.,  Wil- 
mington, Del.  OFFICERS  :  Gen'l.  Pres.,  Rev.  J. 
W.  Brown,  Secy.-Supvr.,  Rev.  T.  E.  Bolden, 
808  Tatnal  St.,  Wilmington,  Del. 

The  Apostolic  Methodist  Church 

Organized  in  1932,  with  the  polity  of  feder- 
ated Congregationalism,  and  the  Bible  as  the 
pure  and  complete  work  of  God.  Churches,  2 ; 
inclusive  membership,  31  (1936).  Membership 
13  years  of  age  and  over,  27.  OFFICERS  :  Pas- 
tor Elder,  E.  H.  Crowson,  Laughman,  Fla. ; 
Lay  Elder,  F.  B.  Amer,  Zepher  Hills,  Fla. 

The  Apostolic  Overcoming 
Holy  Church  of  God 

Organized  in  Alabama  in  1916.  Evangelistic 
in  purpose.  Churches,  200  ;  inclusive  member- 
ship, 8,000  (1942).  Estimated  membership  13 
years  of  age  and  over,  7,200.  OFFICER  :  Bishop 
W.  T.  Phillips,  1070  Congress  St.,  Mobile,  Ala. 

Christ's  Sanctified  Holy  Church 

Organized  in  1903  at  West  Lake,  La.,  from 
among  members  of  a  Negro  Methodist  Church. 
Churches,  28  ;  inclusive  estimated  membership, 
1500  (1948).  Membership  13  years  of  age  and 
over,  831.  Conference,  annual.  Headquarters: 
S.  Cutting  Ave.  and  E.  Spencer  St.,  Jen- 
nings, La.  OFFICERS  :  Pres.,  Elder  J.  A. 
Rigmaiden,  Rt.  1,  Box  288,  West  Lake,  La.; 
Vice-Pres.,  Rev.  C.  C.  Bolden,  Crowley,  La. ; 
Exec.  Secy.,  Mrs.  Mary  A.  Paul,  714  Orange 
St.,  Box  555,  Jennings,  La.;  Dist.  Treas.,  El- 
der J.  Strong,  Glenmore,  La. 

Church  of  Christ,  Holiness,  U.S.A. 

This  body  was  organized  by  a  colored  Bap- 
tist preacher  as  a  holiness  group  in  1894. 
Churches,  139;  inclusive  membership,  7,882 
(1950).  Estimated  membership  13  years  of  age 


256 


THE  CHURCH,  RELIGIOUS  WORK 


and  over,  7,000.  OFFICERS  :  Senior  Bishop  M. 
R.  Conic,  329  E.  Monument  St.,  Jackson, 
Miss.  National  Convention,  annual.  Hg. :  Jack- 
son, Miss. 

Church  of  God  and  Saints  of  Christ 

.  A  Negro  body  organized  in  Kansas  by  Wil- 
liam S.  Crowdy,  who  taught  that  the  Negro 
People  are  descendants  of  the  ten  lost  tribes 
of  Israel.  His  followers  consequently  observe 
the  Old  Testament  feast  days,  use  Hebrew 
names  for  the  months,  and  are  sometimes 
called  "Black  Jews."  Churches,  189 ;  inclusive 
membership,  34,045  (1946).  Membership  13 
years  of  age  and  over,  26,711.  OFFICERS: 
Bishop  H.  Z.  Plummer,  Belleville,  Va.  Oper- 
ates Belleville  Industrial  School  and  Widows 
and  Orphans  Home,  Inc.,  P.O.  Box  187,  Ports- 
mouth, Va.  General  Conference,  quadrennial. 

Church  of  God  in  Christ 

"Believes  in  baptism  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
speaking  in  new  tongues."  Organized  in  1907 
by  Elders  C.  H.  Mason  and  O.  J.  Young,  at 
Memphis,  Tenn.  Membership  approx.  600,000 
(1951).  Main  achievement,  building  of  Mason's 
Temple  in  Memphis,  seating  5,000,  furnishing 
a  permanent  meeting  place  for  the  annual  as- 
semblies. Hq. :  953  S.  5  St.,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

OFFICERS  :  Bishop  C.  H.  Mason,  Senior 
Bishop,  1121  Mississippi  Ave.,  Memphis, 
Tenn.;  Bishop  W.  M.  Roberts,  5858  Indiana 
Aye.,  Chicago,  111.;  Bishop  O.  T.  Jones,  5617 
Girard  Ave.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Bishop  R.  F. 
Williams,  1061  E.  97  St.,  Cleveland,  Ohio; 
Bishop  A.  B.  McEwen,  /Foreign  Fields),  1365 
S.  Parkway  E.,  Memphis,  Tenn. ;  Bishop  Sam- 
uel Crouch,  1397  E.  33  St.,  Los  Angeles,  Calif.  ; 
Bishop  C.  L.  Morton,  Canada. 

EXECUTIVE  OFFICERS  :  Bishop  R.  F.  Wil- 
liams, Nat'l.  Chairman,  1051  E.  97  St.,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio;  Elder  U.  E.  Miller,  Gen'l.  Secy., 
1092  E.  98  St.,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Elder  A.  M. 
Cohen,  Treas.,  1931  N.W.  5th  Court,  Miami, 
Fla. ;  Bishop  O.  T.  Jones,  Ed.,  Y.O.W.W. 
Topics,  57  W.  Girard  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.; 
Elder  C.  O.  Brown,  Secy.-Treas.,  Home  and 
Foreign  Missions,  2027  Park  Ave.,  Kansas 
City,  Mo. ;  Elder  F.  C.  Christmas,  Gen'l.  Supt., 
Sunday  School,  569  E.  Georgia  St.,  Memphis, 
Tenn. ;  Elder  E.  C.  Patrick,  Ass.  Supt.,  Sun- 
day School,  237  King  St.,  Detroit,  Mich. ; 
Elder  S.  Lazrd,  Nat'l.  Registrar  of  Deeds, 
Amite,  La.;  Elder  C.  A.  Ashworth,  Nat'l. 
Statistician,  739  Rhodes  Ave.,  Akron,  Ohio ; 
Elder  James  Feltus,  Treas.,  Nat'l.  Convoca- 
tions, 2619  Galvez  Ave.,  New  Orleans,  La.; 
Elder  C.  E.  Bennett,  Chairman,  Nat'l.  Finance 
Comm.,  2520  Jefferson  St.,  Gary,  Indiana ; 
Elder  J.  E.  Bryant,  Nat'l.  Field  Secy.,  1635 
Berger  St.,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. ;  Mrs.  Lizzie  Rob- 
inson, Gen'l.  Supvr.,  Women's  Work,  2723  N. 
28  St.,  Omaha,  Neb.;  Mrs.  Lillian  Brooks 
Coffey,  Nat'l.  Finance  Secy,  and  Ass.  Supvr.. 
(Gen'l.),  Women's  Work,  429  E.  44  St., 
Chicago,  111. ;  Mrs.  Annie  L.  Bailey,  Nat'l 
Secy.,  Women's  Work,  4629  Vinewodd 
Ave. ;  Detroit,  Mich. ;  Mrs.  Anna  Smith,  Nat'l. 
Recording  Secy.,  2455  Brooklyn  Ave.,  Kansas 
City,  Kans. ;  Mrs.  Ella  V.  Parks,  Ed.,  Whole 
Truth,  820  Montgomery  St.,  Memphis,  Tenn. ; 
Mrs.  D.  J.  Young,  Publisher  Sunday  School 

1  Deceased. 


Literature,  1958  N.  6  St.,  Kansas  City,  Kans. ; 
Mrs.  E.  Brooks,  Ed.,  Sunshine  Topics,  254 
Warren  Blvd.,  Chicago,  111.;  Mrs.  Reubell 
Scott,  Nat'l.  Transportation  Comm.,  1308  Bar- 
nett  St.,  Kansas  City,  Kans. ;  Miss  Arenia  C. 
Mallory,  Pres.,  Saint's  Industrial  School,  Lex- 
ington, Miss. 

Church  of  the  Living  God 
(Christian  Workers  for  Fellowship) 

A  body  founded  by  William  Christian,  at 
Wrightsville,  Ark.,  in  1889.  Its  distinctive 
characteristics  are  believers'  baptism  by  im- 
mersion, foot-washing,  and  the  use  of  water  in 
the  sacrament.  It  is  organized  along  fraternal 
order  lines.  Churches,  6 ;  inclusive  member- 
ship, 120  (1944).  Membership  13  years  of  age 
and  over,  120.  OFFICERS:  Chief,  John  W. 
Christian,  1050  Woodlawn  St.,  Memphis, 
Tenn. ;  Ass.  Chief,  Walter  Christian,  same 
address.  General  Assembly,  quadrennial. 

Church  of  the  Living  God,  Pillar 
and  Ground  of  the  Truth 

Churches,  121  ;  estimated,  inclusive  mem- 
bership, 8,000  (1950).  Membership  13  years 
of  age  and  over,  4,460.  OFFICERS  :  Bishop  A. 
W.  White,  741  N.  48  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Churches  of  God,  Holiness 

A  "body  organized  by  K.  H.  Burrus,  in 
Georgia,  in  1914  in  the  interest  of  Holiness 
doctrines.  Churches,  35 ;  inclusive  member- 
ship, 5,872  (1936).  Membership  13  of  age  and 
over,  4,377.  Hq. :  170  Ashby  St.,  N.W.,  At- 
lanta, Ga.  OFFICERS  :  Bishop  K.  H.  Burrus ; 
corresponding  secy.,  B.  M.  Andrews. 

Colored  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church 

In  1869  the  Negro  churches  of  the  Cumber- 
land Presbyterian  Church  were  set  apart  by  the 
General  Assembly  with  their  own  ecclesiastical 
organization.  Churches,  121  ;  inclusive  mem- 
bership, 30,000  (1944).  Membership  13  years 
of  age  and  over,  20,000.  OFFICERS  :  Modera- 
tor, Rev.  O.  F.  Bishop,  Lewisburg,  Tenn. ; 
Statistical  Clerk,  J.  I.  Hill,  P.O.  Box  595,  Mt. 
Enterprise,  Tex. 

The  Colored  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church 

In  1870  the  General  Conference  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  approved 
the  request  of  its  colored  membership  for  the 
formation  of  their  conference  into  a  separate 
ecclesiastical  body.  Churches,  4,300 ;  inclusive 
membership,  392,167  (1951).  Ministers,  1,872. 
Membership  13  years  of  age  and  over,  321,000. 
Gen'l.  Conference,  quadrennial.  Significant 
work  during  past  five  years  was  building  pro- 
grams at  Texas  Col.  and  Mississippi  Industrial 
Col. 

BISHOPS:  C.  H.  Phillips,1  Emeritus,  10828 
Drexel  Ave.,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  R.  A.  Carter, 
4408  Vincennes  Ave.,  Chicago  15,  111.;  J. 
Arthur  Hamlett,  2112  N.  5  St.,  Kansas  City, 
Kans.;  H.  P.  Porter,  817  W.  Chestnut  St., 
Louisville  3,  Ky. ;  J.  H.  More,1  1382  S.  Park- 
way, E.,  Memphis,  Tenn.;  W.  Y.  Bell,  RFD  1, 
Box  195  South  Boston,  Va. ;  Luther  Stewart, 


STATISTICS  ON  NEGRO  CHURCHES 


257 


Box  375,  Hopkinsville,  Ky. ;  F.  L.  Lewis,  108 
Leroy  St.,  Shreveport,  La. ;  Bertram  W.  Doyle, 
1702  Heiman  St.,  Nashville,  Term. ;  A.  W. 
Womack,  1926  N.  Capitol  St.,  Indianapolis. 
GENERAL  OFFICERS  :  Rev.  E.  P.  Murchison, 
Ed.,  Christian  Index,  P.O.  Box  269,  Jackson, 
Tenn. ;  Rev.  G.  H.  Carter,  Publishing  Agent, 
109-11  Shannon  St.,  Jackson,  Tenn.;  Prof.  F. 
T.  Jeans,  Financial  Secy.,  Box  229,  Jackson, 
Tenn. ;  Rev.  B.  J.  Smith,  Gen'l.  Secy,  of 
S.P.W.&O.  Dept.,  1486  Felix  St.,  Memphis, 
Tenn. ;  Rev.  J.  C.  Allen,  Gen'l.  Secy.,  Kingdon 
Extension,  2533  Washington  St.,  Gary,  Ind. ; 
Rev.  J.  L.  Tolbert,  Gen'l.  Secy,  of  Evangelism, 
270  Bankhead  St.,  New  Albany,  Miss. ;  Mr. 
W.  L.  Graham,  Gen'l.  Secy,  of  Lay  Activities, 
Paine  Col.,  Augusta,  Ga. ;  Rev.  E.  T.  Woods, 
Ed.,  Eastern  Index,  1124  E.  14  St.,  Winston 
Salem,  N.C. ;  Dr.  W.  S.  Martin,  Supt.,  Collins 
Chapel  Hospital,  416  Ashland  St.,  Memphis, 
Tenn.;  Mrs.  R.  T.  Hollis,  Rt.  1,  Box  97B, 
Spencer,  Okla. ;  Mr.  James  A.  Hamlett,  Jr., 
Ed.,  Western  Index,  1612  N.  5  St.,  Kansas 
City,  Kans. ;  Mr.  W.  A.  Bell,  Secretary,  141^ 
Auburn  Ave.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Colored  Methodist  Protestant  Church 

See  African  Union  First  Colored  Methodist 
Protestant  Church. 

Colored  Primitive  Baptist 

Now  National  Primitive  Baptist. 

Fire  Baptized  Holiness  Church 

Organized  1898  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  as  a  Holi- 
ness association.  Churches,  300 ;  inclusive 
membership,  6,000  (1940).  Estimated  mem- 
bership 13  years  of  age  and  over,  5,838.  Gen'l. 
Council,  annual.  Hq. :  556  Houston  St.,  At- 
lanta, Ga.  OFFICERS:  Bishop  W.  E.  Fuller; 
Gen'l.  Secy.,  Rev.  E.  Y.  Bowman. 

Free  Christian  Zion  Church  of  Christ 

Organized  1905,  at  Redemption,  Ark.,  by  a 
company  of  Negro  ministers  associated  with 
various  denominations,  with  polity  in  general 
accord  with  that  of  Methodist  bodies.  Churches, 
37  ;  inclusive  membership,  2,478  (1944).  Mem- 
bership 13  of  age  and  over,  2,286. 

The  House  of  God,  The  Holy  Church  of 
The  Living  God,  The  Pillar  and 
Ground  of  Truth,  House  of 
Prayer  For  All  People 

A  group  organized  by  R.  A.  R.  Johnson  in 
1918.  Churches,  4;  inclusive  membership,  200 
(1936).  Estimated  membership  13  years  of 
age  and  over,  75. 

The  House  of  the  Lord 

Organized  in  1925  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  by  W. 
H.  Johnson.  Churches,  4 ;  inclusive  member- 
ship, 302  (1936).  Estimated  membership  13 
years  of  age  and  over,  302. 

The  Independent  A.M.E.  Denomination 

Organized  in  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  1907,  by 
twelve  elders  who  withdrew  from  the  A.M.E. 
Church.  Churches,  12 ;  inclusive  membership, 
1,000  (1940).  Estimated  membership  13  years 
of  age  and  over,  905.  Conference,  annual.  Hq. : 
Valdosta,  Ga.  OFFICERS  :  Financial  Secy.,  Dr. 
J.  P.  Green,  77  S.  Concord  St.,  Charleston, 
S.C. :  Gen'l.  Missionary  Secy.,  Dr.  G.  W. 
Jones,  R.F.D.  3,  Box  56,  Live  Oak,  Fla. 


Kodesh  Church  of  Immanuel 

Founded  by  Rev.  Frank  Russell  Killings- 
worth  in  1929  from  among  a  group  withdraw- 
ing from  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Zion  Church.  Churches,  9 ;  inclusive  member- 
ship, 562  (1936).  Membership  13  years  of  age 
and  over,  354.  Gen'l.  Assembly,  quadrennial ; 
also,  Annual  Assembly.  OFFICERS  :  Supervis- 
ing Elders,  Rev.  R.  F.  Killingsworth,  1509  S. 
St.,  N.W.,  Washington,  D.C. ;  Rev.  J.  W. 
Harty,  24  Bluffington  Ave.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  Latter  House  of 
the  Lord  Apostolic  Faith 

Organized,  1936  in  Georgia,  basically  Cal- 
vinistic.  Churches,  2 ;  inclusive  membership, 
29  (1936).  Membership  13  years  of  age  and 
over,  26. 

National  Baptist  Convention  of  America 

This  body  of  Baptists,  sometimes  called 
"Boyd  Baptists,"  withdrew  from  the  National 
Baptist  Convention,  U.S.A.,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Dr.  R.  F.  Boyd  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in 
1916.  Churches,  10,851 ;  inclusive  membership, 
2,645,789  (1950).  Estimated  membership  13 
years  of  age  and  over,  2,117,091. 

OFFICERS  :  Pres.  G.  L.  Prince,  2610  Ave.  L 
Galveston,  Tex. ;  1st  Vice-Pres.,  Rev.  C.  D 
Pettaway,  714  W.  10  St.,  Little  Rock,  Ark. 
2nd  Vice-Pres.,  Rev.  S.  A.  Pleasants,  Jr. 
2803  Live  Oak  St.,  Houston,  Tex. ;  Recording 
Secy.,  Rev.  G.  Goings  Daniels,  1215  Church 
St.,  Georgetown,  S.C. ;  1st  Ass.  Recording 
Secy.,  Mr.  A.  W.  Jackson,  P.O.  Box  849, 
Rosenberg,  Tex. ;  2nd  Ass.  Recording  Secy., 
Rev.  D.  C.  Cooksey,  564  N.  5  St.,  Mus- 
kogee,  Okla. ;  3rd  Ass.  Recording  Secy., 
Rev.  R.  W.  Woullard,  P.O.  Box  1294  Hattis- 
burg,  Miss. ;  Corresponding  Secy.,  Rev.  Wil- 
liam Grimble,  Alexandria,  La. ;  4th  Ass.  Re- 
cording Secy.,  Rev.  A.  J.  Bebelle,  New  Or- 
leans, La. ;  Field  Secy.,  Rev.  A.  L.  Roach, 
1062  Parkside  Road,  N.E.,  Cleveland,  Ohio; 
Official  Reporter,  Rev.  William  Downs,  2272 
E.  103  St.,  Cleveland,  Ohio ;  Treas.,  Rev.  A.  A. 
Lucas,  5169  Farmer  St.  Houston,  Tex.;  Audi- 
tor, Rev.  M.  C.  Allen,  Va.  Seminary  &  Col- 
lege, Lynchburg,  Va. ;  Statistician,  Rev.  L.  B. 
Tolson,  3215  Berry  St.,  Houston,  Tex. 

OFFICERS  OF  WOMAN'S  AUXILIARY  :  Pres., 
Mrs.  M.  A.  Fuller;  Vice-Pres.,  Anna  Wash- 
ington; Recording  Secy.,  J.  L.  Harding; 
Treas.,  Rebecca  F.  Smith ;  Parliamentarian, 

E.  J.  Toomer ;  Statistician,  Jessie  Mae  Hicks. 
PRESIDENTS  OF  STATES  :  ALA.,  Rev.  L.   S. 

Thomas,  2428  26  Ave.,  N.,  Birmingham; 
ARIZ.,  Rev.  T.  D.  West,  Mesa ;  ARK.,  Rev.  C. 
D.  Petaway ;  CALIF.,  Union  General,  Rev.  Ben 

F.  Floyd,  Los  Angeles,  Baptist  State  Conven- 
tion, Rev.  B.  O.  Byrd,  Los  Angeles ;  COL.,  S. 
M.  Mitchell;  FLA.,  Rev.  W.  J.  Johnson.  Rev. 
C.  J.  Smith ;  CANADA,  Rev.  Melvin  Singleton, 
Winnipeg ;    GA.,   Rev.    George  J.    Owens,   Al- 
bany;  IND.,  Rev.  C.  Henry  Bell,  Indianapolis; 
ILL.,  Dr.  J.  H.  L.  Smith,  Chicago;  KY.,  Rev. 
A.  C.  Goodlow,  Box  33,  Crab  Orchard;  LA., 
Dr.  C.  Chas.  Taylor,  New  Orleans,  Home  and 
Foreign    Mission    Convention,    Dr.    William 
Grimble;  Miss.,   (South)   Rev.  R.  W.  Woul- 
lard,   Hattisburg,    (Progressive)    Rev.    J.    A. 
Parsons,  Tupelo;  MICH.,  Rev.  B.  A.  Roberson, 
Kalamazoo ;    Mo.,    Rev.    John    W.    Williams, 
Kansas  City,  Kans. ;  MD.,  Rev.  J.  R.  Butler, 


258 


THE  CHURCH,  RELIGIOUS  WORK 


Baltimore;  N.C.,  Rev.  W.  H.  Davidson,  Char- 
lotte; N.Y.,  Rev.  A.  T.  Williams,  796  E.  168 
St.,  Bronx;  OHIO,  R.  D.  Wess,  Cincinnati, 
Rev.  A.  L.  Roach,  Cleveland;  OKLA.,  Dr.  J. 
H.  Winn,  Oklahoma  City;  ORE.,  Rev.  O.  B. 
Williams,  2821  N.  Van  Ave.,  Portland;  S.C., 
Rev.  G.  G.  Daniels,  1215  Church  St.,  George- 
town; TENN.,  Rev.  W.  T.  Speed,  1319  Cheat- 
ham  St.,  Springfield;  TEXAS,  (Gen'l.  Baptist) 
Rev.  S.  R.  Prince,  Fort  Worth  (State  Baptist) 
Dr.  P.  S.  Wilkinson,  San  Antonio;  VA.,  Dr. 
E.  C.  Smith,  2528  R  St.,  N.W.,  Washington, 
D.C. ;  WASH.,  Rev.  D.  H.  Griggs,  211  E.  4th 
Ave.,  Spokane. 

National  Baptists  Convention, 
U.S.A.  Inc. 

The  National  Baptist  Convention  was  or- 
ganized in  1880  at  Montgomery,  Ala.  The  Con- 
vention meets  annually  in  September.  Churches, 
25,350 ;  inclusive  membership  4,445,605 
(1950).  Membership  13  years  of  age  and  over, 
3,776,764. 

OFFICERS  :  Pres.,  Dr.  D.  V.  Jemison,  1605 
Lapsley  St.,  Selma,  Ala. ;  Vice-Pres.  at  Large, 
Rev.  E.  W.  Perry,  511  E.  Third  St.,  Oklahoma 
City,  Okla. ;  Regional  Vice-Pres.,  Rev.  W.  D. 
Archer,  855  Manzanita  Ave.,  Pasadena,  Calif., 
Rev.  T.  S.  Harten,  433  Franklin  St.,  Brooklyn, 
N.Y.,  Rev.  J.  H.  Jackson,  3103  S.  Parkway, 
Chicago,  111. ;  Secy.,  Rev.  U.  J.  Robinson,  256 
N.  Franklin  St.,  Mobile,  Ala. ;  Ass.  Sees.,  Rev. 
W.  B.  Whitfield,  709  Poindexter  St.,  Jackson, 
Miss.,  Rev.  G.  W.  Lucas,  401  Summit  St.,  S. 
Dayton,  Ohio,  Rev.  O.  T.  Moore  King,  156 
Joliet  St.,  Joliet,  111.,  Rev.  M.  K.  Curry,  600 
Sullivan  St.,  Wichita  Falls,  Tex. ;  Secy,  of 
Publicity,  Rev.  W.  P.  Offutt,  2300  W.  Chest- 
nut St.,  Louisville,  Ky. ;  Statistician,  Rev. 
Roland  Smith,  239  Auburn  Ave.,  N.E.,  At- 
lanta, Ga. ;  Historiographer,  Rev.  T.  S.  Boone, 
59  E.  Boston  Blvd.,  Detroit,  Mich.;  Ed., 
Voice,  Rev.  J.  Pius  Barbour,  1614  W.  Second 
St.,  Chester,  Pa.;  Treas.,  Rev.  B.  J.  Perkins, 
7803  Cedar  St.,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Attorneys, 
Mr.  A.  T.  Walden,  239  Auburn  Ave.,  N.E., 
Atlanta  Ga.,  Mr.  C.  L.  Ennix,  Masonic  Tem- 
ple Building,  4th  Ave.,  N.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

VICE-PRESIDENTS  :  ALA.,  J.  C.  Cunningham, 
1414  20  St.,  Ensley,  G.  H.  Hogue,  Box  384, 
Dora  ;  ARIZ.,  R.  N.  Holt,  41  N.  1 1  St.,  Phoenix  ; 
ARK.,  Fred  T.  Guy,  1900  Ringo  St.,  Little 
Rock,  J.  R.  Jamison,  110  Cherokee  St.,  Morril- 
ton;  CALIF.,  W.  P.  Carter,  1907  20  St.,  Santa 
Monica,  L.  B.  Moss,  2775  11  St.,  Riverside; 
COL.,  A.  C.  Dones,  2520  Emerson  St.,  Denver ; 
CONN.,  F.  W.  Jacobs,  26  Buckingham  PI., 
Bridgeport ;  DIST.  OF  COLUMBIA,  Augustus 
Lewis,  2466  Ontario  Road,  N.W.,  Washing- 
ton ;  FLA.,  J.  A.  Finlayson,  3339  Charles  Ave., 
Miami ;  GA.,  L.  A.  Pinkston,  973  Mayson 
Turner,  N.W.,  Atlanta,  W.  H.  Borders,  14 
Younge  St.,  Atlanta;  ILL.,  J.  C.  Austin,  3301 
Indiana  Ave.,  Chicago,  J.  L.  Horace,  632  Oak- 
wood  Blvd.,  Chicago;  IND.,  D.  G.  Lewis,  1610 
Monroe  St.,  Gary,  G.  E.  Johnson,  1004  Walnut 
St.,  Evansville,  A.  D.  Banks,  2833  E.  25  St., 
Indianapoils ;  IOWA,  NEB.,  S.  DAK.,  J.  H. 
Reynolds,  2810  Seward  St.,  Omaha,  Neb.; 
KANS.,  J.  W.  Hayer,  805  Mathewson  St., 
Wichita;  KY.,  William  H.  Ballew,  2222  W. 
Chestnut  St.,  Louisville ;  LA.,  E.  D.  Billoups, 
Box  1252,  Baton  Rouge;  MD.,  Simon  William- 
son, 1220  N.  Carolina  St.,  Baltimore;  MASS., 


Rev.  A.  J.  Spratley,  Boston;  MICH.,  J.  S.  Wil- 
liams, 5600  Chene  St.,  Detroit,  Elbert  L.  Todd, 
4174  11  St.,  Ecourse;  MINN.,  Floyd  Massie, 
Jr.,  719  St.  Anthony  St.,  St.  Paul;  Miss.,  M, 
M.  Morris,  216  N.  Edison  St.,  Greenville,  H, 
H.  Humes,  534  E.  Alexander  St.,  Greenville, 
R.  B.  Ooten,  R.  1,  Box  59,  Lawrence,  E.  M, 
Wicks,  311A  N.  Washington  St.,  Starkville; 
Mo.,  R.  C.  Clopton,  2951  Dayton  St.,  St, 
Louis;  N.J.,  J.  H.  Ashby,  125  Union  Ave., 
Asbury  Park;  N.  MEX.,  A.  W.  Willis,  416  Wi 
Second  St.,  Clovis ;  N.Y.,  G.  H.  Sims,  131  W 
131st  St.,  New  York  City;  N.C.,  (State)  Rev 
J.  M.  Newkirk,  Rose  Hill,  P.  A.  Bishop,  Ricks- 
grove;  OHIO,  J.  Franklin  Walker,  3240  Beres- 
ford  St.,  Cincinnati,  C.  H.  Crable,  2223  E.  43 
St.,  Cleveland ;  OKLA.,  Theodore  Rowland 
2607  N.  Peoria  St.,  Tulsa ;  PENNA.,  Rev.  W' 
B.  Toland,  631  Harris  St.,  Harrisburg ;  S.C, 
W.  L.  Wilson,  164  Freemont  St.,  Spartanburg; 
TENN.,  S.  A.  Owen,  761  Walker  Ave.,  Mem- 
phis, J.  L.  Campbell,  1287  S.  Parkway,  Mem- 
phis; TEXAS,  T.  M.  Chambers,  902  Goode  St. 
Dallas  ,S.  T.  Alexander,  2713  Flora  St.,  Dallas : 
VA.,  E.  C.  Smith,  2801  13  St.,  N.W.,  Wash- 
ington, C.  C.  Scott,  1003  N.  4  St.,  Richmond; 
WASH.,  Emmett  B.  Reed,  E.  207  Third  Ave.' 
Spokane;  W.  VA.,  S.  S.  Abram,  111  Deegir 
Ave.,  E.  Beckley;  Wis.,  J.  L.  Williams,  1635 
N.  9  St.,  Milwaukee. 

National  Baptist  Evangelical  Life 
and  Soul  Saving  Assembly  of  U.S.A. 

Organized  in  1921  by  A.  A.  Banks  as  z 
charitable,  educational  and  evangelical  organi- 
zation. Churches,  644 ;  inclusive  membership 
70,843  (1945).  Membership  13  years  of  agt 
and  over,  48,136.  Assembly,  annual.  Hq. :  124 
Broadway,  Boise,  Idaho.  OFFICERS  :  Exec, 
Captain,  Rev.  A.  A.  Banks,  Sr.,  124  Broadway, 
Boise,  Idaho ;  Gen'l.  Secy.,  A.  A.  Banks,  Jr., 
2116  Pennsylvania  Ave.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

National  David  Spiritual  Temple  of 
Christ  Church  Union  (Inc.)  U.S.A. 

Founded  in  1921  by  the  Most  Rev.  David 
W_illiam  Short,  who  was  originally  a  Baptist 
minister.  Proclaims  the  "orthodox  Christian 
spiritual  faith."  Churches,  56 ;  inclusive  mem- 
bership, 40,565  (1950).  Hq. :  1729  E.  Walder 
St.,  Des  Moines,  Iowa.  OFFICERS  :  Archbishop 
David  William  Short,  Primate,  Pres.  and 
Founder ;  2nd  Vice-Pres.,  Rev.  Miss  Edith 
Miller,  4723  S.  Prairie  Ave.,  Chicago  15,  111.; 
3rd  Vice-Pres.,  Rev.  G.  H.  Watkins,  2319 
Campbell  St.,  Kansas  City  8,  Mo. ;  Exec.  Secy.- 
Treas.,  Rev.  Miss  Nancy  B.  Bryant,  2702 
Erskine  St.,  Omaha,  Neb. ;  Recording  Secy., 
Missionary-Sister  Goldie  Sampson,  1905  E.  16 
St.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. ;  Overseer,  Rev.  J.  W. 
Sampson,  1905  E.  16  St.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.; 
Overseer,  Bishop  S.  C.  Slaughter ;  Missionary- 
Sister  Bettie  Wright  (white)  2106  Locust, 
Omaha,  Neb. ;  Missionary-Sister  Laura  Sparks 
(white),  1422^  E.  18  St.,  Kansas  City,  Mp.; 
Nat'l.  Evangelist,  Rev.  Mrs.  Vivian  Maxine 
Daugherty  (white)  1621  N.  19  St.,  Omaha, 
Neb. ;  Corresponding  Secy.,  Rev.  Mrs.  Bertha 
H.  Riley,  813  Osage  St.,  Leavenworth,  Kan. 

National  Primitive  Baptist 
Convention  of  the  U.S.A. 

Formerly  Colored  Primitive  Baptist. 

This  group  of  Negro  Baptists  is  opposed  to 


STATISTICS  ON  NEGRO  CHURCHES 


259 


all  forms  of  church  organization ;  therefore,  it 
has  no  general  organization.  Churches,  1,000; 
estimated,  inclusive  membership,  72,000 
(1950).  Estimated  membership  13  years  of 
age  and  over,  42,135.  Hq. :  834  W.  Clinton  St., 
Huntsville,  Ala.  STATISTICAL  OFFICER  :  Rev. 
W.  M.  Scott,  2712  22nd  Ave.,  Tampa,  Fla. 

Reformed  Methodist  Union 
Episcopal  Church 

Organized  in  1885  at  Charleston,  S.C., 
among  persons  withdrawing  from  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  The  doctrines 
were  generally  those  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  Churches,  43  ;  inclusive  membership, 
3,000  (1942).  Membership  13  years  of  age 
and  over,  3,000.  Gen'l.  Conference,  annual. 
Hq. :  Charleston,  S.C.  OFFICER  :  Bishop  J.  R. 
Prilou,  45  Kenny  St.,  Charleston,  S.C. 

Reformed  Zion  Union  Apostolic  Church 

Organized  in  1869  at  Boydton,  Va.,  by  Elder 
James  R.  Howell  of  New  York,  a  minister  of 
the  A.M.E.  Zion  Church,  following  doctrines 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Churches, 
55;  inclusive  membership,  12,000  (1950). 
Membership  13  years  of  age  and  over,  2,000. 
OFFICERS  :  Bishop  of  1st  District,,  Rt.  Rev.  G. 
W.  Taylor,  South  Hill,  Va. ;  Bishop  of  2nd 
District,  Rt.  Rev.  R.  H.  Jones ;  Recording 
Secy.,  Mr.  D.  T.  Jones,  Boydton,  Va. 

Triumph  the  Church  and 
Kingdom  of  God  in  Christ 

Organized  in  1902  in  Georgia  by  Elder  E. 
D.  Smith,  emphasizing  sanctification  and  the 
second  coming  of  Christ.  Churches,  1,500 ;  in- 
clusive membership,  20,000  (1950).  Interna- 
tional Religious  congress,  quadrennial.  Hq. : 
4212  3rd  Ave.,  N.  Birmingham,  Ala.  OFFI- 
CERS :  Bishop  C.  C.  Coleman,  808  Elmer  St., 
Biloxi,  Miss.,  Bishop  D.  H.  Harris,  532 
Francis  St.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Union  American  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church 

In  1813  a  Union  Church  of  Africans,  made 
up  of  Negro  members  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  of  Wilmington,  was  incorporated 
in  Delaware.  In  1850  a  division  occurred,  and 
the  main  body  changed  its  name  in  1852  as 
indicated  above.  Churches,  71 ;  inclusive  mem- 
bership, 9,365  (1936).  Estimated  membership 
13  years  of  age  and  over,  7,919.  OFFICERS: 
Bishop  P.  A.  Bouldin,  1928  Federal  St.,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. ;  Bishop  B.  M.  Ferandez,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 

United  American  Free  Will 
Baptist  Church 

A  body  which  set  up  its  organization  in 
1901.  Though  ecclesiastically  distinct,  it  main- 
tains close  relations  with  the  Free  Will  Bap- 
tists. Churches,  350;  inclusive  membership, 
75,000  (1944).  Membership  13  years  of  age 
and  over,  66,000.  Gen'l.  Conference,  triennial. 
Hq. :  215  E.  North  St.,  Kinston,  N.C.  OFFI- 
CERS :  Moderator,  Rev.  E.  M.  Hill,  Lagrange, 
N.C. ;  Gen'l.  Financial  Secy.,  Mr.  H.  R. 
Reeves,  Ayden,  N.C. 

United  Holy  Church  of  America,  Inc. 

Organized  in  1886  at  Method,  N.C.  Ordi- 
nances of  Baptism  by  immersion  and  the  Lord's 


Supper  are  observed.  Churches,  339 ;  inclusive 
membership,  13,381  (1950).  Estimated  mem- 
bership 13  years  of  age  and  over,  24,000.  Con- 
vocation, quadrennial.  Hq. :  31  Miami  Ave., 
Columbus,  Ohio.  Bishop  H.  H.  Hairston,  31 
Miami  Ave.,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Denominations  Having  White 
and  Negro  Membership 

Most  denominations  of  Negro  churches 
are  outgrowths  of  the  larger  denomina- 
tions. Many  churches  are  still  a  part  of 
the  mother  denominations,  although  the 
Negro  membership  may  be  served  in 
separate  local  churches  by  Negro  pastors. 
According  to  the  U.S.  Census  of  1936, 
there  were  26  denominations  not  exclu- 
sively Negro  but  having  Negro  churches 
and  Negro  members.  Statistics  of  the 
Negroes  who  belong  to  local  churches 
which  have  both  Negro  and  whites  in 
their  membership  are  not  readily  avail- 
able. There  are  a  few  such  churches  in 
large  cities  and  many  in  rural  communi- 
ties and  small  towns  where  the  Negro 
population  is  very  small — too  small  to 
form  a  special  group  church.  Some  de- 
nominations of  mixed  membership  follow : 

American  Church  Institute  for  Negroes 

This  corporation  was  authorized  in  1906  by 
the  Board  of  Missions  "to  promote  the  cause 
of  education  of  Negroes  in  the  Southern 
States."  It  is  a  general  Church  institution, 
and  although  it  operates  in  the  field  of  Domes- 
tic Missions,  it  is  not  administered  through 
that  department  but  enjoys  the  status  of  "a 
separate  body  to  report  directly  to  the  Presid- 
ing Bishop  and  Council."  It  also  makes  its 
report  at  one  of  the  mass  meetings  arranged  by 
the  National  Council  during  the  triennial  ses- 
sions of  General  Convention.  Congregations, 
including  missions,  668  ;  number  of  communi- 
cants, 64,000.  Hq. :  82  Devonshire  St.,  Boston, 
Mass.  OFFICERS  :  Presiding  Bishop,  Treas., 
and  Act.  Direc.,  Louis  J.  Hunter.  Direc.,  Rev. 
Cyril  E.  Bentley.  Secy,  and  Ass.  Direc.,  M.  M. 
Millikan. 

Congregational  Christian  Churches 

Made  up  of  the  Congregational  Churches, 
which  date  back  to  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  and 
early  settlers  of  New  England  and  the  Christian 
Churches  which  united  in  1931.  Churches, 
5,651  (1950);  members,  1,227,527.  Estimated 
Negro  membership,  21,181.  Moderator,  The 
General  Council  of  Congregational  Christian 
Churches,  (1950)  Rev.  Vere  V.  Loper;  Ass. 
Moderators,  Rev.  Archie  H.  Hook,  Mr.  Ronald 
Bridges,  Rev.  William  E.  McCormack,  Rev. 
Vaughan  Dabney,  Mrs.  Walter  C.  Giersbach, 
Rev.  Alfred  W.  Swan. 


260 


THE  CHURCH,  RELIGIOUS  WORK 


Evangelical  and  Reformed  Church, 
Board  of  National  Missions 

There  are  some  congregations  with  Negro 
members,  but  no  statistics  for  them.  The  Rev. 
Jefferson  P.  Rogers,  2959  W.  25  St.,  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  Secy,  of  Race  Relations,  is  the  only 
Negro  on  the  general  staff.  "His  work  is  largely 
a  program  of  education  and  promotion  towards 
the  ideal  of  a  nonsegregated  church  in  a  non- 
segregated  society.  Special  emphasis  is  placed 
upon  securing  suitable  Negro  students  for  en- 
rollment in  ...  church  colleges,  and  upon  the 
problems  faced  by  local  congregations  in  com- 
munities where  there  are  Negroes  residing,  and 
upon  support  of  a  program  of  civil  rights." 

The  Evangelical  United 
Brethren  Church 

Founded  in  1946  from  the  merger  of  The 
Church  of  the  United  Brethren,  founded  1800, 
and  the  Evangelical  Church.  Total  membership 
in  the  U.S.,  730,123.  No  Negro  members  in 
America,  but  in  Africa,  6,332  missionary 
members,  and  native  African  superintendents. 
Hq. :  1602  Grand  Ave.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

Lutheran  Synodical  Conference 

Hq. :  Missionary  Board,  210  N.  Broadway, 
St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  Dr.  Karl  Kurth,  Exec.  Secy. 
In  a  few  isolated  cases  Negroes  are  members 
of  white  churches.  There  is,  however,  a 
special  Negro  Synod  in  which  are  108  con- 
gregations and  preaching  stations  in  25  states 
and  the  District  of  Columbia.  The  largest 
number  (34)  is  in  Alabama;  there  are  14 
in  North  Carolina,  10  in  Louisiana,  8  in 
Missouri,  5  in  Illinois,  and  in  the  other  states 
less  than  5.  They  are  served  by  72  pastors. 
They  have  a  membership  of  16,579  (1950), 
with  9,266  communicant  members.  There  are 
9  missionary  districts  in  Nigeria. 

The  Methodist  Church 

The  largest  number  of  Negroes  found  out- 
side of  an  exclusively  Negro  denomination 
is  in  the  Methodist  Church.  Among  the  first 
American  converts  of  John  Wesley  were 
Negroes,  some  of  whom  spread  the  Wesleyan 
Movement  among  Negroes  in  the  West  Indies 
and  on  the  mainland.  The  Methodist  Church 
was  formed  by  the  merger  of  The  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  Methodist  Episcopal 
Cnurch,  South,  and  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church  in  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  in  1939.  The 
organized  Negro  conferences,  19  in  number, 
constitute  the  Central  Jurisdiction,  one  of 
the  six  Jurisdictions  of  the  new  Church. 
Negro  members  outside  the  Central  Juris- 
diction are  reported  as  19,000.  The  Methodist 
Church  was  reported  to  have  40,158  churches 
in  1950.  Its  membership  13  years  of  age  and 
over  is  8,935,647.  The  total  Negro  membership 
in  the  whole  Church  is  368,945. 

The  Bishops  in  The  Methodist  Church  are 
elected  by  Jurisdictional  Conferences,  in 
which  they  become  the  College  of  Bishops, 
with  all  Bishops  constituting  the  Council  of 
Bishops.  There  is  no  discrimination  on  ac- 
count of  race  regarding  the  salaries  of  Bishops 
or  representatives  in  the  General  Conference 
or  on  the  General  Board  of  the  Church. 
There  are  separate  schools  for  Negro  mem- 
bers, but  many  Negroes  attend  Northwestern, 
Drew,  and  Boston  Universities. 


BISHOPS  OF  THE  CENTRAL  JURISDICTION  : 
Baltimore  Area,  A.  P.  Shaw,  1206  Etting  St., 
Baltimore,  Md. ;  Atlantic  Coast  Area,  J.  W.  E. 
Bowen,  250  Auburn  Ave.,  N.E.,  Atlanta,  Ga. ; 
New  Orleans  Area,  R.  N.  Brooks,  631  Ba- 
ronne  St.,  New  Orleans,  La. ;  St.  Louis  Area, 
E.  W.  Kelly,  2731  Pine  St.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.; 
Liberia,  W.  Africa,  Willis  J.  King;  Robert 
E.  Jones  (retired),  Waveland,  Miss. 

CONNECTIONAL      STAFF      OF      THE      CENTRAL 

JURISDICTION  :  M.  S.  Davage,  Secy,  for 
Negro  Institutions,  Bd.  of  Educ.,  810  Broad- 
way, Nashville,  Tenn. ;  J.  A.  Green,  Assoc. 
Secy.,  Bd.  of  Educ.,  810  Broadway,  Nash- 
ville, Tenn. ;  J.  H.  Touchstone,  Assoc.  Secy., 
Bd.  of  Lay  Activities,  740  Rush  St.,  Chicago, 
111.;  J.  W.  Golden,  Assoc.  Secy.,  Bd.  of 
Evangelism,  810  Broadway,  Nashville,  Tenn.; 
A.  R.  Howard  and  C.  H.  Dubra,  Field 
Workers,  Bd.  of  Temperance,  100  Maryland 
Ave.,  Washington,  D.C. ;  T.  B.  Echols,  Assoc. 
Secy.,  Bd.  of  Pensions  and  Relief,  740  Rush 
St.,  Chicago,  111. ;  Theressa  Hoover,  Field 
Worker,  Woman's  Div.  of  Christian  Service, 
Bd.  of  Missions  and  Church  Extension,  150 
Fifth  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y. ;  Edgar  A.  Love, 
Supt.  and  Charles  F.  Golden,  Direc.  of  Field 
Service,  Dept.  of  Negro  Work,  Bd.  of  Mis- 
sions and  Church  Extension,  150  Fifth  Ave., 
New  York,  N.Y. ;  Dennis  R.  Fletcher,  Field 
Worker,  Bd.  of  Missions  and  Church  Exten- 
sion, 1701  Arch  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  John 
W.  Haywood,  Assoc.  Secy.,  Commission  on 
World  Peace,  740  Rush  St.,  Chicago,  l\l. 

Area  Evangelistic  Missions  have  been  held 
successfully  in  each  of  the  four  areas  of  the 
Central  Jurisdiction  in  1950-51.  Thirty-six 
new  church  organizations  have  been  started 
since  1946 ;  8  of  which  are  located  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona.  In  1948,  Attorney  J. 
Ernest  Wilkins  was  elected  to  the  Judicial 
Council,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Methodist 
Church.  This  is  the  first  time  a  Negro  has 
been  elected  to  this  body.  His  term  expires  in 
1956.  In  1951,  Bishop  Alexander  Preston 
Shaw  of  the  Baltimore  Area  was  invited  to 
preside  over  the  Southern  California-Arizona 
Conference  of  the  Western  Jurisdiction  and 
over  the  New  York  Conference  in  the  North- 
eastern Jurisdiction.  This  marks  the  first 
time  that  a  Negro  bishop  has  been  the  pre- 
siding bishop  over  conferences  outside  the 
Central  Jurisdiction.  Dr.  Edgar  Love  was 
assigned  by  the  Council  of  Secretaries  as  the 
representative  of  the  World  Service  and  Gen- 
eral Benevolencies  in  the  Denver  Area  of  the 
Western  Jurisdiction  for  the  quadrennium 
1948-1952.  This  area  includes  the  Colorado, 
Montana,  and  Wyoming  State  Conferences, 
Glen  R.  Phillips,  Resident  Bishop. 

NEGROES  ON  LISTED  COMMISSIONS  AND  COM- 
MITTEES OF  THE  GENERAL  CHURCH:  Com- 
mission On  Rules  of  the  Gen'l.  Conference, 
David  D.  Jones,  Bennett  Col.,  Greensboro, 
N.C. ;  Commission  on  Entertainment  of  the 
Gen'l.  Conference,  R.  G.  Morris,  362  E.  70 
Place,  Chicago,  111.,  M.  W.  Boyd,  Morris- 
town  Col.,  Morristown,  Tenn.;  the  Methodist 
Publishing  House,  Ed.,  The  Central  Christian 
Advocate,  Prince  A.  Taylor,  631  Baronne  St., 
New  Orleans,  La. ;  Bd.  of  Publication,  A.  R. 
Howard,  100  Maryland  Ave.,  Washington, 
D.C.,  M.  S.  Davage,  740  Rush  St.,  Chicago, 


261 


111. ;  Bd.  of  Missions  and  Church  Extension, 
Central  Jurisdiction,  Charles  J.  Booker,  Alonzo 
W.  Harley,  Samuel  L.  Brown,  William  A. 
Love,  H.  Caldwell,  Mrs.  Robert  K.  Gordon, 
Mrs.  J.  W.  Jewett,  Mrs.  W.  L.  Turner;  Bd. 
of  Educ.,  M.  K.  Harris,  T.  B.  Echols,  D.  D. 
Jones,  Mrs.  P.  D.  Johnson ;  Youth  Member, 
T.  P.  Grissom,  Jr. ;  Commission  on  Minis- 
terial Training,  M.  W.  Clark,  Bishop  Willis 
J.  King ;  Association  of  Methodist  Theo- 
logical Schools,  Harry  V.  Richardson ;  Uni- 
versity Senate,  J.  P.  Brawley ;  Bd.  of  Hos- 
pitals and  Homes,  Bishop  J.  W.  E.  Bowen, 
Leon  S.  Moore,  G.  D.  Rawlins,  Mrs.  R.  K. 
Gordon;  Bd.  of  Pensions,  Richard  H.  John- 
son, T.  L.  Miller ;  Bd.  of  Temperance,  Bishop 
Alexander  P.  Shaw,  Edgar  A.  Love,  Mrs. 
Francis  N.  Grant,  Henrietta  Jackson ;  Bd.  of 
Lay  Activities,  Bishop  R.  N.  Brooks,  J.  E. 
Brower,  Hally  P.  Johns,  Charles  W.  Cald- 
well ;  Bd.  of  Evangelism,  Evan  M.  Hurley, 
Andrew  J.  Newton,  O.  V.  Cooper,  Mrs. 
Jennie  R.  Crump ;  American  Bible  Society, 
Daniel  H.  Stanton ;  Commission  on  World 
Peace,  Bishop  Alexander  P.  Shaw,  G.  W. 
Carter,  V.  W.  Hodges ;  Commission  On  World 
Service  and  Finance,  G.  M.  Phelps,  I.  B. 
Loud,  A.  M.  Carter,  Frank  L.  Lane ;  Com- 
mission On  The  Structure  of  Methodism 
Overseas,  W.  L.  Turner ;  Committee  For 
Overseas  Relief,  Mrs.  Samuel  D.  Bankston, 
E.  L.  Lofton ;  Commission  on  Public  Info., 
Daniel  L.  Ridout ;  Commission  on  Worship, 
Edgar  A.  Love,  C.  W.  Caldwell ;  Commission 
on  Church  Union,  Bishop  Alexander  P.  Shaw, 
L.  M.  Harris,  M.  S.  Davage;  Ecumenical 
Methodist  Council,  M.  W.  Clair,  M.  S. 
Davage ;  Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of 
Christ  in  America  (merged  into  National 
Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  U.S.A.), 
Bishop  Alexander  P.  Shaw,  Bishop  R.  N. 
Brooks,  Bishop  Willis  J.  King,  Bishop  E.  W. 
Kelly,  Robert  Harrington,  W.  T.  Handy, 
Hally  P.  Johns,  Mrs.  L.  C.  Thomas,  Robert 
K.  Gordon,  O.  B.  Quick,  Edgar  Love;  Metho- 
dist Delegates  to  Assembly  of  the  World 
Council  of  Churches,  Bishop  Alexander  P. 
Shaw;  Commission  on  Chaplains,  Edgar  A. 
Love,  Hally  P.  Johns ;  Church  Survey  Com- 
mission, E.  M.  Hurley,  T.  R.  W.  Harris,  V. 
W.  Hodges,  Mrs.  Mary  T.  McKenzie ;  Comm. 
to  Study  Relation  of  Editorial  Div.  of  Bd. 
of  Educ.  to  Bd.  of  Publications,  C.  H.  Bubra ; 
Commission  to  Study  the  Ministry,  J.  S. 
Scott ;  Comm.  to  Study  Support  of  Methodist 
Theological  Schools,  Willis  J.  King,  David 
D.  Jones ;  The  Advance  for  Christ  and  His 
Church,  Bishop  R.  N.  Brooks,  S.  M.  Riley, 
H.  L.  Dickason ;  Inter-Agency  Comm.  on 
Social  Actions,  William  A.  Love ;  Negro 
Missionaries,  (Home  Field),  Sallie  Chren- 
shaw,  Florence  Wheeler,  Giles  C.  Brown, 
Rev.  and  Mrs.  Randle,  Isaac  Pittman,  Dor- 
othy Barnette,  Richard  W.  Calvin,  (Foreign 
Field)  India,  Ellen  Barnett,  Pearl  Bellinger, 
Julius  Scott,  Tunnie  Martin ;  Liberia,  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Ulysses  S.  Gray,  Carrie  Peat ;  Cuba, 
Mattie  Thomason ;  Borneo,  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Thomas  A.  Harris;  Brazil,  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Emmett  Steele. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.S. 

One  of  the  Synods  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly (Snedecor  Memorial)  is  composed  entirely 


of  Negroes.  Gen'l.  Assembly,  annual.  Bd. 
of  Church  Extension,  712  Henry  Grady  Bldg., 
Atlanta,  Ga.  Div.  of  Negro  Work,  Rev.  Alex- 
ander R.  Batchelor,  Secy.  Number  of  Negro 
members,  3,231;  Negro  churches,  57;  Negro 
ministers,  45. 

NEGROES  ON  CHURCH  BOARDS  :  Rev.  L.  W. 
Bottoms,  Asst.  Secy.,  Div.  of  Negro  Work, 
712  Henry  Grady  Bldg.,  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Gen'l 
Council,  Rev.  C.  H.  Williams,  1509  36th 
Ave.,  Tuscaloosa,  Ala. ;  Bd.  of  Church  Ex- 
tension, Rev.  Moses  E.  James,  2540  Home 
Dr.,  Charlotte,  N.C. ;  Perm.  Comm.  on  Co- 
operation and  Union,  Rev.  G.  W.  Gideon,  931 
Coleman  St.,  S.W.,  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Stillman 
Col.  Bd.,  Rev.  L.  W.  Bottoms;  Rev.  W.  J. 
Gipson,  2407  Morton  Ave.,  Jackson,  Miss. ; 
Rev.  F.  H.  M.  Williams,  816  37th  Ave.,  Tus- 
caloosa, Ala.;  Dr.  A.  B.  McKenzie,  2534  11 
St.,  Tuscaloosa,  Ala. ;  Dr.  Carl  M.  Hill,  Term. 
State  Univ.,  Nashville,  Tenn.  Representative 
to  "World  Alliance  of  Reformed  Churches" 
throughout  the  world  holding  the  Presbyterian 
System,  Rev.  W.  J.  Gipson,  2407  Morton 
Ave.,  Jackson,  Miss. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.S.A. 

In  1938  the  Negro  work  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  U.S.A.,  secured  its  first  Negro  secre- 
tary in  the  person  of  Rev.  A.  B.  McCoy,  with 
headquarters  in  Atlanta,  Ga.  Rev.  McCoy  died 
in  September  1951.  There  are  (1951)  487 
missionary  enterprises,  including  284  churches 
and  preaching  stations;  17  parishes  and  4 
community  centers ;  3  day  schools ;  20  sum- 
mer conferences;  165  community  Sunday 
Schools ;  14  Presbyterian  Leagues ;  1  annual 
Workers'  Conference;  and  1  publication.  The 
staff  includes  112  pastors  receiving  mission 
aid,  8  Sunday  School  missionaries,  25  com- 
munity workers,  and  40  others  (lay  workers 
and  teachers).  Average  congregational  mem- 
bership is  69,  the  largest  is  700. 

NEGRO  MEMBERS  OF  NATIONAL  BOARD  OF 
MISSIONS  :  Jesse  B.  Barber,  Secy,  of  Negro 
Work,  Lincoln  Univ.,  Chester  County,  Pa.  ; 
Rev.  Hapley  B.  Taylor,  1715  1st  St.,  N.W. 
Washington,  D.C.  NEGRO  MEMBERS  OF  FIELD 
STAFFS:  Rev.  Frank  C.  Shirley,  522  Beatty 
Ford  Road,  Charlotte,  N.C. ;  Rev.  G.  Lake 
Imes,  1940  Druid  Hill  Ave.,  Baltimore,  Md. ; 
Rev.  C.  W.  Talley,  1213  Market  St.,  Cheraw, 
S.C.;  Rev.  H.  R.  Pinkney,  595  Dudley  St., 
Memphis,  Tenn.  There  are  approximately  300 
Negro  missionaries. 

The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 

Originally  the  Church  of  England,  the 
American  churches  withdrew  from  the  Eng- 
lish Church  during  the  Revolutionary  War 
and  became  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  1789.  Churches,  7,784;  inclusive  member- 
ship, 2,540,584  (1950).  Membership  13  years 
of  age  and  over,  1,501,777.  Negro  churches, 
708  (this  includes  rural  and  urban  congrega- 
tions, independent  parishes,  and  missions). 
Negro  members,  64,000  (1945).  The  work  of 
the  Church  among  Negroes  in  the  United 
States  is  different  in  the  North  and  South 
with  regard  to  the  ratio  of  Negroes  touched. 
Some  parishes  in  the  northern  cities  have 
more  Negroes  than  all  the  Negro  Episcopal 
churches  in  four  or  five  of  the  southern  di- 
oceses put  together.  In  1951  in  St.  Philip's 


262 


THE  CHURCH,  RELIGIOUS  WORK 


Church,  New  York  City,  for  instance,  there 
were  3,707  communicants,  making  it  the 
largest  Protestant  Episcopal  congregation  wor- 
shipping in  a  single  edifice  in  New  York  City ; 
while  in  1946  in  the  dioceses  of  Alabama, 
Florida,  Mississippi,  South  Carolina,  and 
western  North  Carolina  combined,  there  were 
2,707  Negro  communicants.  In  October  1942, 
the  National  Council  instituted  a  new  ap- 
proach to  the  promotion  of  Negro  work  by 
the  appointment  of  a  Bi-racial  Sub-committee 
on  Negro  Work,  to  be  set  up  in  the  Division 
of  Domestic  Missions  and  to  function  as  a 
board  of  strategy.  The  Rev.  Bravid  W.  Harris, 
then  Archdeacon  in  the  diocese  of  southern 
Virginia,  was  appointed  as  the  first  Secretary 
for  Negro  Work  on  July  1,  1943.  On  June 
1,  1945,  the  Rev.  Tollie  L.  Caution  succeeded 
the  Rey.  Harris,  who  was  elevated  to  the 
bishopric.  The  first  job  of  the  Secretary  for 
Negro  Work  was  to  survey  the  present  work 
and  study  the  needs,  encouraging  a  sound 
financial  program  through  budget  and  "Every 
Member  Canvass  Method,"  and  to  assist 
churches  in  securing  more  adequate  facilities 
to  do  an  effective  job.  Recruiting  young  people 
for  the  work  of  the  Church  is  done  through 
the  Life  and  Work  Conference,  held  each 
spring  at  Fort  Valley  College  Center,  Fort 
Valley,  Ga.  The  National  Council  in  1943 
adopted  a  statement  of  principles  of  fellowship 
covering  all  their  work  with  Negroes. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church 

The  Secretary  of  the  Commission  for  Catho- 
lic Missions  Among  Colored  People  and  In- 
dians is  the  Rev.  J.  B.  Tennelly,  2021  H. 
Street,  N.W.,  Washington,  D.C.  The  interest 
of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  spiritual  and 
temporal  welfare  of  the  Negro  in  this  coun- 
try goes  back  to  colonial  times  and  was  mani- 
fested in  Maryland  and  Louisiana,  the  only 
colonies  in  which  Catholics  were  allowed  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion.  This  interest 
has  broadened  as  the  Church  itself  has  grad- 
ually expanded  and  gained  strength  in  the 
United  States.  During  the  past  half-century 
particularly,  a  steadily  increasing  number  of 
schools  and  churches  have  been  provided  for 
the  instruction  and  religious  care  of  Negroes. 
Activities  of  this  kind  as  well  as  activities 
designed  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  Negro 
are  now  being  carried  on  in  38  states.  Approxi- 
mately 400,000  Negroes  are  Catholics  (sta- 
tistics of  the  Commission  indicate  398,111  in 
1950).  Two-thirds  of  these  are  members  of 
Negro  congregations ;  the  others  attend 
churches  with  predominantly  white  congrega- 
tions. 

While  appreciable  groups  of  Catholic  Ne- 
groes are  to  be  found  in  the  large  industrial 
cities  of  the  northern  and  western  states, 
slightly  more  than  half  of  this  membership 
resides  in  the  southern  states.  Churches  main- 
tained for  the  special  benefit  of  Catholic  Ne- 
groes or  as  centers  of  evangelization  number 
445,  of  which  296  are  in  the  South.  Schools 
with  an  enrollment  of  69,604  Negro  pupils 
are  attached  to  321  of  these  churches.  Large 
numbers  of  Negro  children  also  attend  other 
Catholic  schools.  The  Church  maintains  ex- 


clusively for  Negroes  80  high  schools,  12 
boarding  schools,  a  college,  one  theological 
seminary,  and  22  institutions  for  industrial 
training  and  the  care  of  orphan  and  delinquent 
children.  Ten  hospitals  and  20  medical  clinics 
are  operated  for  the  exclusive  benefit  of  col- 
ored members.  There  are  two  homes  for  the 
aged  and  one  for  incurables,  and  22  social 
welfare  centers  carry  on  organized  activities, 
such  as  day  nurseries,  recreational  projects, 
libraries,  arid  adult  education.  Negroes  also 
enjoy  the  services  of  many  other  Catholic 
hospitals  and  other  welfare  institutions  which 
have  a  general  clientele.  Although  the  facili- 
ties of  schools,  hospitals,  and  other  welfare 
institutions  are  intended  primarily  for  Catho- 
lic Negroes,  they  are  extended  to  others  when- 
ever possible.  The  personnel  engaged  in  these 
various  activities  consists  of  624  priests,  65 
lay  brothers,  more  than  2,000  nuns,  and  many 
volunteer  and  salaried  lay  workers.1 

The  Salvation  Army 

The  Salvation  Army  operates  in  89  terri- 
tories of  the  world,  preaching  in  81  languages, 
and  ministering  in  practical  ways  to  emer- 
gency needs  of  humans.  These  services  in- 
clude industrial  homes  where  men  can  rebuild 
their  characters,  hospitals  for  unmarried 
mothers,  free  or  low  cost  lodging  houses,  nurs- 
eries for  working  mothers,  fresh-air  camps  and 
boys  clubs.  Negro  Salvationists  have  their  own 
local  groups,  directed  by  Negro  Salvation  Army 
Officers.  Clubs  for  Negro  servicemen  are  now 
being  re-opened  throughout  the  country  during 
the  present  crisis.  The  Red  Shield  Club  Hotel 
in  Harlem,  New  York  City,  outstanding  dur- 
ing World  War  II,  has  become  a  Day  Care 
Center  for  people  over  60  years  of  age,  spon- 
soring parties,  trips,  discussion  groups,  arts 
and  craft  classes,  adult  education  classes, 
projects  such  as  making  surgical  dressings, 
and  religious  services.  It  has  a  membership 
of  1,400,  averaging  125  daily.  Recently  special 
work  has  been  opened  up  in  the  South  for 
Negroes,  and  Negroes  are  being  specially 
trained.  Hq. :  120-130  W.  14  St.,  New  York, 
N.Y. 

The  Seventh-day  Adventist 

Hq. :  Takoma  Park,  Washington,  D.C.  The 
General  Conference  of  Seventh-Day  Adven- 
tists  was  organized  May  21,  1863.  In  1894, 
Seventh-day  Adventists  opened  a  mission  in 
Matabeleland,  South  Africa.  Mission  work 
was  started  in  the  West  Indies  in  1891.  This 
denomination  now  operates  in  193  countries 
and  island  groups.  World  membership  (Dec. 
31,  1950)  756,712;  North  America  member- 
ship (Dec.  31,  1950)  250,939;  Negro  mem- 
bership in  North  America,  26,526 ;  Negro 
membership  in  Africa  and  West  Indies,  ap- 
prox.  120,000.  Negro  churches  in  North  Amer- 
ica, 328,  and  Negro  ministers,  173. 

GENERAL  OFFICERS  (Negro)  :  Elder  George 
E.  Peters,  Secy,  of  the  North  American  Col- 
ored Dept.,  Takoma  Park,  Washington,  D.C. ; 
Calvin  C.  Moseley,  Jr.,  Assoc.  Secy,  of  Col- 
ored Dept.,  Takoma  Park,  Washington,  D.C. ; 
L.  H.  Bland,  Pres.,  Northeastern  Conference, 
560  W.  150  St.,  New  York  City;  J.  H.  Wag- 


1  Sources:  "Catholic  Negro   Missions  in  The  United  States,"  article  in  The  National  Almanac   for  1951;  Gillard, 
John  T.  Colored  Catholics  in  The  United  States,  Baltimore,  1941. 


STATISTICS  ON  NEGRO  CHURCHES 


263 


ner,  Pres.,  Allegheny  Conference,  P.O.  Box, 
21,  Pine  Forge,  Pa.;  H.  W.  Kibble,  Pres., 
Lake  Region  Conference,  619  Woodland  Park, 
Chicago,  111.;  F.  L.  Bland,  Pres.,  Central 
States  Mission,  2528  Benton  Blvd.,  Kansas 
City,  Mo.;  H.  R.  Murphy,  Pres.,  South  Cen- 
tral Conference,  1914  Charlotte  Ave.,  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.;  H.  D.  Singleton,  Pres.,  South 
Atlantic  Conference,  886  Simpson  St.,  N.W., 
Atlanta,  Ga. ;  W.  W.  Fordham,  Pres.,  South- 
west Region  Conference,  3711  Oakland  Ave., 
Dallas,  Texas;  O.  A.  Troy,  Departmental 
Secy.,  Pacific  Union,  1545  N.  Verdugo  Road, 
Glendale,  Calif.;  L.  B.  Reynolds,  Ed.,  The 
Message  Magazine,  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  F.  L. 
Peterson,  Pres.,  Oakwood  Col.,  Huntsville, 
Ala.;  C.  A.  Dent,  M.D.,  Direc.,  Riverside 
Sanitarium  &  Hospital,  800  Young's  Lane, 
Nashville,  Tenn. ;  E.  I.  Watson,  Principal, 
Pine  Forge  Academy,  Pine  Forge,  Pa. ;  J.  L. 
Moran,  Principal,  Northeastern  Academy, 
Bronx,  N.  Y. ;  J.  F.  Dent,  Principal,  Los 
Angeles  Academy,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

United  Presbyterian  Church 

Hq.  :  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Negro  church  officials 
(denominational),  none.  Ministers,  13;  El- 
ders, 94  ;  Congregations,  14  ;  Communicants, 
1,200.  Foreign  missionaries  are  being  sought 
for  the  Sudan.  Rev.  Suder  Q.  Mitchell  of 
Philadelphia  is  a  member  of  the  Board  elected 
by  the  General  Assembly.  Bd.  of  Christian 
Educ.  member,  Dr.  Frank  T.  Wilson,  Lin- 
coln Univ.,  Chester  County,  Pa. ;  Field  Direc., 
Rev.  Shirley,  Rev.  Imes,  Rev.  Talley,  and 
Rev.  Pinkney,  who  also  serve  on  the  Bd.  of 
Christian  Educ.  They  have  a  joint  responsi- 
bility to  the  two  Boards. 

Negroes  Connected  with 
Auxiliary  Church  Organizations 

American  Baptist  Convention 

The  American  Baptist  Convention  has  taken 
the  place  of  the  Northern  Baptist  Conven- 
tion. One  Negro  is  on  the  Board  of  Managers 
for  the  Board  of  Education  publication,  Rev. 
C.  E.  Boddie,  137  Adams  St.,  Rochester,  N.Y. 

The  American  Bible  Society 

Organized  in  1816.  Hq. :  Bible  House,  450 
Park  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y.  Daniel  Burke, 
Pres.  GENERAL  SECRETARIES  :  Rev.  Eric  M. 
North,  Rev.  Frederick  W.  Cropp,  Frank  H. 
Mann,  Rev.  Robert  T.  Taylor;  Gilbert  Dar- 
lington, Treas.  The  purpose  of  this  organiza- 
tion is  the  distribution  of  the  Bible  in  the 
Americas.  Millions  have  been  distributed. 
Work  began  among  colored  people  in  1860. 
A.  Special  Agency  among  Colored  People  of 
the  South  was  started  in  1901  with  the  Rev. 
John  P.  Wragg,  D.D.,  of  Atlanta,  Ga.,  as 
Agency  Secretaryt  In  1920  the  work  of  this 
agency  was  broadened  to  include  all  Negroes 
in  the  United  States.  Sub-agencies  were  es- 
tablished at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Charlotte,  N.C., 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  Memphis,  Tenn.,  and  Hous- 
ton, Texas.  In  1945  the  office  at  Charlotte 
was  moved  to  Richmond.  In  1929,  by  request 
|  of  Dr.  Wragg,  in  connection  with  an  annuity 
endowment  gift,  the  Agency  for  the  Colored 
People  of  the  United  States  was  named  the 
William  Ingraham  Haven  Memorial  Agency 
Among  the  Colored  People  of  the  United 


States.  Negroes  on  the  Board  of  the  American 
Bible  Society  are :  Justice  Francis  E.  Rivers, 
Old  County  Court  Bldg.,  New  York,  N.Y. ; 
Dr.  Channing  H.  Tobias,  101  Park  Ave.,  New 
York,  N.Y.;  C.  C.  Spaulding,  Pres.,  N.  Caro- 
lina Mutual  Life  Insurance  Co.,  Durham, 
N.C. 

The  William  I.  Haven  Memorial  Agency 
includes :  Atlanta  Haven,  Rev.  D.  H.  Stanton, 
Secy.,  56  Gammon  Ave.,  S.E.,  Atlanta,  Ga. ; 
Cleveland  Haven,  Rev.  V.  C.  Hodges,  1373 
E.  Blvd.,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Dallas  Haven, 
Rev.  H.  Leonarde  Thompson,  2516  Thomas 
Ave.,  Dallas,  Texas ;  Richmond  Haven,  Rev. 
Kacem  Brazil,  902  St.  James  St.,  Richmond, 
Va.  While  there  is  no  record  of  American 
Negroes  doing  any  work  of  Bible  translation, 
there  have  been  hundreds  of  African  natives 
who  have  given  valuable  assistance  in  trans- 
lating the  Bible  into  their  languages. 

The  American  Sunday  School  Union 

The  field  work  of  this  society  has  for  its 
purpose  "to  establish  and  maintain  Sunday 
Schools."  The  work  among  Negroes  is  carried 
on  in  the  South  Atlantic  District,  comprising 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, and  Florida.  There  is  one  missionary 
each  in  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  Mississippi, 
who  are,  in  order :  W.  P.  Jackson,  T.  W. 
Patterson,  and  T.  J.  Crawford.  OFFICERS  : 
fielding  B.  Slifer,  Pres.;  John  H.  Talley, 
Recording  Secy,  and  Treas. ;  Elliot  D.  Park- 
hill,  Secy,  of  Missions,  1816  Chestnut  St., 
Philadelphia  3,  Pa. 

Baptist  World  Alliance 

The  Baptist  World  Alliance  is  an  organi- 
zation for  fellowship,  inspiration,  and  informa- 
tion among  Baptists  throughout  the  world. 
The  last  meeting  was  held  in  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
in  1950.  A  large  delegation  of  American 
Negroes  attended.  Rev.  B.  E.  Mays  is  a  vice- 
president.  The  next  meeting  will  be  held  in 
1955  in  London.  NEGRO  MEMBERS  ON  EXECU- 
TIVE COMMITTEE:  Rev.  J.  T.  Ayorinde,  P.O. 
Box  497,  Lagos,  Nigeria,  West  Africa ;  Dr. 
W.  H.  Jernagin,  1341  3rd  St.,  N.W.,  Wash- 
ington D.C. ;  Rev.  A.  A.  Lucas,  5109  Farmer 
St.,  Houston,  Tex. ;  Miss  Nannie  Burroughs, 
Lincoln  Heights,  Washington,  D.C. ;  Rev.  P. 
S.  Wilkinson,  826  Nebraska  St.,  San  Antonio, 
Tex. 

The  Ecumenical  Methodist  Conference 

A  meeting  for  information  and  inspiration 
of  Methodists  throughout  the  world,  it  was 
first  held  in  London  in  1881,  and  every  ten 
years  thereafter,  except  that  the  1941  meeting 
was  held  in  1947.  The  last  meeting  was  held 
at  Oxford,  England,  in  September  1951. 
OFFICERS  :  Joint  Pres.,  Bishop  Ivan  Lee  Holt, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Rev.  W.  F.  Howard,  F.B.A., 
Cambridge,  England.  NEGRO  OFFICERS  :  Dr. 
M.  S.  Davage,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Treas.  Negro 
delegates  from  Methodist  Church :  Bishop 
Willis  J.  King,  J.  P.  Brawley,  Matthew  W. 
Clair,  M.  S.  Davage,  D.  D.  Jones.  Delegates 
from  A.M.E.  Church :  Bishops  John  A. 
Gregg,  S.  L.  Greene,  D.  Ward  Nicols,  F.  M. 
Reid,  A.  J.  Allen,  G.  W.  Baber,  J.  H.  Clay- 
born,  L.  H.  Hemmingway,  J.  Gomez ;  Drs. 
R.  W.  Mance,  O.  N.  Smith,  H.  T.  Primm, 
A.  Wayman  Ward,  A.  S.  Jackson,  L.  A.  Long, 


264 


THE  CHURCH,  RELIGIOUS  WORK 


H.  R.  Hughes,  A.  G.  Gaston,  F.  D.  Jordan, 
F  R  Veal,  F.  A.  Hughes.  Delegates  from 
A  M  E.  Zion  Church :  Dr.  R.  E.  Clement, 
Bishops  J.  W.  Martin,  C.  C.  Alleyne,  B.  F. 
Gordon,  W.  W.  Slade,  W.  J.  Walls,  H.  T. 
Medford,  Mr.  J.  E.  Eichelberger,  Rev.  W. 
O.  Carrington,  Rev.  W.  R.  Lowell.  Dele- 
gates from  C.M.E.  Church:  Bishops  B.  W. 
Doyle,  A.  W.  Womach ;  Rev.  J.  M.  Petti- 
grew:  J.  A.  Johnson,  M.  L.  Breedking,  N.  S. 
Curry,  L.  H.  Pitts,  Mr.  F.  T.  Jeans,  Dr.  W. 
A.  Bell. 

General  Commission  on  Chaplains  for 
U.S.  Armed  Services 

Hq. :  122  Maryland  Ave.,  N.E.,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.;  Mr.  T.  A.  Rymer,  Direc.  Spiritual 
welfare  of  Protestant  chaplains  in  the  U.S. 
armed  services  is  the  chief  concern  of  this 
commission,  on  which  most  Protestant  de- 
nominations have  membership.  REPRESENTA- 
TIVES FROM  NEGRO  CHURCHES  :  Natl.  Bap- 
tist Convention  of  America,  Rev.  J.  R.  Butler, 
Rev.  A.  T.  Williams;  Natl.  Baptist  Conven- 
tion, U.S.A.,  Dr.  W.  H.  Jernagin,  Rev.  C. 
T.  Murray,  Rev.  E.  C.  Smith ;  A.M.E.  Church, 
Bishop  R.  R.  Wright,  Chairman,  Bishop  D. 
Ward  Nichols,  Bishop  Noah  W.  Williams, 
Rev.  L.  L.  Berry;  A.M.E.  Zion  Church, 
Bishop  Buford  F.  Gordon,  Chairman,  Rev. 
S.  Spottswopd,  Rev.  Herbert  B.  Shaw; 
Methodist,  Bishop  R.  A.  Carter,  Chairman ; 
Methodist,  Primitive,  Dr.  Wesley  Boyd,  Chair- 
man. 

National  Council  of  the  Churches  of 
Christ  in  the  United  States  of  America 

Hq. :  297  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  10,  N.Y. 
The  National  Council  was  formed  on  Nov.  29, 
1950,  by  the  merger  of  the  Federal  Council 
of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America  and 
several  other  inter-denominational  agencies. 
Negro  denominations  affiliated  with  the  Na- 
tional Council  are :  Nat'l.  Baptist  Convention, 
U.S.A.,  Inc. ;  Nat'l.  Baptist  Convention  of 
America;  A.M.E.  Church;  A.M.E.  Zion 
Church,  Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
OFFICERS  :  Pres.,  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  Knox 
Sherrill ;  Vice- Pres.,  Mrs.  Douglas  Horton, 
Mrs.  Abbie  Clement  Jackson,  of  the  A.M.E. 
Zion  Church,  Harold  E.  Stassen,  M.  E.  Sad- 
ler ;  Gen'l.  Secy.,  Rev.  Samuel  McCrea  Cavert ; 
Assoc.  Gen'l.  Secy.,  Charles  S.  Wilson. 

Joint  Commission  On 
Missionary  Education 

Formerly  Missionary  Education  Movement 
of  the  U.S.  and  Canada.  Hq. :  156  Fifth 
Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y. ;  Rev.  Roy  G.  Ross, 
Exec.  Secy.  NEGRO  MEMBERS  OF  BOARD  OF 
MANAGERS  :  Mrs.  Beulah  A.  Berry  and  Miss 
Mary  E.  Frizzell  of  the  A.M.E.  Church;  Mrs. 
Abbie  C.  Jackson  and  Mrs.  B.  F.  Gordon  of 
the  A.M.E.  Zion  Church;  Mrs.  Edna  Bronson, 
Nat'l.  Baptist  Convention,  U.S.A.,  Inc. ;  Miss 
Louise  E.  Jefferson,  Staff  Artist. 

Division  of  Christian  Education 

Formerly  the  International  Council  of  Re- 
ligious Education.  Negro  denominations  affili- 
ated:  A.M.E.  Church;  A.M.E.  Zion  Church; 
Church  of  Christ  (Holiness)  ;  Colored  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church ;  Nat'l.  Baptists  Con- 
vention of  America;  Nat'l  Baptist  Conven- 


tion   U.S.A.,    Inc.    Hq. :    73    E.    Adams    St., 
corner  Michigan  Ave.,  Chicago  3,  111. 

Department  of  Racial  and 
Cultural  Relations 

Formerly  The  Department  of  Race  Rela- 
tions of  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches. 
Hq. :  297  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y.  The 
staff  includes  Dr.  J.  Oscar  Lee,  Exec.  Direc. ; 
Dr.  Thomas  C.  Allen,  Direc. ;  Rev.  Alfred 
S.  Kramer,  Admin.  Asst. ;  Mrs.  Sadie  Young 
and  Miss  Geneva  R.  Jones,  office  secretaries. 
New  York  Co-Chairmen,  John  H.  Ives  and 
Bishop  James  Clair  Taylor,  A.M.E.  Zion 
Church.  Significant  accomplishments  in  the 
Department  since  1945:  (1)  Conducting  of 
Interracial  Clinics  (community  self-surveys) 
in  27  cities,  (2)  adoption  of  "The  Church 
and  Race  Relations"  in  1946,  (3)  adoption 
of  "The  Churches  and  Human  Rights"  in 
1948,  (4)  filing  a  brief  amicus  curiae  in  the 
U.S.  Supreme  Court  in  October  1949  in  the 
case  of  Heman  Marion  Sweatt  v.  the  Uni- 
versity of  Texas,  (5)  development  of  Insti- 
tutes on  Racial  and  Cultural  Relations,  which 
are  held  annually  at  Lincoln  University,  Pa. ; 
Eden  Seminary,  Webster  Groves,  Mo. ;  and 
Nenucha  Conference  Grounds,  Corbett,  Ore. 

United  Stewardship  Council 

Organized  1920,  now  the  Joint  Department 
of  Stewardship  and  Benevolence.  Hq. :  297 
Fourth  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y. ;  Rev.  T.  K. 
Thompson,  Exec.  Direc.  NEGRO  MEMBERS  : 
Rev.  Roscoe  M.  Mitchell,  138  Main  St.,  Tarry- 
town,  N.Y. ;  Rev.  W.  H.  Jernigan,  1341.3rd 
St.,  Washington,  D.C. ;  Rev.  D.  V.  Jemison ; 
Mr.  James  E.  Gayle,  310  S.  Saratoga  St., 
New  Orleans,  La. ;  Mr.  J.  C.  McClandon,  182 
Roosevelt  St.,  Jackson,  Miss. ;  Mr.  J.  H. 
Touchstone,  740  Rush  St.,  Chicago,  111. 

National  Fraternal  Council  of 
Negro  Churches  of  U.S.A. 

This  organization  was  founded  in  1934  as 
a  clearing  house  for  the  activities  of  the 
Negro  churches  for  the  improvement  of  civil, 
economic,  industrial,  and  general  social  condi- 
tions in  America,  particularly  as  they  affect 
the  Negroes,  and  for  the  promotion  of  world- 
wide brotherhood.  It  is  interdenominational 
and  non-partisan.  Hq. :  Washington,  D.C. 
OFFICERS:  Pres.,  Bishop  W.  J.  Walls;  Vice- 
Pres.,  Bishop  A.  J.  Allen ;  Exec.  Secy.,  Rev. 
G.  W.  Lucas;  Treas.,  Rev.  J.  H.  Peters. 

National  Religion  and  Labor  Foundation 

Organized  to  bring  better  understanding 
between  labor  and  religious  forces  in  America, 
it  is  definitely  interracial  as  well  as  inter- 
faith  and  interunion.  It  will  not  hold  any 
conference  in  a  hotel  where  segregation  is 
practiced.  "In  our  publications  and  public  ad- 
dresses we  are  constantly  pleading  and  fighting 
for  elimination  of  all  discrimination  and 
segregation  of  Negroes  in  the  democracy  of 
America."  NEGROES  ON  GENERAL  EXECUTIVE 
BOARD  :  Rev.  William  Holmes  Borders,  D.D., 
minister,  Wheat  Street  Baptist  Church,  At- 
lanta, Ga. ;  Dr.  W.  J.  Faulkner,  Dean,  Fisk 
Univ.,  Nashville,  Tenn.;  Mr.  A.  Philip  Ran- 
dolph, Pres.,  Brotherhood  of  Railway  Porters, 
New  York,  N.Y. ;  Bishop  R.  R.  Wright,  Jr., 
Ph.D.,  Twelfth  Episcopal  District,  A.M.E. 


STATISTICS  ON  NEGRO  CHURCHES 


265 


Church,  Little  Rock,  Ark.  Hq. :  40  Pryor  St., 
S.W.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

World  Council  of  Churches 
(Conference  of  U.S.A. 
Member  Churches) 

Hq. :  156  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  10,  N.Y. ; 
Henry  Smith  Leiper,  Gen'l  Secy.  NEGRO 
MEMBERS  :  Nat'l.  Baptist  Convention,  U.S.A., 
Dr.  W.  H.  Borders,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Dr.  J.  M. 
Bracy,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Dr.  R.  W.  Coleman, 
New  Orleans,  La.,  Dr.  J.  H.  Jackson  Chicago, 
111.,  Dr.  W.  H.  Jernigan,  Washington,  D.C., 
Dr.  Benjamin  E.  Mays  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Dr. 
Calvin  K.  Stalnaker  Tulsa,  Okla.  A.M.E. 
Church :  Bishop  A.  J.  Allen,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
Rev.  G.  W.  Blakely,  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  Bishop 
S.  L.  Greene,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Dr.  A.  S.  Jackson, 
Washington,  D.C.,  Rev.  M.  E.  Jackson,  New- 
ark, N.J.,  Bishop  D.  W.  Nichols,  New  York, 
N.Y.  A.M.E.  Zion  Church:  Rev.  George  F. 
Hall,  Greensboro,  N.C.,  Bishop  R.  L.  Jones, 
Salisbury,  N.C.,  Bishop  B.  G.  Shaw,  Bir- 
mingham, Ala.,  Bishop  W.  J.  Walls,  Chicago, 
111.  C.M.E.  Church :  Bishop  J.  Arthur  Ham- 
lett,  Kansas  City,  Kans.,  Mrs.  Lena  A.  Ham- 
lett,  Kansas  City,  Kans.,  Dr.  E.  P.  Murchison, 
Chicago,  111.,  Dr.  B.  Julian  Smith,  Chicago, 
111.  Of  these  members  the  following  serve  on 
the  Executive  Committee:  Dr.  Benjamin  E. 
Mays,  Bishop  S.  L.  Greene,  Bishop  W.  J. 
Walls,  Bishop  J.  Arthur  Hamlett. 

World  Council  of  Christian  Education 
and  Sunday  School  Association 

Hq. :  156  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  10,  N.Y.; 
Annandale,  North  End  Road,  London,  N.W. 
11,  England.  OFFICERS:  Pres.,  Lord  Mackin- 
tosh of  Halifax,  London,  England ;  Chair- 
man, Luther  A.  Weigle,  New  Haven,  Conn. ; 
Gen'l.  Secy.,  Forrest  L.  Knapp,  New  York, 
N.Y. ;  Treas.,  Paul  Sturtevant,  New  York, 
N.Y.  NEGRO  MEMBERS  :S.  S.  Morris,  A.  M. 
Townsend,  J.  W.  Eichelberger,  Jr.,  William 
Walls,  Chester  Kirkendall. 

World's  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association 

Hq. :  37  Quai  Wilson,  Geneva,  Switzerland. 
Mrs.  Robert  W.  Claytor  of  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.,  a  Negro,  is  one  of  the  twelve  U.S. 
World's  Y.W.C.A.  Council  Members. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association 

Hq. :  347  Madison  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y. 
Operates  in  77  countries  on  an  international, 
interracial,  intercultural,  and  inter-religious 
basis.  The  first  YMCA  for  Negroes  was 
organized  in  Washington,  D.C.,  in  1853,  two 
years  after  the  founding  of  the  first  North 
American  Associations  in  Montreal  and  Bos- 
ton. A  second  followed  in  Charleston,  S.C., 
in  1866,  and  a  third  in  New  York  City  in 
1867.  The  first  student  Association  among 
colored  men  was  established  at  Howard  Uni- 
versity in  1869.  The  appointment  of  William 
A.  Hunton,  for  two  years  the  first  paid  col- 
ored YMCA  Secretary  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  as 
the  first  national  leader  for  colored  work 
marked  the  beginning  for  national  organiza- 
tion and  advance.  In  1898,  Jesse  E.  Moorland 
joined  the  International  Committee  staff  to 
organize  colored  Associations  in  the  cities, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Channing  H.  Tobias 


in  1923.  Interest  in  the  expansion  of  YMCA 
services  for  Negroes  was  heightened  by  not- 
able gifts  from  white  philanthropists.  Among 
these  were  George  Foster  Peabody  and  John 
D.  Rockefeller,  Sr.  Julius  Rosenwald,  in 
1910,  offered  $25,000  to  any  city  that  would 
raise  an  additional  $75,000  for  a  YMCA 
building  for  Negroes.  In  all,  25  cities 
availed  themselves  of  this  offer,  and  build- 
ings were  dedicated  between  1912  and  1933 
amounting  to  a  total  cost  of  $5,815,969; 
$612,000  from  Rosenwald,  $472,558  from 
local  Negroes,  and  $4,731,411  from  other 
sources.  The  YMCA  assisted  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Interracial  Commission  at 
the  close  of  World  War  I. 

A  growing  conviction  among  the  leaders 
of  the  moyement  that  the  YMCA  should 
re-examine  its  practices  in  regard  to  Negroes 
was  expressed  in  a  resolution  passed  at  the 
Twentieth  World  Conference  of  YMCA's, 
meeting  in  Cleveland  in  1931,  which  em- 
phasized the  "practice  of  understanding, 
justice,  good-will  and  cooperation  .  .  ."  In 
1946  at  the  International  Convention  and 
National  Council  meeting  held  in  Atlantic 
City,  N.J.,  the  following  resolution  was 
passed :  "That  we  go  on  record  as  urging  all 
Associations  to  take  definite  steps  toward  the 
goal  of  making  possible  full  participation  in 
the  Association  program  without  discrimina- 
tion as  to  race,  color  or  nationality."  Follow- 
ing this  significant  convention  action,  the 
National  Council  in  1947  eliminated  from  its 
by-laws  the  definition  of  Colored  Associa- 
tions and  all  reference  to  Colored  Associa- 
tions as  such.  National  direction  as  now  re- 
lated to  Negro  members  is  administered 
through  the  regular  channels  of  the  National 
Board  staff  without  regard  to  color  or  re- 
ligion. A  portfolio  for  interracial  and  inter- 
cultural  services  was  established  in  the  Pro- 
gram department  to  deal  with  the  over-all 
problems  of  human  relations. 

Another  significant  development  of  this 
period  was  the  establishment  of  the  World 
Youth  Fund  for  the  general  purpose  of  re- 
habilitating and  re-establishing  the  work  of 
the  YMCA  in  war-ravaged  .  countries 
abroad.  However,  under  national  pressures 
arising  from  war-created  problems  at  home, 
more  than  $100,000  was  allocated  from  the 
World  Youth  Fund  to  be  used  in  meeting 
the  post-war  problems  of  Negroes  in  32  com- 
munities throughout  the  nation.  In  addition 
to  this  World  Youth  Fund  aid,  32  communi- 
ties have  raised  $4,000,000  locally  since  1944 
to  rehabilitate,  modernize,  and  construct  new 
buildings  for  enlarged  and  more  effective 
service  to  its  Negro  constituents.  Many  of 
these  existing  organizations  had  been  reor- 
ganized on  an  inclusive  basis  and  are  open 
to  members  without  regard  to  race  or  religion. 

In  1950  a  Commission  on  Interracial  Prac- 
tices was  set  up  to  guide  adjustment.  Though 
at  work  for  less  than  two  years,  there  are 
quite  hopeful  signs  that  its  efforts  are  already 
bearing  fruit.  As  of  early  1951,  it  was  esti- 
mated that  922  Associations  had  some  form  of 
interracial  practice.  Finally,  the  YMCA, 
like  other  organizations,  draws  its  member- 
ship from  the  local  citizenry  and  thus  reflects 
to  considerable  degree  the  local  conception 


266 


THE  CHURCH,  RELIGIOUS  WORK 


of  relationships,  including  those  between 
racial  groups.  As  a  democratic  organization, 
it  operates  through  consent  and  the  slowly 
gathering  consensus,  not  by  mandates  from 
above.  As  a  Christian  organization,  it  seeks 
to  bear  in  mind  and  embody  that  respect  for 
human  personality  that  derives  from  the 
Christian  imperative.  As  a  practical  body,  it 
seeks  through  timely  steps,  such  as  are  de- 
scribed above,  to  express  its  good  faith  and 
its  desire  to  secure,  with  minimum  delay, 
adjustments  in  keeping  with  its  own  objec- 
tives. 

The  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association  of  the  U.5.A. 

Hq. :  600  Lexington  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y. 
NEGRO  MEMBERS  OF  NATIONAL  BOARD  :  Mrs. 
Lorraine  Beale,  Chicago,  111. ;  Mrs.  Lisle  C. 
Carter,  New  York,  N.Y.;  Mrs.  Robert  W. 
Claytor,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.;  Mrs.  A.  Mau- 
rice Curtis,  Paterson,  NJ. ;  Mrs.  William  M. 
Cuthbert,  Verona,  Pa.;  Mrs.  Nathaniel  Dil- 
lard,  Richmond,  Va. ;  Dr.  Dorothy  B.  Fere- 
bee,  Washington,  D.C. ;  Mrs.  Richard  L. 
Martin,  Jersey  City,  NJ.;  Miss  Leonora  E. 
Pritchett,  New  York,  N.Y. ;  and  Mrs.  Carter 
Wesley,  Houston,  Texas.  Five  members  of 
the  National  Professional  staff  are :  Miss 
Mamie  E.  Davis,  Miss  Dorothy  Height,  Miss 
Odile  Sweeney,  Miss  Doris  V.  Wilson,  Mrs. 
Sara-Alyce  Wright.  Three  members  of  the 
USO-YWCA  staff  in  the  field  are:  Miss 
Sylvia  Coleman,  Mrs.  Mildred  Williams  New- 
ton, and  Miss  Pansy  Pendergrass. 

The  YWCA  adopted  a  35  point  program 
recommending  the  inclusion  of  Negro  women 
in  the  "main  stream  of  the  association  life" 
and  calling  for  an  end  of  racial  separation  in 
the  community  YWCA's  throughout  the  coun- 
try at  its  17th  National  Convention  in  Atlantic 
City  in  1946.  Since  that  time,  Associations 
have  been  working  on  this  35-point  plan.  At 
present,  many  of  the  former  85  Negro  branches 
have  both  white  and  Negro  participants  in  pro- 
gram and  direction.  In  some  Associations  the 
branches  have  been  retained,  with  the  partici- 
pants taking  part  in  the  program  in  the  central 
Association  as  well  as  in  the  branch ;  in  other 
cases,  the  branch  has  been  closed  and  its 
members  taken  into  the  activities  of  the  total 
Association. 

NEGRO  CHAPLAINS 

Negro  chaplains  have  a  long  history  in 
the  U.S.  Army,  beginning  with  the  Civil 
War,  during  which  the  following  were 
appointed:  Henry  M.  Turner  (comm. 
Nov.  16,  1863)  1st  Inf.  Reg.  (U.S.  Col- 
ored Troops)  ;  William  Hunter  (comm. 
Oct.  10,  1863)  4th  Inf.  Reg.  (USCT) ; 
James  Underdue  (comm.  June  22,  1864) 
39th  Inf.  Reg.  (USCT) ;  William  Warring 


(no  date  given  for  comm.,  res.  May  20, 
1865)  102nd  Inf.  Reg.  (USCT)  ;  Samuel 
Hamson  (comm.  Sept.  8,  1863,  res.  March 
14, 1864)  54th  Mass.  Inf.  Reg.  (colored)  ; 
William  Jackson  (comm.  July  10,  1863, 
res.  Jan.  14,  1865)  55th  Mass.  Inf.  Reg. 
(colored)  ;  John  R.  Bowles  (no  date 
given  for  comm.,  res.  June  12,  1865)  55th 
Mass.  Inf.  Reg.  (colored)  .*  Another  refer- 
ence is  to  Samuel  Hamson  of  Pittsfield, 
Mass.:  "He  was  refused  pay  as  chaplain, 
because  of  his  color."  2 

Also  found  in  the  History  of  the  Fifty- 
fourth  Regiment  by  Emilio  is  the  state- 
ment: "At  a  meeting  of  the  officers  on  the 
24th  October,  1864,  the  Rev.  James 
Lynch,  a  colored  man,  was  elected  chap- 
lain of  the  Fifty-fourth.  He  was  subse- 
quently commissioned  but  not  mustered." 

For  Negro  chaplains  in  World  Wars  I 
and  II  see  Negro  Year  Book  1947. 

Chaplains  on  Active  Duty 
United  States  Army,  July  1,  1951 

African  Methodist  Episcopal 

Charles  C.  Blake  Captain 

Reuben  T.  Bussey  Captain 

Lee  A.  Cousins  Captain 

John  A.  Deveaux  Lt.  Col. 

John  W.  Downs  Captain 

De  Deleon  Felder  1st  Lt. 

Charles  S.  H.  J.  Hunter  Captain 

Andrew  L.  Johnson  Major 

Hubert  C.  Terrell  Captain 

James  A.  Walker  Captain 

Sullus  B.  Washington  Captain 

Walter  S.  White  Captain 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion 

Walter  D.  S.  Barrett  Captain 

Rufus  A.  Cooper  Captain 

Cajus  B.  Howell  Captain 

Theodore  R.  Owens  Captain 

Raymond  E.  Stephens,  Jr.  1st  Lt. 

James  E.  W.  Stewart  Captain 

Church  of  God,  Indiana 

Cauthion  T.  Boyd,  Jr.  Captain 

Congregational  Christian 

Louis  J.  Beasley  Lt.  Col. 

James  A.  Eaton  1st  Lt. 

Charles  Fisher  Major 

Mitchell  C.  Johnson  1st  Lt. 
Lutheran 

Samuel  A.  Lewis  Captain 
Methodist 

Elmer  P.  Gibson  Lt.  Col. 

Oscar  M.  Graham  1st  Lt. 

John  W.  Handy,  Jr.  Major 

David  S.  Harkness  Captain 


071U  xui.  ixcg.   \UJ\jij,    William  waning,  umva 

1  Source:  Williams,  George  W.,  A  History  of  the  Negro  Troops  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  1861-65,  pp.  143-44. 
New  York :  Harper  &  Bros. 

2  Source :   Emilio,   Louis   F.,   History  of   the  Fifty-fourth  Regiment  of  Massachusetts    Volunteer  Infantry  1863-65, 
2nd  ed.,  pp.  149-50,  Boston :  Boston  Book  Co. 


THE  CHURCH  AND  INTEGRATION 


267 


Ernest  L.  Harrison  Captain 

Pliny  W.  Jenkins  Major 

Norman  G.  Long  Major 

Ernest  N.  Mattison  Captain 

Grandison  M.  Phelps,  Jr.  1st  Lt. 

Augustus  G.  Spears  Captain 

George  W.  Williams  Captain 

Methodist  Episcopal,  Colored 

Millard  F.  Jefferson  Major 

Elisha  B.  McNair  Captain 

Henry  Y.  Sideboard     .  Major 

National  Baptist  Convention  of  America 

Roosevelt  A.  Baker  Captain 

Cassius  M.  C.  Ellis  Captain 

Theodore  P.  Ford  Captain 

Robert  J.  Saunders  Captain 

National  Baptist  Convention,  U.S. A. 
Ernest  W.  Armstrong,  Sr.      Captain 

Ginis  H.  Austin  Captain 

Ralph  E.  Austin  Captain 

David  L.  Brewer  Captain 

Robert  A.  Bryant  Lt.  Col. 

Robert  Crawford,  Jr.  Captain 

William  B.  Crocker  Major 

Lewis  M.  Durden  Major 

Russell  A.  Ferry  Captain 

Chalmers  F.  Gaithers  Captain 

James  L.  Green  1st  Lt. 

Douglas  F.  Hall  Captain 

Rufus  L.  Hill  1st  Lt. 

Brannon  J.  Hopson  Major 

Joseph  D.  Pruden  Captain 

Osborne  E.  Scott  Major 

Albert  J.  Tibbs  Captain 

Presbyterian,  U.S. A. 

Linson  L.  Blackeney  Captain 

Leonard  A.  Ellis  Captain 

Gray  G.  Johnson  Captain 

Cordell  H.  Kennedy  Captain 

Alexander  L.  Lewis  Captain 

Clarence  H.  Richmond  Captain 

Albert  L.  Smith  Major 

James  H.  Stokes  Captain 

Beverly  M.  Ward  Captain 

Protestant  Episcopal 

James  A.  Eden  Major 

James  H.  Murray,  Jr.  Captain 

Maxwell  S.  Whittington  Major 

United  States  Navy 

Edward  J.  Odom 


Thomas  D.  Parham 


Lieutenant, 
A.M.E. 

Lieutenant, 
Presbyterian, 

U.S.A. 

United  States  Air  Force 

African  Methodist  Episcopal 

Leonard  L.  Bruce  Captain 

Julius  C.  Carter  Captain 

Warren  J.  Jenkins  Major 

Simeon  T.  Johnson  Captain 

Alfred  E.  McWilliams  Major 

Methodist 

Frank  A.  Blackwell  Captain 

Alphonse  Maxwell  Captain 

Presbyterian,  U.S.A. 

Booker  T.  Davis  Captain 

Simon  H.  Scott,  Jr.  1st  Lt. 

National  Baptist  Convention,  U.S.A. 

Drue  C.  Ford  Captain 

William  R.  Gray  Major 


James  C.  Griffin  Lt.  Col. 

Elijah  H.  Hankerson  Captain 

William  J.  King  1st  Lt. 

William  M.  Perkins  Captain 

Theodore  R.  Smith  Major 

Frank  L.  White  Major 
Protestant  Episcopal 

James  A.  Mayo  Major 

THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH 
AND  INTEGRATION 

Integration  of  Negroes  into  American 
churches  has  made  progress  during  the 
past  five  years,  but  the  door  to  labor  and 
labor  union  membership,  to  university 
matriculation,  to  Democratic  and  Repub- 
lican party  membership,  to  government 
employment,  is  open  wider  to  Negroes 
than  the  door  to  church  membership.  In- 
tegration in  the  church  has  been  chiefly 
at  the  top.  In  the  recent  organization  of 
the  National  Council  of  Churches  of 
Christ  in  the  U.S.A.,  which  comprises  29 
denominations,  five  Negro  churches  hold 
membership  on  a  basis  of  equality.  Negro 
churchmen  are  in  all  the  departments,  on 
nearly  all  committees,  and  on  the  staff 
of  national  officers,  not  as  Negroes  but  as 
members  of  Christian  Church  denomina- 
tions. In  the  "World"  organizations  the 
same  is  true.  Among  Roman  Catholics, 
where  there  are  few  Negro  organizations, 
integration  on  the  higher  level  is  not  so 
evident.  In  1951,  some  white  and  Negro 
Community  Churches  united  into  one  fel- 
lowship. In  some  smaller  denominations 
there  has  always  been  integration.  It  is 
on  the  local  level  that  integration  is 
slowest. 

In  the  North,  most  church  doors  are 
open,  though  welcome  has  often  been 
cold.  But  since  World  War  II,  this  atti- 
tude has  been  noticeably  thawing;  in 
some  cases  it  is  warm,  in  a  few  cases  the 
color  line  has  been  dropped.  Churches 
like  the  Riverside  Drive  Church,  Marble 
Collegiate,  and  others  in  New  York  City, 
and  in  some  of  the  larger  cities  across  the 
country,  have  welcomed  Negroes.  In 
some,  as  in  the  Riverside  Drive  Church, 
Negroes  sing  in  the  choir  and  hold  office. 
In  many  small  towns  this  is  also  the  case. 
In  Staffordville,  Conn.,  the  Reverend 
Roland  T.  Heacock,  a  Negro  minister,  is 


268 


THE  CHURCH,  RELIGIOUS  WORK 


pastor  of  an  all-white  congregation.  In  a 
few  cases  white  and  Negro  ministers  are 
co-pastoring  predominantly  white  congre- 
gations. But  Negro  pastors  of  white 
churches  are  as  scarce  as  are  white  pas- 
tors of  Negro  churches.  Much  has  been 
written  during  the  past  five  years  about 
"Interracial  Churches."  Rev.  Harold  M. 
Kingsley,  pastor  of  one  of  these,  writes, 
"  'Interracial  Church'  is  a  misnomer  .  .  . 
'Inclusive'  is  better.  .  .  .  All  churches 
should  have,  as  most  of  our  colored 
churches  have,  open  membership.  The 
net  gain  of  the  so-called  interracial 
church  movement  is  to  witness,  to  chal- 
lenge, to  open  up  the  doors  of  the  Church 
of  God." 

In  some  of  the  smaller  denominations 
racial  lines  have  been  almost  obliterated 
without  any  fanfare  or  even  discussion. 
Integration,  however,  is  making  almost 
no  headway  in  the  South,  where  the  great 
majority  of  people  seem  to  take  for 
granted  that  separation  is  the  divine 
arrangement.  While  a  few  denominations 
have  passed  strong  non-segregation  reso- 
lutions, one  hears  frequently  on  the  radio 
such  announcements  as:  "Arrangements 
have  been  made  at  the  meeting  for  our 
colored  brethren."  A  Negro  went  to  a 
revival  meeting  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  sat 
in  the  wrong  seat,  and  police  were  called 
to  take  him  out. 


A  Methodist  bishop  asked  the  members 
of  his  Annual  Conference  the  following 
questions:  "How  many  of  you  have  ever 
been  invited  to  preach  in  a  white 
church?"  Out  of  60  preachers  only  one 
had  been  invited  in  a  life  time.  "How 
many  of  you  have  ever  invited  a  white 
man  to  preach  in  your  church?"  Only  six 
said  they  had.  Asked  why,  most  of  the 
54  said,  "I  knew  the  white  preacher 
would  not  come."  The  opinions  did  not 
represent  hostility  but  rather  the  fact 
that  very  few  make  any  effort  to  change 
the  pattern.  "How  many  of  you  have  a 
local  ministers'  meeting  in  your  com- 
munity for  discussing  community  prob- 
lems by  both  white  and  Negro  minis- 
ters?" No  one  had  ever  heard  of  such  an 
organization.  One  or  two  had  talked  about 
it,  but  it  was  thought  that  "the  time  is  not 
ripe"  for  Negro  and  white  Christian  min- 
isters of  the  local  community  to  get  to- 
gether like  that. 

It  is  a  happy  fact,  however,  that  an 
increasing  number  of  communities  are 
having  profitable  meetings  of  Negro  and 
white  ministers.  Headway  is  also  being 
made  in  integration  in  southern  theolog- 
ical seminaries.  For  instance,  the  24th 
Synod  of  Sewanee  Province  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church  voted  to  admit  Negro  minis- 
terial students  for  study  in  their  seminar- 
ies at  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  and  Lexington,  Ky. 


18 
Crime  and  Violence 


THE  INCIDENCE  of  crime  among  Negroes 
is  much  debated;  the  validity  of  the  sta- 
tistical record  is  seriously  questioned.  As 
indicated  in  the  Negro  Year  Book  1947, 
complicating  the  comparative  study  of 
crime  are  such  variable  factors  as:  differ- 
ences in  the  character  and  efficiency  of 
police,  community  and  temporal  differ- 
ences in  public  attitudes,  differences  in 
caliber  of  the  prosecution,  differences  in 
judicial  interpretation  by  the  courts, 
differences  in  bias  of  judges,  differences 
in  the  economic  status  of  offenders,  and 
differences  in  record-keeping.  All  these 
factors  and  many  more  make  it  difficult  to 


differentiate   real    from   apparent   crimi- 
nality. 

Arrests 

In  1949  and  in  1950  one-fourth  of  those 
arrested  for  suspicion  of  crime  in  the 
United  States  were  Negroes.  The  number 
of  arrests  is  not  a  valid  index  to  crime 
because  of  the  practice  of  arresting  many 
suspects  for  a  single  crime.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  general  practice  is  the  other 
of  careless  and  indiscriminate  arresting 
of  Negroes  on  suspicion  of  crime. 

Table  1  gives  the  distribution  of  arrests 
according  to  race  and  the  type  of  offense 


TABLE  1 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  ARRESTS  ACCORDING  TO  RACE  AND  TYPE  OF  OFFENSE, 
1949  AND  1950 


Offense  Charged 

Total  All  Races 

Negro 

Per  Cent  Negro  of 
Total  in  each  offense 

1949 

1950 

1949 

1950 

1949 

1950 

Criminal  homicide  

6,436 
21,623 
58,870 
45,892 
67,647 
19,119 
22,245 
3,268 
1,097 
11,231 
9,449 
9,208 
18,448 
6,546 
11,358 
15,342 
9,934 
42,907 
10,595 
162 
9,695  . 
49,085 
178,776 
54,511 
16,274 
47,114 
7,228 
37,969 

6,336 
19,779 
59,496 
43,673 
66,031 
18,398 
21,439 
3,289 
1,054 
11,743 
9,323 
8,579 
19,725 
8,539 
10,376 
15,238 
11,260 
51,318 
14,571 
309 
13,052 
45,438 
178,165 
48,604 
15,490 
46,194 
7,930 
38,322 

2,918 
7,745 
26,769 
12,569 
20,788 
3,437 
2,797 
986 
234 
1,567 
2,911 
3,315 
2,836 
2,677 
5,478 
2,903 
4,157 
4,055 
2,357 
42 
2,794 
14,293 
28,740 
12,191 
7,452 
12,778 
1,388 
8,919 

2,889 
7,060 
27,619 
11,534 
20,672 
3,500 
2,962 
1,050 
241 
1,689 
2,717 
3,260 
3,473 
4,262 
5,198 
3,415 
5,306 
5,706 
3,662 
98 
3,431 
13,610 
30,040 
10,657 
7,462 
13,054 
1,555 
9,454 

45.3 
35.8 
45.5 
27.4 
30.7 
18.0 
12.6 
30.2 
21.3 
13.9 
30.8 
36.0 
15.4 
41.0 
48.2 
18.9 
41.8 
9.4 
22.2 
25.9 
23.7 
29.1 
16.1 
22.4 
45.8 
27.1 
19.2 
23.5 

45.6 
35.9 
46.4 
26.4 
31.3 
19.0 
13.8 
31.9 
22.9 
14.4 
29.1 
38.0 
17.6 
49.9 
50.1 
22.4 
47.1 
11.1 
25.1 
31.7 
26.3 
29.9 
16.9 
21.9 
48.2 
28.2 
19.6 
24.7 

Robbery  

Assault  

Burglary  

Larceny  

Auto  theft        

Embezzlement  

Stolen  property  

Arson  

Forererv 

Rape  

Prostitution  

Other  sex  offenses  

Narcotic  drug  law  

Weapons  

Offenses  against  the  family  

Liquor  laws  

Driving  while  intoxicated  

Road  and  driving  laws 

Parking  violations  

Other  traffic  

Disorderly  conduct  

Drunkenness  

Vagrancy  

Gambling  

Suspicion  

Not  stated      

All  other  offenses    

Source:  Uniform  Crime  Reports  for  the  United  States  and  Its  Possessions,  Vols.  20  and  21. 


269 


270 


CRIME  AND  VIOLENCE 


% 

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0 

O 

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OCNOO«-'|NO^T-O       OT-C^       O"1       ,-1  oo  O  OO  CN       NO       •*  CS       CN  O  "">       *—  i—  en       •* 

* 

TABLE  2 
ERS  RECEIVED  FROM  COURTS,  BY  NATIVITY,  RACE  AND  OFFENSE,  FISCAL  YEAR  E 

tf 

u 

l> 

O 

1 

3 

2 

3 
u 

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1 
1 

1 
1 

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•*"  en" 

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;  :    o 

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:  •  o  « 

is  percentage  would  be  28.4. 

ENTENCED  PRISON 

•  •  •  -~  :^  ::::::::::  ^  :•••:;•••  8 

:::::::::<:.u...:::      •••«:::  :_;  ::::•£> 
**  -p  2  *••••••'      :  :  S?  •  -  •  •-%  •  •  •  ••_£ 

'     '       .     .     .               .          .        o  *•"   O   O     •     -     •     .     .  W       <M  u.  ^     .          '        «,     .     .          .X 

•3  C'i  "  •  -a  '  •  e     °°^--::S.      ..Q 

;s  were  excluded  th 

<*> 

'.>,'C?'>'^CLiQ,"    '     if"1     '    •  «  fi           *»  "    '•<!«"«     '    '    '    "G 

y. 

FEDERAL 

1 

O 

:  :    '••'.'.'.%'.&  o  £~B  jv-~  •  •  ^  J  •  s  "3     1*1  •  •  jc-a  3  t  *  •  •  i 

iiiiiiif1    u  i  '   mi  '  !  r 

*  If  immigration  c 

CRIMES  AND  OFFENSES 


271 


for  1949  and  1950.  In  examining  these 
figures  it  is  well  to  remember  that  they 
are  not  a  measure  of  the  incidence  of 
crime  but  a  record  of  the  prevalence  of 
arrests  and  that  alone. 

In  1950,  the  following  types  amounted 
to  more  than  5%  of  total  Negro  arrests: 
Drunkenness,  14.6% ;  Assault,  13.4% ; 
Larceny,  10.0%;  Disorderly  Conduct, 
6.6%;  Suspicion,  6.3%;  and  Burglary, 
5.6%. 

Prison  Sentences 

Without  over-all  statistics  for  all  pris- 
ons there  can  be  no  full  picture  of  con- 
victions and  court  commitments  to  prisons 
and  reformatories.  Table  2  shows  com- 
mitments to  Federal  prisons  and  offenses 
for  which  convictions  were  given. 

Execution  for  Capital  Offenses 

Convictions  for  capital  crimes  and  as- 
sessment of  the  maximum  penalty  have 
been  a  matter  of  record  since  1930,  when 
reporting  of  such  statistics  began.  See 
Table  3. 


During  1948,  U.S.  civil  authorities  ad- 
ministered the  death  penalty  to  118  pris- 
oners. Of  these,  35  were  white,  81  were 
Negroes,  and  two  were  American  Indians. 
Although  the  executions  were  carried  out 
in  23  states  and  the  District  of  Columbia, 
more  than  half  of  them  took  place  in 
seven  states — California,  Florida,  Geor- 
gia, Mississippi,  North  Carolina,  Ohio, 
and  Texas.  See  Table  4. 

Crimes  by  Negroes 
against  Negroes 

Figures  on  crime  in  terms  of  the  race 
of  those  against  whom  crimes  are  com- 
mitted are  difficult  to  come  by.  Sporadic 
studies  and  general  observation  have 
established  the  fact  of  a  high  incidence  of 
crime  by  Negroes  against  Negroes.  Sev- 
eral factors  contributing  to  this  circum- 
stance are  recognized.  One  is  that  the 
general  frustration  felt  by  Negroes  in  the 
bi-racial  system  of  social  relationships  is 
expressed  in  agressions  against  other 
Negroes.  A  second  factor  appears  to  be  a 
pattern  of  Negroes  resorting  to  violent 


TABLE  3 
PRISONERS  EXECUTED  IN  U.S.  BY  RACE  AND  OFFENSE,  1930  TO  1948  * 


Year 

Total 

Race 

Offense 

White 

Negro 

Other 

Murder 

Rape 

Other 

Total 

2,831 

1,253 

1,528 

50 

2,470 

316 

45  f 

Per  Cent  100.0 

44.3 

54.0 

1.7 

87.2 

11.2 

1.6 

1930 

155 

85 

65 

5 

147 

6 

2 

1931 

153 

72 

72 

9 

137 

15 

1 

1932 

140 

60 

75 

5 

128 

10 

2 

1933 

159 

76 

80 

3 

151 

6 

2 

1934 

168 

62 

102 

4 

154 

14 

— 

1935 

199 

119 

77 

3 

184 

13 

2 

1936 

194 

92 

100 

2 

180 

10 

4 

1937 

147 

69 

74 

4 

133 

13 

1 

1938 

190 

96 

92 

2 

156 

25 

9 

1939 

159 

80 

77 

2 

144 

12 

3 

1940 

124 

49 

75 

— 

105 

15 

4 

1941 

123 

59 

63 

1 

102 

20 

1 

1942 

147 

67 

80 

— 

116 

24 

7 

1943 

135 

56 

76 

3 

118 

17 

— 

1944 

120 

47 

70 

3 

96 

24 

— 

1945 

117 

41 

75 

1 

90 

26 

1 

1946 

131 

46 

84 

1 

107 

21 

3 

1947 

152 

42 

110 

— 

128 

23 

1 

1948 

118 

35 

81 

2 

94 

22 

2 

Source:  Prisoners  in  State  and  Federal  Prisons  and  Reformatories,  No.  2,  Sept.  20,  1950. 

*  Does  not  include  executions  in  military  installations.  The  Army,  including  Air  .Force,  carried  out 
146  executions,  all  during  the  period  1942  to  1948;  93  were  for  murder  (including  18  which  also  involved 
rape),  52  were  for  rape,  and  1  was  for  desertion.  The  Navy  carried  out  no  executions  during  the  period. 

f  14  armed  robbery,  12  kidnapping,  8  burglary,  6  espionage,  3  assault  with  deadly  weapon,  2  offenses 
not  reported. 


272 


CRIME  AND  VIOLENCE 


settlement  of  differences  without  recourse 
to  law  and  the  courts  which  they  mistrust. 
A  third  factor  is  the  general  leniency  of 
the  courts  and  juries  where  both  parties 
in  a  crime  are  Negroes. 

In  a  letter  to  the  editor  of  the  Sunday 
Atlanta  Journal  and  Constitution  (Ga.), 
Dec.  10,  1950,  signed  by  Bishops  J.  H. 
Kendrick,  Honorary  Chairman,  and  J.  H. 
Calhoun,  Chairman  of  the  Atlanta  Com- 
mittee on  Crime  Prevention,  leniency 
toward  Negroes  for  crimes  against  Ne- 
groes was  charged  against  Atlanta  courts. 
The  Atlanta  World,  a  Negro  newspaper, 
called  attention  to  the  same  circumstance 
in  an  editorial,  Feb.  23,  1950. 

A  study  of  homicides  in  North  Carolina 
revealed  that  of  Negroes  convicted  of  first 
and  second  degree  murder  where  the  vic- 
tims were  Negroes,  only  6.7%  were  given 
the  death  penalty  and  4%  were  sentenced 
to  life  imprisonment.  This  may  be  con- 
trasted to  the  sentences  given  whites  who 
were  convicted  of  murdering  whites: 
18.6%  were  sentenced  to  death  5.1%  to 
life  imprisonment.  When  Negroes  were 
convicted  of  killing  whites,  42.9%  re- 


ceived the  death  penalty  and  11.4%  were 
given  life  imprisonment.  In  instances 
where  whites  were  convicted  of  killing 
Negroes,  none  was  sentenced  to  either 
death  or  life  imprisonment. 

Crimes  by  Negroes 
against  Whites 

As  indicated  by  the  study  mentioned 
above,  crimes  by  Negroes  against  whites 
are  dealt  with  much  more  severely  than 
those  where  both  parties  are  Negroes. 
Sentences  in  some  of  these  cases  have 
made  them  a  cause  celebre. 

A  current  instance  is  that  known  as  the 
Groveland,  Fla.,  Case,  involving  four  Ne- 
groes. In  July  1949,  at  Groveland,  Fla., 
four  young  Negroes  were  accused  of  rap- 
ing a  17-year-old  white  girl.  Shortly  after 
the  crime,  one  of  the  accused  was  killed 
by  a  posse.  Another,  a  16-year-old  boy, 
was  given  life  imprisonment.  Two  others 
were  given  the  death  penalty.  At  the  time 
of  the  crime,  Negroes  of  the  community 
were  terrorized,  many  homes  were 
burned,  and  Negro  citizens  were  forced 
to  leave  town. 


TABLE  4 
PRISONERS  EXECUTED,  BY  OFFENSE  AND  RACE,  1948 


All  Offenses 

Murder 

Rape 

State 

Total 

Ameri- 
White     Negro      can 
Indian 

Total 

Ameri- 
White     Negro      can 
Indian 

Total 

Ameri- 
White     Negro      can 
Indian 

Connecticut  
New  York  

1 
6 

—             1          — 

3              3          — 

1 
6 

—              1          — 
3              3          — 

— 

—            —          — 

New  Jersey  
Pennsylvania.  .  .  . 
Ohio  

3 
3 

7 

3          — 
2              1          — 
3              4          — 

3 
3 

7 

3          — 
2              1           — 
3              4          — 

— 

—            —           — 

Nebraska  

1 

1 

1 

Maryland  
Dist.  of  Columbia 
Virginia  

3 
2 
3 

1              2          — 
—             2          — 
—             3          — 

1 
2 

2 

—              1          — 
o           

—             2          — 

2 
1 

1               1 
1           — 

W.  Virginia  
N.  Carolina.  .... 
S.  Carolina  
Georgia  
Florida  

4 
8 
5 
13 
7 

2              2          — 

Q                     __ 
£                     

2            11           — 
1              6          — 

4 
7 
2 
12 
4 

2              2          — 
—             7          — 
2          — 
2            10          — 
1              3          — 

1 
3 
1 
3 

—              1           — 

3          — 

|                    

_                         -J                   

Kentucky  
Tennessee  

3* 
5 

2*           1          — 
2              3          — 

1 
2 

i           __ 

2            —          — 

3 

—              3           — 

2 

1              1          — 

2 

1              1           — 

Mississippi  

8 

1              7          — 

7 

1             6          — 

1 

—              1           — 

2 

1              1          — 

1 

1           — 

1 

,..,_.               i 

6 

6          — 

5 

5          — 

1 

__              -«           

Oklahoma  
Texas  

2 
11 

—             2          — 
5              6          — 

1 

7 

*           
5              2 

1 

4 

—       i      — 

4 

Oregon  

1 

1          — 

1 

1          — 

California.  ...... 

8 

6              1             1 

8 

611 

TOTAL  
All  Federal  

118 
4 

35            81             2 
3              1 

94 
4 

32           60            2 
31          — 

22 

1            21          — 

*  Includes  2  prisoners  executed  for  robbery. 


CRIMES  AND  OFFENSES 


273 


Reviewing  the  case,  the  U.S.  Supreme 
Court  reversed  the  decision  of  the  state 
court  in  the  case  of  the  death  penalties 
and  ordered  a  new  trial  on  the  grounds 
that  a  fair  trial  could  not  have  been  held 
in  any  court  under  the  then  existing  cir- 
cumstances. 

On  Nov.  6,  1951,  when  being  trans- 
ferred from  the  county  jail  to  the  place 
of  the  new  trial,  the  two  prisoners,  hand- 
cuffed together,  were  shot  by  the  sheriff. 
One  was  killed  outright,  the  other  gravely 
wounded.  The  sheriff  claimed  self-defense 
and  was  exonerated  by  a  coroner's  jury. 

The  Willie  McGee  Case  in  Mississippi, 
in  which  McGee  finally  paid  the  death 
penalty  after  conviction  for  rape,  was  the 
center  of  national  controversy  for  months. 

The  "Trenton  Six"  Case  in  New  Jersey 
also  aroused  national  controversy.  In  the 
third  trial  of  the  six  men,  four  were  ac- 
quitted of  the  murder  with  which  they 
were  charged. 

The  North  Carolina  study  showed  that 
in  homicides  there  were  few  interracial 
crimes.  In  less  than  10%  of  the  cases  did 
Negro  kill  white  or  white  kill  Negro. 

Crimes  by  Whites 
against  Negroes 

A  type  of  criminal  activity  in  which 
Negroes  are  seldom  implicated  is  mob 
violence  and  organized  destruction  of 
property.  Negroes  are  more  often  the 
victims  of  such  violence.  Three  outstand- 
ing cases  of  this  sort  were  the  Cicero,  111., 
mob  action  and  riots,  and  the  Birming- 
ham, Ala.,  and  Dallas,  Texas,  house 
bombings.  All  three  involved  the  moving 
of  Negro  residents  into  areas  which  were 
considered  to  be  reserved  for  white  occu- 
pancy. Only  in  the  Dallas  incident  were 
indictments  brought  against  the  wreckers. 

A  more  recent  case  was  that  of  Harry 
T.  Moore,  46,  of  Mims,  Fla.,  State  Coor- 
dinator for  the  National  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Colored  People,  who 
was  murdered  on  Dec.  25,  1951,  when  a 
bomb  was  placed  under  the  bedroom  of 
his  home,  which  is  situated  in  an  isolated 
area  in  the  small  town.  He  and  his  family, 
consisting  of  his  wife,  daughter,  and 


mother,  had  gathered  at  the  family  home 
for  the  Christmas  holidays.  Mrs.  Moore 
was  critically  injured  and  died  less  than 
two  weeks  later.  A  highly  respected  citi- 
zen and  former  school  teacher,  Mr.  Moore 
travelled  extensively  all  over  the  state  in 
the  interest  of  the  NAACP. 

He  had  been  Executive  Secretary  of  the 
Progressive  Voters  League  of  Florida, 
Inc.,  which  before  1948  conducted  a  state- 
wide campaign  to  get  Negroes  registered 
to  vote.  He  had  also  been  active  in  trying 
to  secure  justice  for  the  four  young  Ne- 
groes involved  in  the  Groveland,  Fla. 
Case,  and  is  reported  to  have  requested 
adequate  protection  for  them  even  before 
the  Supreme  Court  moved  to  give  them  a 
new  trial. 

Heavy  sentences  against  whites  for 
murdering  Negroes  were  news.  In  Green- 
ville, Ga.,  two  white  men  were  given  life 
sentences  for  slaying  a  Negro.  In  Koscui- 
sko,  Miss.,  two  white  men  were  given  life 
sentences  for  killing  three  Negro  children 
and  paralyzing  their  father  with  a  bullet. 
At  Hope,  Ark.,  a  white  ex-convict  was 
given  life  imprisonment  for  killing  a 
Negro. 

More  common  were  light  sentences  and 
acquittal  of  whites  when  their  victims 
were  Negroes.  In  Peoria,  111.,  a  bartender 
was  sentenced  to  from  6  to  14  years  after 
pleading  guilty  to  slaying  a  Negro  who 
refused  to  accept  the  bar's  Negro  exclu- 
sion policy.  In  Virginia,  a  respected 
Negro  dentist  who  intervened  when  two 
young  white  men  were  molesting  Negro 
school  girls  was  killed  by  one  of  them. 
This  youth  was  convicted  and  given  a 
five-year  sentence  for  the  murder. 

In  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  and  Birming- 
ham, Ala.,  Negroes  were  killed  by  trolley 
conductors  and  a  bus  driver  for  refusing 
to  obey  segregation  regulations.  The 
Birmingham  conductor's  case  was  nol- 
prossed  when  it  came  to  trial  in  1950. 
When  the  bus  conductor  in  Chattanooga 
was  fired  by  the  bus  company,  the  trans- 
portation system  of  the  city  was  tied  up 
by  a  strike  of  the  A.F.  of  L.  Railway  and 
Motor  Coach  Employees  Union,  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  murdering  driver. 


274 


CRIME  AND  VIOLENCE 


Police  Brutality  and  Killing 
of  Negro  Prisoners 

Police  brutality  is  not  confined  to  any 
section  of  the  country,  but  a  great  many 
Negro  prisoners  in  southern  cities  have 
been  killed  "resisting  arrest"  and  "at- 
tempting to  escape"  from  police  custody. 

The  Birmingham  World  listed  ten 
Negroes  as  slain  by  police  officers  in  that 
city  in  1950  and  1951.  New  York  juries 
awarded  victims  of  police  brutality  in 
that  city  $60,000  in  February  1951  and 
$58,000  damages  in  March  1951  for  a 
beating  by  a  Negro  policeman  on  Dec.  4, 
1948.  In  Memphis,  Tenn.,  a  policeman 
was  fired  the  first  week  in  March  1951 
for  killing  a  Negro  in  a  raid  on  a  dice 
game.  In  Dermott,  Ark.,  the  City  Mar- 
shall killed  a  Negro  grocer  in  March 
1950.  He  claimed  the  grocer  objected  to 
a  search  of  his  premises  for  illegal 
whiskey. 

A  Birmingham  high  school  principal, 
whose  car  was  fired  upon  July  19,  1951, 
by  mistake  of  a  city  detective  who  thought 
it  to  be  the  vehicle  of  a  numbers  collector, 
was  fined  for  not  heeding  the  detective's 
command  to  halt,  but  the  fine  and  court 
costs  were  suspended.  A  Montgomery, 
Ala.,  high  school  teacher  and  coach  was 
beaten  up  by  officers  following  a  quarrel 
he  had  with  a  garbage  collector.  In  Sun- 
flower County,  Miss.,  a  deputy  sheriff 
was  indicted  Sept.  10,  1951,  on  charges 
of  assault  and  battery  after  three  men 
were  made  to  confess  to  having  murdered 
a  man  who  later  was  found  to  be  alive  in 
another  state. 

Two  Lafayette,  Ala.,  policemen  were 
sentenced  Oct.  31,  1950,  to  ten  and  six 
months  each  in  Federal  prison  for  vio- 
lating the  civil  rights  of  a  young  Negro 
they  had  killed,  but  for  which  a  jury 
refused  to  convict  them.  Sheriff  Robert  E. 
Lee,  two  deputy  sheriffs,  and  two  highway 
officers  were  indicted  in  Pike  County, 
Miss.,  Aug.  17,  1951,  for  depriving  a 
Negro  of  his  constitutional  rights.  From 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Annis- 
ton,  Ala.,  Pickensville,  Ala.,  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  New  York  City,  Denver,  Colo.,  and 
other  points,  reports  came  of  police 


TABLE  5 
NEGRO  POLICEMEN  IN  SOUTHERN  CITIES 


Uni- 

Plain- 

Police- 

City 

formed 

clothes 

women 

Dothan,  Ala  

1 





Hot  Springs,  Ark  

.       2 

— 

— 

Little  Rock,  Ark  

6 

— 

— 

Clearwater,  Fla  

.  — 

2 

— 

Cocoa,  Fla  

1 

— 

— 

Dania,  Fla.*  

1 

— 

— 

Daytona  Beach,  Fla  

.       5 

— 

— 

Deland,  Fla  

2 

— 

— 

Ft.  Meyers,  Fla  

.       2 

— 

— 

Gainesville,  Fla  

— 

2 

— 

Key  West,  Fla  

.       2 

— 

— 

Melbourne,  Fla  

1 

— 

— 

Miami,  Fla  

.      30 

— 

— 

Sanford,  Fla  

1 

— 

— 

St.  Petersburg,  Fla  

4 

— 

— 

Tampa,  Fla  

.       6 

— 

— 

West  Palm  Beach,  Fla. 

..       4 

— 

— 

Atlanta,  Ga  

.       6 

— 

— 

Macon,  Ga  

2 

— 

— 

Savannah,  Ga  

.      10 

2 

— 

Lexington,  Ky  

2 

— 

1 

Louisville,  Ky  

.     26 

6 

2 

Owensboro,  Ky  

.       2 

— 

— 

Gulfport,  Miss  

2 

— 

— 

Ahoskie,  N.  C  

1 

— 

— 

Asheville,  N.  C.*  

2 

— 

— 

Burlington,  N.  C  

.       2 

— 

— 

Charlotte,  N.  C  

.      10 

— 

— 

Durham,  N.  C  

.       8 

— 

— 

Fayetteville,  N.  C  

2 

— 

— 

Gastonia,  N.  C  

5 

— 

— 

Goldsboro,  N.  C  

2 

— 

— 

Greensboro,  N.  C  

5 

— 

— 

High  Point,  N.  C  

4 

— 

— 

Raleigh,  N.  C  

.       2 

— 

2 

Winston-Salem,  N.  C.  .  . 

7 

•  — 

— 

Muskogee,  Okla  

.       2 

— 

— 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla.  . 

7 

5 

— 

Tulsa,  Okla.  *  

.     13 

— 

1 

Clover,  S.  C  

1 

— 

— 

Columbia,  S.  C..  ...... 

.       2 

— 

— 

Conway,  S.  C  

.       2 

— 

— 

Rock  Hill,  S.  C  

.       2 

— 

— 

Chattanooga,  Tenn.  .  .  . 

.       7 

— 

— 

Knoxville,  Tenn.  *  

.       7 

— 

— 

Nashville,  Tenn  

6 

— 

— 

Austin,  Tex  

.       6 

— 

— 

Beaumont,  Tex.  *  

2 

— 

— 

Corpus  Christi,  Tex  — 

,.       2 

— 

— 

Dallas,  Tex  

4 

— 

— 

El  Paso,  Tex  

4 

— 

— 

Galveston,  Tex  

9 

6 

— 

Houston,  Tex.  *  

.     16 

1 

— 

Port  Arthur,  Tex  

.      10 

— 

— 

San  Antonio,  Tex  

7 

4 

— 

Cape  Charles,  Va  
Newport  News,  Va.  .  .  . 

1 
5 



— 

Norfolk,  Va  

4 

5 

— 

Petersburg,  Va  

— 

— 

1 

Portsmouth,  Va  , 

1 

— 

— 

Richmond,  Va  , 

7 

— 

— 

Roanoke,  Va  

6 

— 

— 

TOTALS  (12states,  62  cities)  301 

33 

7 

Source:    New  South,   September    1949,   Vol.   4, 
No.  9. 

*  Most  recent  figures:  September  1948. 


LYNCHING 


275 


officers'  slaying  Negroes  in  their  custody 
or  being  taken  into  custody.  A  Louisiana 
deputy  sheriff  was  indicted  for  depriving 
a  prisoner  of  his  life  without  due  process 
of  law.  Georgia  police  officers  were  con- 
victed of  handing  prisoners  over  to  the 
Ku  Klux  Klan  for  flogging. 

Negro  Policemen 

More  cities  are  employing  Negro  po- 
licemen, the  International  City  Managers' 
Association  reports.  At  least  252  cities 
have  some  Negroes  on  their  police  force. 
The  ratio  of  Negro  policemen  to  the  total 
number  of  police  employees  in  the  cities 
with  Negroes  on  the  force  was  2.4%. 

New  York  City,  with  368  Negro  officers, 
tops  the  list.  St.  Louis,  which  employs  67 
Negro  policemen,  recently  formed  a  po- 
lice platoon  composed  entirely  of  Negroes 
and  commanded  by  a  Negro  sergeant. 
Thirty-seven  southern  cities  with  a  popu- 
lation over  10,000  reported  having  232 
Negro  law-enforcement  officers.  Louisville 
has  35,  Miami  30,  and  Nashville  7.1  The 
Southern  Regional  Council  in  1949  re- 
ported a  total  of  62  southern  cities  with 
Negro  police  officers.  See  Table  5. 

Other  southern  cities  reported  since 
1949  as  having  Negro  policemen  are: 
Alabama:  Anniston  1,  Talladega  2; 
Florida:  Jacksonville  6,  Orlando  2;  Geor- 
gia: Augusta  6,  Columbus  4;  Louisiana: 
New  Orleans  2;  Maryland:  Upper  Marl- 
boro 1;  N.  Carolina:  Greenville  1,  Reids- 
ville  2,  Salisbury  2,  Statesville  1;  S. 
Carolina:  Charleston  4,  Darlington  1, 
Spartanburg  1,  Summerton  1;  Tennessee: 
Memphis  12.  This  adds  17  more  to  the 
Southern  Regional  Council's  1948  figures, 
making  at  least  79  southern  cities  with 
such  public  officers.2 

LYNCHING 

Since  1882  the  trend  in  lynchings  has 
been  steadily  downward.  Several  agencies 
have  been  responsible  for  this  decline. 
Much  credit  should  be  given  to  the  press, 
both  white  and  Negro,  for  its  strong 

1  The  American  City,  January  1950,  p.  19. 

2  Sources :  Press  releases. 


stand  in  editorial  and  news  columns 
against  this  evil.  State  patrols,  where 
operated,  have  been  influential  in  reduc- 
ing lynchings  and  attempted  lynchings  by 
providing  police  protection  to  possible 
victims.  Tuskegee  Institute,  through  its 
Department  of  Records  and  Research,  has 
carried  on  an  educational  program 
against  lynchings  since  1913  by  issuing 
reports  and  by  furnishing  other  statistical 
data  to  the  public.  The  National  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Colored 
People  not  only  has  made  investigations 
of  lynchings  but  since  1921  has  also  spon- 
sored Federal  anti-lynching  legislation. 
The  Commission  on  Interracial  Coopera- 
tion, by  research  and  publications,  pro- 
vided additional  facts  on  lynchings,  and 
the  Association  of  Southern  Women  for 
the  Prevention  of  Lynchings,  one  of  its 
affiliates,  directed  its  activities  toward  ex- 
posing the  falsity  of  the  claim  that  lynch- 
ing is  necessary  for  the  protection  of 
southern  white  womanhood.  Nor  should 
the  work  of  the  Federal  Council  of 
Churches  of  Christ  in  America  (no  longer 
in  existence)  or  of  the  recently  organized 
Southern  Regional  Council,  which  has 
taken  over  the  functions  of  the  Commis- 
sion on  Interracial  Cooperation,  be  over- 
looked. 

Difficulty  of  Definition 

The  term  "lynching"  is  becoming  more 
and  more  difficult  to  define.  At  the  present 
time,  as  in  the  past,  agencies  concerned 
about  the  lynching  problem  have  not  been 
able  to  come  to  a  conclusive  agreement 
even  when  using  the  same  criteria  in 
classifying  cases  of  lynching.  For  the  past 
30  years  and  more,  writers  of  Federal 
anti-lynching  bills  have  generally  ac- 
cepted the  following  definition  of  lynch- 
ing: 

Any  assemblage  of  three  or  more  persons 
which  shall  exercise  or  attempt  to  exercise  by 
physical  violence  and  without  authority  of  law 
any  power  of  correction  or  punishing  over  any 
citizen  or  citizens  or  other  person  or  persons 
in  the  custody  of  any  peace  officer  or  suspected 
of,  charged  with,  or  convicted  of  the  commis- 


276 


CRIME  AND  VIOLENCE 


sion  of  any  offense,  with  the  purpose  or  conse- 
quence of  preventing  the  apprehension  or  trial 
or  punishment  by  law  of  such  citizen  or  citi- 
zens, person  or  persons,  shall  constitute  a 
"mob"  within  the  meaning  of  this  Act.  Any 
such  violence  by  a  mob  which  results  in  the 
death  or  maiming  of  the  victim  or  victims 
thereof  shall  constitute  "lynching"  within  the 
meaning  of  the  Act:  Provided,  however,  that 
"lynching"  shall  not  be  deemed  to  include 
violence  occurring  between  members  of  groups 
of  law-breakers  such  as  are  commonly  desig- 
nated as  gangsters  or  racketeers ;  nor  violence 
occurring  during  the  course  of  picketing  or 
boycotting  or  any  incident  in  connection  with 
any  "labor  dispute"  as  that  term  is  defined  and 
used  in  the  Act  of  March  23,  1932  (Sec.  2, 
47  Stat.  70,  H.  R.  1507— Van  Nuys) . 

But  there  are  persons  who  are  put  to 
death  by  mobs  under  circumstances  not 
entirely  covered  in  what  is  the  generally 
accepted  definition.  This  problem  was 
squarely  faced  at  a  conference  arranged 
by  President  F.  D.  Patterson  on  Dec.  11, 
1940,  at  Tuskegee  Institute,  when  repre- 
sentatives of  the  press,  the  Association  of 
Southern  Women  for  the  Prevention  of 
Lynching,  the  NAACP,  and  other  inter- 
ested persons  met  to  discuss  it.  The  con- 
ference set  up  criteria  that  would  cover 
cases  not  included  by  specification  or 
implication  in  Federal  definitions.  These 
criteria  are:  (1)  There  must  be  legal 
evidence  that  a  person  was  killed;  (2) 
The  person  must  have  met  death  illegally; 
(3)  A  group  must  have  participated  in 
the  killing;  (4)  The  group  must  have 
acted  under  pretext  of  service  to  justice, 
race,  or  tradition. 

In  addition  to  the  fact  that  accepted 
definitions  do  not  cover  all  lynchings, 
there  are  borderline  cases  that  can  neither 
without  some  shadow  of  doubt  be  called 
lynchings  nor  be  eliminated  without  re- 
servation. The  ordinary  lynching  can  be 
readily  recognized,  it  is  the  marginal 
cases  that  cause  concern. 

No  longer  are  there  spectacular  man 
hunts,  with  large  groups  participating. 
Mobs  are  more  likely  to  be  orderly  and 
secretive  and  to  commit  few  lynchings 
within  the  accepted  definitions.  An  exam- 
ination of  lynchings  occurring  during  the 
past  ten  years  shows  that  in  only  a  few 

1  All  figures  revised  as  of  Dec.  31,  1951. 


cases  are  mobs  composed  of  many  per- 
sons. This  change  is  elaborated  upon  in 
The  Changing  Character  of  Lynching  by 
Mrs.  Jessie  Daniel  Ames,  published  by 
the  Commission  on  Interracial  Coopera- 
tion in  1942.  Cases  of  the  quiet,  unobtru- 
sive, but  very  effective  operation  of  the 
small  group  are  cited: 

A  man  is  out  fishing.  He  discovers  a  body  on 
the  bank  of  a  creek.  It  is  clearly  evident  that 
the  man  was  murdered.  Maybe  his  body  is 
riddled  with  bullets — his  feet  wired  together, 
his  hands  tied  behind  him,  his  head  bashed  in. 
There  have  been  no  reports  of  any  trouble  in 
the  county.  Was  he  lynched  or  was  he  mur- 
dered? 

Another  man  has  an  altercation  with  his 
employer  over  a  lost  tool,  or  the  amount  of 
wages  due  him,  or  failure  to  carry  out  orders. 
His  body  is  found  one  day.  It  is  evident  from 
its  condition  that  the  man  was  put  to  death. 
Did  he  meet  his  death  at  the  hands  of  three  or 
more  persons?  Was  he  suspected  or  accused 
of  a  crime?  Were  the  officers  of  the  law  fore- 
warned of  his  danger  and  did  they  act  in 
collusion  with  the  killers? 

Detailed  Record  of  Lynchings 

This  section  covers  the  period  1947-51, 
inclusive.1  In  this  time,  9  persons  were 
lynched.  Of  these,  7  were  Negroes  and  2 
were  white  persons.  The  crimes  for  which 
lynchings  Occurred  were:  no  charge,  3; 
stabbing  and  robbing,  1;  stealing  cattle. 
1;  creating  disturbance  and  resisting 
arrest,  1 ;  "hogging  the  road,"  1 ;  arguing 
with  white  men,  1;  knowing  too  much 
about  illegal  whiskey  traffic,  1.  A  detailed 
listing  of 'these  cases  follows: 

1947 

February  17:  At  Pickens  County,  S.C. — 
Willie  Earle,  24-year-old  Negro.  Charge :  Stab- 
bing and  robbing  a  white  taxi  driver.  He  was 
taken  from  jail  by  a  mob  and  his  body  muti- 
lated. 

1948 

April  20 :  Meriwether  County,  Ga. — William 
H.  Turner  (alias  Wilson  Turner)  26-year-old 
white  man.  Charge:  Stealing  cattle  from  his 
landlord.  He  was  placed  in  jail  but  later  re- 
leased for  lack  of  evidence.  Upon  leaving  the 
jail  he  was  seized,  beaten,  and  his  body 
burned. 

November  20 :  Near  Lyons,  Toombs  County, 
Ga.— Robert  Mallard,  37-year-old  Negro. 
Charge:  There  was  no  charge.  He  apparently 


LYNCHING 


277 


had  incurred  the  enmity  of  his  white  farm 
neighbors  because  of  his  prosperity.  He  was 
waylaid  and  shot  to  death. 

1949 

May  30:  At  Irwinton,  Wilkinson  County, 
Ga.— Caleb  Hill,  Jr.,  28-year-old  Negro  chalk- 
mine  worker.  Charge:  Creating  a  disturbance 
and  resisting  arrest.  Lodged  in  jail.  He  was 
removed,  beaten,  and  shot  to  death. 

July  9:  Near  Houston,  Chickasaw  County, 
Miss. — Malachi  Wright,  45-year-old  Negro 
farm  tenant.  Charge :  "Hogging  the  road"  and 
not  moving  his  wagon  over  far  enough  to  per- 
mit a  group  of  white  men  to  pass.  He  was 
beaten  to  death. 

September  3:  Near  Bainbridge,  Decatur 
County,  Ga. — Hollis  Riles,  53-year-old  pros- 
perous Negro  landowner.  Charge:  Arguing 
with  a  group  of  white  men  who  had  been  fish- 
ing in  his  pond  without  permission.  He  was 
found  dead  with  a  number  of  bullet  holes  in 
his  body. 

1950 

February  22:  At  Pell  City,  St.  Clair  County, 
Ala. — Charlie  Hurst,  39-year-old  white  rolling- 
store  operator.  Charge:  There  was  no  charge. 
It  seems  the  mob  did  not  get  the  man  they 
were  after.  Hurst  was  mortally  wounded  in  his 
front  yard  by  a  group  of  unmasked  men.  They 
came  to  his  home  and  tried  to  force  him  into 
their  car.  He  resisted.  His  son,  who  came  to 
his  father's  assistance,  was  also  wounded. 

August  18:  Near  Gay,  Meriwether  County, 
Ga. — Jack  Walker,  alias  Jack  Kendall,  also 
known  as  Clinton  Walker,  40-year-old  Negro 
laborer.  Charge:  He  knew  too  much  about 
illegal  whiskey  traffic.  His  body  was  found  in 
a  creek.  He  had  been  shot  to  death  by  men  for 
whom  he  worked. 

1951 

March  31 :  Winter  Garden,  Orange  County, 
Fla. — Melvin  Womack,  26-year-old  Negro. 
Charge:  There  was  no  charge.  It  seems  that 
the  mob  was  after  another  man.  Womack  was 
forced  by  a  group  of  masked  men  from  his 
home  and  beaten.  He  died  three  days  later  in 
a  hospital.  He  did  not  know  his  assailants  or 
why  they  lynched  him. 

Lynchings  by  States  and  Race:  Table  6 
presents  the  number  of  lynchings  that 
have  occurred  in  the  United  States,  1882- 
1951,  for  each  state  for  Negroes  and 
whites.  During  this  period  more  than  two 
and  one-half  times  as  many  Negroes  as 
whites  were  put  to  death  by  lynching. 
The  State  of  Mississippi  has  the  highest 
incidence  of  lynchings  for  the  South  as 
well  as  the  highest  for  the  United  States, 
with  Georgia  and  Texas  taking  second  and 
third  places,  respectively. 


Lynchings  by  Years  and  Race:  Table  7 
gives  the  number  of  whites  and  Negroes 
lynched  yearly  from  1882  through  1951. 
The  largest  number  of  lynchings  occurred 
in  1892.  Of  the  230  persons  lynched  dur- 
ing that  year,  161  were  Negroes  and  69 
whites.  But  during  1884,  the  next  highest 
year,  with  211  lynchings,  160  were  white 
and  51  Negroes.  Each  year  since  1882  at 
least  1  Negro  has  been  lynched. 

TABLE  6 
LYNCHINGS,  BY  STATES  AND  RACE,  1882-1951 


State 

Whites 

Negroes 

Total 

Alabama  

48 

299 

347 

Arizona  

31 

0 

31 

Arkansas  

58 

226 

284 

California  

41 

2 

43 

Colorado  

66 

2 

68 

Delaware  

0 

1 

1 

Florida  

25 

257 

282 

Georgia  

39 

491 

530 

Idaho  

20 

0 

20 

Illinois  

15 

19 

34 

Indiana  

33 

14 

47 

Iowa  

17 

2 

19 

Kansas  

35 

19 

54 

Kentucky  

63 

142 

205 

Louisiana  

56 

335 

391 

Maryland  

2 

27 

29 

Michigan  

7 

1 

8 

Minnesota  

5 

4 

9 

Mississippi  

40 

534 

574 

Missouri  

53 

69 

122 

Montana  

82 

2 

84 

Nebraska  

52 

5 

57 

Nevada  

6 

0 

6 

New  Jersey  

0 

1 

1 

New  Mexico.  .  .  .'.  . 

33 

3 

36 

New  York  

1 

1 

2 

N.  Carolina  

15 

84 

99 

N.  Dakota  

13 

3 

16 

Ohio  

10 

16 

26 

Oklahoma  

82 

40 

122 

Oregon  

20 

1 

21 

Pennsylvania  

2 

6 

8 

S.  Carolina  

4 

156 

160 

S.  Dakota  

27 

0 

27 

Tennessee  

47 

204 

251 

Texas  

141 

352 

493 

Utah  

6 

2 

8 

Virginia  

17 

83 

100 

Washington  

25 

1 

26 

W.  Virginia  

20 

28 

48 

Wisconsin  

6 

0 

6 

Wyoming  

30 

5 

35 

TOTAL.  . 

.  .1,293 

3,437 

4,730 

Causes  of  Lynchings  Classified:  Being 
charged  with  a  crime  does  not  necessarily 
mean  that  the  person  lynched  was  guilty 
of  the  crime.  Mob  victims  have  been 
known  to  be  innocent  of  misdeeds.  Some- 
times mobs  have  been  mistaken  in  the 


278 


CRIME  AND  VIOLENCE 


TABLE  7 
LYNCHINGS,  BY  YEARS  AND  RACE,  1882-1951 


Year 

Whites 

Negroes 

Total 

1882 

64 

49 

113 

1883 

77 

53 

130 

1884 

160 

51 

211 

1885 

110 

74 

184 

1886 

64 

74 

138 

1887 

50 

70 

120 

1888 

68 

69 

137 

1889 

76 

94 

170 

1890 

11 

85 

96 

1891 

71 

113 

184 

1892 

69 

161 

230 

1893 

34 

118 

152 

1894 

58 

134 

192 

1895 

66 

113 

179 

1896 

45 

78 

123 

1897 

35 

123 

158 

1898 

19 

101 

120 

1899 

21 

85 

106 

1900 

9 

106 

115 

1901 

.25 

105 

130 

1902 

7 

85 

92 

1903 

15 

84 

99 

1904 

7 

76 

83 

1905 

5 

57 

62 

1906 

3 

62 

65 

1907 

2 

58 

60 

1908 

8 

89 

97 

1909 

13 

69 

82 

1910 

9 

67 

76 

1911 

7 

60 

67 

1912 

2 

61 

63 

1913 

1 

51 

52 

1914 

4 

51 

55 

1915 

13 

56 

69 

1916 

4 

50 

54 

1917 

2 

36 

.  38 

1918 

4 

60 

64 

1919 

7 

76 

83 

1920 

8 

53 

61 

1921 

5 

59 

64 

1922 

6 

'  51 

57 

1923 

4 

29 

33 

1924 

0 

16 

16 

1925 

Q 

17 

17 

1926 

7 

23 

30 

1927 

0 

16 

16 

1928 

1 

10 

11 

1929 

3 

7 

10 

1930 

1 

20 

21 

1931 

1 

12 

13 

1932 

2 

6 

8 

1933 

4 

24 

28 

1934 

0 

15 

15 

1935 

2 

18 

20 

1936 

0 

8 

8 

1937 

0 

8 

8 

1938 

0 

6 

6 

1939 

1 

2 

3 

1940 

1 

4 

5 

1941 

0 

4 

4 

1942 

0 

6 

6 

1943 

0 

3 

3 

1944 

0 

2 

2 

1945 

0 

1 

1 

1946 

0 

6 

6 

1947 

0 

1 

1 

1948 

1 

1 

2 

1949 

0 

3 

3 

1950 

1 

1 

2 

1951 

0 

1 

1 

identity  of  their  victims.  Lynchings  have 
occurred  for  such  trivial  matters  as 
"peeping  in  a  window,"  "disputing  with 
a  white  man,"  or  "attempting  to  qualify 
to  vote."  Such  causes  are  classified  under 
"All  Other  Causes."  Homicides  lead  all 
causes  of  lynchings.  See  Table  8. 

Lynchings  Prevented 

The  wide  publicity  given  to  lynchings 
has  created  sentiment  against  the  practice 
to  the  extent  that  communities  do  not  de- 
sire the  criticism  they  receive  when  a 
lynching  occurs  within  their  borders. 
Officers  of  the  law  are  condemned  when 
they  are  suspected  of  making  no  attempt 
to  prevent  lynchings,  when  they  are  a 
party  to  a  lynching,  or  when  they  connive 
with  those  bent  on  lynching.  However, 
throughout  the  history  of  lynching  in  the 
United  States,  some  officers  have  "out- 
thought  and  out-maneuvered  mobs."  The 
vigilance  of  law  enforcement  officials  and 
the  intelligent  action  of  numbers  of  pri- 
vate citizens  have  kept  many  intended 
victims  fr»m  being  put  to  death.  Were 
precautions  not  taken  to  save  accused 
persons  from  mob  law,  such  as  augment- 
ing guards,  removing  the  prisoner  to  a 

TABLE  8 
CAUSES  OF  LYNCHINGS  CLASSIFIED,  1882-1951 


Causes 

Number 

Per  Cent 

Homicides 

1,937 

41.0 

Felonious  assault 

204 

4.3 

Rape 

910 

19.2 

Attempted  rape 

288 

6.1 

Robbery  and  theft 

232 

4.9 

Insult  to  white  person 

84 

1.8 

All  other  causes 

1,075 

22.7 

TOTALS 

4,730 

100.0 

TABLE  9 

NUMBER  OF  PERSONS  LYNCHED  AND  NUMBER 
OF  PREVENTED  LYNCHINGS,  1947-1951 


Year 

Number 
Lynched 

Prevented 
Lynchings 

1947 
1948 
1949 
1950 
1951 

1 
2 
3 

2 

1 

31 
6 
14 
7 
3 

TOTAL 


61 


LYNCHING 


279 


place  of  safekeeping,  using  force  to  dis- 
perse the  mob,  or  some  other  stratagem, 
the  annual  lynching  record  would  contain 
more  names  than  are  now  listed. 

While  Table  9  indicates  that  the  num- 
ber of  lynchings  prevented  is  large,  it  is 
not  intended  to  show  all  the  lynchings 
which  were  avoided.  Numerous  cases  of 
lynchings  prevented,  like  many  actual 
lynchings,  are  not  publicized.  Persons 
preventing  lynchings  often  do  so  without 
a  thought  that  an  exceptional  act  has 
been  performed.  In  the  case  of  some 
lynchings,  their  secretive  nature  prevents 
their  becoming  known. 

Punishment  of  Lynchers 

During  1947,  44  persons  were  under 
indictment  as  participants  in  lynchings  or 
attempted  lynchings,  but  44  were  freed, 
including  31  persons  accused  in  the 
lynching  of  Willie  Earle  in  South  Carolina. 

During  1948,  one  person  received  the 
death  sentence  and  three  persons  were 
sentenced  to  life  imprisonment  in  connec- 
tion with  the  death  of  William  H.  Turner 
(white),  alias  Wilson  Turner. 

In  1949,  two  men,  jailed  in  connection 
with  the  lynching  of  Caleb  Hill,  Jr., 
Negro,  in  the  same  year,  were  later  freed 
for  lack  of  sufficient  evidence  for  trial. 

In  1950,  cases  concerning  lynching 
coming  before  the  courts  were  disposed 
of  as  follows: 

During  the  week  of  March  16,  Green- 
ville County,  S.C.,  paid  to  the  estate  of 
Willie  Earle,  lynched  in  that  county  in 
1947,  the  minimum  sum  of  $2,000  as  com- 
pensation under  a  law  providing  for  such 
payment. 


On  April  4,  in  the  Calhoun  County, 
Miss.,  Circuit  Court,  James  Moore,  age 
20,  white,  was  found  not  guilty  in  the 
slaying  of  Malcolm  Wright,  Negro,  near 
Houston,  Chickasaw  County,  Miss.,  on 
July  2,  1949.  He  claimed  self-defense. 

On  June  28,  in  the  St.  Clair  County, 
Ala.,  Circuit  Court,  Charlie  Carlisle,  Jr., 
24  years  old,  white,  was  sentenced  to  5 
years  in  prison  for  his  part  in  the  slaying 
of  Charlie  Hurst  of  Pell  City,  Ala.,  on 
Feb.  22,  1950.  He  was  later  released  on  a 
$3,000  appeal  bond.  Three  other  men 
indicted  for  the  same  crime  were  released 
on  a  $5,000  bond.  Another  person  was 
tried  and  cleared. 

On  Sept.  7,  in  the  Meriwether  County, 
Ga.,  Supreme  Court,  Warner  Hannah  and 
Jack  Dunn  drew  life  sentences  and  Her- 
bert Dunn  was  given  3  to  5  years  in 
prison  for  the  slaying  of  Jack  Walker, 
alias  Jack  Kendall,  also  known  as  Clinton 
Walker,  Negro,  of  near  Gay,  Meri- 
wether County,  Ga.,  on  Aug.  18,  1950. 
The  three  whites  had  pleaded  guilty. 

On  Nov.  3,  John  Wallace,  white,  was 
electrocuted  for  the  slaying  of  William 
Turner,  alias  Wilson  Turner,  a  26-year- 
old  white  tenant  farmer  of  Meriwether 
County,  Ga.  in  1948.  Three  other  men  are 
serving  life  sentences  for  their  part  in  the 
crime. 

In  1951,  trial  of  8  cases  growing  out  of 
the  night-rider  slaying  of  Charlie  Hurst, 
of  Pell  City,  Ala.,  and  the  wounding  of 
his  son  in  1950  were  continued. 

But  in  spite  of  statutes  against  it  and 
despite  trial  by  jury  of  persons  indicted 
for  it,  it  is  the  unusual  southern  jury  that 
will  convict  for  lynching. 


79 
Civil  Rights 


PRESIDENT'S  COMMITTEE 
ON  CIVIL  RIGHTS 

On  Dec.  5,  1946,  President  Truman  cre- 
ated by  Executive  Order  9808  a  Com- 
mittee on  Civil  Rights.  The  Committee 
was  composed  of  15  prominent  Amer- 
icans, including  two  Negroes:  Mrs.  Sadie 
T.  Alexander,  a  lawyer  of  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  and  Dr.  Channing  H.  Tobias,  Direc- 
tor of  the  Phelps-Stokes  Fund,  New  York 
City.  The  chairman  of  the  Committee  was 
Charles  E.  Wilson,  President  of  the  Gen- 
eral Electric  Co.  The  15  members  of  the 
Committee — including  Negroes,  Catho- 
lics, Jews,  Protestants,  college  presidents, 
industrialists,  labor  leaders,  attorneys, 
social  workers,  church  leaders,  Eastern- 
ers, Westerners,  Northerners  and  South- 
erners— were  a  representative  cross-sec- 
tion of  responsible  civic-minded  American 
citizens. 

In  his  message  to  Congress  in  January 
1947,  President  Truman  stated  that  "I 
have  ...  by  Executive  Order  established 
the  President's  Committee  on  Civil  Rights 
to  study  and  report  on  the  whole  problem 
of  federally  secured  civil  rights,  with  a 
view  to  making  recommendations  to  the 
Congress." 

The  Report 

For  several  months  the  Committee 
worked  diligently  at  its  task,  and  before 
the  end  of  the  year  (1947)  made  its  re- 
port, which  was  entitled  To  Secure  These 
Rights,  to  the  President.  In  it,  the  Com- 
mittee: (1)  described  the  American 
heritage  and  characterized  it  as  "The 
Promise  of  Freedom  and  Equality,"  (2) 
stated  its  conception  of  our  essential 
rights  and  analyzed  their  condition,  (3) 
described  the  responsibility  and  role  of 
the  Government  in  securing  these  essen- 


tial rights,  and  (4)  recommended  a  pro- 
gram of  action. 

The  Committee  believed  that  the  "cen- 
tral theme  in  our  American  heritage  is 
the  importance  of  the  individual  person," 
and  listed  the  four  essential  or  basic 
rights  as: 

1.  The  Right  to  Safety  and  Security  of 
Person 

2.  The   Right   to   Citizenship   and   Its 
Privileges 

3.  The  Right  to  Freedom  of  Conscience 
and  Expression 

4.  The   Right   to   Equality   of   Oppor- 
tunity 

To  secure  these  rights,  the  Committee 
made  numerous  recommendations,  some 
of  which  were  presented  to  Congress  by 
the  President  in  1948. 

Messages  of  President  Truman 

In  his  State  of  the  Union  message  in 
January  1948,  President  Truman  said: 

We  have  a  profound  devotion  to  the  welfare 
and  rights  of  the  individual  as  a  human  being. 

Our  first  goal  is  to  secure  fully  the  essential 
human  rights  of  our  citizens. . . .  Any  denial  of 
human  rights  is  a  denial  of  the  basic  beliefs  of 
democracy  and  of  our  regard  for  the  worth  of 

each  individual Most  serious  of  all,  some 

are  denied  equal  protection  under  the  laws. 
Whether  discrimination  is  based  on  race,  or 
creed,  or  color,  or  land  of  origin,  it  is  utterly 
contrary  to  American  ideals  of  democracy. 

In  his  message  on  civil  rights  to  the 
Congress  in  February  1948,  President 
Truman  presented  his  conception  of  the 
American  Faith  and  his  proposals  for 
legislative  action. 

1.  American  Faith  simply  stated: 

We  believe  that  all  men  are  created  equal 
and  that  they  have  the  right  to  equal  justice 
under  the  law. 

We  believe  that  all  men  have  the  right  to 
freedom  of  thought  and  of  expression  and  the 
right  to  worship  as  they  please. 


280 


COMMITTEE  ON  CIVIL  RIGHTS 


281 


We  believe  that  all  men  are  entitled  to  equal 
opportunities  for  jobs,  for  homes,  for  good 
health  and  for  education. 

We  believe  that  all  men  shall  have  a  voice 
in  their  government  and  that  government 
should  protect,  not  usurp,  the  rights  of  the 
people. 

These  are  the  basic  civil  rights  which  are  the 
source  and  the  support  of  our  democracy. 

We  shall  not,  however,  finally  achieve  the 
ideals  for  which  this  nation  was  founded  so 
long  as  any  American  suffers  discrimination 
as  a  result  of  his  race,  or  religion,  or  color,  or 
the  land  of  origin  of  his  forefathers. 

The  protection  of  civil  rights  begins  with 
the  mutual  respect  for  the  rights  of  others 
which  all  of  us  should  practice  in  our  daily 
lives. 

The  protection  of  civil  rights  is  the  duty  of 
every  government  which  derives  its  powers 
from  the  consent  of  the  people. 

The  Federal  Government  has  a  clear  duty  to 
see  that  constitutional  guarantees  of  indivi- 
dual liberties  and  of  equal  protection  under 
the  laws  are  not  denied  or  abridged  anywhere 
in  our  Union.  That  duty  is  shared  by  all  three 
branches  of  the  Government,  but  it  can  be 
fulfilled  only  if  the  Congress  enacts  modern 
comprehensive  civil  rights  laws,  adequate  to 
the  needs  of  the  day,  and  demonstrating  our 
continuing  faith  in  the  free  way  of  life. 

2.   Legislation  Recommended: 

I  recommend,  therefore,  that  the  Congress 
enact  legislation  at  this  session  directed 
toward  the  following  specific  objectives: 

( 1 )  Establishing  a  permanent  Commission 
on  Civil  Rights,  a  Joint  Congressional 
Committee  on  Civil  Rights,  and  a  Civil 
Rights  Division  in  the  Department  of 
Justice. 

(2)  Strengthening    existing    civil    rights 
statutes. 

(3)  Providing  Federal  protection  against 
lynching. 

(4)  Protecting  more  adequately  the  right 
to  vote. 

(5)  Establishing  a  Fair  Employment  Prac- 
tice Commission  to  prevent  unfair  dis- 
crimination in  employment. 

(6)  Prohibiting   discrimination   in   inter- 
state transportation  facilities. 

(7)  Providing  home  rule  and  suffrage  in 
Presidential  elections  for  the  residents 
of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

(8)  Providing  statehood  for  Hawaii  and 
Alaska  and  a  greater  measure  of  self- 
government  for  our  island  possessions. 

(9)  Equalizing  the  opportunities  for  resi- 
dents of  the  United  States  to  become 
naturalized  citizens. 

(10)   Settling    the    evacuations    claims    of 

Japanese-Americans. 

In  concluding  his  message,  the  Presi- 
dent said: 


If  we  wish  to  inspire  the  peoples  of  the 
world  whose  freedom  is  in  jeopardy,  if  we  wish 
to  restore  hope  to  those  who  have  already  lost 
their  civil  liberties,  if  we  wish  to  fulfill  the 
promise  that  is  ours,  we  must  correct  the  re- 
maining imperfections  in  our  practice  of 
democracy. 

Reaction  to  Report 
and  Recommendations 

Some  editors  of  southern  newspapers 
referred  to  President  Truman's  civil 
rights  program  as  the  "Truman  Civil  Dis- 
turbance Program." 

In  February  1948,  Governors  Laney  of 
Arkansas,  Lane  of  Maryland,  Cherry  of 
North  Carolina,  Thurmond  of  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Jester  of  Texas  met  with  Senator 
J.  Howard  McGrath,  Chairman  of  the 
Democratic  National  Committee,  and  de- 
manded that  President  Truman  abandon 
his  civil  rights  program.  In  a  radio  ad- 
dress on  civil  rights  on  March  29,  1948, 
Senator  Lister  Hill  of  Alabama  said,  "The 
FEPC  Bill  should  be  called  a  bill  to  de- 
stroy civil  rights." 

It  was  the  opinion  of  Hodding  Carter, 
editor  of  a  newspaper  in  Mississippi, 
reporting  on  the  attitudes  of  Southerners, 
that: 

. . .  the  respect  for  the  Supreme  Court  and 
its  decision  is  not  extended  to  the  President 
or  to  Congress.  Presidents  and  Congressmen, 
it  is  argued,  are  primarily  politicians,  espe- 
cially in  an  election  year.  Certainly  an  over- 
whelming majority  of  white  Southerners 
believe  that  the  civil  rights  program  is  a 
politically  motivated  gesture  to  the  Northern 
Negro  and  to  Mr.  Wallace's  left-wingers. 

There  was  some  favorable  reaction. 
The  Executive  Committee  of  the  Southern 
Regional  Council,  in  a  release  in  Sep- 
tember 1948,  expressed  its  reaction: 

Until  the  South  enjoys  a  standard  of  living 
comparable  to  that  of  the  rest  of  the  nation,  it 
appears  likely  that  political  democracy  will 
also  lag  behind. . .  If  the  South  would  demon- 
strate convincingly  its  determination  to  accept 
the  Negro  as  a  full  citizen  and  to  expend  pub- 
lic funds  in  an  equitable  manner,  then  the 
rest  of  the  nation  would  be  willing  to  help  with 
federal  aid  .  .  '.  The  three  approaches — legal, 
educational,  and  economic — are  not  antagonis- 
tic but  complementary  .  .  .  On  the  other  hand, 
without  necessary  legislation,  resistance  to 
change  may  hold  progress  in  human  relations 
to  a  creeping  pace. 


282 


CIVIL  RIGHTS 


Helen  Fuller,  writing  in  the  New  Re- 
public, March  8,  1948,  said: 

The  whole  civil  rights  program  hangs  upon 
the  right  to  vote.  Once  that  right  is  established, 
politicians  will  adjust  to  it,  as  they  are  adjust- 
ing in  places  where  it  has  been  won  .  .  .  The 
real  issues  underlying  the  southern  rebellion 
against  President  Truman  are  social  and  eco- 
nomic, not  political. 

It  was  Miss  Fuller's  opinion  that  job 
opportunities  and  social  status  underlay 
the  South's  revolt  against  the  proposed 
United  States  guarantee  of  equal  rights 
for  Negroes. 

Robert  Cushman,  a  member  of  Presi- 
dent Truman's  committee  on  Civil  Rights, 
writing  in  The  New  York  Times  Magazine 
in  January  1948,  stated  that: 

. . .  the  American  people  are  depending  more 
and  more  on  the  Federal  Government,  particu- 
larly on  Congress,  to  assume  a  more  aggressive 
role  as  the  protector  of  civil  rights. 

By  strengthening  the  governmental  agencies 
which  are  the  indispensable  defenders  of  civil 
rights  [he  continued],  by  creating  a  joint 
Congressional  Committee  on  civil  rights  and  a 
permanent  commission  on  civil  rights,  Con- 
gress could  focus  the  attention  of  our  people 
on  these  vitally  important  problems.  Perhaps 
Congress  has  no  more  important  duty  than 
this,  for  history  teaches  us  that  neither  sta- 
tutes, prosecutors,  nor  courts  can  protect  civil 
rights  and  liberties  in  the  face  of  a  public 
opinion  which  no  longer  understands  or  values 
them. 

At  the  1948  Democratic  National  Con- 
vention, Hubert  H.  Humphrey,  then 
mayor  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  led  the 
fight  for  a  strong  civil  rights  plank.  Later 
in  the  year,  he  is  quoted  as  having  said: 

Civil  rights  legislation  has  become  a  federal 
problem  because  in  some  way  or  other  every 
state  in  the  Union,  not  just  those  in  the  South, 
has  denied  to  some  of  its  citizens  the  full 
rights  of  American  citizenship. 

Federal  legislation  can  open  up  job  oppor- 
tunities regardless  of  race,  remove  remaining 
poll  tax  barriers  to  the  participation  of  all 
citizens  in  national  elections,  guarantee  due 
process  of  law  by  making  lynching  a  federal 
offense. 

CIVIL  RIGHTS  LEGISLATION 

Proposed  Legislation 

In  his  message  to  the  81st  Congress  in 
1949,  President  Truman  said:  "The  Civil 
Rights  proposals  I  have  made  to  the  80th 


Congress,  I  now  repeat  to  the  81st  Con- 
gress. They  should  be  enacted  in  order 
that  the  Federal  Government  may  assume 
the  leadership  and  discharge  the  obliga- 
tions clearly  placed  upon  it  by  the  Con- 
stitution. I  stand  squarely  behind  these 
principles." 

In  the  same  year,  U.S.  Attorney-Gen- 
eral Tom  Clark  proposed  the  creation  of 
a  Civil  Rights  Division  in  the  Department 
of  Justice,  headed  by  an  Assistant  Attor- 
ney-General. In  the  Senate,  Senator  J. 
Howard  McGrath  introduced  four  bills: 
(1)  to  establish  a  fair  employment  prac- 
tice commission,  (2)  to  make  lynching  a 
Federal  offense,  (3)  to  outlaw  the  poll 
tax  as  a  requisite  for  voting  in  primaries 
and  elections  for  Federal  officials,  (4) 
to  create  a  five-member  civil  rights  com- 
mission to  advise  the  President  and  "ap- 
praise the  policies,  practices  and  enforce- 
ment program  of  the  Federal  Government 
with  respect  to  civil  rights." 

In  1951,  eight  civil  rights  bills  were 
introduced  into  the  Senate  by  nine  Sen- 
ators (eight  Democrats,  one  Republican) 
headed  by  Senator  Hubert  H.  Humphrey 
(D.,  Minnesota).  The  bills  represented 
proposed  legislation  on  fair  employment 
practice,  lynching,  the  poll  tax,  strength- 
ening the  Federal  government's  machin- 
ery for  the  protection  of  civil  rights,  relief 
against  certain  forms  of  discrimination  in 
interstate  transportation,  strengthening 
civil  rights  statutes,  guarding  the  right  to 
political  participation,  and  peonage. 

Between  1947  and  the  end  of  1951 
several  civil  rights  bills  were  introduced 
in  the  legislatures  of  several  states.  Seven 
bills  were  filed  in  the  New  York  State 
Legislature  by  Assemblyman  Bernard 
Austin  (D.,  Brooklyn).  In  Missouri,  a  bill 
providing  punishment  against  persons 
guilty  of  racial  discrimination  in  public 
places  was  introduced  by  Representative 
William  Massingale,  a  Negro.  The  bill 
provided  for  fines  up  to  $100  and  impris- 
onment up  to  90  days  or  both. 

Enacted  Laws 

In  1947,  20  states  (Calif.,  Colo.,  Conn., 
111.,  Ind.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  Me.,  Mass.,  Mich., 


CIVIL  RIGHTS  LEGISLATION 


283 


Minn.,  Neb.,  N.H.,  N.J.,  N.Y.,  Ohio,  Pa., 
R.L,  Wash.,  and  Wis.)  had  antidiscrimi- 
nation statutes.  Not  one  of  these  was  a 
southern  state.  Eighteen  of  these  states 
prohibited  race  discrimination  in  eating 
places,  especially  restaurants;  more  than 
half  prohibited  discrimination  in  public 
conveyances,  barber  shops,  and  theatres; 
some  provided  for  equal  rights  in  hotels, 
stores,  elevators,  rest  rooms,  hospitals, 
pool  rooms,  saloons,  and  at  race  tracks. 
Penalties  for  violating  the  civil  rights 
statutes  ranged  in  fines  from  $10  to  $1,000 
and  in  jail  sentences  from  30  days  to  a 
year.  New  Jersey  enlarged  and  strength- 
ened its  FEPC  and  increased  penalties 
against  race  discrimination  to  a  fine  of 
$500  and  jail  sentence.  Indiana  enacted 
legislation  which  outlawed  segregated 
Negro  schools.  Missouri  passed  a  bill 
opening  all  Missouri  institutions  of  col- 
lege grade  to  Negroes,  whether  or  not 
there  were  institutions  for  Negroes  offer- 
ing similar  courses.  Maryland  abolished 
Jim  Crowism  on  public  carriers  and  in 
all  public  services;  and  Texas  enacted  an 
anti-lynching  law.  The  city  of  Portland, 
Oreg.,  passed  a  civil  rights  ordinance 
making  it  illegal  for  any  hotel,  restaurant, 
or  other  public  place  of  business  to  refuse 
service  to  anyone  because  of  race  or 
religion. 

Decisions  Involving  Rights 
of  Negro  Citizens 

For  decades,  many  Negro  Americans 
have  looked  to  the  courts  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  civil  rights  which  they  have 
failed  to  get  from  legislatures  and  from 
administrative  officers.  When  lower  courts 
have  not  rendered  the  decisions  desired, 
they  have  appealed  and  often  have  carried 
their  cases  to  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court, 
which,  in  many  instances,  has  decided  in 
their  favor. 

In  spite  of  the  apparent  conservatism 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  an  outstanding 
constitutional  lawyer  has  written  that 
"any  fair  assessment  of  the  Court's  role  in 
the  past  decade  compels  the  conclusion 
that  it  has  done  considerably  more  than 
any  other  arm  of  the  federal  government 


to  secure,  preserve,  and  extend  civil 
rights." 

Decisions  Relating  to  Higher  Educa- 
tional Opportunities:  On  Jan.  12,  1948, 
the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  in  Sipuel  v. 
Board  of  Regents  (Oklahoma),  ruled  that 
a  state  must  provide  legal  education  for 
the  petitioner  (a  Negro)  as  soon  as  it  did 
for  applicants  of  any  other  group.  The 
State  of  Oklahoma  hastily  established  a 
separate  law  school  for  Negroes  alleged 
to  be  the  equal  of  the  law  school  at  the 
University  of  Oklahoma.  Miss  Sipuel 
refused  to  attend  the  school,  and  sought 
a  writ  of  mandamus  to  compel  instant 
admission  to  the  regular  law  school  at 
the  University.  Her  lawyers  held  that  the 
establishment  of  the  law  school  for  Ne- 
groes was  an  evasion  of  the  previous 
decision  of  the  Court,  but  the  Court  re- 
fused to  order  immediate  admittance,  as 
Miss  Sipuel  had  requested,  and  ruled  that 
the  District  Court  had  not  departed  from 
its  (the  Supreme  Court's)  mandate. 

In  1950,  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  con- 
sidered two  cases  involving  discrimina- 
tion against  Negroes  in  higher  education, 
and  on  June  5  decided  in  favor  of  the 
petitioners,  Heman  Marion  Sweatt  of 
Texas  and  George  W.  McLaurin  of  Okla- 
homa. Sweatt  had  applied  for  admission 
to  the  law  school  of  the  University  of 
Texas  but  was  refused.  He  was  urged  to 
enroll  at  the  newly-created  law  school  for 
Negroes,  which  the  State  said  was  sub- 
stantially equal  to  that  at  the  University 
of  Texas,  but  he  refused.  He  appealed  to 
the  Supreme  Court  for  redress.  The  Court 
compared  the  two  law  schools  and  found 
that  they  were  unequal,  that  the  one 
established  for  Negroes  was  inferior. 
Through  Chief  Justice  Vinson,  who  read 
the  decision,  the  Court  ordered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Texas  to  admit  Sweatt  to  its 
law  school. 

When  George  W.  McLaurin,  who  had 
been  admitted  as  a  graduate  student  at 
the  University  of  Oklahoma,  observed 
that  he  was  being  subjected  to  certain 
discriminatory  treatment,  such  as  being 
required  to  sit  at  a  special  table  in  the 
library  and  in  the  cafeteria  and  in  a 


284 


CIVIL  RIGHTS 


special  alcove  just  off  the  classroom,  he 
sought  relief  from  the  Supreme  Court. 
The  Court  ruled  that  once  a  school  admits 
a  student  it  must  not  discriminate  against 
him  but  must  accord  him  the  same  rights 
and  privileges  accorded  other  students. 

The  decisions  in  the  Sweatt  and  Mc- 
Laurin  cases  are  considered  significant 
steps  in  the  effort  to  equalize  opportuni- 
ties in  higher  education. 

Some  important  decisions  have  been 
rendered  by  lower  courts.  On  March  30, 
1949,  Federal  Judge  H.  Crouch  Ford 
ruled  that  the  University  of  Kentucky 
must  admit  Lyman  Johnson,  a  Negro,  or 
Kentucky  must  build  a  graduate  school 
for  Negroes  "substantially  equal"  to  that 
of  the  University.  The  State  argued  that 
its  Day  Law  prohibited  any  person,  group 
of  persons,  or  corporation  from  conduct- 
ing a  school  where  whites  and  Negroes 
could  attend  together.  In  his  decision, 
Judge  Ford  made  it  clear  that  racial 
segregation  was  not  an  issue  in  the  case. 
Said  he:  "There  is  nothing  unconstitu- 
tional about  segregation.  The  Federal 
Constitution  required  equal  opportunities 
if  there  is  segregation." 

On  Sept.  5, 1950,  a  three-judge  Federal 
court  ordered  the  University  of  Virginia 
to  admit  Gregory  A.  Swanson  of  Martins- 
ville,  Va.,  to  its  law  school.  The  court 
ruled  that  Swanson,  a  graduate  of  the 
Howard  University  Law  School,  was  "en- 
titled to  secure  a  post-graduate  course  of 
study  in  law  in  the  commonwealth  of 
Virginia  in  a  state  institution,  and  he  is 
entitled  to  secure  it  as  soon  as  it  is 
afforded  to  any  other  applicant."  In  the 
State  of  Louisiana,  U.S.  District  Judge  J. 
Skelly  Wright  ruled  that  Louisiana  State 
University  must  admit  to  its  law  school 
Roy  S.  Wilson  of  Ruston,  La.,  who  pos- 
sessed the  qualifications  required  for 
admission. 

In  Missouri,  in  January  1950,  the  State 
Supreme  Court  ruled  unanimously 
against  the  admission  of  Miss  Marjorie 
Tolliver  to  the  Harris  Teachers  College 
in  St.  Louis  on  the  grounds  that  the  Stowe 
Teachers  College  in  that  city  was  sub- 
stantially equal  to  the  Harris  Teachers 


College,  in  which  only  whites  were  en- 
rolled. Stowe  Teachers  College,  in  which 
only  Negroes  were  enrolled,  had  been 
approved  and  accredited  by  the  North 
Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Sec- 
ondary Schools  only  a  few  weeks  before 
the  case  was  tried. 

In  Maryland  on  April  14,  1950,  the 
State  Court  of  Appeals  ordered  the  state 
University  to  admit  its  first  Negro  student 
to  the  school  of  nursing. 

In  North  Carolina  the  drive  to  secure 
entrance  of  Negroes  into  publicly-finan- 
ced institutions  received  a  setback.  A 
Federal  district  judge  ruled  that  the 
Negro  law  school,  set  up  in  1940,  was 
equal  to  the  long-established  University 
of  North  Carolina  Law  School,  in  spite  of 
expert  testimony  that  an  equal  legal  edu- 
cation could  never  be  obtained  in  a 
segregated  law  school.  An  appeal  resulted 
in  the  admission  of  Negro  law  students  to 
the  University  of  North  Carolina  in  the 
summer  session,  1951. 

The  Florida  Supreme  Court  refused  in 
June  1951  to  order  the  University  of 
Florida  to  open  its  doors  to  five  Negro 
students  for  courses  not  available  to  them 
at  Florida  A.&M.  College,  namely,  law, 
pharmacy,  graduate  agriculture,  and 
chemical  engineering.  The  refusal  was 
based  on  the  Court's  opinion  that  the 
students  had  not  given  sufficient  reasons 
why  they  should  be  admitted  to  the  Uni- 
versity. The  Court  stated,  however,  that 
the  students  had  a  right  to  renew  their 
appeal.  The  University  subsequently 
agreed  to  enroll  them  until  adequate  fa- 
cilities could  be  provided  at  the  state  insti- 
tution for  Negroes. 

In  September  1951,  on  an  appeal,  the 
Florida  Court  still  refused  to .  issue  an 
order  to  the  University  of  Florida  in- 
structing it  to  admit  Negroes  to  its  pro- 
fessional and  graduate  colleges.  The 
Court  defended  its  action  on  the  grounds 
that  the  courses  would  be  offered  at 
Florida  A.&M.  College  for  Negroes.  This 
refusal  by  the  Court  to  issue  an  order 
was  contrary  to  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court 
decisions.  The  case  is  still  before  the 
courts. 


CIVIL  RIGHTS  LEGISLATION 


285 


Applications  of  Negro  students  for  ad- 
mission to  publicly-supported  universities 
in  Georgia  and  Tennessee  were  rejected, 
even  though  the  authorities  realized  that 
they  would  have  to  face  suit  also.  Taken 
to  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  on  Jan.  10, 
1952,  the  University  of  Tennessee  decided 
it  would  comply  with  the  order  of  U.S. 
District  Judge  Robert  L.  Taylor  of  Knox- 
ville  and  admit  Negro  students  who  had 
applied,  thus  halting  arguments  in  the 
case  before  they  began. 

In  order  to  prevent  Negroes  from  enter- 
ing publicly-supported  institutions  for 
whites,  some  of  the  states  not  already 
admitting  them,  have  threatened  to  turn 
state-supported  colleges  and  universities 
and  all  public  schools  over  to  private 
operators,  contracting  with  the  new  heads 
to  supply  their  educational  needs. 

In  Februa'ry  1951,  the  Georgia  Legisla- 
ture passed  a  $207,505,000  appropriations 
bill  carrying  amendments  authorizing  the 
stoppage  of  state  aid  to  all  units  of  the 
university  system  if  any  court  admits  a 
Negro  to  a  white  institution.  At  the  last 
minute,  the  Senate  agreed  to  House 
amendments  authorizing  the  continuance 
of  building  funds  even  if  the  segregation 
issue  resulted  in  the  closing  of  state 
schools  and  colleges. 

Decisions  Relating  to  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Schooling:  In  the  area  of 
public  elementary  and  secondary  educa- 
tion, some  significant  cases  have  been 
tried  and  decisions  rendered  by  the 
courts.  In  Arkansas,  on  July  8,  1949, 
Federal  Judge  Henry  Lemley  found  that 
the  Dewitt  Special  School  District  No.  1 
did  not  have  school  facilities  for  Negroes 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one 
years  equal  to  those  for  whites  and  or- 
dered the  District  to  provide  "substan- 
tially equal"  elementary  facilities  within 
a  "reasonable  length  of  time."  On  June 
5,  1950,  the  Fourth  U.S.  Circuit  Court  of 
Appeals  ruled  that  segregation  in  educa- 
tion is  legal,  but  held  that  any  county 
wanting  it  must  pay  for  it.  If  segregated 
education  is  provided,  the  opportunities 
and  facilities  must  be  substantially  equal 
for  all  groups.  The  Court  observed  that 


students  in  the  high  school  for  Negroes 
in  Arlington  County,  Va.,  were  discrimi- 
nated against  on  account  of  race. 

In  May  1949,  Judge  Sterling  Hutcher- 
son  of  Norfolk,  Va.,  fined  four  Gloucester 
County  School  Board  officials  $250  each 
for  contempt  of  court  on  the  ground  that 
they  had  failed  to  provide  public  educa- 
tional facilities  for  Negroes  equal  to  those 
provided  for  whites.  Several  months 
earlier  the  Board  had  been  ordered  by  the 
Court  to  equalize)  educational  opportuni- 
ties. 

Probably  the  case  which  attracted  the 
most  widespread  interest  was  in  Claren- 
don County,  S.C.,  where  Negro  plaintiffs 
sought  the  right  to  enroll  their  children 
in  schools  provided  for  white  pupils  on 
the  grounds  that  schools  provided  for 
Negro  pupils  were  inferior  and  that  com- 
pulsory segregation  in  public  schools  was 
discriminatory  and  unconstitutional. 

The  case  was  tried  on  May  29,  1951  in 
Charleston,  S.C.,  before  a  special  three- 
judge  court.  Suit  was  brought  by  63 
parents  and  their  children  against  county 
school  officials.  Some  members  of  the 
NAACP  legal  staff  participated  in  the 
case.  The  decision  of  the  court  was 
handed  down  on  June  23,  1951,  and  by  a 
2-1  vote  upheld  segregated  schools  as 
legal  but  ordered  the  school  officials  to 
equalize  the  segregated  facilities.  The 
majority  opinion  was  presented  by  the 
presiding  judge,  John  J.  Parker,  with 
Judge  George  B.  Timmerman  concurring, 
and  Judge  J.  Waites  Waring  dissenting. 

The  plaintiffs  have  appealed  to  the  U.S. 
Supreme  Court  for  a  reversal  of  the  deci- 
sion. This  case  was  the  first  one  in  which 
a  definite  effort  was  made  to  establish  that 
compulsory  segregation  per  se  is  dis- 
criminatory, therefore  illegal,  and  to  have 
the  Supreme  Court  make  a  ruling  on  that 
point.  '  . 

Decisions  Relating  to  Equalization  of 
Teachers'  Salaries:  The  fight  to  establish 
equal  salaries  for  Negro  and  white  teach- 
ers in  the  southern  states  was  continued 
through  1951.  The  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and 
Jackson,  Miss.,  cases  were  the  main  ones 
before  the  courts. 


286 


CIVIL  RIGHTS 


In  the  1950  Atlanta  case,  the  U.S. 
Supreme  Court  refused  to  review  the  deci- 
sion of  the  U.S.  Court  of  Appeals  for  the 
Fifth  Circuit,  which  had  reversed  the 
ruling  of  the  U.S.  District  Court.  The 
District  Court  had  ordered  the  Atlanta 
Board  of  Education  to  pay  salaries  to 
Negro  teachers  equal  to  those  paid  to 
white  teachers  of  similar  qualifications. 

"The  Atlanta  Board  took  the  case  to 
the  Court  of  Appeals  on  the  grounds  that 
the  administrative  remedies  had  not  been 
exhausted  .  .  .  that  is,  the  school  authori- 
ties had  not  been  petitioned  to  grant 
equal  salaries."  Following  refusal  of  the 
Supreme  Court  to  review,  lawyers  for  the 
plaintiffs  initiated  plans  to  pursue  ad- 
ministrative remedies  on  behalf  of  Samuel 
L.  Davis,  Booker  T.  Washington  High 
School  instructor,  the  original  plaintiff, 
and  other  Negro  teachers. 

In  October  1951,  the  Atlanta  suit  was 
dismissed  from  the  Federal  District 
Court's  agenda  on  the  grounds  that  Mr. 
Davis  and  his  lawyers  failed  to  act  with 
speed  and  promptness  and  therefore  lost 
their  place  on  the  Court's  calendar.  This 
means  that  the  case  must  start  all  over 
again  and  take  the  step-by-step  course 
rather  than  filing  first  with  the  Federal 
court. 

Similarly  in  the  Jackson,  Miss.,  case, 
the  Federal  District  Court  dismissed  the 
suit  filed  on  behalf  of  Mrs.  Gladys  Noel 
Bates  and  other  Negro  teachers,  again  on 
the  ground  that  the  administrative  reme- 
dies had  not  been  exhausted.  An  appeal 
was  filed  with  the  U.S.  Court  of  Appeals 
for  the  Fifth  District,  which  upheld  the 
decision  of  the  lower  court.  On  Oct.  8, 
1951,  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  refused  a 
hearing  on  an  appeal.  This  refusal  is  seen 
as  backing  the  doctrine  of  administrative 
remedies  already  recognized  in  the  At- 
lanta case. 

Another  case  in  point  was  the  Chester- 
field County,  Va.,  suit.  Previously,  on 
Jan.  13,  1948,  in  Arthur  M.  Freeman, 
et  al.,  v.  County  School  Board  of  Chester- 
field County,  et  al.  (Richmond  Civil  Ac- 
tion No.  644),  the  plaintiffs,  colored 
school  teachers  employed  by  the  School 


Board  of  Chesterfield  County,  claimed 
that  by  reason  of  their  race  and  color  they 
were  paid  a  salary  less  than  that  of  com- 
parable white  teachers  employed  by  the 
same  Board. 

In  this  case,  as  in  the  King  George  and 
Gloucester  Counties  suits,  Judge  Sterling 
Hutcherson  handed  down  a  decision  in 
favor  of  the  plaintiffs  on  April  7,  1948, 
to  the  effect  that: 

Upon  the  whole,  it  appears  from  the  evi- 
dence that  there  is  discrimnation  existing  in 
Chesterfield  County  between  salaries  paid 
white  and  colored  teachers.  The  lower  salaries 
consistently  paid  the  colored  teachers  over  a 
period  of  years,  coupled  with  the  admitted 
discrimination  which  existed  prior  to  1941, 
lead  me  to  the  conclusion  that  the  discrimina- 
tion existing  is  due  solely  to  race  and  color  of 
plaintiffs. 

Decisions  Relating  to  Housing:  By  a 
6-0  decision,  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  on 
May  3,  1948,  upheld  the  right  of  persons 
to  make  private  agreements  restricting 
sale  of  their  homes,  but  made  judicial 
enforcement  of  such  agreements  illegal. 
Restrictive  covenants  against  colored  per- 
sons, therefore,  cannot  be  enforced  by  the 
courts.  Solicitor-General  Philip  B.  Perl- 
man  had  requested  the  ruling.  The  opin- 
ions in  the  two  cases  before  the  Court 
were  written  by  Chief  Justice  Vinson. 

In  Chicago  in  1948,  Circuit  Court 
Judge  Clayton  awarded  $220  to  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Lionel  Piper  because  a  temporary 
injunction  against  their  living  in  a  Wa- 
bash  Avenue  building  issued  March  19 
was  dissolved  May  10.  The  statute  in- 
voked provided  that  where  a  temporary 
injunction  has  been  issued,  the  defendant 
can  claim  damages. 

In  1949,  Superior  Court  Judge  Alfred 
A.  Stein  ruled  that  the  city  of  East 
Orange,  N.J.,  may  not  discriminate 
against  colored  veterans  in  the  selection 
of  tenants  for  the  city's  four  permanent 
housing  projects.  The  court  action  was 
brought  against  the  East  Orange  City 
Commission  by  nine  married  veterans. 

Decision  Relating  to  Intermarriage:  In 
a  4-3  decision,  the  California  Supreme 
Court  ruled  on  Oct.  1,  1948,  that  the  state 
law  prohibiting  interracial  marriages  vio- 
lated the  equal  protection  clause  of  the 


CIVIL  RIGHTS  LEGISLATION 


287 


Constitution,  and,  therefore,  was  uncon- 
stitutional. The  case  had  been  initiated 
by  Miss  Andrea  D.  Perez,  white,  and 
Sylvester  S.  Davis,  Negro,  who  had  been 
denied  a  marriage  license  in  Los  Angeles. 
They  were  members  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  which  does  not  forbid  interracial 
marriages. 

Decisions  Relating  to  Labor  Unions: 
Although  considerable  progress  has  been 
made  by  Negroes  in  their  efforts  to  be- 
come members  of,  and  to  be  protected  by, 
labor  unions,  there  are  still  glaring  in- 
stances of  discrimination  against  them 
by  some  unions.  Negro  workers  have  often 
gone  to  court  to  seek  relief. 

In  1948,  the  Fifth  Circuit  Court,  sitting 
in  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  held  that  colored 
brakemen  could  not  by-pass  the  National 
Railroad  Adjustment  Board  to  sue  in  the 
Federal  courts  upon  grievances  with  their 
employer  because  they  are  barred  from 
membership  in  the  unions  which  select 
the  labor  members  of  the  Board. 

In  1949,  a  three-judge  court  in  Chicago 
ruled  that  an  award  (no.  6540,  issued  by 
the  National  Railroad  Adjustment  Board) 
displacing  colored  porter-brakemen  with 
white  porter-brakemen  on  the  Sante  Fe 
Railroad  was  void  and  ordered  the  col- 
ored porter-brakemen  to  continue  on  their 
jobs.  The  action  against  the  Santa  Fe 
Railroad,  the  National  Railroad  Adjust- 
ment Board,  and  the  Brotherhood  of 
Railway  Trainmen  was  prosecuted  by  the 
Brotherhood  of  Sleeping  Car  Porters. 

In  the  case  of  Cyrille  Salvant,  Mobile, 
Ala.,  against  the  Louisville  and  Nashville 
Railroad  in  1949,  Federal  Judge  Mac- 
Swinford  enjoined  several  union  groups 
from  discriminating  against  Negroes.  The 
ruling  affected  the  Brotherhood  of  Loco- 
motive Firemen  and  Enginemen,  Pan 
American  Lodge  No.  39,  Ohio  Falls 
Lodge  No.  578,  and  Alfalfa  Lodge  No. 
878.  Salvant  went  into  court  because  of  a 
call  issued  by  the  brotherhoods  to  change 
their  contract  of  1929  with  the  railroads. 
The  suit  charged  that  the  call  was  issued 
for  the  purpose  of  discriminating  against 
Negroes,  although  the  unions  were  sup- 
posed to  represent  them. 


In  another  case,  Federal  Judge  Clar- 
ence Mullins  ruled  that  Negro  locomotive 
firemen  on  the  Gulf,  Mobile  &  Ohio  Rail- 
road had  been  deprived  of  their  seniority 
rights  and  enjoined  the  Brotherhood  of 
Locomotive  Firemen  and  Enginemen 
from  enforcing  its  existing  contract  with 
the  railroad.  The  Negro  firemen  could 
not  belong  to  the  union,  and  had  been 
listed  as  "unpromotable"  from  firemen  to 
engineers  by  an  agreement  between  the 
railroad  and  the  brotherhood  union. 
Judge  Mullins  was  not  sure  that  the  rail- 
road was  involved  in  the  conspiracy. 

In  1951,  a  U.S.  Court  of  Appeals  re- 
versed the  decision  of  a  lower  court  and 
granted  to  Negro  train  porters  on  the 
Frisco  Lines  recognition  as  brakemen  in 
name  and  pay.  Since  they  had  never  had 
a  union  of  their  own  and  were  excluded 
from  the  Brotherhood  of  Railway  Train- 
men, the  Court  ordered  the  Brotherhood 
to  serve  as  the  bargaining  representatives 
for  the  porters. 

Decisions  Relating  to  Public  Services: 
Less  than  half  of  the  states  in  the  Union 
have  laws  forbidding  discrimination  in 
public  places  and  public  services.  There 
is  an  increasing  tendency  among  Negroes 
to  seek  legislation  and  judicial  decisions 
guaranteeing  protection  in  these  matters. 

In  1947,  Mrs.  Albert  Crawford,  in 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  was  awarded  $500  by 
Judge  A.  M.  Kovack,  who  ruled  that  she 
had  been  deprived  of  her  civil  rights  by 
the  Humphrey  Co.,  operator  of  Euclid 
Beach  Park.  Mrs.  Crawford  charged  that 
she  had  been  refused  admission  to  the 
Euclid  Beach  Park  dance  floor  because 
of  her  race. 

On  Feb.  12,  1948,  Federal  Judge  Ben 
Moore  ordered  the  City  of  Montgomery, 
W.  Va.,  to  permit  Negroes  to  use  its 
municipal  swimming  pool  any  time  it  was 
open  or  to  provide  them  equal  pool  facili- 
ties. The  municipal  swimming  pool  was 
financed  by  funds  from  a  public  bond 
issue.  In  the  same  year,  a  Federal  judge 
issued  an  injunction  against  the  City  of 
Baltimore,  requiring  it  to  permit  Negro 
citizens  to  use  its  three  public  golf 
courses  and  restraining  the  City  from  en- 


288 


CIVIL  RIGHTS 


forcing  a  regulation  reserving  their  use 
for  whites.  The  facilities  of  the  one  golf 
course  which  had  been  reserved  for  use 
by  Negroes  only  were  declared  not  sub- 
stantially equal  to  those  available  to 
whites.  As  a  result  of  the  decision  of  the 
judge,  Negroes  may  now  use  all  four  golf 
courses  maintained  by  the  City  of  Balti- 
more. 

Claude  Marchant,  a  dancer  and  an  in- 
structor in  Katherine  Dunham's  school, 
was  awarded  $1,000  by  a  New  York  City 
Court  in  1948  because  he  was  twice  re- 
fused admission  to  the  passenger  elevator 
in  the  Tudor  City  apartment  house.  In 
another  case,  Judge  Oliver  Young 
awarded  $300  each  to  Miss  Bobbie  De- 
Mesne  and  Horace  Hazzard,  who  were 
refused  service  by  the  Chicken  Shack  in 
Oakland,  Calif.  In  the  State  of  Colorado, 
Judge  Harry  Leddy  of  the  Pueblo  District 
Court  awarded  Mrs.  Florence  Johnson 
$225  and  costs  in  her  suit  against  the 
Westland  Theatres  for  their  violation  of 
the  anti-discrimination  code  of  the  state. 

Federal  Judge  Albert  V.  Bryan  ruled 
on  Jan.  4,  1949,  that  the  order  of  Civil 
Aeronautics  Administrator  D.  W.  Rentzel 
abolishing  segregation  at  the  National 
Airport  was  in  keeping  with  Federal 
policy  and  took  precedence  over  Vir- 
ginia's segregation  laws.  As  a  result  of 
this  ruling,  the  National  Airport  dining 
rooms  were  opened  to  Negroes  and  whites 
alike. 

Decisions  Relating  to  Travel:  In  1948, 
District  Federal  Judge  John  Paul  ruled 
that  a  public  carrier  has  a  right  to  estab- 
lish its  own  rules  providing  separate  seats 
for  white  and  Negro  passengers,  where 
this  is  in  line  with  local  custom.  The 
Judge  stated  that  the  U.S.  Congress  and 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  had 
consistently  refused  to  enact  legislation 
which  would  ban  segregation. 

William  I.  Simmons,  a  Negro  clergy- 
man, had  sued  the  Atlantic  Greyhound 
Corp.  for  $20,000.  In  1946,  Reverend 
Simmons  had  boarded  a  bus  at  the  Roan- 
oke,  Va.,  terminal  enroute  to  Salisbury, 
N.C.  When  he  took  a  seat  near  the  front 
of  the  bus,  the  driver  requested  him  to 


move.  As  he  was  an  interstate  passenger, 
he  refused.  His  ticket  was  returned  to 
him.  A  jury  in  the  court  in  which  the 
plaintiff  sued  awarded  him  $25  for  dam- 
ages. The  bus  company  appealed,  and 
Judge  Paul's  decision  set  aside  the  judg- 
ment of  the  lower  court  and  the  damages 
awarded. 

A  judgment  of  $500  against  the  Penn- 
sylvania Greyhound  Bus  Co.  for  violation 
of  the  Ohio  civil  rights  statute  was 
awarded  in  1948  to  Fred  Hamlet,  of  Day- 
ton, Ohio,  who  was  called  "Nigger"  by 
the  bus  driver,  Illif  Brown.  Mrs.  Esther 
Pitcher,  white,  testified  that  she  had 
heard  the  bus  driver  call  Hamlet 
"Nigger." 

In  a  7-2  decision  on  Feb.  2,  1948,  the 
State  Supreme  Court  ruled  that  the  Bob- 
Lo  Excursion  Company's  refusal  to  carry 
a  Negro  girl  from  Detroit  to  Bob-Lo 
Island,  a  Canadian  island,  was  a  violation 
of  the  Michigan  civil  rights  statute.  The 
state  law  commands  public  conveyances 
to  provide  equal  accommodations  for 
passengers.  In  June  1945,  Miss  Sarah 
Elizabeth  Ray  boarded  a  boat  with  12 
other  girls,  all  white.  She  was  requested 
to  leave  because  of  her  color.  When  forc- 
ible ejection  seemed  evident,  she  left.  She 
prosecuted,  and  the  excursion  company 
was  fined  $25  under  Michigan  law. 

On  Sept.  27, 1948,  a  U.S.  District  Court 
in  Baltimore  ruled  that  segregation  of 
Negroes  on  railroad  dining  cars  was  not 
discrimination.  The  case  was  that  of 
Elmer  W.  Henderson,  who  was  denied 
dining  car  service  enroute  from  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  to  Atlanta,  Ga.  in  1942.  The 
opinion  of  the  Court  was  that  of  Judges 
W.  Calvin  Chestnut  and  William  C. 
Coleman;  Judge  Morris  A.  Soper  dis- 
sented. The  plaintiff  appealed,  and  the 
case  was  heard  by  the  U.S.  Supreme 
Court,  which  on  June  5,  1950,  rendered 
a  verdict  in  favor  of  the  appellant,  revers- 
ing the  judgment  and  remanding  the  case 
to  the  District  Court  with  directions  to 
set  aside  the  ruling  of  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  which  dismissed  the 
original  complaint.  The  District  Court 
was  instructed  to  send  the  case  back  to 


CIVIL  RIGHTS  LEGISLATION 


289 


the  Commission  for  a  decision  in  con- 
formity with  the  opinion  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  Supreme 
Court  that  the  railroad's  rule  and  practice 
of  segregating  passengers  by  race  in 
diners  were  discriminatory  and  unreason- 
able, imposing  an  unnecessary  burden  on 
white  and  Negro  passengers  who  would 
use  the  dining  cars. 

Decisions  Relating  to  Registration  and 
Voting:  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  still 
difficult  for  Negroes  to  register  to  vote  in 
many  southern  communities,  the  number 
of  qualified  Negro  voters  today  is  several 
hundred  thousand  larger  than  ten  years 
ago.  Court  decisions  have  been  largely 
responsible  for  this  increase. 

On  Aug.  13, 1948,  Federal  Judge  Frank 
Scarlett  directed  the  Twiggs  County,  Ga., 
Board  of  Registrars  to  enroll  Negroes  as 
voters  without  discrimination  because  of 
race.  A  suit  against  the  three  members 
of  the  Board  was  brought  by  four  citizens 
who  accused  the  Board  of  failing  to  reg- 
ister Negroes.  The  suit  was  filed  on  behalf 
of  900  Negroes.  The  order  of  Judge  Scar- 
lett was  given  in  a  pre-hearing  conference 
between  attorneys  for  the  plaintiffs  and 
defendants,  and  the  case  was  left  open, 
pending  action  of  the  Registrars. 

The  U.S.  Supreme  Court  in  1948,  in  an 
unwritten  opinion,  ruled  that  Negroes 
may  vote  in  political  primaries  in  South 
Carolina  despite  the  1944  state  law  per- 
mitting the  Democratic  Party  to  limit  the 
voting  in  primaries  to  "White  Demo- 
crats." There  was  no  dissenting  vote.  The 
Court  declined  to  hear  an  appeal  by  a 
group  of  South  Carolina  Democrats  from 
two  court  decisions  affirming  the  rights  of 
South  Carolina  Negroes  to  vote  in  the 
primaries.  On  Dec.  30,  1947,  the  Fourth 
Circuit  U.S.  Court  of  Appeals  ruled  that 
Negroes  may  enjoy  full  membership  in 
the  Democratic  Party  in  South  Carolina, 
including  the  right  to  vote  in  primaries. 
The  opinion  of  the  Court  was  written  by 
Chief  Judge  John  W.  Parker.  On  July 
16,  1948,  Judge  J.  Waties  Waring  of  the 
U.S.  District  Court  ruled  that  the  Demo- 
cratic Party  of  South  Carolina  can  no 
longer  refuse  to  register  and  enroll  the 


names  of  Negro  Democrats  on  its  books 
and  that  failure  to  do  so  in  the  future 
would  result  in  sentences  to  the  peniten- 
tiary. 

A  three-judge  Federal  court  ruled  that 
the  Boswell  amendment  to  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  State  of  Alabama  was  uncon- 
stitutional on  March  28,  1949.  The  Court 
said  that  the  amendment,  adopted  in 
1946,  was  sponsored  by  the  state  execu- 
tive committee  of  the  Democratic  Party 
"to  make  the  Democratic  Party  in  Ala- 
bama 'the  white  man's  party.' "  The  U.S. 
Supreme  Court  refused  to  review  the  case. 
The  suit  challenging  the  constitutionality 
of  the  Boswell  amendment  was  filed  by 
ten  Mobile  Negroes. 

In  1951,  the  U.S.  Court  of  Appeals  at 
New  Orleans  decreed  that  Negroes  may 
no  longer  be  barred  from  voting  in  elec- 
tions by  the  "Citizens  Party"  of  Harrison 
County,  Texas. 

Decision  Relating  to  Forced  Confession 
of  Guilt:  It  is  gratifying  to  observe  the 
apparent  decline  in  the  number  of  forced 
confessions  of  guilt.  Numerous  court  deci- 
sions have  declared  the  unconstitution- 
ally of  the  practices  of  police  officials  in 
securing  such  confessions. 

The  U.S.  Supreme  Court  on  Jan.  12, 
1948,  ruled  that  the  civil  rights  of  John 
Harvey  Haley,  age  15  years,  of  Canton, 
Ohio,  were  violated  when  he  was  held 
incommunicado  from  his  mother  or  a 
lawyer  from  October  19  to  October  25. 
According  to  Mr.  Justice  Douglas,  who 
wrote  the  majority  5-4  opinion  of  the 
Court:  "No  friend  stood  at  the  side  of 
this  15-year  old  boy  as  the  police,  work- 
ing in  relays,  questioned  him  hour  after 
hour,  from  midnight  until  dawn."  The 
conviction  of  a  lower  court  was  reversed. 
Haley's  asserted  confession  stated  that 
he  had  been  a  lookout  while  two  boys, 
ages  16  and  17  years,  were  inside  a  store, 
robbing  it  and  shooting  to  death  a  Canton 
confectioner,  in  1945. 

Decisions  Relating  to  Jury  Service: 
Increasingly,  Negroes  are  serving  on 
juries,  but  in  some  places  they  are  sys- 
tematically denied  the  opportunity  to 
serve.  Because  of  this  practice,  it  is  neces- 


290 


CIVIL  RIGHTS 


sary  occasionally  for  higher  courts  to  set 
aside  or  reverse  judgments  of  lower 
courts  in  which  Negroes  have  been  ex- 
cluded from  the  jury  venire. 

In  1947,  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  ruled 
unanimously  that  there  had  been  "a  sys- 
tematic, intentional,  deliberate,  and  in- 
variable practice"  of  barring  Mississippi 
Negroes  from  jury  duty  in  Lauderdale 
County.  The  opinion  was  expressed  by 
Mr.  Justice  Hugo  Black,  and  a  new  trial 
was  ordered  for  Eddie  (Buster)  Patton, 
convicted  of  slaying  Jim  Meadows  in 
1946.  Evidence  made  available  to  the 
Supreme  Court  revealed  that  no  Negro 
had  served  on  a  Grand  or  Petit  Jury  in 
the  County  in  30  years. 

In  New  York,  Cornelius  Moore  and 
Lester  Haughton  were  convicted  of  kill- 
ing Detective  James  M.  Burke,  member 
of  the  Police  Honor  Legion  and  holder 
of  eight  departmental  citations,  during 
a  hold-up  at  a  liquor  store.  Evidence  pre- 
sented to  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  re- 
vealed that  Negroes  had  been  systemati- 
cally excluded  from  the  jury  panel,  and 
that  a  special  "blue  ribbon"  jury  was 
used  to  try  the  murderers.  According  to 
the  Court,  this  was  a  violation  of  their 
constitutional  rights,  and  a  new  trial  was 
ordered. 

In  1949,  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  re- 
versed the  conviction  of  nine  residents 
of  Winston-Salem,  N.C.,  who  had  been 
convicted  of  misdemeanors  growing  out 
of  a  strike  of  laundry  workers.  The  de- 
fense attorneys  showed  that  although 
45%  of  the  residents  of  Forsyth  County 
were  Negroes,  they  were  rarely  selected 
to  serve  on  juries.  Except  in  one  case,  the 
juries  which  tried  the  cases  were  all- 
white.  One  Negro  served  on  one  of  the 
trial  juries.  Because  of  this  systematic 
exclusion  of  Negroes  from  jury  service, 
a  new  trial  was  ordered. 

In  a  7-1  decision  on  April  24,  1950,  the 
U.S.  Supreme  Court  voided  a  conviction 
of  murder  against  Lee  Cassell,  a  Texas 
Negro,  because  Negroes  were  intention- 
ally excluded  from  Grand  Jury  service 
by  the  jury  commissioners.  Mr.  Justice 
Stanley  Reed  wrote  the  decision. 


ORGANIZATIONS  AND 
CIVIL  RIGHTS 

Program  of  the  NAACP 

Since  its  founding  in  1910,  the  National 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Col- 
ored People  has  sought,  among  other 
things,  to  protect  the  civil  rights  of 
colored  peoples.  During  the  past  four 
years  it  has  worked  diligently  to  influence 
civil  rights  legislation  on  the  Federal  and 
state  levels.  It  has  maintained  a  lobby  in 
Washington,  has  appealed  to  Congres- 
sional leaders,  and  directed  a  Civil  Rights 
Mobilization  in  January  1950  in  which 
more  than  4,000  registered  delegates 
participated. 

Important  as  is  the  legislative  program 
of  the  NAACP,  its  legal  action  or  court 
cases  are  better  known.  The  members  of 
its  legal  staff  have  participated  in  and 
argued  many  of  the  significant  civil  rights 
court  cases  of  the  last  five  years,  especi- 
ally those  considered  "test  cases."  Prob- 
ably the  most  significant  were  the  Sweatt 
and  McLaurin  Cases;  the  Clarendon 
County,  S.C.,  Case;  the  Elmer  Henderson 
Case;  restrictive  covenant  cases  relating 
to  housing;  registration  and  voting  cases 
in  South  Carolina;  and  the  Groveland, 
Fla.,  Case,  in  which  the  NAACP  sought 
to  defend  Negroes  accused  of  alleged 
rape.  .  , 

The  record'  of  the  NAACP  legal  staff 
has  been  outstanding.  During  the  first  40 
years  of  its  existence,  that  is,  by  the  end 
of  1950,  it  had  won  28  out  of  the  31  cases 
it  took  before  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court. 
The  staff,  as  of  1951,  is  composed  of 
Thurgood  Marshall,  special  counsel; 
Robert  L.  Carter,  Jack  Greenberg,  and 
Constance  Baker  Motley,  assistant  special 
counsels;  Spottswood  W.  Robinson, 
southeast  regional  counsel;  U.  Simpson 
Tate,  southwest  regional  counsel;  Leon- 
ard W.  Schroeter,  legal  research  assis- 
tant; and  Annette  H.  Peyser,  socio-eco- 
nomic analyst. 

Another  excellent  service  rendered  by 
the  NAACP  is  that  of  civic  education — 
informing  people  of  the  nature  and  extent 
of  their  civil  rights,  of  the  means  by  which 


ORGANIZATIONS  AND  CIVIL  RIGHTS 


291 


they  may  secure  those  rights,  and  the 
record  of  public  officials  in  safeguarding 
or  violating  those  rights.  This  service  is 
rendered  through  the  Crisis,  through 
weekly  releases  and  other  published  mate- 
rials, through  national,  regional,  and 
state  conferences,  and  through  radio  pro- 
grams and  other  media. 

Civil  Rights  Congress 

In  a  press  release  in  December  1947, 
the  Civil  Rights  Congress  stated  that  it 
"was  organized  to  defend  the  right  of 
Americans  freely  to  associate,  to  talk  and 
to  assemble,  and  its  activities  have  con- 
sistently furthered  this  purpose."  In 
October  1947,  the  Congress  published  a 
46-page  booklet,  America's  Thought  Po- 
lice, a  record  of  the  Un-American  Activi- 
ties Committee.  In  November  of  the  same 
year  it  held  a  national  conference  in 
Chicago. 

In  1948,  the  Congress  called  upon 
Attorney-General  Tom  Clark  to  move 
against  the  Ku  Klux  Klan  in  Georgia, 
and  presented  a  statement  of  policy  on 
civil  rights  to  the  Platform  Committee 
of  the  Republican  National  Convention. 
It  is  credited  with  having  organized  the 
Washington  "Lobby  to  End  Lynching," 
and  with  having  launched  and  advocated 
the  observance  of  Defend  the  Bill  of 
Rights  Week,  May  23-30, 1948. 

In  1949,  the  first  issue  of  the  Liberator, 
organ  of  the  Congress,  was  published. 
The  National  Civil  Rights  Legislative 
Conference  was  held  in  Washington  in 
January  1949,  and  adopted  resolutions  on 
Negro  rights  in  America,  anti-semitism, 
rights  of  Mexican-Americans,  persecution 
of  political  minorities,  Labor  rights,  and 
thought  control  in  America. 

In  one  way  or  another  the  Congress 
participated  in  the  defense  of  the  "Tren- 
ton Six,"  Negroes  accused  of  alleged  mur- 
der, and  of  Willie  McGee  and  the 
"Martinsville  Seven,"  accused  of  alleged 
rape. 

Civil  Liberties  Unions 

In  1947,  the  Civil  Liberties  Union  of 
Massachusetts  published  a  card  entitled 


Equal  Rights:  Regardless  of  "Race  or 
Color,"  on  which  were  listed  the  rights  of 
citizens  in  Massachusetts.  "Carry  this 
card  with  you"  was  printed  on  one  side. 
The  card  was  distributed  widely  within 
the  state. 

In  1948,  the  American  Civil  Liberties 
Union  issued  a  booklet  listing  publica- 
tions on  Civil  Liberties  (books,  pamph- 
lets, periodicals)  and  films  produced  by 
it  and  by  other  organizations. 

About  1947,  the  Columbus,  Ohio,  Coun- 
cil for  Democracy  published  a  poster, 
prepared  by  Samuel  S.  Wyer,  enumerat- 
ing the  civil  rights  of  an  individual  in 
American  democracy.  The  rights  were 
classified  under  three  major  headings: 
"Freedoms  for,"  "Freedoms  from,"  and 
"Right  to." 

Other  Civic  and 
Religious  Groups 

In  1947,  250  Negro  leaders  in  Virginia 
met  in  Richmond  and  formed  the  Virginia 
Organization  of  Civil  Rights.  Its  objective 
was  to  end  segregation.  A  14-point  resolu- 
tion was  adopted.  In  December  1948,  the 
organization  gave  a  dinner  celebrating 
the  re-election  of  President  Truman. 

The  following  Declaration  of  Civil 
Rights  was  approved  by  a  Conference 
on  Civil  Rights  at  Madison  Hall,  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  Nov.  20,  1948,  and 
formally  adopted  the  same  day  at  Monti- 
cello,  Va. 

To  bring  American  ideals  and  deeds  into 
closer  harmony,  we  offer  the  following  pro- 
posals : 
I.  For  Voluntary  Individual  Action: 

To  speak  out  against  discrimination  when 
it  is  confronted  in  a  particular  case ;  to 
guard  against  prejudice  in  thought,  word, 
and  deed ;  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  think- 
ing of  all  persons  as  individuals,  rather 
than  as  members  of  a  group. 
II.  For  Voluntary  Group  Action  (by  educa- 
tional, religious,  labor,  business,  profes- 
sional, civic,  and  other  groups)  : 
To  inform  and  educate  their  members  as 
to  present  inequities  and  injustices,  and 
to  secure  their  consent  and  approval  of 
changes  in  constitutions,  by-laws  and 
practices  needed  to  establish  these  rights. 
III.  For  Legislation: 

(a)   Repeal  of  existing  laws  in  violation 
of  these  principles,  notably  all  laws  that 


292 


CIVIL  RIGHTS 


force  public  distinction  based  on  color, 
religion,  or  national  origin, 
(b)  Passage  of  new  legislation  at  federal, 
State  and  local  levels  to  serve  as  a  shield 
to  the  civil  rights  of  the  citizens,  includ- 
ing the  rights  outlined  above. 

This  declaration  was  endorsed  by  200 1 
citizens  of  southern  states,  and  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Southern  Education  Con- 
ference Fund. 

The  Michigan  Committee  on  Civil 
Rights,  formed  in  1948,  met  in  Lansing, 
and  adopted  an  eight-point  program  for 
the  purpose  of  promoting  the  recommen- 
dations of  the  President's  Committee  on 
Civil  Rights  through  an  educational  and 
legislative  program. 

In  New  York  City,  a  National  Citizens 
Committee  on  Civil  Rights  was  formed  by 
48  religious,  educational,  and  civic  and 
business  leaders.  Dean  Ernest  0.  Melby 
of  New  York  University's  School  of  Edu- 
cation was  chosen  as  temporary  chairman. 
In  1949,  he  was  succeeded  by  W.W.  Way- 
mack,  one-time  member  of  the  Atomic 
Energy  Commission  and  1937  recipient  of 
the  Pulitzer  Prize  for  editorial  writing. 

Montclair,  N.J.,  in  1948  conducted  a 
community  survey  amounting  to  a  civil 
rights  audit.  Its  civic  leaders  read  and 
studied  the  report  of  the  President's 
Committee  on  Civil  Rights,  planned  in- 
vestigations, collected  facts,  and  reported 
findings.  Civic  bodies  and  community 
organizations  used  the  findings  as  a  basis 
for  reconsidering  their  policies  and  prac- 
tices. 

Sixty  church  leaders  from  13  states 
met  at  Hampton  Institute  on  March  31 
and  April  1,  1948,  to  discuss  the  Church's 
responsibility  for  community  leadership 
and  the  implementation  of  civil  rights. 
The  meeting  was  sponsored  by  the  Race 
Relations  Department  of  the  Federal 


Council  of  Churches  and  the  Home  Mis- 
sions Council  of  North  America. 

Role  of  Negro  Lawyers 

In  their  efforts  to  secure  and  protect 
their  civil  rights,  Negro  citizens,  indi- 
vidually and  collectively,  have  been 
greatly  aided  by  Negro  lawyers.  In  many 
instances,  Negro  lawyers  have  been  em- 
ployed by  Negro  plaintiffs  to  prosecute 
their  suits  for  the  protection  of  their  civil 
rights  against  those  whose  behavior 
threatens  to  disregard  or  violate  them,  or 
to  seek  redress  for  alleged  infringement 
upon  their  civil  rights.  In  other  instances, 
Negro  citizens  who  were  defendants  in 
legal  cases  and  who  feared  that  their 
civil  rights  were  endangered  have  em- 
ployed Negro  lawyers  to  defend  them  and 
to  protect  them  from  being  illegally  or 
unjustly  convicted  of  some  alleged  crime. 

Frequently,  Negro  citizens  who  seek  to 
secure  or  defend  their  civil  rights  solicit 
the  aid  of  organizations  believed  to  be 
interested  in  the  safeguarding  of  civil 
rights.  Ofttimes  Negro  lawyers  handle 
such  cases.  Most  of  the  cases  accepted  by 
the  organizations  are  those  which  seem  to 
involve  factors  which  might  stimulate  or 
evoke  a  significant  judicial  declaration  or 
interpretation  of  some  aspect  of  the  Con- 
stitution and  thereby  establish  a  prece- 
dent or  clarify  a  law. 

Increasingly,  Negro  lawyers  and  Negro 
students  in  law  schools  are  manifesting 
great  interest  in  constitutional  law.  Some 
of  the  lawyers  are  active  advocates  of 
civil  rights  legislation.  The  successes  in 
the  civil  rights  cases  which  Negro  lawyers 
have  handled  have  won  the  confidence  of 
many  Negroes,  who  increasingly  look  to 
and  call  upon  the  Negro  lawyer  for 
leadership  and  for  protection  in  this  area. 


20 
Politics  and  Government 


THE  NEGRO  AND  VOTING 

The  Negro's  Right  to 
Vote  a  Settled  Issue 

Despite  a  hard  core  of  resistance  in 
certain  areas  of  the  Deep  South,  the  right 
of  the  Negro  to  participate  in  the  elec- 
toral process  is  now,  in  the  middle  of  the 
twentieth  century,  considered  to  be  a  set- 
tled issue. 

While  the  Negro's  right  to  the  ballot  is 
no  longer  an  important  issue,  the  objec- 
tives for  which  he  exercises  that  right  are 
a  vital  national  issue  and,  in  the  South, 
the  dominant  political  issue.  The  continu- 
ing resistance  to  his  voting  in  that  region 
stems  from  the  realization  that  the  ballot 
is  an  indispensable  instrument  in  the 
Negro's  steady  drive  for  full  and  equal 
citizenship  rights  through  elimination  of 
all  racial  discrimination  and  involuntary 
segregation. 

In  a  nation  with  a  total  potential  vote 
of  95,000,000,  the  Negro  potential  of 
approximately  9,500,000  represents  10% 
of  all  American  citizens  of  voting  age. 
This  full  potential  is,  of  course,  never 
registered  and  voted.  It  is  a  notorious 
fact  of  our  political  life  that  even  in 
presidential  elections  no  more  than  60% 
of  the  potential  American  electorate  goes 
to  the  polls.  In  general,  the  Negro  shares 
with  other  Americans  this  laxity  in  exer- 
cising the  right  of  franchise.  In  addition, 
his  vote  is  further  curtailed  by  the  con- 
tinuing hostility  of  election  officials  in 
many  sections  of  the  South  where  his 
potential  is  highest. 

Outside  of  the  South  there  is  no  accu- 
rate way  of  checking  the  number  of 
Negroes  who  have  registered  for  voting, 
for  only  in  that  region  and  a  few  border 
areas  are  records  kept  according  to  race. 
Once  the  ballot  has  been  dropped  into 


the  box  there  is  no  way  to  identify  the 
racial  origin  of  its  marker  save  in  com- 
munities where  separate  voting  booths  are 
provided  for  Negroes.  Even  in  the  South 
this  has  not  been  the  rule. 

The  Negro  "Bloc"  Vote 

Any  discussion  of  the  Negro  in  politics 
raises  the  question  of  the  existence  of 
"the  Negro  vote."  Idealists  sometimes 
indignantly  contend  that  there  is  no  such 
thing — or,  at  any  rate,  that  there 
shouldn't  be.  Practical  politicians,  how- 
ever, recognize  that  every  group,  whether 
racial,  religious,  regional,  nationality,  or 
class,  tends  to  vote  in  accordance  with  its 
own  special  interests,  identifying  them 
with  the  common  welfare.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  when  the  objectives  of  the 
group  are  made  political  issues,  as  in  the 
case  of  organized  labor,  the  farm  bloc, 
or  civil  rights  groups. 

As  a  group,  the  Negroes  of  America 
are  agreed  upon  a  program  of  minimum 
demands.  These  include  the  rights  to 
participate  freely  in  the  electoral  process, 
including  the  right  to  hold  office;  to  em- 
ployment in  accordance  with  individual 
merit;  to  freedom  of  residence;  to  public 
education,  from  the  kindergarten  through 
the  professional  school,  on  the  same  terms 
and  in  the  same  institutions  as  for  other 
Americans ;  and  freedom  from  the  humili- 
ation of  segregation  in  all  public  facili- 
ties, institutions,  and  accommodations. 
Many  of  these  rights  have  been  denied  to 
Negroes  through  hostile  political  action. 

While  these  demands  may  not  all  be 
established  or  restored  through  political 
action  alone,  failure  to  use  the  ballot  to 
attain  these  ends  would  be  confession  of 
defeat  and  acquiescence  to  the  status  quo. 
The  present  temper  of  the  Negro  Amer- 
ican rejects  such  defeatism,  with  political 


293 


294 


POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT 


action  prominent  among  the  channels 
through  which  this  rejection  is  expressed. 
Within  the  Negro  group  there  are  cer- 
tainly wide  differences  of  opinion  as  to 
the  most  effective  use  of  the  ballot  to  gain 
the  generally  agreed  upon  political  objec- 
tives. Increasing  economic  and  cultural 
stratification  within  the  race  will  inevit- 
ably be  reflected  in  diversification  of 
political  preferences.  And  among  Ne- 
groes, as  among  other  racial  groups,  there 
are  always  those  who  are  ready  to  make 
trades  for  personal  advantages.  But  the 
essence  of  jim  crowism  in  American  life 
lies  in  its  denial  of  differentials  within  the 
race.  The  humiliation  imposed  is  racial, 
not  individual.  Accordingly,  the  most 
effective  response  is  group  response. 

These  conditions  gave  birth  and  con- 
sciousness to  the  Negro  vote.  Through 
creation  of  the  "black  ghetto,"  intensify- 
ing the  Negro's  grievances  and  facilitat- 
ing the  mobilization  of  his  voting  strength, 
that  vote  was  given  a  distinct  identity. 

Until  the  advent  of  the  New  Deal,  the 
Negro  vote  was  generally,  though  not 
solidly,  Republican,  not  only  because  of 
the  Lincoln  tradition,  but  more  impor- 
tantly because,  nationally,  the  Democratic 
party  offered  little  inducement  to  the 
Negro  voter.  Both  Woodrow  Wilson  in 
1912  and  Alfred  E.  Smith  in  1928  made 
furtive  advances  to  Negro  voters  and  suc- 
ceeded in  winning  some  support  in  the 
larger  northern  cities.  But  even  in  those 
elections,  the  Negro  majorities  for  the 
Republican  candidates  were  overwhelming. 

At  mid-century  the  Negro  vote  is  large- 
ly Democratic,  in  the  South  as  well  as 
in  the  North.  In  national  as  well  as  in 
many  local  and  state  elections,  Negroes 
have  tended  to  vote  for  Democratic  can- 
didates in  larger  measure  than  they  have 
for  candidates  of  other  parties.  Contrary 
to  popular  belief,  this  trend  did  not  de- 
velop in  1932  with  Franklin  D.  Roose- 
velt's election.  Despite  widespread  dis- 
illusionment with  the  Administration  of 
President  Hoover,  Mr.  Roosevelt  trailed 
his  Republican  opponent  in  predomi- 
nantly Negro  wards  in  most  of  the  large 
northern  cities,  including  Chicago,  Phila- 


delphia, Cleveland,  Baltimore,  Cincin- 
nati, Columbus,  New  Haven,  and  Wil- 
mington. In  Chicago,  the  Democratic  can- 
didate received  only  23%  of  the  total 
vote  in  the  predominantly  Negro  wards, 
and  in  Cleveland  only  24%.  He  did,  how- 
ever, carry  the  predominantly  Negro  dis- 
tricts in  New  York,  Kansas  City,  Mis- 
souri, Pittsburgh,  and  Detroit.  Mr.  Roose- 
velt was  probably  the  first  Democratic 
candidate  for  the  presidency  to  win  a 
majority  vote  in  any  large  Negro  area. 

The  Democratic  trend  among  Negro 
voters  began  with  the  election  of  1936, 
during  which  former  Republican  strong- 
holds in  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  Balti- 
more, and  Cleveland  succumbed  to  the 
lure  of  the  New  Deal.  Of  15  predomi- 
nantly Negro  wards  in  nine  cities  studied 
by  Gunnar  Myrdal,  Mr.  Roosevelt  car- 
ried nine  in  1936  as  against  four  in  1932. 
In  the  1940  election,  only  one  of  these  15 
wards  went  against  Roosevelt — a  district 
in  Republican  Wilmington,  Del. 

The  trend  away  from  the  Republican 
Party  was  in  full  swing.  By  1944,  the 
metamorphosis  was  all  but  completed.  To 
the  dismay  of  reactionary  elements  among 
the  southern  Democrats,  national  Demo- 
cratic leaders  began  to  regard  Negro 
voters  in  the  same  manner  as  had  Re- 
publicans during  the  long  years  from 
enfranchisement  until  the  advent  of 
Franklin  Roosevelt.  The  Democratic  poli- 
ticians began  to  look  upon  the  Negro  as 
a  "natural"  Democrat,  to  whom  some  con- 
cessions had  to  be  made.  He  was  no 
longer  ignored  in  the  party  platform  or 
in  the  party  program.  He  began  to  appear 
among  many  state  delegations  to  the 
national  convention  and  to  participate 
actively  in  convention  deliberations. 
Although  old  for  Republicans,  the  role 
was  a  new  one  for  Democrats. 

LEGISLATION  AFFECTING 
NEGROES 

Historically  the  Negro's  legislative  con- 
cern has  been  with  human  rights,  the 
protection  of  the  individual  against  as- 
sault upon  his  personal  security,  his 


LEGISLATION  AFFECTING  NEGROES 


295 


well-being,  and  his  constitutional  rights 
by  private  citizens  as  well  as  by  author- 
ity of  the  state.  Because  such  protection 
has  traditionally  been  denied  the  Negro, 
or  only  grudgingly  extended,  the  civil 
rights  program  has  become  peculiarly  a 
Negro  program,  although  it  encompasses 
the  concept  of  equal  rights  for  all  regard- 
less of  race,  color,  creed,  or  national 
origin.  The  program  asks  nothing  for  the 
Negro  alone.  Its  benefits  would  be  shared 
by  the  populace  as  a  whole. 

The  desire  for  civil  rights  legislation 
and  even-handed  administration  of  the 
laws  of  the  land  has  been  the  chief  in- 
centive to  Negro  participation  in  the 
electoral  process.  Despite  continuing  ef- 
fort on  the  part  of  practically  every  seg- 
ment of  the  Negro  population  and  re- 
peated pledges  by  party  platforms  and 
elected  officials,  no  civil  rights  measure 
affecting  Negroes  has  been  passed  by 
Congress  since  1875  save  for  the  anti-poll 
tax  amendment  to  the  Soldier  Voting  Act 
of  1942.  Significant  advances  have  been 
made  at  the  local  and  state  levels  and 
through  court  decisions  and  executive 
action,  but  Congress  has  been  engaged 
in  a  long-standing  sit-down  strike  against 
civil  rights  legislation. 

Foremost  in  the  fight  for  enactment  of 
civil  rights  measures  has  been  the  Na- 
tional Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Colored  People,  backed  up  by  the 
Negro  press  and  other  organizations.  In 
more  recent  years  this  campaign  has 
won  the  support  of  organized  labor  (par- 
ticularly of  the  Congress  of  Industrial 
Organizations) ;  of  minority  group  or- 
ganizations such  as  the  American  Jewish 
Congress,  the  American  Jewish  Commit- 
tee, and  the  Japanese-American  League; 
of  religious  organizations ;  and  of  the  non- 
partisan  political  association  known  as 
Americans  for  Democratic  Action. 

Generally  regarded  as  the  basic  de- 
mand of  Negro  voters  is  the  right  to 
equal  job  opportunities  to  be  attained 
through  the  enactment  of  Federal  legis- 
lation establishing  a  Fair  Employment 
Practices  Commission  with  enforcement 
powers.  Other  items  on  the  civil  rights 


agenda  include  legislation  to  ban  the  poll 
tax  as  a  prerequisite  for  voting,  to  make 
lynching  a  Federal  crime  punishable  by 
Federal  courts,  to  eliminate  segregation 
in  interstate  travel,  to  abolish  segregation 
in  the  armed  services,  to  band  segregation 
and  discrimination  in  all  facilities  fi- 
nanced all  or  in  part  by  the  Federal 
government,  and  to  extend  the  franchise 
to  the  citizens  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Realizing  that  enactment  of  any  of 
these  measures  is  highly  improbable  un- 
der the  present  Senate  rules  which  permit 
unlimited  debate  (the  filibuster) ,  organi- 
zations supporting  civil  rights  have  de- 
voted more  and  more  of  their  efforts  to- 
wards obtaining  a  change  in  the  Senate 
rules  to  permit  cloture  (limitation  of  de- 
bate) by  the  vote  of  a  majority  of  the 
Senators  present  and  voting.  Rule  XXII 
of  the  Senate  formerly  provided  for 
imposition  of  cloture  on  the  vote  of  two- 
thirds  of  Senators  present  and  voting. 
During  the  80th  Congress,  Senator  Arthur 
M.  Vandenberg,  Acting  President  of  the 
Senate,  ruled  that  cloture  could  be  in- 
voked only  on  a  "measure"  to  be  voted 
upon  and  not  on  preliminary  motions  to 
take  up  such  a  measure,  or  on  other  de- 
laying tactics  of  the  filibusterers.  In  ef- 
fect, he  ruled  that  the  Senate  provided 
no  way  to  stop  a  filibuster. 

Early  in  the  81st  Congress,  the  Senate 
agreed  to  consider  revision  of  Rule  XXII. 
The  result  was  the  so-called  Wherry- 
Hayden  Compromise,  which  brought  pre- 
liminary motions  within  the  scope  of 
cloture  but  also  provided  that  debate 
could  be  limited  only  by  a  constitutional 
two-thirds  vote,  that  is,  by  a  vote  of  64 
Senators,  regardless  of  absentees  or  ab- 
stentions. Under  this  rule,  any  combi- 
nation of  Senators  absent  or  voting 
against  cloture  that  amounted  to  a  total 
of  33  could  defeat  cloture.  Meanwhile, 
Vice-President  Alben  W.  Barkley  had 
reversed  the  Vandenberg  ruling.  He  held 
that  under  the  old  rule  the  term  "meas- 
ure" encompassed  the  preliminary  mo- 
tions, which  accordingly  were  subject  to 
cloture.  On  an  appeal  from  the  ruling 
of  the  chair,  23  Republicans  joined  20 


296 


POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT 


Dixiecrats  and  three  western  Democrats 
to  override  the  Barkley  ruling,  46-41. 

In  1951,  during  the  82nd  Congress, 
civil  rights  advocates  renewed  their  ef- 
forts to  revise  the  Senate  rules,  despite 
agreement  in  the  81st  Congress  that  clo- 
ture  could  not  be  invoked  against  any 
filibuster  in  opposition  to  revision  of  the 
rules.  Public  hearings  were  held  in  May 
1951  in  Washington,  with  spokesmen  for 
the  leading  civil  rights  organizations 
testifying  in  behalf  of  revision.  At  the 
year's  end  no  action  had  been  taken  by 
the  Senate. 

The  Civil  Rights  Lobby 

The  NAACP  maintains  a  Washington 
bureau  under  the  direction  of  Clarence 
Mitchell.  This  bureau  is  generally  recog- 
nized as  headquarters  of  the  civil  rights 
lobby  in  Washington.  Mr.  Mitchell  and 
NAACP  Executive  Secretary  Walter 
White  make  frequent  appearances  before 
various  Congressional  committees  hold- 
ing hearings  on  civil  rights  issues.  They 
are  the  Negro's  principal  liaison  with 
Congress.  Others  maintaining  lobbies  in 
Washington  for  civil  rights  includes  the 
American  Council  for  Human  Rights, 
sponsored  by  college  fraternities  and 
sororities;  the  National  Council  of  Negro 
Women;  labor  unions;  certain  Jewish 
groups;  and  the  American  Civil  Liberties 
Union.  Representatives  of  these  groups 
have  organized  the  Civil  Rights  Clearing 
House  in  Washington  for  co-ordination 
of  their  efforts. 

A  great  mass  lobby  descended  upon 
Washington  in  January  1950,  when  4,000 
delegates  from  35  states  representing 
national  and  local  units  of  nearly  100 
organizations  participated  in  the  great 
Civil  Rights  Mobilization  initiated  by  the 
NAACP,  with  Acting  Secretary  Roy  Wil- 
kins  as  general  chairman.  The  Mobiliza- 
tion focused  national  attention  on  the 
fight  for  civil  rights  and  contributed  to 
the  defeat  of  a  move  to  restore  to  the 
House  Rules  Committee  its  former  power 
over  legislation. 

Positive  victories  by  civil  rights  advo- 
cates have  been  most  meagre.  The  rising 


demand  for  elimination  of  segregation 
through  Congressional  action  has  stimu- 
lated counter-efforts.  Until  recent  years, 
little  effort  had  been  made  by  Southern- 
ers in  Congress,  to  stipulate  segregation 
in  legislation,  largely  because  it  was 
deemed  unnecessary.  Segregation  seemed 
secure  and  unassailable.  Administrators 
could  be  depended  upon  to  respect  local 
tradition  in  regard  to  race  relations,  that 
is,  when  those  traditions  upheld  segrega- 
tion. Alarmed  by  inroads  made  through 
court  decisions,  administrative  action,  and 
changing  public  opinion  on  the  en- 
trenched pattern  of  forced  separation  of 
races,  some  Senators  and  Representatives 
began  introducing  bills  and  amendments 
requiring  segregation.  The  greatest 
achievement  of  the  civil  rights  lobby  has 
been  in  defeating  the  Southerners'  pro- 
posals. 

In  the  80th  Congress,  the  effort  to  ob- 
tain Congressional  ratification  of  the  re- 
gional-college compact,  designed  to  ex- 
tend segregation  in  education  to  the  re- 
gional level,  was  narrowly  defeated  in  the 
Senate  by  a  vote  of  38  to  37.  In  the  81st 
and  again  in  the  82nd  Congress,  efforts  to 
assure  perpetuation  of  segregation  in  the 
armed  services,  through  provisions  per- 
mitting inductees  to  designate  the  color 
of  the  troops  with  which  they  were  to 
serve,  were  turned  back. 

In  October  1951,  during  the  closing 
days  of  the  session,  Congress  passed  an 
educational  aid  bill  requiring  segrega- 
tion in  schools  financed  by  the  Federal 
government  on  Federal  property  located 
in  the  South.  A  Presidential  veto  killed 
the  bill.  After  asserting  agreement  with 
the  basic  purposes  of  the  bill,  Mr.  Truman 
explained  why  he  withheld  his  signature 
from  it.  He  said: 

Unfortunately,  however,  the  Congress  has 
included  one  provision  in  this  bill  which  I 
cannot  approve.  This  provision  would  require 
a  group  of  schools  on  Federal  property  which 
are  now  operating  successfully  on  an  inte- 
grated basis  to  be  segregated.  It  would  do  so 
by  requiring  Federal  schools  on  military  bases 
and  other  Federal  property  to  conform  to  the 
laws  of  the  states  in  which  such  installations 
are  located.  This  is  a  departure  from  the 
provisions  of  Public  Laws  815  and  874,  which 


NEGRO  VOTER  IN  1948  ELECTION 


297 


required  only  that  the  education  provided 
under  these  circumstances  should  be  com- 
parable to  that  available  to  other  children  in 
the  state. 

The  purpose  of  the  proposed  change  is 
clearly  to  require  that  schools  operated  solely 
by  the  Federal  Government  on  Federally 
owned  land,  if  located  in  any  of  seventeen 
states,  shall  be  operated  on  a  segregated  basis 
"to  the  maximum  extent  practicable." 

This  proposal,  if  enacted  into  law,  would 
constitute  a  backward  step  in  the  efforts  of 
the  Federal  Government  to  extend  equal  rights 
and  opportunities  to  all  our  people.  During  the 
past  few  years,  we  have  made  rapid  progress 
toward  equal  treatment  and  opportunity  in 
those  activities  of  the  Federal  Government 
where  we  have  a  direct  responsibility  to  follow 
national  rather  than  local  interpretations  of 
non-discrimination. 

Two  outstanding  examples  are  the  Federal 
Civil  Service  and  our  armed  forces,  where 
important  advances  have  been  made  toward 
equalizing  treatment  and  opportunity. 

Not  every  school  operated  on  a  Federal  res- 
ervation has  been  integrated.  It  is  never  our 
purpose  to  insist  on  integration  without  con- 
sidering pertinent  local  factors;  but  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  Federal  Government  to  move  for- 
ward in  such  locations  and  in  such  fields  of 
activitiy  as  seem  best  and  appropriate  under 
individual  conditions  and  circumstances. 

We  have  assumed  a  role  of  world  leadership 
in  seeking  to  unite  people  of  great  cultural  and 
racial  diversity  for  the  purpose  of  resisting 
aggression,  protecting  their  mutual  security 
and  advancing  their  own  economic  and  politi- 
cal development.  We  should  not  impair  our 
moral  position  by  enacting  a  law  that  requires 
a  discrimination  based  on  race.  Step  by  step 
we  are  discarding  old  discriminations;  we 
must  not  adopt  new  ones. 

President  Truman's  veto  message  is 
unprecedented  in  this  generation. 


THE  NEGRO  VOTER  IN 
THE  1948  ELECTION 

Negro  political  leaders  have  long  es- 
poused the  concept  of  the  Negro  vote  as 
a  balance  of  power.  That  role,  however, 
has  never  been  so  dramatically  and  con- 
vincingly demonstrated  as  in  the  presi- 
dential election  of  1948.  This  election, 
complicated  by  the  revolt  of  the  Dixie- 
crats  and  the  candidacy  of  Henry  A. 
Wallace  on  the  newly-organized  Progres- 
sive Party  ticket,  was  generally  conceded 
to  the  Republican  candidate,  Governor 
Thomas  E.  Dewey  of  New  York. 


The  outlook  for  President  Truman  was 
bleak  and  gloomy.  Four  traditionally 
Democratic  southern  states,  seduced  by 
the  Dixiecrats,  withheld  their  electoral 
college  votes  from  him.  Undercut  by  the 
Progressive  Party  vote,  the  President  lost 
Connecticut,  Michigan,  and  New  York  to 
the  Republican  candidate,  who  also  car- 
ried such  crucial  states  as  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey.  The  election  turned  on 
the  outcome  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Cali- 
fornia. President  Truman  carried  each  of 
these  states  by  a  margin  considerably 
less  than  the  plurality  he  piled  up  in 
the  predominantly  Negro  districts.  The 
Democratic  candidate  carried  Ohio  by 
the  slim  margin  of  6,800.  Heavily-popu- 
lated Negro  wards  in  Cleveland  gave 
him  30,000,  for  a  plurality  of  14,700  over 
the  Republican  candidate.  In  the  Negro 
districts  of  Cincinnati,  the  Truman  plu- 
rality amounted  to  11,000;  in  Dayton, 
7,000;  in  Canton,  2,600;  in  Akron,  6,500. 
Commented  the  Akron  Beacon- Journal: 
"The  backing  of  Akron  Negroes  alone 
provided  almost  precisely  President  Tru- 
mans  plurality  in  Ohio." 

A  plurality  of  50,000  in  three  pre- 
dominantly Negro  wards  of  Chicago  en- 
abled the  President  to  carry  Illinois  by 
31,200  votes.  With  Negro  voters  in  one 
Los  Angeles  district  alone  giving  the 
President  a  plurality  of  25,000,  he  was 
able  to  carry  California  by  a  margin  of 
17,865.  The  78  electoral  college  votes  of 
these  three  states  assured  Mr.  Truman's 
victory.  In  a  survey  of  the .  1948  Negro 
vote  in  30  cities,  the  NAACP  found  that 
of  the  total  Truman-Dewey  vote  cast  in 
predominantly  Negro  districts,  69%  went 
to  the  President.  In  Youngstown,  Ohio, 
Mr.  Truman  won  88%  of  the  Negro 
vote.  Certainly,  the  Negro  vote  alone 
could  not  have  elected  the  Democratic 
nominee,  but  in  the  circumstances,  with 
the  defection  of  the  right-wing  Dixie- 
crats on  the  one  hand  and  the  left-wing 
Progressives  on  the  other,  it  is  clear  that 
Mr.  Truman  could  not  have  been  elected 
had  he  not  carried  the  Negro  districts 
with  substantial  majorities.  This  election 
highlighted  dramatically  the  vital  role  of 


298 


POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT 


the  Negro  voter  as  a  balance-of-power 
factor. 

On  the  record,  Governor  Dewey  had 
done  more  to  promote  the  welfare  and 
recognize  the  value  of  the  Negro  in  New 
York  than  had  any  of  the  other  candi- 
dates in  their  respective  jurisdictions. 
Mr.  Wallace  had  spoken  eloquently  for 
equal  rights  at  the  1944  National  Demo- 
cratic Convention  and  on  other  occasions 
and,  though  his  deeds  never  matched  his 
words,  he  enjoyed  wide  popularity  and 
great  prestige  among  Negroes.  Whatever 
Mr.  Truman's  sincerity  and  intent,  he  had 
not  been  able  to  obtain  Congressional 
enactment  of  his  civil  rights  program  and 
had  not  at  that  time  succeeded  in  ma- 
terially reducing  discrimination  in  the 
Federal  services.  Mr.  Dewey  had  secured 
enactment  of  a  fair  employment  practices 
law  and  established  the  New  York  State 
Commission  Against  Discrimination  to 
enforce  that  act.  He  had  also  made  signif- 
icant appointment  of  Negroes  to  impor- 
tant positions  in  the  state  government. 
Under  his  Administration,  the  Legisla- 
ture also  passed  a  fair  educational  prac- 
tices act,  banning  discrimination  in  edu- 
cation on  basis  of  race,  creed,  or  national 
origin. 

Why  then  did  less  than  30%  of  the 
Negro  vote  go  to  the  New  York  Governor? 
The  answer  lies  partly  in  Mr.  Dewey's 
failure  to  capitalize  upon  his  good  record. 
He  seemed  so  certain  of  election  that  he 
evidently  did  not  deem  it  necessary  to 
make  a  strong  and  open  bid  for  Negro 
support.  Never  during  the  campaign  did 
he  speak  in  any  Negro  district  or  to  any 
sizeable  and  predominantly  Negro  audi- 
ence. He  failed  to  exploit  the  issue  which 
was  of  greatest  importance  to  Negro 
voters,  one  on  which  he  could  have  spoken 
with  the  authority  of  achievement. 

Despite  the  absence  of  positive  action 
as  Vice-President  and  Cabinet  member, 
Mr.  Wallace  had  captured  the  imagina- 
tion of  Negroes  through  his  verbal  cham- 
pionship of  the  common  man  everywhere. 
During  the  campaign,  he  valiantly  but 
vainly  challenged  jim  crowism  in  its 
very  citadel.  Throughout  his  southern  tour 


he  denounced  and  defied  discrimination 
and  segregation.  His  campaign  won  the 
acclaim  of  Negroes  but  not  their  votes. 
According  to  the  NAACP  survey,  the 
Wallace  vote  in  Negro  districts  was  neg- 
ligible except  in  New  York,  Los  Angeles, 
and  Cincinnati.  In  New  York,  Wallace, 
with  a  total  of  21,900  votes  in  four  Har- 
lem districts,  was  close  behind  Dewey, 
with  25,900.  In  the  same  districts,  Tru- 
man received  90,700  votes.  The  Los  An- 
geles district  which  accounted  for  30,750 
votes  for  Truman  returned  5,700  for 
Dewey  and  4,100  for  Wallace.  Five  pre- 
dominantly Negro  wards  in  Cincinnati  re- 
turned 26,400  for  Truman,  15,400  for 
Dewey,  and  4,300  for  Wallace. 

Why  Negroes  Voted  for  Truman 

Mr.  Truman  early  demonstrated  his 
interest  in  civil  rights  by  calling  for  a 
showdown  with  the  powerful  House  Rules 
Committee,  which  was  sitting  tightly 
upon  an  FEPC  bill.  He  went  further  by 
actively  and  successfully  opposing  the  re- 
nomination  in  1946  in  the  Democratic 
primary  of  Roger  C.  Slaughter  of  Kansas 
City,  Mo.,  whose  vote  on  the  Rules  Com- 
mittee could  have  released  the  bill.  He 
appointed  a  Civil  Rights  Committee, 
which  made  a  frank  and  uncompromising 
report  urging  the  abolition  of  racial  dis- 
crimination and  segregation.  On  the  basis 
of  this  report  he  issued  two  Executive 
Orders  in  July  1948,  one  calling  for 
equality  of  treatment  and  opportunity  in 
the  armed  services  and  the  other  estab- 
lishing regulations  for  fair  employment 
practices  within  the  Federal  civil  service. 
Further,  he  asked  Congress  to  pass  legis- 
lation recommended  by  his  Committee  on 
Civil  Rights. 

The  Democratic  Platform 

The  President's  program  alienated  a 
powerful  segment  of  southern  leadership 
in  his  Party.  They  came  to  the  Party's 
Philadelphia  convention  in  July  1948  pre- 
pared to  oppose  the  nomination  of  Mr. 
Truman  and  to  block  the  inclusion  of  any 
civil  rights  plank  in  the  Party  platform, 
and  throughout  the  convention  they 


NEGRO  VOTER  IN  1948  ELECTION 


299 


threatened  to  "walk  out"  if  it  was  in- 
cluded. In  the  midst  of  the  convention, 
the  NAACP  published  in  Philadelphia 
papers  a  seven-column  advertisement 
headed  "LET  'EM  WALK."  It  read  as 
follows : 

There  may  be  times  for  compromise,  for  con- 
cessions that  do  not  sacrifice  moral  integrity 
or  endanger  the  great  end  objective. 

But  there  is  no  room  in  Philadelphia  in 
July,  1948,  for  compromise  on  human  rights  in 
the  Democratic  party  platform. 

The  civil  rights  program  recommended  by 
President  Harry  S.  Truman  is  based  squarely 
and  incontrovertibly  on  the  United  States 
Constitution  and  the  opinions  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court. 

That  program,  which  the  Democratic  Na- 
tional Convention  is  asked  to  endorse,  calls 
for  legislation  to 

Supress  lynching  and  mob  violence. 
Outlaw  the  poll  tax  as  a  voting  require- 
ment. 

Assure  equality  of  job  opportunity. 
Abolish  segregation  in  the  armed  services. 
Prohibit  Jim  Crow  in  inter-state  transpor- 
tation. 

Establish  a  permanent  Civil  Rights  Com- 
mission. 

Those  Democrats  who  say  the  President's 
recommendation  of  such  a  program  is  a  "stab 
in  the  back"  of  the  South  are  saying  they  do 
not  choose  to  abide  by  the  Constitution.  They 
are  also  saying  (without  any  mandate  from  the 
people  of  the  South)  that  the  whole  section  of 
our  nation  believes  as  they  do.  We  do  not 
believe  this  is  true.  We  know  it  is  not  true ! 

Those  Democrats  who  say  such  a  recom- 
mendation "violates  the  principles"  of  the 
South  have  failed  to  set  forth  those  principles. 
Do  they  mean  that  it  is  a  Southern  principle 
that  Negro  Americans  shall  forever  be  second- 
class  citizens,  victims  of  lynching  mobs,  sub- 
ject to  segregation  and  discrimination  in  em- 
ployment, in  education,  in  housing?  Subject  to 
slander  and  cruelty  in  a  segregated  army? 
Denied  the  right  to  vote  and  thus  to  choose 
their  representatives  in  political  offices  and  in 
legislative  assemblies? 

Are  these  their  "principles"  in  1948? 

They  say  they  will  "walk  out"  if  the  Demo- 
cratic party  platform  declares  against  their 
"principles." 

...  In  the  attainment  of  the  great  and  ob- 
jective of  a  free,  truly  democratic  nation  and 
a  free  world  for  all  men,  they  are  a  hobble,  not 
a  help.  Their  going  would  be  a  blessing,  not 
a  blow. 

After  a  bitter  fight,  spearheaded  by 
Hubert  Humphrey,  then  mayor  of  Min- 
neapolis, and  other  leaders  of  Americans 
for  Democratic  Action,  the  Convention 


adopted  the  following  civil  rights  plank 
on  a  roll  call  vote  of  651  to  582,  after  re- 
jecting the  milder  plank  proposed  by  the 
Resolutions  Committtee : 

The  Democratic  party  is  responsible  for  the 
great  civil  rights  gains  made  in  recent  years 
in  eliminating  unfair  and  illegal  discrimina- 
tion based  on  race,  creed  or  color. 

The  Democratic  party  commits  itself  to  con- 
tinuing its  efforts  to  eradicate  all  racial,  re- 
ligious and  economic  discrimination. 

We  again  state  our  belief  that  racial  and 
religious  minorities  must  have  the  right  to 
live,  the  right  ot  work,  the  right  to  vote,  the 
full  and  equal  protection  of  the  laws,  on  a 
basis  of  equality  with  all  citizens  as  guaran- 
teed by  the  Constitution. 

We  highly  commend  President  Harry  Tru- 
man for  his  courageous  stand  on  the  issue  of 
civil  rights. 

We  call  upon  the  Congress  to  support  our 
President  in  guaranteeing  these  basic  and 
fundamental  rights : 

(1)  the  right   of   full  and   equal  political 
participation, 

(2)  the  right  to  equal  opportunity  of  em- 
ployment, 

(3)  the  right  of  security  of  person, 

(4)  and  the  right  of  equal  treatment  in  the 
service  and  defense  of  our  nation. 

Not  since  1932,  The  New  York  Times 
noted,  had  there  been  "such  a  material 
change  in  a  party  platform  after  it  had 
reached  the  convention  floor." 

The  Convention  also  rejected,  by  a 
vote  of  925  to  309,  a  proposal  of  the  States 
Righters  for  a  plank  asserting  that  "with- 
in the  reserve  powers  of  the  states,  to  be 
exercised  subject  to  the  limitations  im- 
posed by  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth 
Amendments  to  the  Constitution  on  the 
manner  of  their  exercise,  is  the  power  to 
regulate  and  control  local  affairs  and  act 
in  the  exercise  of  the  police  power." 

Having  adopted  a  forthright  plank  on 
civil  rights,  the  Convention  went  on  to 
nominate  Mr.  Truman  as  the  Democratic 
standard  bearer.  The  President  was 
chosen  by  a  vote  of  947V^  against  263 
for  Senator  Richard  B.  Russell  of  Georgia, 
the  candidate  of  the  disgruntled  Southern- 
ers. A  half-vote  went  to  Paul  V.  McNutt. 
Meanwhile  the  Dixiecrats  of  Alabama  and 
Mississippi  made  good  their  threat  to 
"walk  out." 

Never  before  had  the  Democratic  Party 
made  such  a  full  and  open  bid  for  Negro 


300 


POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT 


support  through  the  adoption  of  such  a 
forthright  plank  on  civil  rights. 

The  Republican  Platform 

The  Negro  plank  in  the  Republican  par- 
ty platform  is  as  old  as  the  party.  It  varies 
in  expression  from  convention  to  conven- 
tion in  accordance  with  historic  develop- 
ment and  the  temper  of  the  times.  It  was 
expressed  in  the  1948  platform: 

Constant  and  effective  insistence  on  the  per- 
sonal dignity  of  the  individual  and  his  right  to 
complete  justice  without  regard  to  race,  creed 
or  color,  is  a  fundamental  American  principle. 
. . .  Lynching,  or  any  other  form  of  mob  vio- 
lence anywhere,  is  a  disgrace  to  any  civilized 
State  and  we  favor  the  prompt  enactment  of 
legislation  to  end  this  infamy. . . . 

One  of  the  basic  principles  of  this  Republic 
is  the  equality  of  all  individuals  in  their  right 
to  life,  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 
This  principle  is  enunciated  in  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  and  embodied  in  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States;  it  was  vindicated 
on  the  field  of  battle  and  became  the  corner- 
stone of  this  Republic.  This  right  of  equal  op- 
portunity to  work  and  to  advance  in  life  should 
never  be  limited  on  any  individual  because  of 
race,  religion,  color,  or  country  of  origin.  We 
favor  the  enactment  and  just  enforcement  of 
such  Federal  legislation  as  may  be  necessary 
to  maintain  this  right  at  all  times  in  every  part 
of  this  Republic.  We  favor  the  abolition  of  the 
poll  tax  as  a  requisite  to  voting. 

We  are  opposed  to  the  idea  of  racial  segre- 
gation in  the  Armed  Services  of  the  United 
States. 

We  favor  equality  of  educational  opportun- 
ity for  all  and  the  promotion  of  education  and 
educational  facilities. 

Commented  W.  H.  Lawrence  in  The 
New  York  Times:  "The  1948  Republican 
platform  declarations,  in  some  respects 
are  stronger  than  the  1944  promises — 
which  have  not  been  carried  out  by  the 
Republican  leadership — and  in  others 
weaker.  The  real  effect  of  this  issue  on 
northern  Negro  votes  whose  renewed  al- 
legiance is  sought  by  the  Republicans  will 
not  be  known  until  the  votes  are  counted 
in  November."  The  platform,  evidently, 
was  not  convincing  to  Negro  voters. 

The  Progressives'  Platform 

Most  sweeping  and  forthright  of  the 
declarations  on  civil  rights  in  the  1948 
party  platforms  was  that  advanced  by  the 
newly-organized  Progressive  Party.  It  was 


not  only  a  declaration  of  principles  but 
also  an  indictment  of  the  old  parties, 
which  "deny  the  Negro  people  the  rights 
of  citizenship."  The  text  of  the  Party's 
civil  rights  plank  follows: 

The  Progressive  party  holds  that  it  is  the 
first  duty  of  a  just  government  to  secure  for  all 
the  people,  regardless  of  race,  creed,  color, 
sex,  national  background,  political  belief,  or 
station  in  life,  the  inalienable  rights  pro- 
claimed in  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
and  guaranteed  by  the  Bill  of  Rights.  The 
Government  must  actively  protect  these  rights 
against  the  encroachments  of  public  and 
private  agencies. . . . 

The  Progressive  party  condemns  segrega- 
tion and  discrimination  in  all  of  its  forms  and 
in  all  places. 

We  demand  full  equality  for  the  Negro 
people,  Spanish-speaking  Americans,  Italian- 
Americans,  Japanese  Americans,  and  all  other 
nationality  groups. 

We  call  for  a  Presidential  proclamation  end- 
ing segregation  and  all  forms  of  discrimination 
in  the  armed  services  and  Federal  employment. 

We  demand  Federal  anti-lynch,  anti-dis- 
crimination, and  fair-employment  practices 
legislation,  and  legislation  abolishing  segrega- 
tion in  interstate  travel. 

We  call  for  immediate  passage  of  anti-poll 
tax  legislation,  enactment  of  a  universal  suf- 
frage law  which  would  permit  all  citizens  to 
vote  in  Federal  elections,  and  the  full  use  of 
Federal  enforcement  powers  to  assure  free 
exercise  of  the  right  of  franchise. 

We  call  for  a  civil-rights  act  for  the  District 
of  Columbia  to  eliminate  racial  segregation 
and  discrimination  in  the  nation's  capital. 

We  demand  the  ending  of  segregation  and 
discrimination  in  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  and 
all  territories,  possessions  and  trusteeships. 

We  demand  that  Indians,  the  earliest  Amer- 
icans, be  given  full  citizenship  rights  and  the 
right  to  administer  their  own  affairs. 

We  will  develop  special  programs  to  raise 
the  low  standards  of  health,  housing,  and  edu- 
cational facilities  for  Negroes,  Indians  and  na- 
tionality groups,  and  will  deny  Federal  funds 
to  any  state  or  local  authority  which  withholds 
opportunities  or  benefits  for  reasons  of  race, 
creed,  color,  sex  or  national  origin. 

We  will  initiate  a  Federal  program  of  edu- 
cation, in  cooperation  with  state,  local,  and 
private  agencies,  to  combat  racial  and  religious 
prejudice. 

We  support  the  enactment  of  legislation 
making  it  a  Federal  crime  to  disseminate  anti- 
Semitic,  anti-Negro,  and  all  racist  propaganda 
by  mail,  radio,  motion  picture  or  other  means 
of  communication. 

We  call  for  a  Constitutional  amendment 
which  will  effectively  prohibit  every  form  of 
discrimination  against  women — economic, 
educational,  legal  and  political. 


NEGRO  VOTE  IN  1950  ELECTIONS 


301 


The  Dixiecrats'  Platform 

Following  his  nomination  as  the  candi- 
date of  the  Dixiecrats,  Governor  J.  Strom 
Thurmond  of  South  Carolina  told  a  New 
York  Herald  Tribune  reporter  that  he 
was  an  "open  progressive"  who  had  "no 
feeling  against  the  Negro  people."  Disa- 
vowing the  racists  among  his  following, 
Governor  Thurmond  said:  "I  am  not 
interested  one  whit  in  the  question  of 
white  supremacy." 

The  "declaration  of  principles"  adopted 
as  the  platform  of  the  Birmingham  con- 
ference affirmed  the  Party's  support  of 
states'  rights  and  called  for  continuing 
segregation  of  the  races.  The  declaration 
distorted  and  derided  the  civil  rights 
plank  adopted  by  the  National  Demo- 
cratic Convention  in  the  following  lan- 
guage: 

This  alleged  Democratic  assembly  called  for 
a  civil-rights  law  that  would  eliminate  segre- 
gation of  every  kind  from  all  American  life, 
prohibit  all  forms  of  discrimination  in  private 
employment,  in  public  and  private  instruction 
and  administration  and  treatment  of  students ; 
in  the  operation  of  public  and  private  health 
facilities;  in  all  transportation,  and  require 
equal  access  to  all  places  of  public  accommo- 
dation for  persons  of  all  races,  colors,  creeds 
and  national  origin. 

The  Socialist  Platform 

The  Socialist  Party  platform  reiterated 
its  longstanding  demand  for  the  establish- 
ment of  democratic  socialism  as  the 
answer  to  the  nation's  economic  and  social 
problems.  Specifically,  it  presented  an 
eight-point  program  for  the  establishment 
of  racial  equality. 

THE  NEGRO  VOTE  IN 
1950  ELECTIONS 

An  analysis  of  the  vote  cast  in  predomi- 
nantly Negro  districts  in  ten  northern 
cities  in  the  1950  congressional  and  state 
elections  reveals  continuing  support  of 
Democratic  candidates  except  in  one  in- 
stance. The  survey  covered  New  Haven, 
Chicago,  Springfield,  111.,  Baltimore,  St. 
Louis,  New  York  (Manhattan  and  Brook- 
lyn), Philadelphia,  Los  Angeles,  Canton, 
Ohio,  and  Kansas  City,  Mo. 


Democratic  candidates  swept  the  Negro 
districts  in  all  of  these  cities  except  Bal- 
timore, where  in  two  wards  Senator  Mil- 
lard  F.  Tydings  received  23%  of  the  vote 
as  compared  to  the  54%  which  President 
Truman  received  in  1948.  The  Negro's  re- 
jection of  Senator  Tydings  is  all  the  more 
revealing  when  compared  with  the  city- 
wide  vote.  In  1948,  Truman  received  55% 
of  the  total  Baltimore  vote,  1%  higher 
than  in  the  Negro  wards.  In  1950  Tydings 
won  47%  of  the  city- wide  vote  as  com- 
pared with  23%  in  the  Negro  district. 
The  Senator  was  defeated  in  a  campaign 
in  which  he  was  the  victim  of  a  particu- 
larly vicious  smear  attack.  However,  his 
poor  showing  among  Negro  voters  of 
Baltimore  stemmed  more  from  his  failure 
to  support  civil  rights  than  from  the 
tactics  of  the  Republican  opposition. 

In  most  of  the  other  cities  surveyed, 
the  percentage  vote  by  which  the  Demo- 
crats carried  the  Negro  areas  was  down 
from  1948.  Among  the  exceptions  was 
New  Haven,  where  the  Democratic  can- 
didates for  the  Senate,  the  House,  and 
Governor  took  70%  of  the  vote  in  a  dis- 
trict which  had  given  Mr.  Truman  only 
66%  in  1948.  In  Springfield,  111.,  the 
Democratic  percentage  went  up  from  55 
in  1948  to  57  in  1950.  Likewise,  Brooklyn 
Negroes  gave  Senator  Herbert  Lehman 
69%  of  their  votes  as  compared  with  the 
67%  which  went  to  President  Truman  two 
years  previously.  Similarly,  the  percent- 
age of  Democratic  votes  in  Kansas  City, 
Mo.,  increased  slightly  over  the  1948 
vote.  If  the  survey  of  these  ten  cities  is 
representative  of  the  Negro  vote  nation- 
ally, it  is  apparent  that  the  Democratic 
trend  begun  in  thhe  1936  election  is  con- 
tinuing strong  among  Negro  voters 
throughout  the  country. 

Senator  Taft  and  the  Negro  Vote 

On  Oct.  16,  1951,  Senator  Robert  A. 
Taft  of  Ohio  announced  his  candidacy 
for  the  Republican  nomination  for  the 
Presidency  in  1952.  Following  his  tri- 
umphant re-election  in  1950,  Senator  Taft 
had  expressed  some  reluctance  about 
again  being  a  candidate  for  the  nomina- 


302 


POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT 


TABLE  1 

NEGRO  VOTE  IN  10  OHIO  CITIES,  1950  AND  1948 


1950 


1948 


City 

Ferguson  (D.) 

Taft  (R.) 

%  Dem.  Truman  (D. 

)  Dewey  (R.)  %  Dem. 

Cleveland      

,     41,024 

21,295 
8,847 
6,200 
4,142 
4,751 
3,133 
3,887 
3,341 
715 
466 

65 
64 
61 
59 
68 
69 
54.4 
71 
78 
69 

41,307 
22,082 
10,474 
8,536 
12,646 
8,012 
4,668 
14,585 
3,060 
1,376 

17,307 
9,987 
6,083 
4,372 
5,713 
2,621 
3,506 
4,033 
598 
471 

70 
69 
63 
66 
69 
75 
57 
78 
84 
74 

Cincinnati  

15,936 

Columbus    

9,713 

Toledo  

5,990 

Dayton          

10,194 

Akron      

6,997 

Springfield   

4,638 

Youngstown  

8,285 

Canton  

2,598 

Massillon  

1,019 

TOTALS  . 


106,394 


56,777 


65 


126,746 


54,691 


69 


tion.  Subsequent  developments  evidently 
changed  his  mind.  The  Republican  leader, 
who  barely  squeezed  through  in  1944 
with  a  plurality  of  17,000,  piled  up  a 
commanding  margin  of  430,900  over  his 
Democratic  opponent  in  1950,  winning 
57%  of  the  total  vote  of  more  than  3,000,- 
000. 

The  increase  in  Mr.  Taft's  popularity 
among  voters  of  Ohio  was  not  reflected 
in  the  Negro  districts  of  the  larger  cities. 
Although  his  Democratic  opponent,  State 
Auditor  Joseph  T.  Ferguson,  was  reported 
to  be  a  man  of  limited  abilities  and  little 
renown,  he  carried  the  Negro  districts  in 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Columbus,  Toledo, 
Dayton,  Akron,  Springfield,  Youngstown, 
Canton,  and  Massillon.  As  among  Negro 
voters  generally  throughout  the  nation, 
there  was  a  slight  decline  in  the  precent- 
age  of  the  Democratic  vote  from  1948  but 
not  enough  to  place  these  districts  in  the 
Republican  column,  indicated  in  Table  1. 

Why  did  Negro  voters  fail  to  go  along 
with  the  majority  of  Ohioans  in  support 
of  Senator  Taft?  The  Senator  actively 
campaigned  for  their  vote  and  had  the 
support  of  most  of  the  Negro  press  and  of 
the  Negro  Republican  leadership.  The 
answer  seems  to  lie  in  the  Senator's 
avowed  opposition  to  an  FEPC  law  with 
enforcement  powers.  The  voters  had  seen 
a  voluntary  plan,  such  as  advocated  by 
the  Senator,  fail  in  Cleveland  to  be  sup- 
planted by  an  ordinance  with  the  neces- 
sary enforcement  powers.  The  majority 
of  Negro  voters  in  the  state  refused  to 


give  their  support  to  a  candidate  who  was 
committed  to  vote  against  a  bill  which 
they  cherished  as  one  of  most  vital  of  the 
civil  rights  proposals. 

The  Left-Wing  Vote 

In  an  effort  to  capture  Negro  support, 
the  left-wing  American  Labor  Party  spon- 
sored the  1950  candidacy  in  New  York  of 
the  venerable  W.  E.  B.  DuBois  for  the 
U.S.  Senate.  Dr.  DuBois's  half-century 
record  of  fighting  for  Negro  rights  as 
writer,  teacher,  editor,  and  lecturer  was 
counted  on  as  an  inducement  to  Negro 
voters.  In  New  York  City,  where  a  great 
deal  of  effort  was  expended  in  support 
of  his  candidacy,  the  vote  for  Dr.  DuBois 
was  considerably  less  in  Negro  districts 
than  that  for  Henry  A.  Wallace  in  the 
same  districts  two  years  before,  as  Table 
2  indicates. 

TABLE  2 

NEGRO  SUPPORT  OF  WALLACE  AND 
DuBois  COMPARED 


1948 


1950 


Assembly  District      Wallace  Vote       DuBois  Vote 


11  (Man.) 

3,484 

2,469 

12   " 

6,676 

3,291 

13   " 

5,492 

2,836 

14   " 

6,251 

5,324 

17  (Bklyn.) 

5,804 

2,265 

TOTALS 


27,707 


16,185 


Senator  Lehman  carried  all  these  dis- 
tricts, receiving  69%  of  the  vote.  Dr. 
DuBois,  the  only  Negro  in  the  race,  ran 


THE  ELECTIONS  OF  1951 


303 


a  poor  third,  trailing  the  Republican 
candidate  by  more  than  10,000.  These 
districts  gave  Senator  Lehman  79,769 
votes. 

The  real  test  of  the  strength  of  the 
left-wingers  in  New  York  City  was  made 
the  previous  year  when  Earl  Brown,  a 
newspaperman,  backed  by  the  Democrats, 
Republicans,  and  Liberals,  defeated  the 
incumbent  city  councilman  from  Harlem, 
Benjamin  Davis,  who  ran  on  the  Com- 
munist and  American  Labor  Party  tickets. 
Mr.  Davis  had  served  two  terms  on  the 
New  York  City  Council,  having  been 
elected  in  a  borough-wide  vote  under 
proportional  representation.  During  his 
term  this  system  was  abandoned  in  part 
for  the  purpose  of  ridding  the  Council  of 
two  Communist  members.  In  1949,  can- 
didates ran  as  representatives  from  state 
senatorial  districts. 

Despite  a  furious,  strenuous,  and  costly 
campaign,  the  Communist  lost  this  crucial 
test;  Mr.  Brown  swept  all  three  assembly 
districts  for  a  total  vote  of  60,030  to 
21,962. 

TABLE  3 

VOTE  FOR  NEW  YORK  CITY  COUNCIL,  1949, 
21sT  DISTRICT 


Assembly  Districts 

Brown 

Davis 

7th 
llth 
13th 

TOTALS 

29,338 
11,768 
21,924 

4,900 
8,723 
8,339 

60,030 

21,962 

For  many  years  now,  the  Communists 
have  sought  tirelessly  and  persistently  to 
enlist  Negro  members  and  supporters. 
Despite  every  effort  to  make  a  martyr  out 
of  Davis  as  one  of  the  11  convicted  Com- 
munist leaders,  the  Party  was  unable  to 
rally  sufficient  strength  in  Harlem  to 
elect  him,  even  though  their  candidate 
enjoyed  a  certain  personal  popularity  in 
the  community  and  was  himself  a  most 
able  campaigner. 

Accurate  figures  on  Party  membership 
are  unavailable.  However,  C.  Wilson 
Record  in  his  definitive  study,  The  Negro 
and  the  Communist  Party,  estimates  that 
Negro  membership  never  exceeded  8,000, 


and  reached  that  figure  only  during  the 
heyday  of  the  united-front  tactic,  when 
many  "innocents"  were  taken  in.  Indi- 
cations are  that  the  membership  in  1951 
was  considerably  below  Professor  Rec- 
ord's estimate  for  the  earlier  period. 

THE  ELECTIONS  OF  1951 

Only  local  and  state  elections  were  held 
during  1951.  These  contests  largely  re- 
flected local  issues,  and  they  further  re- 
vealed the  essentially  independent  char- 
acter of  the  Negro  vote.  In  national 
elections  this  vote  has  been  strongly 
Democratic  since  1936.  In  local  elections, 
Negro  districts  have  occasionally  swung  to 
the  Republicans  or  have  returned  great- 
ly reduced  Democratic  votes.  One  ward 
in  Chicago  which  had  gone  overwhelm- 
ingly to  Mayor  Martin  H.  Kennelly  in  his 
first  election  in  1947  was  lost  to  the  Demo- 
crats by  the  narrow  vote  of  11,977  to 
11,789.  The  decline  in  the  Democratic 
vote  among  Chicago  Negroes  was  directly 
traceable  to  the  acute  housing  conditions 
allowed  to  develop  in  that  city.  Their 
vote  was  an  expression  of  resentment 
against  the  Administration  of  Mayor 
Kennelly  for  its  failure  to  take  effective 
steps  to  relieve  overcongestion  in  the  Ne- 
gro ghetto.  Moreover,  the  Mayor  had 
intervened  to  block  enactment  of  an 
ordinance  against  discrimination  in  hous- 
ing. The  Mayor  was  re-elected  despite  his 
loss  of  favor  among  Negro  voters. 

The  Harlem  districts  were  among  the 
few  in  New  York  City  which  returned 
majorities  for  the  regular  Democratic  can- 
didate for  President  of  the  City  Council. 
The  Liberal  Party  had  entered  Rudolph 
Halley,  counsel  for  the  Senate  Crime 
Investigating  Committee,  as  its  candidate 
for  the  office.  Two  other  independent 
political  groups  also  endorsed  Mr.  Halley. 
Campaigning  on  his  record  as  a  "gang- 
buster,"  the  Liberal  Party  candidate  won 
the  election  with  a  margin  of  163,500 
over  the  second-place  Democratic  candi- 
date. The  Republican  entrant  ran  third. 
But  in  Harlem  each  of  the  four  predomi- 
nantly Negro  assembly  districts  returned 


304 


POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT 


comfortable  majorities  for  the  defeated 
Democrat.  There  was  no  racial  issue  in 
the  campaign,  as  all  candidates  were 
publicly  committed  against  discrimina- 
tion. The  vote  in  Harlem  x  probably  re- 
flects superior  organization  among  Demo- 
crats in  that  area.  In  the  Brooklyn  area 
of  largest  Negro  concentration,  Mr.  Hal- 
ley  led  the  field  by  more  than  600  votes. 
The  four  wards  of  heaviest  Negro  con- 
centration in  Cleveland  elected  two  Demo- 
crats and  two  Republicans  to  the  City 
Council.  In  national  elections,  these  wards 
have  all  gone  consistently  Democratic 
since  Roosevelt's  1936  election.  However, 
two  of  them  have  retained  Republican 
representation  in  the  City  Council 
throughout  this  period,  largely  because 
of  the  personal  following  of  Republican 
candidates.  Similarly,  the  Negro  vote  was 
divided  in  Philadelphia  and  Connecticut, 
where  candidates  from  opposing  groups 
were  elected  to  city  offices. 

UN-AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES 

Negro  Americans  could  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  escape  involvement  in  the  search 
for  Communist  and  "fellow  travelers" 
which  has  been  vigorously  carried  on 
since  the  end  of  World  War  II.  They  have 
been  involved,  in  the  legal  prosecution  of 
the  hierarchy  of  the  Communist  Party  of 
the  United  States  as  well  as  in  the  irre- 
sponsible listing  of  people  on  unsubstan- 
tiated charges.  In  June  1951,  the  U.S. 
Supreme  Court  upheld  the  1949  con- 
victions of  11  top  leaders  of  the  USCP. 
Two  Negroes,  Benjamin  J.  Davis,  Jr., 
who  had  been  elected  to  the  City  Council 
of  New  York  City  on  the  Communist 
ticket,  and  Henry  Winston  were  among 
them.  A  second  group  of  high-ranking 
Communist  Party  leaders  indicted  in  1951 
included  Claudia  Jones  and  James  E. 
Jackson,  Jr.,  who  was  identified  as  south- 
ern regional  director  of  the  USCP. 

Headlines  were  made  by  the  arrest  of 
the  octogenarian  intellectual  leader,  Dr. 
W.  E.  B.  DuBois  and  his  indictment  on 
charges  of  failure  to  register  as  a  foreign 
agent  because  of  his  activities  in  connec- 


tion with  the  work  of  the  Peace  Informa- 
tion Center.  When  his  case  came  to  trial, 
Dr.  DuBois  was  acquitted  of  the  charges. 

When  Dr.  Channing  H.  Tobias  was 
named  by  President  Truman  to  be  an 
alternate  delegate  to  the  United  Nations 
Assembly,  he  was  queried  about  affilia- 
tions with  certain  groups  which  had  re- 
ceived a  subversive  label,  but  Dr.  Tobias' 
appointment  was  given  approval  by  the 
Senate  Foreign  Relations  Committee. 
When  the  House  of  Representatives  Com- 
mittee on  Un-American  Activities  issued 
in  1951  a  report  on  "The  Communist 
Peace  Offensive,"  names  of  the  presi- 
dents of  major  Negro  colleges,  Negro 
bishops  and  other  church  leaders,  and 
prominent  Negroes  in  all  walks  of  life 
were  cited  for  membership  in  "peace" 
organizations  which  failed  to  have  the 
Committee's  approval. 

Paul  Robeson  continued  to  be  a  most 
controversial  figure,  against  whom  no 
formal  legal  action  had  been  taken  by 
the  end  of  1951  except  the  refusal  of  the 
State  Department  to  issue  him  a  passport 
for  foreign  travel.  Mr.  Robeson's  un- 
popularity apparently  reached  its  climax 
in  the  Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  riot  in  September 
1949.  Efforts  were  made  by  a  mob  of 
so-called  "veterans"  to  prevent  Mr.  Robe- 
son  from  speaking  at  Peekskill. 

In  December  1951,  William  L.  Patter- 
son, executive  secretary  of  the  Civil  Rights 
Congress,  was  ordered  to  surrender  his 
passport.  The  demand  came  while  Mr. 
Patterson  was  in  Paris,  where,  it  was 
reported,  he  would  make  representations 
to  the  United  Nations  on  the  Negro  prob- 
lems in  the  United  States.  Mr.  Patterson 
had  been  in  the  headlines  since  his  clash 
with  Representative  Henderson  Lanham 
(Ga.)  during  a  1950  Congressional  com- 
mittee investigation  of  this  organization. 


THE  SOUTHERN  FRONT 

Prior  to  1944,  to  speak  of  the  Negro  vote 
was  to  refer  almost  exclusively  to  the 
franchise  as  exercised  by  Negroes  in  areas 
outside  the  Deep  South,  particularly  in 


305 


the  large  industrial  centers  in  the  North 
and  Mid-West.  Although  a  minority  of 
the  total  Negro  population  resides  in 
these  areas,  the  bulk  of  registered  Negro 
voters  is  still  located  outside  the  South. 
Until  1944  the  Negro  was  effectively 
disfranchised  in  most  areas  in  the  South 
by  the  "white  primary,"  which  restricted 
participation  in  the  region's  only  real 
election  to  white  persons.  In  1944,  how- 
ever, the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  handed 
down  a  decision  in  Smith  v.  Allright  in- 
validating the  "white  primary"  in  Texas 
and  opening  the  way  to  mass  voting  by 
Negroes  in  the  South  for  the  first  time 
since  the  Reconstruction  period.  This  his- 
toric decision  may  mark  the  beginning  of 
a  new  era  in  southern  and  national  poli- 
tics. Ultimately  the  Negro  vote  in  the 
South  will,  by  sheer  numbers,  outweigh 
the  northern  Negro  vote.  Although  resis- 
tance against  the  full  implementation  of 
the  Supreme  Court  decision  continues, 
there  appeared,  in  1951,  no  reason  to 
doubt  the  steady  expansion  of  the  south- 
ern Negro  vote. 

The  Negro  the  Issue  in 
Southern  Politics 

The  Negro,  voting  or  voteless,  remains 
the  basic  political  issue  in  the  South. 

In  its  grand  outlines  the  politics  of  the  South 
revolves  around  the  position  of  the  Negro.  It 
is  at  times  interpreted  as  a  politics  of  cotton, 
as  a  politics  of  free  trade,  as  a  politics  of 
agrarian  poverty,  or  as  a  politics  of  planter 
and  plutocrat.  Although  such  interpretations 
have  a  superficial  validity,  in  the  last  analysis 
the  major  pecularities  of  southern  politics  go 
back  to  the  Negro.  Whatever  phase  of  the 
southern  political  process  one  seeks  to  under- 
stand, sooner  or  later  the  trail  of  inquiry 
leads  to  the  Negro.1 

Although  financially  backed  by  selfish 
economic  interests,  the  Dixiecrat  move- 
ment is  sustained  emotionally  by  appeals 
to  race  hatred.  Almost  from  the  outset, 
conservative  Democrats  in  the  South  op- 
posed the  New  Deal  for  economic  reasons. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  after  1944  that 
these  elements  organized  in  desperation  to 
oppose  the  dangers  to  their  special  inter- 
ests inherent  in  an  enlarged  and  under- 


privileged electorate.  Thus  the  trail  of  the 
Dixiecrat  movement  inevitably  "leads  to 
the  Negro." 

Stunned  by  the  Supreme  Court  deci- 
sion, reactionaries  in  the  South  looked 
around  for  other  devices  to  continue  the 
disfranchisement  of  the  Negro.  In  South 
Carolina  they  sought  to  reconstitute  the 
Democratic  primary  as  the  exclusive 
function  of  a  private  organization.  In 
Alabama,  Georgia,  and  Mississippi,  they 
sought  to  tighten  the  registration  laws  to 
make  it  more  difficult  to  get  on  voters' 
lists.  Throughout  the  region  there  were 
instances  of  violence,  including  murder, 
against  Negroes  who  asserted  the  right 
to  vote.  In  November  1951,  a  deputy 
sheriff  of  Opelousas,  La.,  shot  and  killed 
John  Lester  Mitchell,  one  of  three  Ne- 
groes who  had  filed  suit  through  the 
NAACP  in  the  Federal  District  Court 
asking  the  right  to  register.  In  1948, 
Isaiah  Nixon  was  murdered  in  Georgia 
for  voting  in  defiance  of  extra-legal  orders 
to  stay  away  from  the  polls.  In  Georgia, 
also,  D.  V.  Carter,  a  local  leader  of  the 
NAACP,  was  brutally  assaulted  for  en- 
couraging Negroes  to  register  and  vote. 

The  efforts  of  the  South  Carolinians  to 
circumvent  the  Supreme  Court  ruling 
were  twice  thwarted  by  decisions  handed 
down  by  U.S.  District  Judge  J.  Waties 
Waring,  who  in  1947  ruled  that  the  state 
could  not  evade  the  responsibility  for  the 
primary  and,  accordingly,  had  to  permit 
Negroes  to  participate.  Later,  in  1948,  he 
invalidated  a  requirement  by  the  South 
Carolina  Democratic  Party  that  partici- 
pants in  the  primary  take  an  oath  uphold- 
ing the  state's  segregation  laws.  In  Ala- 
bama, the  Boswell  amendment,  adopted 
with  a  view  to  restricting  Negro  voting, 
was  similarly  declared  unconstitutional 
by  a  Federal  court. 

The  Poll  Tax 

Meanwhile,  the  poll  tax  as  a  require- 
ment for  voting  was  being  gradually 
eliminated  by  state  action.  Of  11  southern 
states  which  once  required  payment  of 
this  fee,  only  five  retained  this  tax  on  the 


1  Key,  V.  O.,  Southern  Politics  in  State  and  Nation.  New  York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1949. 


306 


POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT 


vote  in  1951 — Alabama,  Arkansas,  Missis- 
sippi, Texas,  and  Virginia.  Efforts  to  re- 
peal the  poll  tax  by  referendum  vote  were 
defeated  in  Virginia  in  1949;  repeal  was 
defeated  by  a  vote  of  three  to  one  largely 
because  the  Legislature  had  tied  the  issue 
of  the  poll  tax  to  11  other  state  constitu- 
tional changes  which  were  unacceptable 
to  the  liberal  forces  demanding  repeal.  In 
Texas,  an  effort  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
the  tax  was  rejected  by  the  voters  in  1949. 
While  the  poll  tax  has  not  been  eradi- 
cated from  the  statutes  of  Tennessee  be-, 
cause  of  constitutional  provisions,  it  has 
been  made  inoperative  against  the  vast 
majority  of  potential  voters  of  both  races. 

The  poll  tax  is  most  burdensome  in 
Alabama,  where  it  is  cumulative  at  the 
rate  of  $1.50  annually  from  the  age  of  21. 
In  Virginia,  at  the  same  rate,  payment 
of  the  tax  is  cumulative  for  three  years 
with  interest.  Mississippi  requires  an  an- 
nual tax  of  $2,  cumulative  for  two  years. 
The  tax,  however,  may  not  be  paid  in  a 
lump  sum  for  the  two  years.  Payment 
must  be  made  in  separate  years.  In 
Arkansas  and  Texas  the  fee  of  $1  and 
$1.50  respectively  are  not  cumulative.  On 
the  whole,  the  poll  tax  has  been  a  less 
effective  curb  on  Negro  voting  than  the 
"white  primary"  or  the  restrictive  regis- 
tration regulations. 

Despite  violence,  legal  trickery,  and 
other  devices,  the  Negro  vote  is  steadily 
expanding  in  the  South.  The  late  Luther 
P.  Jackson  in  his  pamphlet,  Race  and 
Suffrage  in  the  South  Since  1940,  com- 
mented: "Regardless  of  reaction  and 
demagoguery,  it  seems  highly  improbable 
that  the  progress  made  by  the  Negroes 
as  voters  during  the  1940  decade  will 
wane."  Dr.  Jackson  saw  in  the  "discrimi- 
natory registration  practices  in  a  half 
dozen  Southern  States"  the  "greatest 
deterrent"  remaining  to  widespread  Ne- 
gro voting.  To  overcome  this  handicap 
he  urged  wider  use  of  the  courts,  which 
have  already  leveled  many  barriers. 

Registration  Laws 

The  registration  laws  in  many  of  the 
southern  states  were  admittedly  drawn 


with  a  view  to  limiting  the  Negro  vote 
while  attempting  to  remain  within  the 
prohibitions  of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment. 
Most  of  these  laws  give  wide  discretion- 
ary powers  to  the  registrars,  permitting 
them  to  determine  the  eligibility  of 
applicants.  Particularly  in  small  towns 
and  rural  areas  throughout  the  region, 
the  election  officials  have  seldom  hesi- 
tated to  apply  a  much  more  rigid  standard 
to  Negro  applicants  than  to  white  per- 
sons. Outright  violations  of  the  law  in 
such  communities  continue  to  be  com- 
monplace. 

Typical  of  these  registration  laws  is  the 
Voter  Qualification  amendment  passed  by 
the  Alabama  State  Legislature  in  1951 
for  submission  to  a  referendum.  This 
amendment  restricts  the  vote  to: 

those  who  can  read  and  write  any  Article  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  in  the 
English  language  which  may  be  submitted  to 
them  by  the  Board  of  Registrars,  provided, 
however,  that  no  persons  shall  be  entitled  to 
register  as  electors  except  those  who  are  of 
good  character  and  who  embrace  the  duties 
and  obligations  of  citizenship  under  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  and  under  the 
Constitution  of  the  State  of  Alabama,  and 
provided,  further,  that  in  order  to  aid  the 
Members  of  the  Boards  of  Registrars,  who  are 
hereby  constituted  and  declared  to  be  Judicial 
Officers,  to  judicially  determine  if  applicants 
to  register  have  the  qualifications  herein  above 
set  out,  each  applicant  shall  be  furnished  by 
the  Board  of  Registrars  a  written  question- 
naire, which  shall  be  uniform  in  all  cases  with 
no  discrimination  as  between  applicants,  the 
form  and  contents  of  which  questionnaire  shall 
be  prescribed  by  The  Supreme  Court  of  Ala- 
bama and  be  filed  by  such  Court  with  the 
Secretary  of  State  of  the  State  of  Alabama, 
which  questionnaire  shall  be  so  worded  that 
the  answers  thereto  will  place  before  the 
Boards  of  Registrars  information  necessary  or 
proper  to  aid  them  to  pass  upon  the  qualifica- 
tion of  each  applicant.  Such  questionnaire 
shall  -be  answered  in  writing  by  the  applicant, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Board  without  assist- 
ance, and  there  shall  be  incorporated  in  such 
answer  an  oath  to  support  and  defend  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  and  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  State  of  Alabama  and  a  statement 
in  such  oath  by  the  applicant  disavowing  belief 
in  or  affiliation  at  any  time  with  any  group  or 
party  which  advocates  the  overthrow  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States  or  the  State  of 
Alabama  by  unlawful  means,  which  answers 
and  oath  shall  be  duly  signed  and  sworn  to  by 
the  applicant  before  a  member  of  the  County 


THE  SOUTHERN  FRONT 


307 


Board  of  Registrars.  .  .  .  Those  persons  who 
have  registered  as  electors  under  the  Alabama 
Constitution  of  1901  shall  not  be  required  to 
register  again.  Provided,  further,  that  if  solely 
because  of  physical  handicaps  the  applicant  is 
unable  to  read  or  write,  then  he  shall  be  ex- 
empt from  the  above  stated  requirements 
which  he  is  unable  to  meet  because  of  such 
physical  handicap,  and  in  such  cases  a  Mem- 
ber of  the  Board  of  Registrars  shall  read  to  the 
applicant  the  questionnaire  and  oaths  herein 
provided  for  and  the  applicant's  answers 
thereto  shall  be  written  down  by  such  Board 
Member,  and  the  applicant  shall  be  registered 
as  a  voter  if  he  meets  all  other  requirements 
herein  set  out. 

The  new  amendment,  ratified  Dec.  11, 
1951,  by  a  vote  of  60,357  for  and  59,988 
against  (a  margin  of  369  votes),  was 
proposed  as  a  substitute  for  the  Boswell 
amendment  adopted  in  1946  and  declared 
unconstitutional  by  a  Federal  court  in 
1949.  The  Boswell  amendment  required 
the  applicant  to  be  able  to  read  and  in- 
terpret the  Constitution  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  registrar.  Interpretations  offered 
by  Negro  applicants  seldom  satisfied  the 
registrars.  Meanwhile,  Georgia,  Missis- 
sippi, and  South  Carolina  passed  new 
registration  laws  by  means  of  which  they 
hoped  to  reduce  drastically  the  new 
Negro  vote.  The  Georgia  law,  passed  in 
1949,  required  a  complete  re-registration 
of  all  voters  under  a  new  literacy  test.  So 
tardy  were  the  counties  in  complying 
with  the  law  that  the  Legislature  in  1950 
voted  to  postpone  operation  of  the  law 
until  April  1952. 

Qualified  Negro  Voters  in 
the  South 

Other  restrictive  devices  developed  in 
South  Carolina  and  Mississippi  included 
requirements  that  applicants  for  partici- 
pation in  the  Democratic  primaries 
pledge  themselves  to  support  the  status 
quo  in  race  relations  and  to  oppose  Fed- 
eral legislation  for  FEPC  and  other  civil 
rights  measures.  Georgia's  notorious 
county-unit  voting  system  in  the  Demo- 
cratic primaries  has  been  effective  in 
reducing  the  power  of  the  Negro  vote 
through  minimizing  the  franchise  in  the 
large  \cjties,  where  most  of  the  Negro 
vote  is  coricentrated. 


Estimates  on  the  number  of  qualified 
Negro  voters  in  the  southern  states  vary. 
The  Political  Action  Committee  of  the 
C.I.O.  placed  it  at  750,000  in  1948.  Dr. 
Luther  Jackson  conservatively  estimated 
that  610,000  Negroes  were  qualified  to 
vote  in  12  southern  states  in  1947. 

A  survey  by  the  NAACP  in  1951  indi- 
cated that  some  914,000  Negroes  are 
qualified  to  vote  in  11  southern  states. 

These  figures  are  estimates  based  upon 
figures  received  from  the  respective 
states.  They  indicate  the  number  of  Ne- 
groes who  have  taken  the  necessary  pre- 
liminary steps  to  qualify  for  voting,  such 
as  paying  poll  tax  and  registering.  While 
these  figures  reveal  a  vast  expansion  in 
the  Negro  vote  since  1944,  they  represent 
less  than  15%  of  the  potential  Negro 
vote  in  the  area  (See  Table  4). 

Tarleton  Collier,  an  editorial  writer  for 
the  Louisville  Courier-Journal,  writing  in 
The  New  Leader  of  Dec.  3,  1951,  hope- 
fully envisages  "between  two  and  three 
million  southern  Negroes"  registering  to 
vote  in  the  1952  primaries  and  general 
elections.  The  NAACP,  Negro  political 
organizations,  and  some  unions  have 
sought  to  enlarge  the  Negro  vote;  their 
goal  is  to  double  it  by  1952. 

Negro  Candidates  for 
Office  in  the  South 

The  resurgence  of  Negro  voting  in  the 
South  has  stimulated  Negroes  to  file  as 

TABLE  4 

QUALIFIED  NEGRO  VOTERS  IN 
SOUTHERN  STATES,  1951 


State 


Qualified 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

Georgia 

Florida 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

TOTAL 


50,000 
50,000 

120,000 

108,000 
30,000 
20,000 

100,000 
35,000 
50,000 

275,000 
76,000 

914,000 


308 


POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT 


candidates  for  public  office.  In  the  long 
period  between  the  final  collapse  of  Re- 
construction and  1944,  Negroes  occasion- 
ally ran  for  governor,  congressman,  and 
local  offices  on  the  Republican  ticket. 
Such  candidates,  however,  were  not  run- 
ning in  the  hope  of  winning,  but  rather 
to  indicate  the  survival  of  the  Negro  as  a 
political  being.  Most  of  the  more  recent 
candidates  have  campaigned  seriously  in 
the  expectation  of  winning.  As  a  result, 
Negroes  have  been  elected  to  the  city 
councils  of  several  southern  cities,  and 
have  run,  if  unsuccessfully,  in  others. 

Effect  of  Negro  Vote  on 
Southern  Politics 

The  chief  threat  of  an  enlarged  Negro 
vote  is  to  conservative  Democratic  office- 
holders. Observers  of  the  southern  poli- 
tical scene  note  in  the  new  Negro  vote  a 
great  boon  to  liberalism  in  that  region. 
"If  the  Negro  is  gradually  assimilated 
into  political  life,"  observes  Dr.  Key,  "the 
underlying  southern  liberalism  will  un- 
doubtedly be  mightily  strengthened,  for 
the  Negro,  recent  experience  indicates, 
allies  himself  with  liberal  factions  when- 
ever they  exist.  The  potentialities  in 
national  politics  of  a  South  freed  from 
the  restraint  of  the  Negro  and  the  one- 
party  system  are  extremely  great."  As 
this  vote  expands,  Mr.  Collier  asserts, 
"there  will  be  an  assurance  to  progres- 
sives that  they  will  have  a  bedrock  of 
support.  Thus  more  progressives  will 
emerge.  This  is  the  idea  on  which  the 
Negro  strategy  for  1952  is  based." 

Except  for  frightened  "white  suprem- 
acy" politicians,  southern  comment  on  the 
emerging  Negro  vote  has  been,  on  the 
whole,  encouraging.  Asserts  the  Arkansas 
Gazette  of  Little  Rock,  July  27,  1950: 

The  Negro  has  arrived  as  a  factor  in  south- 
ern politics — uncertain  as  to  his  purpose  as 
yet,  unskilled  in  the  political  arts,  but  aware 
of  the  new  status  he  has  acquired  in  a  single 
decade.  There  are  some  who  see  this  as  a  cause 
for  celebration,  some  who  see  it  as  a  cause 
for  alarm.  But  nobody  can  doubt  that  it  has 
happened,  and  no  politician  can  seriously  be- 
lieve that  the  South  will  ever  return  to  the 
system  of  legal  and  extra-legal  disfranchise- 


ment  under  which  a  fourth  of  its  people  were 
denied  an  effective  voice  in  government. 

In  similar  vein,  the  Columbia,  S.C., 
Record  lauds  the  participation  of  Negroes 
in  the  primary  election  for  U.S.  Senator 
in  1950.  In  an  editorial  on  July  11,  1950, 
the  Record  comments: 

The  Negroes  of  South  Carolina  came  out  of 
the  contest  with  flying  colors.  Under  great 
provocation  they  have  conducted  themselves 
generally  with  proper  restraint.  There  have 
been  no  angry  replies  to  the  impassioned 
charges  by  both  candidates,  no  inflammatory 
answers  to  the  inflammatory  advertisements, 
pamphlets,  cartoons,  photographs  and  accusa- 
tions with  which  the  state  has  been  flooded.  It 
is  the  one  high  level  act  of  the  campaign  and 
it  answers  both  of  the  candidates  as  they 
should  be  answered — with  silence. 

Not  only  in  South  Carolina  but  also  in 
Georgia,  Florida,  Mississippi,  and  North 
Carolina,  candidates  for  public  office 
subordinated  real  issues  and  revived  the 
hoary  bogey  of  racism.  Even  the  so-called 
liberal  candidates  had  to  make  obeisance 
to  this  synthetic  issue.  A  liberal  white 
southerner,  long  active  in  interracial 
movements  in  the  South  and  in  the  na- 
tion, made  the  following  comment  on  the 
1950  senatorial  campaign  in  North  Caro- 
lina, where  he  lives: 

The  state  was  plunged  into  the  most  ef- 
fective appeal  to  racial  fear  and  prejudice 
which  I  have  ever  seen.  ...  A  Negro  boy  had 
been  third  in  a  competitive  examination  for 
West  Point.  The  white  boy  who  was  first  was 
appointed.  Regardless  of  this,  the  Negro's  pic- 
ture was  circulated  in  rural  areas  and  large 
numbers  of  our  people  were  led  to  believe 
that  the  boy  was  actually  studying  at  West 
Point.  Pictures  of  Negro  soldiers  dancing  with 
white  girls  in  Europe  were  circulated  with  the 
statement  that  this  was  the  kind  of  thing 
Mr.  [Frank]  Graham  encouraged.  Pamphlets 
and  word-of-mouth  circulations  in  plants 
(particularly  unorganized)  tended  to  lead 
many  workers  to  believe  that  if  Mr.  Graham 
were  elected,  Negroes  would  be  given  the  jobs 
of  white  employees.  Endless  rumors  of  this 
type  were  circulated  as  best  fitted  local  condi- 
tions. Many  of  these  reports  had  little  relation 
to  facts. 


OFFICE  HOLDING 

"Negroes      are      grossly      discriminated 
against  in  what  they  get  from  politics," 


OFFICE  HOLDING 


309 


observes  Gunnar  Myrdal  in  his  An  Amer- 
ican Dilemma.  The  validity  of  Dr. 
Myrdal's  observation  is  demonstrable. 
Perhaps  no  other  large  group  in  the 
American  body  politic  receives  as  little 
in  return  for  political  participation  as 
does  the  Negro.  He  does  not  receive  a  fair 
share  of  jobs,  either  elective  or  appoin- 
tive. The  public  services  available  to  him 
are  generally  inferior  to  those  available 
to  other  citizens.  The  public  facilities  to 
which  he  has  free  access  are  usually  be- 
low par  in  capital  investment,  mainte- 
nance, and  services  offered.  An  exception 
to  this  general  rule,  both  quantitatively 
and  qualitatively,  is  the  public  housing 
program  which  has  provided  decent  hous- 
ing for  low-income  Negro  families  in 
greater  proportion  than  their  ratio  to  the 
total  population,  though  not  greater  than 
their  need. 

Office-holding  is  an  indication  of  poli- 
tical recognition.  In  many  communities — 
New  York  City,  for  instance — political 
slates  are  commonly  made  up  with  an  eye 
to  appealing  to  particular  nationality, 
religious,  or  racial  groups.  The  major 
parties  carefully  balance  their  slates  in 
accordance  with  these  political  impera- 
tives. Appointments  to  important  posi- 
tions are  also  made  in  the  light  of  such 
considerations.  As  the  Negro  vote  has 
grown  in  number  and  in  self-conscious- 
ness, it  has  won  greater  recognition  in 
election  and  appointment  to  public  office. 
Accordingly,  there  has  been  a  steady  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  Negroes  in  public 
service  employment,  an  increase  begin- 
ning to  extend  into  the  South.  Despite 
this  trend  toward  greater  public  employ- 
ment, the  Negro  has  by  no  means  attained 
parity  with  other  segments  of  the  popu- 
lation save  on  the  lower  levels  of  the 
Federal  civil  service.  On  these  levels,  he 
has  been  generally  accepted. 

Listed  below  are  the  names  of  some  of 
the  more  important  American  Negro 
office-holders  in  the  Federal,  state,  and 
local  governments  in  1951  and  during  the 
past  few  years. 


United  States  Government 

Legislative  Branch 

Mrs.  Christine  R.  Davis,  Secy.,  House  Comm. 
on  Exec.  Expenditures. 

William  L.  Dawson  (D.,  111.),  Member,  House 
of  Reps. 

Adam  Clayton  Powell,  Jr.  (D.,  N.Y.),  Mem- 
ber, House  of  Reps. 
Judicial  Branch 

William  H.  Hastie,  Judge,  Circuit  Ct.  of  Ap- 
peals, Philadelphia 

Irvin  C.  Mollison,  Judge,  Customs  Ct.,  New 
York 

Herman  E.  Moore,  Judge,  District  Ct.,  Vir- 
gin Islands 
Executive  Branch 

Joseph  F.  Albright1  Special  Ass.  to  Admin., 
Vet.  Admin. 

Ambrose  Caliver,  Ass.  Direct.,  U.S.  Office  of 
Educ.,  FSA 

Warren  Cochrane,  Racial  Relations  Adviser, 
PHA 

Walter  G.  Daniel,  Specialist  for  Higher  Educ., 
U.S.  Office  of  Educ. 

Russell  R.  De  Bow,  Ass.  to  Direct.,  OPS 

Monroe  Davis  Dowling,  Coll.  of  Int.  Rev., 
New  York  City 

James  C.  Evans,  civilian  ass.,  Dept.  of  De- 
fense 

George  H.  Fowler,  Fed.  Conciliator 

Mrs.  Anna  A.  Hedgeman,  Ass.  to  Admin., 
FSA 

Frank  S.  Home,  Ass.  to  Admin.,  HHFA 

Joseph  R.  Houchins,  specialist,  Negro  Sta- 
tistics, Bur.  of  Census,  Dept.  of  Comm. 

Maceo  W.  Hubbard,  Special  Ass.,  U.S.  At- 
torney-General 

Col.  Campbell  C.  Johnson,  Exec.  Ass.  to 
Direct,  of  Sel.  Serv. 

Emmer  M.  Lancaster,  Adviser  on  Negro  Af- 
fairs, Dept.  of  Comm. 

Mrs.  Tomasina  J.  Norford,  Minority  Groups 
Consultant,  U.S.  Employ.  Serv.,  Dept.  of 
Labor 

Alvin  Rucker,  manpower  specialist,  Nat'l  Sec. 
Resources  Bd. 

Mrs.  Edith  Sampson,  Alternate  Delegate,  U.S. 
Mission  to  the  UN  (1950) 

Roland  Sawyer,  Racial  Relations  Adviser, 
FHA 

Marshall  L.  Shepard,2  Recorder  of  Deeds, 
Washington,  D.C. 

Jesse  O.  Thomas,  info,  specialist,  OPS 

Dr.  Channing  H.  Tobias,  Alternate  Delegate, 
U.S.  Mission  to  the  UN  (1951) 

George  L.  P.  Weaver,  Ass.  to  Direct.,  RFC 
State  Department 

Edward  W.  Brice,  info,  and  educ.  specialist 

Edward  R.  Dudley,  Ambassador  to  Liberia 

William  C.  George,  Consul,  Copenhagen,  Den- 
mark 

Charles  Hanson,  Jr.,  Vice-Consul,  Zurich, 
Switzerland 

Giles  A.  Hubert,  Vice  Consul,  Bombay,  India 

Rupert  A.  Lloyd,  Vice  Consul,  Paris,  France 

Clifford  R.  Thorton,  Consul  General,  Lisbon, 
Portugal 

Rudolph  Aggrey,  Lagos,  Nigeria 

John  F.  Baynard,  Liberia 


1  Resigned  1951. 

2  Resigned  1951 ;  Earl  Wayne  Beck  nominated  September  1951. 


310 


POLITICS  AND  GOVERNMENT 


State  Department  (cont.) 
David  B.  Bolen,  Liberia 
Soloman  Bostic,  Athens,  Greece 
William  P.  Boswell,  Azores  Islands 
Lena  Bridges,  Azores  Islands 
Beatrice  M.  Carson,  Paris,  France 
Charles  Davis,  Cairo,  Egypt 
Gloria  E.  Denham,  Frankfort,  Germany 
Lamar  E.  Forte,  Liberia 
Rita  Garth,  Liberia 
John  S.  George,  Liberia 
Willis  Holloway,  Liberia 
Lillie  Hubbard,  Azores  Islands 
James  A.  Hulbert,  Munich,  Germany 
Orville  Lewis,  Liberia 
Cort  T.  Mebane,  London,  England 
Ruth  Phillips,  Liberia 
Frank  E.  Pinder,  Liberia 
Eugene  D.  Sawyer,  New  Delhi,  India 
Mack  M.  Speight,  Jr.,  Manila,  P.I. 
Henry  C.  Tate,  Karachi,  Pakistan 
Myrtle  E.  Thorne,  Medan,  Indonesia 
James  Todd,  Cairo,  Egypt 
Harold  Ward,  Liberia 
Albert  Witcher,  Liberia 

State  Officials 

Members  of  State  Legislatures 
Arizona : 

H.  B.  Daniels,  Phoenix 

Carl  Sims,  Jr.,  Phoenix 
California : 

Augustus  F.  Hawkins,  Los  Angeles 

Bryon  Rumford,  Oakland 
Colorado : 

Elvin  R.  Caldwell,  Denver 

Earl  W.  Mann,  Denver 
Illinois : 

Corneal  A.  Davis,  Chicago 

Charles  J.  Jenkins,  Chicago 

Fred  Smith,  Chicago 

Charles  Sykes,  Chicago 

C.  C.  Wimbush,  Senator,  Chicago 
Indiana : 

Jesse  L.  Dickinson,  South  Bend 

William  Davis  Mackey,  Indianapolis 
Kansas : 

Myles  C.  Stevens,  Kansas  City 
Massachusetts : 

Herbert  L.  Jackson,  Maiden 
Michigan : 

Bristol  Bryant 

Edgar  Currie 

Charles  C.  Diggs,  Jr. 

Mrs.  Charline  White 

John  F.  Young 
Missouri : 

John  Wilson  Green,  St.  Louis 

Walter  V.  Lay,  St.  Louis 

Leroy  Tyus,  St.  Louis 
New  Jersey : 

Edmond  Bowser,  Newark 
New  York : 

Bertram  L.  Baker,  Brooklyn 

Elijah  L.  Crump,  New  York 

Hulan  Jack,  New  York 

Joseph  Pinckney,  New  York 
Ohio: 

Frederick  Bowers,  Dayton 

Bruce  McClure,  Cincinnati 
Pennsylvania : 

Dennie  W.  Hoggard,  Philadelphia 


Pennsylvania  (cont.) 

Granville  E.  Jones,  Philadelphia 

Paul  F.  Jones,  Pittsburgh 

Lewis  W.  Mintess,  Philadelphia 

Mrs.  Susie  Monroe,  Philadelphia 

J.  Thompson  Pettigrew,  Philadelphia 

Edwin  F.  Thompson 
West  Virginia : 

Mrs.  Elizabeth  Drewry,  Northfork 
Wisconsin : 

Leroy  J.  Simmons,  Milwaukee 
Vermont : 

William  John  Anderson,  Shoreham 

Other  State  Officials 
California : 

Walter   A.    Gordon,    Chairman,    Adult   Au- 
thority 
Maryland : 

Howard    Murphy,    Member,    State    Bd.    of 

Pub.  Welf. 
Massachusetts : 

Elwood     S.     McKenny,     Member,      Mass. 

Comm.  Against  Discrimination 
New  Jersey : 

Dr.  Isaac  Hilton,  State  Athletic  Comm. 
Harold    A.    Lett,    Ass.    Direct.    State    Div. 

Against  Discrimination 
Mrs.    Lenore     Willett,     Member,     Migrant 

Labor  Comm. 
New  York : 

Elmer      Carter,      Member,      State     Comm. 

Against  Discrimination 
Mrs.  Bertha  Diggs,  Secy.,  Dept.  of  Labor 
Dr.  C.   B.   Powell,  Member,   State  Athletic 

Comm. 
Ohio: 

J.     Maynard     Dickefson,     Vice-Chairman, 

Ohio  Ind.  Comm. 

Percy  J.   Lowery,   Chairman,   Ohio  Pardon 
and  Parole  Bd. 

Local  Governments 

Members  of  City  Councils 
Chicago,  111. : 

Kenneth  Campbell 

Archibald  Carey 

William  H.  Harvey 
Boston,  Mass. : 

Laurence  Banks 
Buffalo,  N.Y. : 

Leeland  N.  Jones,  Jr. 
Canton,  Ohio : 

Mrs.  Esther  M.  Archer 
Cincinnati,  Ohio : 

Theodore  Berry 

Jesse  Locker 
Cleveland : 

Mrs.  Jean  Capers 

Charles  V.  Carr 

John  W.  Kellog 
Fayetteville,  N.C. : 

Dr.  W.  P.  DeVane 
Greensboro,  N.C. : 

Dr.  William  M.  Hampton 
Louisville,  Ky. : 

W.  W.  Beckett 
Nashville,  Tenn. : 

Robert  E.  Lillard 

Z.  Alexander  Looby 
New  Haven,  Conn. : 

Edward  D.  Banks 
New  York,  N.Y. : 

Earl  Brown 


OFFICE  HOLDING 


311 


Oak  Ridge,  Tenn. : 

Henry  Teasley 
Philadelphia,  Pa. : 

Raymond  Pace  Alexander 

Irvin  W.  Underbill 
Richmond,  Va. : 

Oliver  W.  Hill 
Toledo,  Ohio : 

J.  B.  Simmons,  Jr. 
Winston-Salem,  N.C. : 

Rev.  William  R.  Crawford 

Rev.  Kenneth  W.  Williams 

Members,  Boards  of  Education 
Asbury  Park,  N.J. : 

Dr.  Joseph  Carter 
Cleveland,  Ohio : 

Ralph  W.  Findley 
Hartford,  Conn. : 

Rev.  Robert  A.  Moody 
Homestead,  Pa. : 

Mrs.  Ethel  Posey 
Jersey  City,  N.J. : 

Dr.  Mary  E.  Carpenter 
Knoxville,  Tenn. : 

Rev.  L.  A.  Alexander 
New  York,  N.Y. : 

Rev.  John  M.  Coleman 

Dr.  Channing  H.  Tobias,  Higher  Educ. 
Newark,  N.J. : 

Mrs.  Mary  A.  Burch 
Raleigh,  N.C. : 

Dr.  Harold  L.  Trigg 
Springfield,  Mass. : 

Mrs.  Esther  N.  McDowell 
Washington,  D.C. : 

Dr.  Philip  Johnson 

Mrs.  Velma  Williams 

Atty.  Wesley  Williams 

Other  Local  Office-Holders 
Atlantic  City,  N.J.: 

Dr.  Jacques  Batey,  County  Freeholder 
John  H.  Hester,  Coroner 
Chicago,  111. : 

J.     P.     Martin,     Chicago     Sanitary     Dist. 

Trustee 
Cleveland,  Ohio : 

Harrison  Dillard,  Member,  Athletic  Comm. 
Columbia,  S.C. : 

Dr.  R.  W.  Mance,  Member,  City  Planning 

Comm. 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. : 

George  A.  Beavers,  Jr.,  Member,   Housing 

Auth. 
Rev.    Baxter    Duke,    Member,    Soc.    Serv. 

Comm. 

Walter  A.  Gordon,  Member,  Bd.  of  Prison 
Terms  &  Paroles 


Los  Angeles,  Calif,  (cont.) 

Norman    O.    Houstoun,    Member,    Boxing 
Comm. 

John  A.  Somerville,  Member,  Bd.  of  Police 

Comrs. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. : 

Rev.  E.  L.  Cunningham,  Civil  Serv.  Comr. 

Marshall  L.  Shepard,  Recorder  of  Deeds 
Providence  Forge,  Va. : 

Edward  T.  Banks,  Bd.  of  Supvrs. 
New  York,  N.Y. : 

John  B.  King,  Ass.  Supt.  of  Schs. 

William  Rowe,  7th  Dep.  Police  Comr. 

Frederick    Weaver,    Dep.    Comr.,    Dept.   of 
Bldgs.  &  Housing 

Mrs.  Ruth  Whitehead  Whaley,  Secy.,  City 

Bd.  of  Est. 
Newark,  N.J. : 

John  M.  Dabney,  Coroner,  Essex  Cty. 
Salisbury,  N.C. : 

Dr.  William  J.  Trent,  Member,  Sch.  Bd. 
San  Francisco,  Calif. : 

Cecil  Poole,  Dep.  D.A. 

Judges,  Other  than  Federal 

Baltimore,  Md. : 

John  A.  Berry,  City  Magistrate 
Boston,  Mass. : 

Edward  O.  Gourdin,  Roxbury  Dist.  Ct. 

G.  Bruce  Robinson,  Juv.  Ct. 
Chicago,  111. : 

Henry  C.  Ferguson,  Mun.  Ct. 

Wendell  E.  Green,  Mun.  Ct. 

Fred  Slater,  Mun.  Ct. 
Cleveland,  Ohio : 

Perry  B.  Jackson,  Mun.  Ct. 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. : 

Edwin  L.  Jefferson,  Super.  Ct. 
Miami,  Fla. : 

Lawson  E.  Thomas,  Mun.  Ct. 
New  York,  N.Y. : 

Jane  Bolin,  Dom.  Relat. 

Hubert  T.  Delaney,  Dom.  Relat. 

Thomas  Dickens,  Mun.  Ct. 

Myles  A.  Paige,  Sp.  Sess. 

Vernon  C.  Riddick,  Magistrates  Ct. 

Francis  E.  Rivers,  City  Ct. 

Harold  E.  Stevens,  Gen'l  Sess. 

Herman  Stoute,  Mun.  Ct. 

Clarence  Wilson,  Magistrates  Ct. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. : 

Ralph  Knox,  Mun.  Ct. 

Herbret  C.  Millen,  Mun.  Ct. 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. : 

Homer  S.  Brown,  Allegheny  Cty.  Ct. 
Washington,  D.C. : 

Andrew  H.  Howard,  Mun.  Ct. 

Armond  W.  Scott,  Mun.  Ct. 


If   .-.";v      27     ililiilif 

Race  Relations  in  the  Southern  States 


the  backward  racial  views  advanced  by 
some  public  figures.  The  record  of  recent 
events  is  one  of  quiet  acceptance  by  the 
white  public  of  progressive  changes  in 
the  pattern  of  race  relations.  Abolition  of 
segregation  at  the  polls,  in  dining  cars 
and  coaches  on  interstate  trains,  in  state 
universities,  and  in  various  other  fields 
has  been  accomplished  without  excite- 
ment or  incident.  Dire  predictions  of 
bloodshed  and  the  threatened  recrudes- 
cence of  the  Ku  Klux  Klan  have  not 
materialized. 

The  youth  of  the  South  in  particular 
has  demonstrated  its  willingness  to  aban- 
don the  traditional  taboos  on  interracial 
association.  The  student  bodies  of  numer- 
ous southern  colleges  have  made  clear, 
through  opinion  polls  and  their  organiza- 
tions and  newspapers,  that  they  are 
preponderantly  in  favor  of  admitting 
Negro  students.  And  wherever  the  color 
bar  has  been  lowered,  Negro  students 
have  been  integrated  into  campus  life  as 
a  matter  of  course. 

The  prospect  of  accelerated  progress 
in  race  relations  during  the  next  few 
years  depends  heavily  on  more  such 
favorable  trends  in  public  opinion.  Sub- 
stantial gains  have  been  made  toward 
securing,  in  law  and  in  regulation,  equal 
opportunity  for  people  of  all  races.  The 
pressing  question  now  is  how  quickly 
and  effectively  these  legal  guarantees  can 
be  translated  into  the  everyday  life  of  the 
community. 

PUBLIC  LIFE 
Suffrage 

Despite  continuing  efforts  in  some 
southern  states  to  limit  voting  by  Ne- 

*  This  division  gives  an  over-all  picture  of  certain  phases  of  race  relations.  For  more  specific  information  on 
subjects  discussed,  see  the  chapters  on  POLITICS,  THE  PRESS,  THE  CHURCH  AND  RELIGIOUS  WORK,  EMPLOYMENT  AND 
LABOR,  HOUSING,  WELFARE,  HEALTH,  CRIME  AND  VIOLENCE,  and  EDUCATION. 


BETWEEN  1947  and  1951,  race  relations 
in  the  South  entered  a  new  and  decisive 
stage.1  The  Report  of  the  President's 
Committee  on  Civil  Rights,  issued  in  late 
1947,  stirred  the  conscience  of  the  nation 
with  its  documented  account  of  existing 
discriminations.  The  battle  for  world 
opinion  between  the  United  States  and 
the  Soviet  Union  focused  unprecedented 
attention  and  concern  on  race  prejudice 
and  its  manifestations  in  this  country. 
Segregation  came  under  heavy  legal  at- 
tack, and  Supreme  Court  decisions  shook 
the  South's  "separate  but  equal"  doctrine 
to  its  foundations.  The  outbreak  of  hos- 
tilities in  Korea  and  the  participation  of 
American  Negro  soldiers  gave  still  greater 
impetus  to  the  drive  for  equality. 

As  a  result  of  these  and  other  influ- 
ences, significant  gains  have  been 
achieved,  most  notably  in  the  field  of 
higher  education.  But  this  progress  to- 
ward equal  opportunity  has  been  accom- 
panied by  unusual  strains  and  threats  of 
division.  Die-hard  elements  in  the  south- 
ern region  have  undertaken  a  fierce  rear 
guard  action  against  court  decisions, 
legislation,  and  voluntary  reforms  which 
aims  at  full  citizenship  for  Negroes. 
Many  political  campaigns  have  been 
marked  by  a  deliberate  effort  to  encour- 
age and  exploit  racial  antagonism. 
Southern  state  and  local  governments, 
with  few  exceptions,  have  done  little  on 
their  own  initiative  to  grant  Negro  citi- 
zens equal  status;  on  the  contrary,  many 
of  them  have  shown  strong  reluctance  to 
comply  with  court  rulings  defining  the 
rights  of  Negro  citizens. 

This  by  no  means  suggests  that  white 
southerners  as  a  whole  are  committed  to 


312 


PUBLIC  LIFE 


313 


groes,  legal  barriers  have  all  but  dis- 
appeared. The  Federal  courts  have  struck 
down,  one  by  one,  state  measures  de- 
signed to  perpetuate  the  "white  primary" 
or  otherwise  to  restrict  Negro  suffrage. 
In  December  1951  an  amendment  to  the 
Alabama  Constitution  granting  local 
registrars  arbitrary  power  to  decide  the 
fitness  of  would-be  voters  was  passed  by 
an  extremely  narrow  margin.  The  amend- 
ment, modeled  on  the  Boswell  amend- 
ment, which  was  declared  unconstitu- 
tional by  the  Federal  courts,  is  clearly 
aimed  at  Negro  registrants.  It  is  generally 
believed  that  the  courts  will  hold  the  new 
amendment  equally  incompatible. 

In  the  past  seven  years  the  number  of 
qualified  Negro  voters  in  the  South  has 
increased  from  a  mere  handful  to  an 
estimated  one  million.  Some  political 
observers  have  predicted  that  by  the  end 
of  1952  the  number  will  have  grown  to 
upwards  of  two  millions. 

Most  of  the  remaining  discrimination 
against  Negro  registration  and  voting 
exists  at  the  local  level,  particularly  in 
rural  areas.  Local  boards  of  registrars, 
which  are  subject  to  little  centralized 
control  or  inspection,  often  confront 
Negro  applicants  with  impossible  obsta- 
cles. The  discriminations  most  commonly 
practiced  are  cited  by  the  late  Dr.  Luther 
P.  Jackson: 

1.  Requiring  Negro  applicants  to  produce 
one  or  more  white  character  witnesses. 

2.  Applying  severe  property  qualifications 
and  requiring  only  Negro  applicants  to  show 
property-tax  receipts. 

3.  Strictly  enforcing  literacy  tests  against 
Negro  applicants. 

4.  Putting  unreasonable  questions  on  the 
Constitution  to  Negro  applicants. 

5.  Basing  rejection  of  Negro  applicants  on 
alleged  technical  mistakes  in  filling  out  regis- 
tration blanks. 

6.  Requiring  Negro  applicants  to  suffer  long 
periods  of  waiting  before  the  officials  attend 
them. 

7.  Requiring  Negro  applicants  to  fill  out 
their  own  blanks,  while  those  of  whites  are 
filled  out  for  them  by  the  officials. 

8.  Evasion — informing     Negro     applicants 
that  registration  cards  have  run  out,  that  all 
members  of  the  registration   board   are   not 
present,  that  it  is  closing  time,  or  that  the 
applicant  "will  be  notified  in  due  course." 


9.  Deliberate  insults  or  threats  by  officials 
and/or  hangers-on. 

Federal  court  suits  protesting  the  syste- 
matic practice  of  such  discriminations  by 
registrars  were  filed  during  1951  by 
Negro  residents  of  counties  in  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  and  Virginia. 

By  contrast,  little  organized  opposition 
to  Negro  registration  and  voting  can  be 
found  in  southern  cities  with  populations 
of  25,000  or  more.  As  long  as  1947,  Dr. 
Jackson  found  that  in  such  metropolitan 
centers  as  Atlanta,  Memphis,  Jackson- 
ville, and  New  Orleans,  Negroes  "may 
qualify  with  as  much  ease  as  they  may  in 
any  Northern  city."  This  fact  is  all  the 
more  significant  in  view  of  increasing 
migration  of  southern  Negroes  from  farm 
to  city.  The  growth  of  mechanized  farm- 
ing, the  shift  from  staple  crops  to  dairy- 
ing and  livestock,  and  the  expansion  of 
defense  industries  promise  further  to 
accelerate  the  trend. 

The  movement  to  urban  areas  where 
access  to  the  ballot  is  freer  will  enhance 
the  southern  Negro's  importance  in  local 
and  national  elections  but  will  have  less 
effect  on  state  politics.  Because  of 
weighted  apportionment,  the  state  legis- 
latures are  dominated  by  the  vastly  over- 
represented  rural  areas — an  inequity 
carried  to  its  extreme  in  Georgia's  county- 
unit  system.  As  a  result,  state  legislation 
largely  reflects  the  views  of  those  legis- 
lators who  most  vigorously  oppose  Negro 
political  participation.  This  is  likely  to 
be  the  case  until  such  time  as  reappor- 
tionment  on  a  population  basis  is 
achieved. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  overestimate 
the  bearing  of  the  Negro  ballot  on  im- 
proved race  relations.  Most  important, 
perhaps,  is  the  fact  that  in  those  areas 
where  Negroes  exercise  their  citizenship, 
race  ceases  to  be  a  political  issue.  Racial 
demagoguery,  which  is  today  the  most 
divisive  influence  in  the  region,  does  not 
tempt  ambitious  politicians  where  a  sub- 
stantial Negro  population  has  unham- 
pered recourse  to  the  polls.  Thus  preju- 
dice and  discrimination  lose  their  most 
valuable  ally — official  sanction.  And  when 


314 


RACE  RELATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


state  and  local  governments  extend  their 
services  impartially  to  people  of  both 
races,  private  citizens  are  far  more  likely 
to  develop  mutual  respect. 

Convincing  demonstrations  of  this  fact 
can  be  found  in  many  border  states  and 
in  large  cities  throughout  the  South 
where  Negroes  have  a  substantial  voice 
in  government.  While  there  is,  of  course, 
no  way  of  proving  statistically  that  preju- 
dice in  those  areas  is  milder  than  preju- 
dice elsewhere  in  the  South,  that  conclu- 
sion is  supported  by  such  tangible 
evidence  as  improved  handling  of  racial 
news  in  the  daily  press,  relaxation  of 
some  segregation  barriers,  and  unruffled 
public  acceptance  of  more  advanced  race 
relationships. 

Office-Seeking 

As  a  natural  accompaniment  to  the  use 
of  the  ballot,  office-seeking  by  Negroes 
has  shown  a  moderate  but  steady  in- 
crease. Successful  precedents  have  ex- 
isted in  upper  South  and  border  states 
for  some  years.  In  1936,  C.  W.  Anderson, 
a  Louisville  attorney,  was  the  first  person 
of  his  race  in  recent  years  to  win  election 
to  the  Kentucky  legislature.  In  1947,  Rev. 
Kenneth  W.  Williams  was  elected  to  the 
Board  of  Aldermen  of  Winston-Salem, 
N.C.;  in  1948,  Oliver  W.  Hill  was  elected 
to  the  City  Council  of  Richmond,  Va. ;  in 
1949,  Dr.  W.  P.  DeVane  was  elected  to 
the  City  Council  of  Fayetteville,  N.C. 

During  1950  and  1951,  the  precedent 
was  greatly  broadened.  Some  40  Negroes 
announced  for  public  office,  many  of  them 
it  cities  of  the  lower  South  where  Negro 
office-seeking  has  been  non-existent — 
Memphis  and  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  Tampa 
and  Jacksonville,  Fla. ;  Rome,  Ga.; 
Charleston,  S.C.;  Baton  Rouge,  La. 
Although  relatively  few  Negro  candidates 
were  successful,  their  candidacy  was  in 
itself  a  contribution  to  public  education. 
For  the  first  time,  in  most  cases,  the  white 
community  witnessed  able  Negro  persons 
making  a  serious  and  dignified  bid  for 
elective  office.  And,  again  in  most  cases, 
Negro  candidacies  for  these  public  offices 
were  accepted  calmly. 


Highly  significant  was  the  fact  that 
many  Negro  office-seekers  drew  support 
from  white  as  well  as  Negro  voters.  Most 
notable  in  this  respect  was  the  election  of 
Dr.  William  M.  Hampton  to  the  City 
Council  of  Greensboro,  N.C.  The  first 
Negro  in  recent  times  to  serve  in  this 
post,  Dr.  Hampton  won  fifth  place  in  a 
field  of  13  candidates  for  seven  vacancies. 
Of  5,219  votes  cast  in  his  favor,  only  2,393 
came  from  predominantly  Negro  pre- 
cincts. It  has  been  estimated  that  he 
might  well  have  won  solely  on  the  basis 
of  white  returns. 

It  may  safely  be  predicted  that  in  the 
next  few  years  the  election  of  Negroes  to 
public  office  in  the  urban  South — par- 
ticularly to  city  councils  and  school 
boards — will  become  so  commonplace  as 
hardly  to  occasion  comment. 

Non-Elective  Positions 

A  chief  cause  of  inequality  in  public 
services  has  been  the  Negro's  lack  of 
representation  on  the  boards  and  com- 
missions administering  them.  Progress  in 
this  area  has  roughly  paralleled  that  in 
suffrage  and  office-seeking.  At  the  end  of 
1951,  Negroes  were  serving  on  a  variety 
of  appointive  bodies,  such  as  school 
boards,  housing  authorities,  zoning 
boards,  recreation  commissions,  and  the 
like.  Such  appointments  are  by  no  means 
universal  in  the  South  as  yet.  Nor  are 
they  proportionate  to  population,  even  in 
the  most  advanced  areas.  But  the  practice 
is  rapidly  becoming  established  in  those 
parts  of  regions  where  political  arrange- 
ments are  reasonably  modern. 

Governor  Kerr  Scott  of  North  Carolina 
set  a  notable  precedent  in  1949  by  ap- 
pointing to  the  State  Board  of  Education 
a  Negro  educator,  Dr.  Harold  L.  Trigg, 
President  of  St.  Augustine's  College. 
Although  to  date  no  other  governor  of  a 
southern  state  has  followed  that  example, 
a  few  Negroes  have  been  appointed  to 
other  state  bodies,  and  many  are  serving 
on  local  boards  and  commissions. 

The  Southern  Regional  Council  has 
long  urged  broader  representation  of  this 
kind  as  an  impelling  duty  of  southern 


PUBLIC  SERVICES 


315 


leadership.  More  recently  it  has  been 
proposed  by  individuals  prominent  in 
public  life.  Dr.  Colgate  W.  Darden,  Jr., 
President  of  the  University  of  Virginia 
and  former  Governor  of  that  state,  de- 
clared before  the  Southern  Governors 
Conference  of  1950: 

It  is  my  suggestion  that,  in  the  task  of  build- 
ing a  first-rate  public  school  system  for  both 
races,  the  direction  of  the  program  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  competent  men  and  women 
drawn  from  both  races.  Representatives  of 
both  races  should  be  placed  on  school  boards 
charged  with  the  development  of  such  a  pro- 
gram. Commissions  or  other  official  boards 
having  to  do  with  the  construction  of  schools 
should  be  composed  of  representative  white 
and  Negro  citizens.  Just  as  should  boards  hav- 
ing to  do  with  the  public  health  services  and 
hospitals,  which  are  of  great  concern  to  both 
races. 

Of  related  importance  is  the  question 
of  Negro  representation  on  juries.  The 
U.S.  Supreme  Court  has  consistently  re- 
versed convictions  of  Negroes  where 
members  of  their  race  are  excluded  from 
jury  service.  Following  that  precedent, 
lower  Federal  courts,  and  more  recently 
state  courts,  have  likewise  insisted  that 
there  be  no  discrimination  in  selection  of 
juries.  As  a  result,  Negroes  are  serving 
on  both  trial  and  grand  juries  in  many 
southern  counties  for  the  first  time  since 
the  turn  of  the  century. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  many  non-govern- 
mental bodies  which  perform  a  quasi- 
official  function  are  also  taking  a  more 


liberal  attitude  toward  membership  poli- 
cies. One  such  group  is  the  Southern 
Conference  of  Graduate  Deans.  At  its  an- 
nual meeting  in  December  1948,  the 
Conference  voted  to  invite  to  membership 
"deans  of  graduate  schools  of  those  Negro 
institutions  which  are  doing  reliable 
graduate  work."  Invitations  were  subse- 
quently issued  to  the  deans  of  several 
Negro  graduate  schools. 

Professional  Associations 

As  the  accompanying  table  shows,  inte- 
gration in  state  professional  associations 
is  growing  throughout  the  region.  In  some 
of  the  associations  shown  as  restricted 
to  white  members,  relaxation  of  the  racial 
qualification  has  been  proposed  and  is 
pending  formal  action.  During  1951,  for 
example,  the  Presidents  of  the  Virginia 
and  Tennessee  Medical  Associations  ini- 
tiated the  recommendation  that  qualified 
Negro  doctors  be  accepted  as  full  mem- 
bers. 

PUBLIC  SERVICES 

Public  services  occupy  a  strategic  posi- 
tion in  race  relations  in  the  South.  As 
more  community  facilities  are  provided 
by  municipal  governments  and  as  state 
agencies  assume  broader  responsibilities, 
Negro  citizens  can  lay  claim  to  services 
once  secured  only  by  private  finances. 
They  have  particularly  strong  claim  to 


TABLE  1 
PROFESSIONAL  ASSOCIATIONS  WITHOUT  COLOR  BAR 


Social 
Lawyers      Teachers       Dentists       Doctors       Nurses       Librarians       Workers 


Alabama 

X 

X 

X 

Arkansas 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Florida 

X 

X               X 

X 

Georgia 

X 

Kentucky 

X 

X               X 

X 

X 

Louisiana 

X 

X 

X 

Mississippi 

X 

X 

North  Carolina 

X 

X 

Oklahoma 

X 

X 

X 

South  Carolina 

X 

X 

Tennessee 

X 

X 

Texas 

X 

X 

Virginia 

X 

X 

X 

Standards  used  to  classify  an  association  as  "open"  were  ( 1 )  Is  it  stated  policy  that  membership  rolls 
are  open  to  qualified  Negroes?  (2)  Are  there  Negro  members?  Classification  as  "open"  does  not 
necessarily  imply  that  Negroes  are  treated  with  equality. 


316 


RACE  RELATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


equality  in  those  state  or  municipal  serv- 
ices made  possible  by  Federal  funds. 

At  present,  equalization  of  public 
services  is  still  far  from  achieved.  Effec- 
tive technique  for  obtaining  adequate 
housing,  recreation,  health  facilities,  and 
social  welfare  are  being  developed,  how- 
ever. In  a  few  instances,  the  demand  for 
equal  public  services  has  meant  the 
opening  to  the  whole  community  of  facili- 
ties once  used  only  by  whites.  More  often, 
legal  action  and  formal  protest  have  re- 
sulted in  the  improvement  of  segregated 
Negro  services — though  usually  still  in- 
adequate. 

Recreation 

Court  suits  have  been  used  with  suc- 
cess in  opening  park  facilities  to  Negroes. 
Most  successful  of  all  have  been  the  cases 
involving  use  of  municipal  golf  courses. 
In  1951,  courts  ordered  Louisville,  Ports- 
mouth, and  Houston  to  provide  "equal 
facilities"  for  Negro  players.  "Equal  facili- 
ties" may  temporarily  mean  access  to 
public  courses  one  or  two  days  a  week. 
But  in  view  of  the  Supreme  Court  ruling 
in  the  earlier  Miami  suits,  it  is  unlikely 
that  such  piecemeal  accommodations  will 
stand  up  indefinitely. 

Golf  privileges  are  by  no  means  the 
public  services  most  urgently  needed  by 
Negroes.  But  discrimination  on  city 
courses  presents  a  clear-cut  case  of  com- 
munity-operated facilities  denied  to  citi- 
zens of  one  race.  Generally  the  "golf" 
suits  have  involved  other  park  activities, 
too.  Following  protracted  legal  action, 
Baltimore,  for  example,  opened  20  tennis 
courts,  baseball  diamonds,  and  other 
park  board  facilities  (barring  swimming 
pools  and  the  city  beach)  at  the  same 
time  that  it  opened  four  municipal  golf 
courses.  The  district  judge  hearing  the 
Louisville  park  suits  ruled  that  fishing 
in  the  Cherokee  Park  lake  must  be  non- 
segregated  unless  similar  facilities  are 
provided  for  Negroes. 

Pressure  from  successful  suits,  plus 
petitions,  protests,  and  hearings,  have 
brought  about  the  development  of  many 
new  city  parks  for  Negroes.  The  recent 


acceleration  in  providing  Negro  public 
recreation  is  illustrated  by  the  growth  of 
the  Birmingham  park  system.  From  1943 
to  1948,  seven  city  parks  were  secured. 
The  last  included  a  swimming  pool  and  a 
supervised  playground  —  features  once 
limited  to  white  parks.  It  need  hardly  be 
added  that,  even  with  such  additions, 
public  recreation  for  Negroes  is  still 
grossly  inadequate. 

State  park  systems  are  changing  in 
somewhat  the  same  pattern  as  municipal 
parks.  While  no  court  suits  have  yet  suc- 
ceeded in  opening  state  parks  to  both 
races,  legal  action  has  brought  some  im- 
provement in  segregated  facilities.  Vir- 
ginia, for  example,  completed  its  first 
Negro. state  park  in  1950  after  two  years 
of  court  action  directed  at  the  eight  parks 
provided  for  whites.  In  that  same  year, 
South  Carolina  voted  funds  for  a  new 
Negro  state  park  and  improvement  of  a 
segregated  section  of  an  existing  park. 
Both  moves  were  made  with  the  under- 
standing that  there  would  be  "complete 
cessation"  of  the  program  if  Negroes 
brought  and  won  suits  to  break  down 
segregation  barriers  in  the  19  South 
Carolina  parks. 

Significant  protest  has  also  been  cen- 
tered on  discrimination  in  municipal 
auditoriums  and  city  libraries.  A  few 
noteworthy  local  concessions  have  been 
accomplished  without  court  suits,  par- 
ticularly in  the  use  of  libraries.  Both 
Chattanooga  and  Miami  have  voluntarily 
admitted  Negro  readers  on  the  same  basis 
as  white,  a  practice  adopted  earlier  by 
Richmond  and  Louisville,  among  others. 

Housing 

Such  gains  as  have  occurred  in  Negro 
housing  since  the  last  Census  have  come 
primarily  through  public  and  private 
developments  launched  at  the  initiative 
of  communities  or  individuals.  Individual 
efforts  by  Negroes  have  been  especially 
important  in  urban  housing  gains.  The 
slight  increase  in  family  living  space,  the 
decrease  in  overcrowding,  and  the  higher 
proportion  of  home  ownership  secured  in 
the  last  ten  years  have  been  achieved 


PUBLIC  SERVICES 


317 


largely  by  block-by-block  conversion  of 
old  white  residential  areas.  As  whites 
built  and  moved  to  suburban  fringes, 
Negro  families  gradually,  and  often  with 
much  difficulty,  rented  or  bought  the 
vacated  housing  in  the  heart  of  the  city. 

The  competition  for  housing  in  so- 
called  "transition  areas"  is  one  of  the 
most  serious  causes  of  interracial  tension 
and  conflict  in  the  cities  of  the  region. 
Terrorist  bombings,  believed  to  be 
fomented  by  professional  bigots,  have 
been  used  to  intimidate  Negroes  who  have 
moved  into  disputed  neighborhoods  in 
Birmingham,  Atlanta,  Miami  and  other 
places.  The  failure  of  law  enforcement 
agencies  to  cope  with  this  threat  to  public 
order  is  evident  in  that  in  only  one  such 
case  (in  Atlanta)  have  indictments  been 
secured. 

Some  increase  in  Negro  housing  has 
been  secured  through  low-cost  public 
housing  units.  Not  nearly  enough  units 
have  been  built  yet,  though  the  Federal 
Housing  Act  of  1949  supplied  both  in- 
centive and  funds  for  many  cities  to 
launch  new  developments.  Difficulty  in 
securing  suitable  property  and  lack  of 
local  co-operation  slowed  a  number  of 
proposed  projects,  and  some  southern 
towns  have  rebelled  against  Federal 
stipulations  regarding  race.  Charlotte, 
N.C.,  for  instance,  lost  its  bid  for  Federal 
aid  in  1949;  it  was  forced  to  reverse  its 
official  segregation  restrictions. 

Private  enterprise  is  discovering  that 
many  Negro  families  are  willing  and  able 
to  pay  medium  rents  for  comfortable, 
modern  apartments.  Within  the  past  few 
years  a  growing  number  of  private  hous- 
ing developments  have  sprung  up  outside 
city  slum  areas.  Where  sound  planning 
precedes  construction,  the  results  are  new 
communities  served  by  schools,  churches, 
and  recreational  and  commercial  facili- 
ties. Single-family  houses,  financed  with 
the  assistance  of  the  FHA,  are  also  find- 
ing a  ready  market.  • 

Though  individual  moves,  plus  limited 
public  and  private  housing  developments, 
have  raised  Negro  housing  to  a  slightly 
higher  level,  standards  are  still  far  below 


those  of  the  white  community.  Negroes 
of  moderate  or  substantial  means  have 
little  incentive  to  invest  in  dilapidated 
slum  property  acquired  at  the  risk  of 
violence.  Private  and  public  projects  are 
slowed  down  or  killed  by  the  inaccessi- 
bility of  land  outside  blighted  sections. 
The  large-scale  housing  developments 
needed  to  bring  Negro  housing  up  to  par 
with  white  still  await  intelligent  co-opera- 
tion between  local  business,  public  and 
private  agencies,  and  the  Federal  govern- 
ment. 

Health 

Recent  progress  in  hospital  and  clinical 
facilities  for  Negroes  has  stemmed 
largely  from  two  trends:  construction  of 
separate  Negro  hospitals  under  the  Hill- 
Burton  Act  and  the  increased  number  of 
segregated  Negro  wings  or  units  in  exist- 
ing hospitals.  Since  many  of  the  large 
Negro  hospitals  have  bi-racial  staffs,  both 
trends  involve  closer  co-operation  be- 
tween whites  and  Negroes  in  the  medical 
profession. 

Generally  the  trend  toward  more  Negro 
units  in  existing  city,  county,  or  state 
hospitals  is  stronger  and  is  more  favor-, 
ably  regarded  by  Negro  leaders.  While 
this  device  continues  segregation,  they 
reason,  Negro  physicians  at  least  have 
access  to  up-to-date  hospital  facilities 
and  equipment.  And  the  dual  hospital 
system,  like  the  dual  school  system,  tends 
to  distribute  public  funds  more  gener- 
ously to  white  hospitals.  Access  to  ade- 
quate equipment  is  particularly  wel- 
comed by  Negro  doctors  interested  in 
specializing;  in  a  few  instances,  staff 
privileges  have  been  extended  to  Negro 
physicians  for  that  purpose. 

The  attitudes  of  local  medical  societies 
and  civic  groups  are  usually  the  key  to 
securing  more  privileges  for  Negro  doc- 
tors in  local  hospitals.  Dr.  T.  Carr  Mc- 
Fall,  first  Negro  member  of  the  executive 
committee  of  the  South  Carolina  Medical 
Association,  found  that  many  white 
medical  and  community  groups  were  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  Negro  physicians 
could  not  treat  their  patients  in  local 


318 


RACE  RELATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


hospitals.  Public  knowledge  of  this  fact 
often  resulted  in  corrective  measures. 
Similarly,  Dr.  A.  W.  Dent,  President  of 
Dillard  University  and  a  hospital  ad- 
ministrator, has  pointed  out  that  white 
and  Negro  doctors  generally  practice 
together  under  the  separate  unit  plan 
after  they  meet  and  work  together  in  the 
same  medical  societies.  Most  southern 
states  have  already  integrated  their 
nurses'  associations,  with  white  and  Ne- 
gro nurses  working  together  in  the  same 
hospitals  in  many  parts  of  the  South. 

Community  support  of  proposed  new 
public  and  private  hospitals  in  Atlanta, 
Birmingham,  and  Memphis  indicates  in- 
creased interest  in  Negro  health  condi- 
tions. Close  co-operation  of  white  and 
Negro  leaders  in  planning  and  construc- 
tion, such  as  occurred  in  the  Atlanta 
hospital,  gives  reason  to  expect  continued 
co-operation  later. 

State  legislatures,  too,  have  recently 
been  willing  to  appropriate  more  funds 
for  the  improvement  of  Negro  treatment 
and  accomodati^n  in  state  mental  hos- 
pitals, tuberculosis  sanitariums,  and 
special  children's  homes.  Georgia,  for 
example,  has  just  rebuilt  the  unit  housing 
Negro  patients  in  its  state  mental  hos- 
pital, and  Mississippi  appropriated  funds 
for  a  building  for  feeble-minded  children 
at  the  Ellisville  state  hospital.  North 
Carolina  treats  both  white  and  Negro 
children  at  the  only  state-owned  hospital 
for  spastic  children. 

Opportunities  for  Negroes  to  receive 
training  in  the  various  phases  of  medicine 
and  public  health  are  still  quite  limited 
in  the  South.  Completion  of  a  new  med- 
ical center  at  Florida  A.&M.  College  will 
help  fill  the  gap  in  nurses'  training  in- 
ternship. It  is  also  likely  that  the  opening 
of  graduate  and  professional  schools  in 
southern  colleges  on  a  non-segregated 
basis  will  enable  more  Negroes  to  obtain 
training  in  nursing,  health  education, 
bacteriology,  and  other  related  fields.  In 
some  parts  of  the  South,  special  arrange- 
ments to  permit  Negro  public  health 
nurses  to  take  course  work  in  white  insti- 
tutions have  already  been  made.  A  few 


institutions,  such  as  Emory  University, 
have  arranged  special  courses  for  Negro 
doctors. 

Welfare 

Similar  problems  of  inadequate  phys- 
ical equipment,  segregation  of  services, 
and  poor  training  opportunities  exist  in 
social  welfare  agencies.  In  this  area, 
leadership  toward  equalization  seems  to 
come  chiefly  at  the  professional  level. 
Although  all  state  social  work  associa- 
tions in  the  South  are  integrated,  both 
the  Negro  welfare  worker's  status  and 
the  services  offered  to  Negro  citizens  are 
still  far  below  the  white  average.  The 
situation  in  New  Orleans  is  typical.  A 
recent  study  in  that  city  showed  that  over 
one-third  of  the  agencies  do  not  admit 
Negroes  as  clients.  Those  agencies  which 
serve  both  Negroes  and  whites  often  work 
through  separate  staffs,  and  none  em- 
ploys Negro  social  workers  in  consultant 
positions.  On  the  whole,  Negro  welfare 
workers  draw  lower  salaries  and  have 
less  tenure. 

Community  councils  in  a  few  southern 
cities  have  been  established  on  a  bi-racial 
basis.  In  some,  such  as  the  Community 
Planning  Council  in  Atlanta,  Negroes 
serve  as  board  members,  in  policy-making 
functions,  or  on  council  committees  and 
divisions.  Richmond  has  had  Negroes  on 
its  Community  Chest  board  for  several 
years,  and  other  cities  are  beginning  to 
integrate  the  annual  Community  Chest 
campaigns. 

SAFETY  OF  PERSON 

With  the  decline  of  lynching  in  the  South, 
other  forms  of  extra-legal  violence  have 
come  to  the  fore.  Mob  violence  in  its  tra- 
ditional aspect  has  been  largely  sup- 
planted by  acts  of  murder,  brutality,  and 
terrorism  committed  by  small  groups 
conspiring  secretly  or,  in  some  cases,  by 
law  enforcement  officers  themselves.  It 
should  be  added,  however,  that  southern 
public  opinion  is  showing  itself  less  and 
less  willing  to  tolerate,  much  less  con- 
done such  acts  of  violence,  whether  com- 


SAFETY  OF  PERSON 


319 


milled  under  cover  of  law  or  nol.  The 

acule  need  is  for  modern  police  systems 
which  will  reflecl  these  improved  public 
attiludes  in  all  their  operations. 

Police  Brutality 

During  1951,  hardly  any  southern  state 
was  free  of  incidents  involving  alleged 
police  brutality.  In  Memphis,  Tenn.,  a 
local  Negro  minister  charged  that  two 
officers  apprehended  and  severely  beat 
him  without  provocation;  in  DeKalb 
County,  Ga.,  a  Negro  awaiting  trial  on  a 
charge  of  rape  claimed  that  several 
policemen,  including  the  chief  of  police, 
sought  to  extract  a  confession  from  him 
by  force;  in  Opelousas,  La.,  a  deputy 
sheriff  shot  and  killed  "in  self-defense"  a 
Negro  who  had  recently  filed  suit  against 
election  officials ;  in  New  Orleans ;  a  Negro 
brought  suit  against  city  officials  after  he 
had  been  manhandled,  he  said,  by  two 
policemen.  These  are  only  a  few  of  many 
similar  incidents  which  received  publicity 
in  the  course  of  the  year. 

This  form  of  violence  presents  special 
difficulties  since  it  is  unusually  hard  to 
prove.  A  police  officer's  word  generally 
carries  more  weight  in  a  courtroom  than 
thai  of  a  plain  cilizen,  more  particularly 
a  Negro  citizen — and  most  particularly 
a  Negro  citizen  charged  with  an  offense. 
Moreover,  even  when  witnesses  exist,  they 
are  often  reluctanl  lo  testify  against 
policemen.  A  further  complication  is  that 
there  are  instances  when  police  officers 
are  justified  in  using  force  to  protect 
themselves  or  others.  As  a  result,  more 
than  a  normal  amount  of  evidence  is 
needed  to  prove  that  force  was  used  illeg- 
ally. 

No  case  in  1951  illustrates  these  diffi- 
culties better  than  the  widely  publicized 
shooling  of  two  Negro  prisoners  by  the 
Sheriff  of  Lake  County,  Fla.  The  sheriff 
and  his  charges  were  alone  in  a  car  late 
at  night  on  an  unfrequented  road  when 
the  shooting  took  place.  Had  not  one  of 
the  two  prisoners  survived,  the  sheriff's 
account  of  the  affair  would  have  been  the 
only  one.  He  mainlained  lhat  the  two  men 
atlacked  him,  causing  him  to  fire  in  self- 


defense;  the  surviving  member  of  the 
pair  claimed  that  the  sheriff  fired  deliber- 
ately, with  intent  to  murder.  As  the  year 
ended,  there  was  little  hope  thai  the 
sheriff  would  either  be  indicted  or  ab- 
solved by  legally  acceptable  evidence. 
The  most  lhal  could  be  said  with  cer- 
tainly was  lhal  the  sheriff  had  behaved 
with  shocking  disregard  for  the  responsi- 
bilities of  his  office. 

Few  cases  of  police  violence  are  sus- 
ceptible to  ihe  kind  of  dramatic  exposure 
which  climaxed  a  forced  confession  at 
Indianola,  Miss.,  in  July  1951.  Follow- 
ing the  disappearance  of  a  youth,  four 
Negroes  were  arrested  by  a  deputy  sheriff 
and  beaten  unlil  they  confessed  to  mur- 
der. Hardly  had  ihe  confessions  been 
made  known  when  il  was  discovered  lhal 
ihe  supposed  victim  was  not  dead  but 
alive  and  well  in  St.  Louis,  where  he  had 
gone  of  his  own  volition.  The  sheriff  and 
his  deputy  were  sentenced  lo  six  months 
in  jail  and  a  fine  of  $500.  It  is  reasonable 
to  assume  thai  ihis  incidenl,  widely  re- 
ported in  the  press,  had  an  enlightening 
effect  on  many  white  persons  who  had 
never  given  serious  thoughl  lo  biased  law 
enforcemenl. 

The  consequences  of  while  indifference 
to  police  violence  directed  against  Ne- 
groes were  strikingly  demonslraled  in 
Birmingham,  Ala.,  in  1951.  Since  1948, 
Negro  citizens  of  Birmingham  have  pro- 
tested the  frequency  with  which  Negroes 
were  slain  by  policemen  in  the  course  of 
altercations  or  arrests.  (Emory  0.  Jack- 
son, editor  of  the  Birmingham  World  has 
reported  lhal  26  Negroes  were  killed  by 
policemen  in  that  city  between  1948  and 
1951.)  But  the  protests  went  unheeded, 
the  slayings  conlinued,  and  nol  a  single 
policeman  was  indicted  for  unjuslifiable 
homicide.  In  September  1951,  this  long- 
neglected  violence  erupted  into  acls  of 
brulalily  againsl  while  viclims.  The 
mayor's  wife  personally  wilnessed  ihe 
unprovoked  bealing  of  a  while  man  by 
police  officers;  a  newspaper  pholog- 
rapher  was  manhandled;  a  cerebral  palsy 
viclim  claimed  lhal  police  mislook  him 
for  a  drunk  and  beal  him  wilh  a  pair  of 


320 


RACE  RELATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


handcuffs;  from  every  side  came  com- 
plaints of  inhuman  and  unprofessional 
police  actions.  It  is  too  soon  to  measure 
the  effect  of  public  indignation,  but  Birm- 
ingham police  officials  have  lately  an- 
nounced a  policy  of  strict  supervision  of 
those  cases  in  which  policemen  use  force 
or  discharge  their  weapons.  Earlier  con- 
cern by  the  white  community  might  well 
have  prevented  the  more  recent  abuses. 

Police  Training 

Some  comfort  may  be  found  in  the  new 
interest  in  police  training  which  has  ap- 
peared in  the  South  in  the  past  few  years. 
Following  his  exhaustive  study  of  the 
South,  Gunnar  Myrdal  declared:  "It  is 
my  conviction  that  one  of  the  most  potent 
strategic  measures  to  improve  the  South- 
ern interracial  situation  would  be  the 
opening  of  a  pioneering  modern  police 
college  in  the  South,  which  would  give 
a  thorough  social  and  pedagogical  train- 
ing as  well  as  a  technical  police  training." 

Myrdal  saw  very  clearly  that  poorly 
trained,  poorly  supervised,  poorly  paid 
police  officers  were  responsible  for  much 
of  the  racial  tension  and  violence  which 
beset  the  South.  The  problem  was,  and  is, 
to  professionalize  southern  police  forces. 
That  would  mean  not  only  instruction 
in  modern  techniques  of  law  enforce- 
ment but  the  development  in  policemen 
of  a  new  attitude  toward  their  job.  They 
must  see  it  as  a  position  of  public  trust, 
in  which  the  impartiality  of  law  is  su- 
preme and  their  personal  preferences 
and  prejudices  are  irrelevant. 

The  idea  of  a  southern  police  college 
to  raise  professional  standards  has  be- 
come a  reality  in  the  yast  two  years.  The 
Southern  Police  Institute  at  Louisville, 
Ky.,  early  in  January  1951  began  the 
first  of  its  three  terms  per  year.  In  its 
first  year  of  operation,  the  Institute  has 
granted  subsistence  scholarships  to  a 
number  of  carefully  selected  police  offi- 
cers who  attended  the  twelve-week  course. 
The  states  served  by  the  Institute  are 
Arkansas,  Alabama,  District  of  Columbia, 
Florida,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Louisiana, 
Maryland,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  North 


Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
Texas,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia. 

The  Institute  grew  out  of  discussion 
with  Dr.  Joseph  D.  Lohman,  authority  on 
police  training,  who  had  been  invited  to 
consult  with  the  Louisville  Division  of 
Police.  Detailed  planning  was  carried 
out  by  the  following  committee,  appointed 
by  Colonel  David  A.  McCandless,  then 
Director  of  Public  Safety  and  now  Di- 
rector of  the  Institute:  Dean  Howell  V. 
Williams  and  Professor  Donald  Kepner 
of  the  University  of  Louisville  and  Cap- 
tains Gerald  Kopp  and  William  Kiefer 
of  the  Louisville  Division  of  Police. 
Foundation  assistance  was  secured,  and 
the  Institute  was  formally  established 
under  the  sponsorship  of  the  University 
of  Louisville  and  the  City  of  Louisville. 

The  curriculum,  as  described  in  the 
initial  prospectus,  is:  "a  broad  course 
covering  not  only  the  essentials  of  police 
science  but  also  embracing  law,  adminis- 
tration, and  sociology."  The  prospectus 
adds:  "Although  police  work  with  racial 
minorities  would  be  only  part  of  the 
curriculum  of  the  training  course,  the 
need  for  increased  police  knowledge  in 
that  sphere  is  one  of  the  important  rea- 
sons why  a  Southern  police  institute 
should  be  established." 

Following  this  example,  it  is  hoped 
that  more  southern  police  departments 
will  provide  training  in  human  relations 
as  part  of  their  personnel  instruction. 
Such  organizations  as  the  Southern  Re- 
gional Council  and  the  Anti-Defamation 
League  of  B'nai  B'rith  have  adopted  as 
one  of  their  functions  the  encouragement 
of  such  police  courses. 

Negro  Policemen 

An  important  influence  in  the  improve- 
ment of  police  systems  has  been  the  em- 
ployment of  Negro  policemen  and  police- 
women in  southern  cities.  This  practice, 
which  was  regarded  as  a  daring  experi- 
ment less  than  a  decade  ago,  is  now  gen- 
erally accepted  as  a  practical,  common- 
sense  aid  to  law  enforcement.  Since  1947, 
the  number  of  Negro  police  personnel 
employed  has  more  than  tripled,  and  the* 


SAFETY  OF  PERSON 


321 


number  of  southern  cities  employing  them 
has  doubled.  The  Southern  Regional 
Council's  latest  tabulation  shows  443 
Negro  officers  (including  plainclothes- 
men  and  policewomen)  now  serving  in 
82  towns  and  cities  throughout  the  thir- 
teen southern  states. 

The  success  of  the  practice  can  be 
measured  by  the  comments  of  southern 
police  chiefs  attending  the  fifty-eighth 
annual  convention  of  the  International 
Association  of  Police  Chiefs,  held  in 
Miami  in  November  1951.  They  were 
unanimous  in  their  praise  of  Negro  offi- 
cers as  an  aid  to  stamping  out  crime  and 
providing  better  protection  in  the  Negro 
community.  Miami  Police  Chief  Walter 
Headly  spoke  for  many  when  he  declared : 
"In  the  seven  years  since  the  first  of  our 
Negro  officers  were  sworn  in,  crimes  of 
violence  in  our  Negro  communities  have 
been  reduced  by  about  fifty  percent." 

In  virtually  every  case,  the  Negro  offi- 
cers are  assigned  exclusively  to  Negro 
residential  and  business  sections,  and 
often  their  authority  is  limited,  either 
formally  or  informally,  to  Negro  persons. 
But  it  has  been  the  experience  of  more 
than  one  city  that  the  latter  restriction 
gradually  falls  into  disuse  once  Negro 
officers  have  won  acceptance. 

Discrimination  in  Legal  Penalties 

The  last  few  years  have  brought  for 
the  first  time  a  self-conciousness  in  the 
South  about  the  old  habit  of  awarding 
differential  penalties  for  the  same  offense 
according  to  race.  The  Scottsboro  Case 
has  had  recent  successors  in  the  Martins- 
ville,  Groveland,  and  Willie  McGee  cases, 
each  of  which  brought  condemnation 
from  the  farthest  corners  of  the  earth. 
As  a  result  of  the  notoriety,  it  is  inter- 
nationally known  that  the  rape  of  a  white 
woman  by  a  Negro  usually  is  considered 
a  capital  offense,  whereas  the  same  of- 
fense by  a  white  man  customarily  draws 
a  prison  sentence  of  a  few  years.  It  should 
be  added  that  cases  in  which  Negro 
women  are  raped  by  white  men  have  only 
recently  begun  to  find  their  way  into 
court  at  all. 


Underlying  the  sensational  cases  in- 
volving charges  of  rape  is  a  broad  base 
of  day-to-day  discrimination  in  court  pro- 
ceedings. In  scores  of  lesser  offenses  the 
same  double-standard  applies,  with  one 
curious  and  lamentable  exception:  Al- 
though stiff  penalties  are  imposed  for 
crimes  of  whites  against  whites,  crimes 
of  Negroes  against  Negroes  are  punished 
with  scoffingly  light  penalties.  Negro 
leadership  all  over  the  South  can  com- 
plain with  good  reason  that  Negro  com- 
munities and  businesses  are  unsafe  in  the 
presence  of  so  much  unpunished  or  lightly 
punished  crime.  And  this  racial  differen- 
tial in  the  courts  has  still  another  aspect. 
Many  good  lawyers  will  admit  that  they 
would  be  neglectful  of  their  duty  to  their 
Negro  clients  if  they  did  not  advise  a 
shuffling,  pleading,  even  clownish  de- 
meanor, as  a  means  of  winning  a  light 
sentence  from  white  judges  and  juries. 

There  is  some  evidence — slight  as  yet, 
but  meaningful — that  the  southern  public 
is  becoming  embarrassedly  aware  of  these 
perversions  of  justice.  Within  the  past 
year,  presiding  judges  in  North  Carolina 
and  Mississippi  have  rebuked  all-white 
juries  for  obviously  prejudiced  verdicts. 
Southern  newspapers  are  recognizing  that 
such  cases  are  both  newsworthy  and  dis- 
advantageous to  the  reputation  of  the 
region,  and  this  knowledge  prompts  in- 
creasingly strong  editorial  comment.  It 
is  not  too  much  to  hope  that  the  next  few. 
years  will  see  a  marked  improvement  in 
the  whole  field. 

Ka  Klux  Klan 

Federal  court  decisions  affecting  the 
status  of  Negroes  have  prompted  some 
southern  spokesmen  to  predict  a  revived 
and  powerful  Ku  Klux  Klan.  So  far  there 
is  little  evidence  of  such  a  development. 
Within  recent  years,  the  Klan  has  waned 
in  membership,  in  public  support,  and  in 
effectiveness.  One  mark  of  the  decline  of 
this  once-powerful  organization  is  its  di- 
vision into  splinter  groups,  each  with  its 
own  ambitious  "Grand  Dragon"  or  "Wiz- 
ard." The  main  splinters  are  those  in 
Georgia  headed  by  Sam  Roper,  in  South 


322 


RACE  RELATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


Carolina  headed  by  Tom  Hamilton,  and 
in  Florida  headed  by  Bill  Hendrix. 

Aside  from  scattered  individual  acts  of 
brutality  or  terrorism  attributed  to  the 
Klan,  the  only  noteworthy  organized  ac- 
tivity in  1951  occurred  in  South  and 
North  Carolina  and  consisted  largely 
of  public  demonstrations  and  cross-burn- 
ings carried  out  in  defiance  of  public 
authorities.  Despite  strong  anti-Klan 
statements  by  Governors  Byrnes  and 
Scott,  law  enforcement  agencies  made  a 
disappointingly  poor  showing  on  those 
occasions.  By  and  large,  the  same  was 
true  of  law  enforcement  generally  in 
those  areas  where  the  Klan  still  exists. 
Only  in  a  few  instances  of  local  extra- 
legal  action  by  Klan  groups,  as  in  Atlanta 
and  in  Conway,  S.  C.,  have  police  authori- 
ties moved  toward  prosecution  of  the 
offenders. 

By  contrast,  southern  public  opinion 
has  showed  itself  overwhemingly  opposed 
to  the  Klan  and  its  principles.  Four  states, 
Alabama,  Georgia,  Florida,  and  South 
Carolina,  and  more  than  50  southern 
cities  have  enacted  anti-mask  legislation 
aimed  at  the  Klan.  In  addition,  news- 
papers, church  groups,  and  civic  organi- 
zations throughout  the  region  have  voiced 
strong  denunciation  of  the  hooded  order. 
It  only  remains  for  this  public  sentiment, 
which  has  already  found  expression  in 
legislation,  to  be  vigorously  enforced  by 
city  and  state  policemen  and  county  peace 
officers. 

The  organizational  weakness  of  the  Ku 
Klux  Klan  should  not  be  allowed  to  ob- 
scure its  harmful  influence  as  a  symbol 
of  lawlessness.  Its  continued  existence 
gives  support  and  inspiration  to  many 
violence-minded  individuals  who  take  the 
law  into  their  own  hands  whenever  an 
excuse  for  racial  tension  appears.  In 
many  such  cases  the  Klan  as  an  organized 
body  plays  no  part,  but  it  may  neverthe- 
less be  credited  with  a  large  share  of  the 
blame.  For,  wherever  in  the  South  acts 
of  intimidation  and  terrorism  are  com- 
mitted, its  techniques,  its  regalia,  and  its 
undemocratic  philosophy  are  almost  sure 
to  be  found. 


RACE  IN  THE  NEWS 

A  few  years  ago,  nine  Nieman  Fellows 
observed  in  Your  Newspaper:  Blueprint 
for  a  Better  Press:  "As  pictured  in  many 
newspapers,  the  Negro  is  either  on  en- 
tertaining fool,  a  dangerous  animal,  or 
(on  the  comparatively  rare  occasions 
when  a  Negro's  achievements  are  ap- 
plauded) a  prodigy  of  astonishing  attain- 
ments, considering  his  race." 

Although  that  charge  is  still  all  too 
justified,  in  the  past  two  years  another 
more  hopeful  trend  has  made  gratifying 
headway  in  the  southern  press.  The  trend 
is  not  a  new  one — the  movement  for 
fairer  handling  of  racial  news  has  been 
growing  for  at  least  a  decade — but  in 
recent  months  the  pace  has  quickened 
remarkably,  and  scores  of  southern  news- 
papers have  made  constructive  changes 
in  their  policies. 

Progress  has  not  been  uniform  over 
the  region.  Some  papers  have  changed 
more  than  others.  Some  have  not  changed 
at  all.  Still  others,  with  further  to  go 
than  most,  have  begun  with  the  most 
elementary  reforms.  These  qualifications 
aside,  however,  a  fresh  awareness  is  in 
the  journalistic  air,  and  a  higher  stand- 
ard of  fairness  and  service  to  the  whole 
community  has  taken  tangible  shape. 

In  1949,  the  Southern  Regional  Council 
published  an  analysis  of  current  handling 
of  racial  news  by  southern  papers,  to- 
gether with  recommended  standards,  un- 
der the  title  Race  in  the  News.  Among 
the  most  common  types  of  newspaper 
discrimination  discussed  were  the  follow- 
ing: 

1)  Frequent  use  of  "human  interest" 
stories  depicting  Negroes  as  comic  figures 
without  dignity. 

2)  Failure  to  accord  the  courtesy  titles 
"Mr.",  "Miss",  and  "Mrs."  to  Negroes 
as  to  whites. 

3)  Prominent    display    of    the    word 
"Negro"  in  headlines  and  texts  of  crime 
stories. 

4)  Devoting  the  preponderance  of  news 
stories    about    Negroes    to    crimes    com- 
mitted by  members  of  the  group. 


RACE  IN  THE  NEWS 


323 


5)  Failure  to  capitalize  "Negro." 

6)  Excluding  photographs  of  Negroes 
in  dignified,  newsworthy  situations. 

7)  Failure   to   gather   and   report   the 
news,  as  it  is  made,  in  the  Negro  com- 
munity. 

8)  Segregating  news  about  Negroes  in 
special  columns  or  in  "Black  Star"  edi- 
tions. 

In  recommending  an  end  to  this  racial 
double-standard  in  the  region's  news- 
papers, Race  in  the  News  commented: 

The  responsible  editor,  hoping  to  improve 
race  relations  in  the  South,  need  not  indulge  in 
special  pleading  for  the  Negro.  He  need 
merely  apply  the  same  news  values  to  Negro 
events  that  he  does  to  all  events.  He  simply 
handles  stories  about  Negroes  with  the  same 
respect  for  accuracy,  the  same  sense  of  fair 
play  and  good  taste,  that  good  journalism 
demands  in  all  stories.  He  refuses  to  capitalize 
on  the  race  issue,  refuses  to  appeal  to  the 
prejudices  of  his  readers  in  a  short-sighted  bid 
for  circulation,  because  he  knows  that  im- 
proved race  relations  are  imperative  for  the 
progress  of  his  region.  And  he  knows  that 
proper  handling  of  Negro  news  is  helping  in 
that  progress  by  giving  white  readers  a  better, 
fuller  understanding  of  Negro  life  and  Negro 
aspirations,  and  encouraging  Negroes,  by 
crediting  their  achievements,  to  make  con- 
structive use  of  their  growing  opportunities. 

One  index  to  the  increasing  awareness 
by  the  press  of  its  own  shortcomings  was 
the  wide  notice  which  Race  in  the  News 
received  in  newspaper  circles.  The  book- 
let was  favorably  publicized  in  the  na- 
tional press,  was  distributed  to  every 
white  daily  in  the  South  by  the  Southern 
Newspaper  Publishers  Association,  and 
was  later  mailed  by  the  Council  to  the 
more  than  1,700  weekly  newspapers  pub- 
lished in  the  South. 

Six  months  later,  a  spot-check  revealed 
that  in  almost  every  major  southern  city 
one  or  more  of  the  daily  newspapers 
had  markedly  improved  its  handling  of 
racial  news.  That  improvement  has  con- 
tinued to  spread  in  the  months  that  have 
followed.  Many  papers  are  now  for  the 
first  time  properly  using  "Negro"  instead 
of  "negro,"  are  lifting  the  ban  on  news 
photographs  of  Negroes,  are  eliminating 
the  racial  designation  from  crime  head- 
lines, are  giving  suitable  coverage  to 


Negro  and  interracial  activities.  The 
shortcomings  remaining  are  many  and 
serious,  but  at  least  there  is  a  heightened 
conciousness  of  them  among  newspaper- 
men, which  augurs  well  for  the  future. 

Eliminating  offensive  practices  is  only 
a  part  of  the  problem.  Less  concrete,  but 
ultimately  more  important,  is  the  matter 
of  converting  southern  newspapers  into 
institutions  which  actually  serve  the  whole 
community  without  respect  to  race,  in  fact 
as  well  as  in  theory.  It  is  doubtful  that 
many  newspapers  will  achieve  this  high 
standard  of  performance  as  long  as  they 
are  exclusively  directed  and  staffed  by 
white  persons.  A  very  few  papers,  like  the 
Winston-Salem  Journal  and  Sentinel  and 
the  Petersburg  Progress-Index,  have  taken 
a  long  step  in  the  right  direction  by  em- 
ployment of  full-time  Negro  reporters. 
But  for  the  most  part,  those  papers  which 
are  conscious  of  the  problem  at  all  have 
met  it  with  various  compromise  measures. 

Most  common  of  these,  perhaps,  is  the 
segregated  weekly  column  of  Negro  news, 
usually  prepared  as  a  regular  feature 
by  a  Negro  correspondent.  In  such 
columns  the  customary  taboos  are  not 
enforced.  Except  for  the  heading,  which 
usually  reads  "News  of  Interest  to  Ne- 
groes," or  something  similar,  there  is  no 
further  mention  of  race.  Courtesy  titles 
are  normally  used.  Personals,  announce- 
ments, brevities,  as  well  as  reports  of 
meetings,  campaigns,  speeches,  and 
awards,  are  given  the  same  treatment  as 
those  about  whites. 

While  some  Negroes  deplore  the  spe- 
cial column,  seeing  in  it  one  more  ex- 
tension of  segregation,  others  like  or  at 
least  tolerate  it.  Without  it  and  in  the 
absence  of  a  local  Negro  newspaper, 
their  activities  would  go  largely  unre- 
ported.  Through  it,  therefore,  editors 
are  performing  a  certain  service  to  the 
Negro  community.  But  in  helping  white 
readers  come  to  a  better  understanding 
of  their  fellow  Negrp  citizens,  the  segre- 
gated column  is  of  virtually  no  purpose, 
for  most  white  persons  never  read  it. 

An  even  less  satisfactory  device  is  the 
so-called  "Black  Star"  edition,  a  special 


324 


RACE  RELATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


issue  prepared  solely  for  Negro  circu- 
lation. This  is  truly  the  ultimate  in  news 
segregation.  Not  only  do  most  white  per- 
sons not  read  "Black  Star"  editions,  they 
do  not  even  see  them.  The  publication  of 
the  separate  edition  is  most  often 
prompted  by  an  awareness  of  the  circu- 
lation potential  in  the  Negro  community, 
and  it  usually  falls  of  its  own  weight 
when  public  opinion  advances  sufficiently. 
It  then  becomes  apparent  to  the  editors 
that  Negroes  are  offended  by  the  practice 
and  that  it  is,  moreover,  unnecessary,  since 
the  white  public  is  perfectly  willing  to 
see  news  of  Negroes  in  the  general  edi- 
tion. 

A  few  papers  follow  a  more  advanced 
variation  of  the  "Black  Star"  practice  by 
carrying  a  full  page  of  Negro  news  in 
the  general  edition  once  a  week.  Except 
for  the  prominence  of  Negro  photographs, 
an  out-of-town  reader  could  hardly  dis- 
tinguish it  from  any  other  news  page. 
Advertisements  of  Negro  firms  are  ac- 
cepted for  use  on  this  page.  Although 
this  is  an  improvement  on  separate  news 
presentations,  it  is  far  less  satisfactory 
than  the  simple  and  natural  practice,  fol- 
lowed by  such  papers  as  the  Chattanooga 
Times  and  the  Richmond  Times-Dispatch, 
of  giving  Negro  news  the  space  and  posi- 
tion warranted  by  its  news  value. 

RELIGION 

During  the  past  few  years  southern 
churches  and  church  people  have  shown 
an  increasing  willingness  to  take  a  posi- 
tive stand  on  the  question  of  human 
rights.  Some  denominations  have  taken 
steps  to  reduce  segregation  within  their 
own  structures.  Changes  in  policy  and 
practice  indicate  that  both  Protestant  and 
Catholic  religious  bodies  are  gradually 
revising  their  attitudes  toward  the  Negro 
as  a  person  and  defining  a  new  responsi- 
bility in  regard  to  racial  problems  for 
Christian  organizations  in  the  South. 

The  southern  churches'  interest  in  the 
Negro's  rights  as  an  individual  and  recog- 
nition of  the  churches'  responsibility  to 
be  concerned  with  injustices,  inequality, 


and  the  safety  of  the  person  have  been 
reflected  in  statements  from  official  organ- 
izations within  most  of  the  denominations 
represented  in  the  region.  Typical  of  the 
philosophy  behind  these  pronouncements 
is  the  resolution  passed  by  the  Southern 
Baptist  Convention  several  years  ago: 
"We  shall  think  of  the  Negro  as  a  person 
and  treat  him  accordingly  .  .  .  We  shall 
protest  against  injustice  and  indignities 
against  Negroes,  as  we  do  in  the  case  of 
people  of  our  own  race,  whenever  and 
wherever  we  meet  them." 

Specific  protests  and  recommendations 
for  action  against  the  Ku  Klux  Klan,  vot- 
ing discrimination,  and  lack  of  equal 
employment  opportunities  have  also  been 
issued  by  clergy,  church  social-rela- 
tions committees,  and  women's  church 
councils.  The  Methodist  Ministers  Asso- 
ciation of  Atlanta,  for  instance,  "scan- 
dalized at  the  Klan's  desecration  of  the 
Cross  of  Christ,"  called  upon  the  City 
of  Atlanta,  the  County  of  Fulton,  and  the 
State  of  Georgia  to  pass  legislation  pro- 
hibiting the  parading  of  any  group  "under 
the  cover  of  masks."  Others,  such  as  the 
Catholic  Committee  of  the  South,  voiced 
objection  to  use  of  the  "southern  tradi- 
tion" in  race  relations  to  justify  "a  con- 
tinued state  of  unjust  discrimination 
against  the  Negro  laborer  and  privation 
of  the  Negro  of  the  opportunity  for  higher 
education  and  professional  training." 

Recently  southern  churches  have  shown 
concern  over  segregation  as  a  moral  issue. 
Statements  recognizing  the  "unChristian" 
and  "undemocratic"  effect  of  separation 
of  the  two  races  have  come  from  such 
official  sources  as  the  Presbyterian  (U.S.) 
Synod  of  Alabama,  the  Catholic  Com- 
mittee of  the  South,  and  the  two  southern 
Catholic  bishops.  As  the  Alabama  synod 
expressed  it:  "Segregation  is  living  on 
borrowed  time.  With  the  Constitution  be- 
ing considerably  more  active  than  the 
conscience  of  late,  the  church  might  have 
to  adjust  its  morality  to  measure  up  to 
the  mores  of  the  state." 

More  encouraging  than  statements  call- 
ing for  new  attitudes  and  improved  prac- 
tices are  indications  that  segregation 


RELIGION 


325 


within  denominational  structures  is  less- 
ening. Steps  taken  toward  integration 
in  the  churches  themselves  include  the 
absorption  of  separate  Negro  synods  and 
conferences,  the  opening  of  white  theo- 
logical seminaries  and  church-sponsored 
schools  to  Negro  students,  and  the  accept- 
ance of  Negro  clergymen  in  community 
ministerial  associations  in  a  few  scattered 
instances.  Such  practices  have  not  oc- 
curred in  all  denominations,  nor  to  the 
same  extent  in  the  different  denomina- 
tions. But  that  they  have  happened  and 
that  they  are  laying  the  groundwork  for 
a  new  pattern  in  the  southern  churches 
makes  them  most  significant. 

Both  the  Methodist  and  Presbyterian 
denominations  have  experienced  closer  in- 
tegration of  white  and  Negro  govern- 
mental organization.  The  Southern  Pres- 
byterians voted  to  dissolve  their  one  sepa- 
rate Negro  synod  in  June  1951  and  ex- 
pressed the  hope  that  other  Presbyterian 
bodies  would  follow  suit.  While  the  Meth- 
odist Church  merged  its  white  and  Negro 
branches  under  a  central  organization 
several  years  ago,  Negro  conferences  were 
segregated  as  members  of  a  Central  Juris- 
diction. This  Jurisdiction  denounced  seg- 
regation and  requested  that  the  1952  Gen- 
eral Conference  abolish  it.  The  Episcopal 
Province  of  Sewanee  has  long  operated 
without  racial  distinctions. 

Opening  of  Southern  Baptist,  Metho- 
dist, and  Presbyterian  theological  schools 
to  Negroes  has  come  as  a  recognition  that 
there  is  need  for  more  definite  contact 
between  Christian  leadership  of  both 
races.  As  a  Presbyterian  official  com- 
mented, "If  we  are  to  find  a  Christian 
solution  for  our  problems,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary for  Christian  leaders  of  both  races 
to  get  together  for  study.  For  this  reason 
we  feel  that  it  would  be  to  the  advantage 
of  all  concerned  if  some  way  could  be 
opened  for  our  Negro  ministers  to  be 
trained  in  our  white  seminaries." 

With  the  opening  of  theological  schools 
has  also  come  the  admission  of  Negroes 
to  denominational  colleges  and  to  a  few 
church-supported  high  schools  in  border 
states.  Lack  of  or  a  minimum  of  segrega- 


tion in  school  facilities  will  mean  con- 
crete advances  toward  both  equal  edu- 
cational opportunities  and  increased  asso- 
ciation between  young  people  of  the  two 
races  on  a  normal,  everyday  basis.  In  the 
opinion  of  one  prominent  white  church- 
man, the  factor  of  greatest  importance  in 
hastening  the  admission  of  Negroes  was 
"the  very  decided  change  in  attitude  on 
the  part  of  large  numbers  of  young, 
church-related  students  who  no  longer  be- 
lieve in  the  old  theory  of  white  suprem- 
acy." 

While  admission  to  community  minis- 
terial associations  lags  far  behind  that  in 
secular  professional  associations,  the 
practice  does  occur  in  some  places.  In 
one  predominantly  white  county  minis- 
terial association  in  Virginia,  a  Negro 
pastor  was  not  only  accepted  into  mem- 
bership but  was  elected  president  of  the 
organization. 

Official  statements  regarding  the  rights 
of  the  Negro  and  willingness  to  lessen 
segregation  within  denominational  struc- 
tures come  primarily  from  church  leader- 
ship. As  in  the  case  of  political  parties, 
labor  unions,  and  other  large  organiza- 
tions, the  general  membership  is  not  al- 
ways unanimous  in  its  approval  of  moves 
initiated  at  the  top.  Church  members, 
however,  especially  young  people's 
groups,  have  for  some  time  participated 
in  interracial  workshops,  conferences, 
camps,  and  special  projects.  This  consti- 
tutes some  evidence  that  the  Southern 
churches'  new  approaches  to  the  race 
problem  are  not  without  grass-roots  sup- 
port. 

Another  type  of  activity  on  the  part 
of  church  members  suggests  that  they 
are  willing  to  give  time  and  service  to 
improve  the  Negro's  status  in  the  South. 
Under  the  direction  of  Mrs.  M.  E.  Tilly, 
southern  church  women  are  attempting 
to  secure  fair  and  impartial  justice  for 
Negroes  in  their  own  communities. 
Grouped  together  as  the  "Fellowship  of 
the  Concerned,"  these  women  pledge 
themselves  to  visit  local  courts,  inspect 
jails,  and  be  alert  for  preventive  action 
at  the  threat  of  interracial  violence.  Mem- 


326 


RACE  RELATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


bers  of  the  Fellowship  are  found  in  both 
large  cities  and  small  rural  communities 
throughout  every  state  in  the  South.  Con- 
cern for  equal  justice  has  involved  a  va- 
riety of  activities.  Reports  such  as  the 
following  reveal  a  few  of  these:  "About 
six  of  us  have  visited  our  court;  two  of 
us  have  helped  with  juvenile  cases;  three 
of  our  women  voted  for  the  first  time, 
though  middle-aged,  and  others  accom- 
panied colored  women  to  the  polls.  Four 
of  us  helped  our  Community  House  enter- 
tain the  colored  nursery  children."  Other 
reports  show  how  effective  the  mere  pres- 
ence of  church  women  as  spectators  in 
the  court  can  be,  and  how  Fellowship 
action  has  led  to  the  organization  of  slum- 
clearance  programs  and  the  employment 
of  public  defenders  in  city  courts. 

Although  some  church  members  are 
willing  to  participate  in  interracial  pro- 
grams and  in  projects  showing  concern 
for  equal  justice,  local  regulations  or  atti- 
tudes often  make  it  difficult  to  carry  out 
interracial  objectives.  Archbishop  Rum- 
mel  of  New  Orleans,  for  example,  can- 
celled an  annual  function  of  the  Holy 
Name  Society  because  the  Board  of  Com- 
missioners of  the  City  Park  insisted  that 
strict  segregation  be  enforced. 

ORGANIZED  LABOR 

The  labor  movement  is  still  another  field 
in  which  the  racial  taboos  of  the  older 
South  are  giving  ground. 

Organized  labor  has  in  the  last  dozen 
years  achieved  in  most  of  the  South  at 
least  grudging  acceptance.  No  one  is 
summoning  all  forces  to  drive  it  out  of 
the  building  trades  in  the  major  cities,  or 
off  the  railways,  or  out  of  coal  mining, 
steel,  automobile  and  aircraft  assembly, 
pulp  and  paper-making,  the  chemical  in- 
dustry, or  meat-packing.  It  has  been  weak 
in  textiles,  in  the  oil  industry,  furniture- 
making,  and  the  garment  trades.  But 
through  the  whole  South  it  numbers  over 
two  million  members,  and  in  many  towns, 
trades,  and  mills  it  is  a  stable  force,  win- 
ning for  itself  an  increasing  respect  and 
usefulness. 


Several  of  the  Southern  States  are  now 
approaching  the  point  at  which  a  majority 
of  the  gainfully  employed  people  will  be 
in  industry  or  commerce,  rather  than  in 
agriculture,  making  them  subject  to  trade 
union  jurisdiction.  To  the  increasingly 
urban  Negro  population  of  the  South,  the 
attitude  of  the  unions  toward  Negro  em- 
ployment and  Negro  union  membership 
is  of  cricital  importance. 

Unions  are,  for  all  their  stated  idealism, 
very  practical  organizations  and  are  apt 
to  expend  their  energy  in  short-run  self- 
protection.  Thus  it  was  basic  to  the  trade 
unionism  of  20  years  ago  in  the  South 
that  it  was  a  white  man's  movement. 
White  carpenters  organized  to  protect 
themselves  as  much  against  Negro  car- 
penters as  against  the  builders.  This  held 
true  with  most  local  craft  organizations. 
Practically  all  the  shop  crafts — machin- 
ists, electricians,  boilermakers,  and  so  on 
— were  organized  as,  and  still  continue  as, 
white  monopolies.  State  federations  of 
labor  were  white  with  but  few  exceptions. 
Negro  plasterers  have  a  long  history  of 
separate  local  unions,  as  have  the  brick- 
masons  and  one  or  two  other  building 
trades.  And  southern  labor  conventions 
were  not  complete  without  a  handful  of 
Negro  delegates,  rather  humble,  who 
stood  as  witnesses  to  a  stated  ultimate 
goal  of  inclu§iveness.  The  practical  situ- 
ation was  that  skilled  and  semi-skilled 
jobs  were  few,  that  white  people  held 
most  of  them,  and  that  white  people  or- 
ganized to  keep  them. 

The  more  lately  developed  principle  of 
organizing  all  employees  in  a  given  mill 
or  industry  gave  the  Negro  a  better 
chance  in  southern  unionism.  And  given 
an  industry  employing  a  good  proportion 
of  Negro  people — meat-packing,  coal  and 
ore  mining,  iron  and  steel,  pulp  and 
paper,  woodworking — it  made  no  great 
difference  whether  it  was  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor  or  the  Congress  of 
Industrial  Organizations  that  took  on  the 
job;  each  would  be  considerate  of  Negro 
interests.  Unions  would  be  ineffectual 
with  30  to  40%  of  the  work  force  ex- 
cluded because  of  color.  With  both  races 


ORGANIZED  LABOR 


327 


wanting  the  union,  the  result  was  a  rapid 
growth  of  "mixed  unions,"  beginning 
about  1934,  and  fluctuating  ever  since. 

These  unions  have  not  sufficiently  ma- 
tured for  their  patterns  to  have  set,  but 
several  generalizations  can  be  made.  In 
the  first  place,  Negroes  get  an  important 
share  in  union  activity  only  where  they 
are  important  to  the  industrial  process. 
If  Negroes  are  only  5%  of  a  work  force 
and  the  plant  becomes  organized,  the 
Negroes  may  be  admitted  to  the  union, 
but  in  condescension  only.  At  the  other 
end,  if  only  a  few  white  people  work  in 
a  process  almost  entirely  Negro,  it  is  hard 
to  get  the  white  people  to  come  in  or  to 
stay  in  the  union.  As  a  rule  of  thumb, 
15%  Negro  employment  may  be  the  di- 
viding line.  In  the  second  place,  union 
membership  has  not  abolished  race  preju- 
dice. Most  white  members  "draw  a  line," 
and  most  Negro  members  keep  to  their 
side  of  the  line.  But  the  line  is  much 
further  along  than  it  used  to  be.  It  is 
now  accepted  almost  everywhere  that  the 
two  races  can  meet  on  union  business  in 
the  same  hall.  There  are  still  many  sepa- 
rate Negro  locals,  or  Negro  auxiliaries, 
struggling  along  in  mills  or  towns  where 
the  white  locals  do  most  of  the  business, 
though  everybody  gives  status  and  cour- 
tesy to  delegates  from  the  Negro  local. 
But  separate  locals  are  dying  out,  making 
the  usual  pattern  the  mixed  local,  with  a 
common  understanding  that  Negro  and 
white  members  will  congregate  in  sepa- 
rate parts  of  the  hall.  Nevertheless,  there 
are  always  some  of  both  races  who  ignore 
division  by  aisles  or  "back  and  front," 
and  it  is  rare  to  see  any  objection  offered 
to  such  unsegregated  seating. 

Moreover,  with  the  prevailing  rule  that 
Negro  union  members  shall  have  equal 
voice  and  vote,  the  Negro  gains  his  first 
opportunity  to  state  his  needs  before  an 
attentive  audience  of  working  people  of 
both  races.  The  opportunity  is  used — 
fully  and  fruitfully.  The  give  and  take 
of  such  discussion,  abounding  though  it 
may  be  in  polite  but  well-understood  cir- 
cumlocutions, breeds  mutual  respect  and 
a  decline  of  old  bitternesses. 


The  union  also  furnishes  an  avenue 
for  Negro  advancement  by  office-holding 
in  locals,  by  attendance  at  city  councils, 
and  by  taking  part  in  national  and  state 
union  affairs.  In  addition,  the  special 
comradeship  of  elected  persons  moves  for- 
ward inter-group  understanding. 

But  mixed  unions  have  as  yet  done 
little  to  open  better  levels  of  employment 
to  Negroes.  Some  unions  have  a  tight  non- 
discrimination  clause  in  their  contracts 
and  in  an  occasional  test  case  will  put  up 
a  fight  to  get  a  better  rating  for  a  quali- 
fied Negro  member.  Yet,  though  the  pres- 
sure of  the  union  is  toward  greater  fair- 
ness as  to  grievances  and  distribution  of 
work,  Negroes  are  still  mostly  confined 
to  the  poorer  grades  of  work. 

Lastly,  the  unions  have  done  a  good 
deal  to  increase  Negro  participation  in 
political  activity  and  to  get  public  accept- 
ance for  it.  Most  unions  have  some  defi- 
nite political  objectives  which  they  seek 
to  attain  by,  in  part,  encouraging  their 
Negro  members  to  take  on  a  citizen's  full 
duty.  In  one  southern  town  where  the  only 
potential  voting  Negroes  were  a  dentist, 
two  preachers,  and  a  high  school  prin- 
cipal, it  was  a  visit  from  a  union  delega- 
tion that  decided  the  registrar  of  voters 
to  open  his  books  at  a  time  and  place 
convenient  to  the  Negroes. 

These  are  the  patterns.  On  the  whole 
they  meet  with  agreement  from  white  and 
Negro  members.  At  times  some  startling 
paradoxes  appear.  Any  southern  union 
official  who  gets  around  can  name  impor- 
tant mixed  locals  in  which  many  of  the 
white  people  belong  also  to  the  Ku  Klux 
Klan.  In  actual  practice,  most  locals 
make  their  own  adaptation  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  racial  equality  which  come  down 
from  National  Headquarters.  Most  locals, 
too,  are  well  ahead  of  interracial  arrange- 
ments outside,  and  share  among  their 
membership  common  pride  in  achieve- 
ment as  a  working  interracial  society. 

National  Agencies  Concerned  Mainly 
with  Race  Relations 

Albert  M.  Greenfield  Center  for  Human  Rela- 
tions (1952)  ;  Univ.  of  Penna.,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.  Dr.  Martin  W.  Chworowsky,  Director. 


328 


RACE  RELATIONS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


American  Civil  Liberties  Union  (1920)  ;  170 

Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  11,  N.Y. 
American  Council  on  Human  Rights  (1948)  ; 

Willard  Hotel,  Washington,  D.C.  Elmer  W. 

Henderson,  Director. 
American  Film  Center,  Committee  on  Mass 

Education  in   Race  Relations    (1943)  ;   45 

Rockefeller  Plaza,  New  York  10,  N.Y. 
American  Friends  Race  Relations  Committee 

(1944)  ;  20  S.  12  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Common  Council  for  American  Unity  (1919)  ; 

Willkie  Memorial  Building,  20  W.  40  St., 

New  York  18,  N.Y. 
Council  For  Democracy  (1940)  ;  11  W.  42  St., 

New  York  18,  N.Y. 
Fellowship  of  Reconciliation  (1914)  ;  21  Au- 

dubon  Ave.,  New  York  32,  N.Y.  Charles  D. 

Hornig,  Office  Manager. 
League    for   National    Unity,    Inc.,    (1944)  ; 

Woolworth  Building,  New  York  7,  N.Y. 


National  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Colored  People  (1909)  ;  20  W.  40  St.,  New 
York  18,  N.Y. 

National  Association  of  Intergroup  Relations 
Officials  (1947)  ;  Fellowship  Commission 
Building,  260  S.  IS  St.,  Philadelphia  2,  Pa. 

National  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in 
the  U.S.A.  (1950)  ;  297  Fourth  Ave.,  New 
York  10,  N.Y. 

National  Urban  League  (1910);  1133  Broad- 
way, New  York  10,  N.Y. 

Race  Relations  Division,  American  Mission- 
ary Association  (1942)  ;  Social  Science 
Inst,  Fisk  Univ.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Southern  Conference  Educational  Fund,  Inc., 
(1949)  ;  822  Perdido  St.,  New  Orleans,  La., 
Dr.  James  A.  Dombrowski,  Director. 

Southern  Regional  Council  (1944)  ;  Room 
432,  63  Auburn  Ave.,  N.E.,  Atlanta  3,  Ga. 
Dr.  George  S.  Mitchell,  Executive  Director. 


Harvey  Clark,  Jr.,  his  wife, 
and  two  children,  are  es- 
corted by  the  police  into 
the  apartment  building  in 
Cicero,  111.,  where  their 
furniture  and  belongings 
were  soon  afterward 
wrecked  by  a  mob.  Chi- 
cago Daily  News  Photo 


Following   the   destruction    of   their   property,    the    Harvey   Clark    family   receives   a 

check    from    NAACP    national    vice-president    Willard    S.    Townsend,    as    Chicago 

NAACP    president    Nelson    M.    Willis    (left)    and    John    Rogers    (2nd    from    right) 

look  on.  Chicago  Defender  Photo 


PLATE  XXXIII 


PLATE  XXXIV 


Negroes  continue  to  make  advances  in  the  South  in  their  attempts  to  gain  equal 
voting  rights.  In  the  picture  above,  Negroes  are  seen  waiting  to  vote  in  Columbia, 
S.C.  To  the  left,  long  lines  wait  patiently  to  cast  their  ballots  in  Atlanta  Ga 

NAACP  Photo 


PLATE  XXXV 


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W    II 

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Z,  03  <  JQQ 


PLATE  XXXVI 


PLATE  XXXVII 


PLATE  XXXVIII 


PLATE  XXXIX 


Dr.    Ernest    B.    Kalibala    served    as    re- 
gional  adviser   on   Africa   to   the    Tech- 
nical  Assistance    Administration   of   the 
UN.  Amsterdam  News  Photo 


Dr.  William  H.  Dean  is  an  economist 
with  the  Trusteeship  Division  of  the 
United  Nations.  Chicago  Defender  Photo 


Ambrose  B.  Lewis,  an  agricultural  engi- 
neer,   has    been    assigned    to    •work    -with 
the  Liberian  government  under  Point  IV. 
Pittsburgh   Courier  Photo 


Sandy  J.  McCorvey,  agricultural   exten- 
sion specialist,  also  •will  assist  the  farm- 
ers of  Liberia  under  Point  IV.  Pittsburgh 
Courier  Photo 


PLATE  XL 


Z.  Alexander  Looby,  elected  to  the  City 

Council    of   Nashville,    Tenn.    Pittsburgh 

Courier  Photo 


Dr.    W.    P.    DeVane,    Fayetteville,    N.C., 

member   of   the   city  council.   Pittsburgh 

Courier  Photo 


William  L.  Dawson,  U.S.  Congressman, 
111.,  and  chairman,  Committee  on  Ex- 
penditures in  the  Executive  Department, 
successfully  fought  for  integration  in 
the  Armed  Forces.  INS  Photo 


Mrs.  Elizabeth  Drewry  was  elected  the 
first  regular  Negro  woman  delegate  to 
the  West  Virginia  State  Legislature. 
This  was  the  first  time  she  ran  for  office. 
Mabel  Holt  Photo 


PLATE  XLI 


Emperor  Haile  Selassie  of   Ethiopia  and  his   Empress   visit  the   first  class  to  attend 
the  modern  university  recently  opened  in  his  capital,  Addis  Ababa.  Afro-American 

Photo 


Liberian    miners    receive    weekly    wages 

in     Liberian     fractional     coins     and     the 

American  dollar,  their  official   monetary 

unit.  UN  Photo 


A  chief  in  the   Cameroons  reads  a  peti- 
tion   to    a    UN    mission.    Such    petitions 
usually     concern     schools,     health,     and 
land  reform.   UN  Photo 


PLATE  XLII 


Dr.  Rayford  W.  Logan,  director  of  the 
Ass'n.  for  the  Study  of  Negro  Life  and 
History,  served  as  NAACP  representa- 
tive to  the  1951  UN  Assembly  in  Paris 
•while  in  France  studying  on  a  Fulbright 
fellowship. 


Mrs.  Mabel  K.  Staupers  was  winner  of 
the  36th  Spingarn  Medal,  for  success- 
fully leading  the  movement  •which  inte- 
grated Negro  nurses  into  the  American 
Nurses  Association.  Pittsburgh  Courier 
Photo 


Thurgood  Marshall,  chief  NAACP  coun- 
sel, received  one  of  the  1951  John  Russ- 
wurm    awards    of    the    Negro   Newspaper 
Publishers  Ass'n.  £.  F.  Joseph  Photo 


Another     1951     recipient    of    the    Russ- 

wurm     annual     awards     •was     Julius     A. 

Thomas  of  the  National   Urban  League. 

E.   F.    Joseph    Photo 


PLATE  XLIII 


As  part  of  the  effort  to  ensure  a  basic  education  for  all,  a  UNESCO  project 
brings  the  people  of  Marbial  Valley,  Haiti  (above),  the  elementary  knowledge 
and  simple  skills  to  better  their  living  conditions.  A  visiting  mission  (below)  to 
Trust  Territories  in  West  Africa  examines  the  secondary  school  in  the  Cameroons. 

UN  Photos 


PLATE  XLIV 


In  Liberia,  an  American  missionary  nurse  (above)  trains  student  nurses  for  service 
at  Cape  Mount  Hospital.  United  Nations  educational  missions  have  organized 
reading  and  writing  classes  throughout  Liberia  also.  Using  easily  understood, 
illustrated  lessons,  natives  of  all  ages  (below)  are  learning  these  minimum  skills. 

UN  Photos 


PLATE  XLV 


PLATE  XL VI 


Mrs.    Mary    McLeod     Bethune,     famous    educator    and    political    leader     (right)     is 

succeeded    by    Dr.    Dorothy    B.    Ferebee    as    president    of    the    National    Council    of 

Negro  Women.  Afro-American  Photo 


J.   Finley  Wilson,   Grand   Exalted  Ruler  of  the   Independent  and   Benevolent  Order 

of    Elks    of    the    World,    welcomes    Guy    Gabrielson,    Republican    Party    National 

Chairman,   to  the   52nd   annual   convention.   Campbell  Photo 


PLATE  XL VII 


Dr.    Ralph    Bunche    is    presented    with    the    Diamond    Cross    of    Malta    by    Marian 

Anderson  at  the  Christmas  Cotillion  of  the  Philadelphia  Cotillion  Society.  Arnold 

de  Mille,  Chicago  Defender  Photo 


PLATE  XLVIII 


22 

The  United  Nations  and  Human  Rights 


AN  INTERNATIONAL 
FORUM 

In  its  brief  span  of  existence  the  United 
Nations  has  provided  a  forum  in  which 
problems  of  minorities  may  be  brought 
to  the  attention  of  world  public  opinion. 
UN  activities  have  included  those  involv- 
ing the  protection  of  human  rights,  safe- 
guarding the  interests  of  minorities  and 
prevention  of  discrimination.  This  con- 
cern with  human  rights  emphasizes  peace- 
creating  rather  than  peace-enforcing.  It 
proceeds  on  the  belief  that  the  existence 
of  discriminated-against,  dissident  minor- 
ities or  exploited  and  disaffected  colonials 
does  not  allow  peace. 

It  is  difficult  to  discuss  UN  activities 
in  the  context  of  Negro  interests  alone. 
The  UN  is  designed  as  a  mechanism  for 
all  mankind,  and  solutions  of  the  prob- 
lems confronting  it  are  conceived  in  terms 
of  the  world  as  a  whole.  For  Negroes  in 
the  United  States  and  groups  in  other 
countries  who  have  been  denied  many 
rights,  it  is  particularly  important  that 
this  international  body  provides  for  the 
airing  of  such  abuses.  Attention  focused 
in  this  way  often  leads  to  correction  of 
abuses.  Moreover,  such  correction  acts 
to  set  standards  for  all  nations. 

Some  of  the  corrective  action  and  in- 
fluence already  set  in  motion  has  not  yet 
reached  full  force  or  effectiveness.  The 
machinery  of  international  legislation  is 
often  slow  in  operation,  requiring  the  ap- 
proval and  signature  of  the  individual 
nations  concerned  before  terms  can  be 
applied.  The  point  is  that  mandates  and 
mechanisms  do  exist  for  carrying  out 
those  Charter  principles  having  to  do 
with  the  safeguarding  of  human  rights 
and  the  prevention  of  discrimination 
against  minorities.  A  certain  amount  of 


progress  has  been  made  toward  their  im- 
plementation. 

The  interests  of  Negro  people  the 
world  over  have  been  given  a  new  safe- 
guard in  the  formation  of  the  UN  as  a 
deliberative  body  in  which  there  is  a  large 
bloc  opposed  to  racism.  Five  member 
nations  represent  people  of  predominantly 
or  heavily  Negro  extraction.  These  are 
Liberia,  Haiti,  the  Dominican  Republic, 
Cuba,  and  Ethiopia.  There  is  representa- 
tion of  Mohammedan  countries,  in  which 
race  and  color  have  no  significance,  as 
well  as  representation  of  South  American 
countries  in  which  this  is  largely  true. 
There  are  also  represented  nations  of 
Asia  whose  people  oppose  any  racist 
brief. 

THE  DECLARATION  OF 
HUMAN  RIGHTS 

The  principle  implementation  has  come 
through  the  Universal  Declaration  of 
Human  Rights  adopted  by  the  General 
Assembly  in  Paris  in  1947.  Its  text  has 
found  its  way  into  some  30  languages. 
Several  newly  written  constitutions  con- 
tain its  articles.  It  has  been  frequently 
cited  as  grounds  for  collective  interna- 
tional action  in  the  field  of  human  rights 
and  has  been  quoted  by  judges  in  court 
decisions. 

The  Declaration  contains  32  articles. 
The  first  18  cite  certain  elementary  rights 
of  all  persons.  These  include  freedom  and 
equality  in  dignity  and  rights;  life,  lib- 
erty, and  the  security  of  person;  freedom 
from  slavery  and  slave  trade;  recognition 
as  a  person  before  the  law;  equal  pro- 
tection by  the  law;  effective  remedy  by 
competent  national  tribunals  for  acts  in 
violation  of  the  fundamental  rights  grant- 
ed by  national  constitutions  or  by  law; 


329 


330 


THE  UN  AND  HUMAN  RIGHTS 


freedom  from  arbitrary  arrest,  detention, 
or  exile;  fair  and  public  hearing  by  an 
independent  and  impartial  tribunal ;  free- 
dom from  arbitrary  interference  with 
one's  privacy,  family,  home,  or  corres- 
pondence ;  freedom  of  movement  and  resi- 
dence within  the  borders  of  each  state. 
The  Declaration  further  states  that  every- 
one has  a  right  to  a  nationality  and  can- 
not be  arbitrarily  denied  this  or  the  right 
to  change  it.  Other  articles  would  give 
the  right  to  work,  a  free  choice  of  em- 
ployment, equal  pay  for  equal  work,  the 
right  to  join  and  form  trade  unions,  an 
adequate  standard  of  living  and  of  health, 
and  the  right  to  education  (which  shall 
be  free  in  the  elementary  and  funda- 
mental stages). 

All  these  articles  are  important  to  the 
Negro  in  America  because  they  are,  in 
many  instances,  principles  for  which  he 
has  long  been  struggling.  The  right  to 
full  and  equal  employment  opportunities, 
for  example,  is  the  basic  tenet  behind  the 
Federal  and  state  fair  employment  prac- 
tices legislation.  The  provisions  concern- 
ing the  right  of  fair  trial,  equal  protec- 
tion by  the  laws,  and  the  constitutional 
and  legal  rights  of  individuals  touch  upon 
some  conditions  in  the  United  States 
which  have  often  hurt  Negroes.  And  in 
other  parts  of  the  world  as  well,  much 
has  been  wanting  in  terms  of  the  Declara- 
tion's standards. 

The  Commission  on 
Human  Rights 

The  Declaration  is  merely  a  code  of 
ethics.  Its  international,  legal  implemen- 
tation will  come  with  the  adoption  of  the 
draft  International  Covenant  of  Human 
Rights,  as  written  by  the  Commission  on 
Human  Rights.  Some  progress  has  been 
made  in  this  direction.  At  its  Fifth  Ses- 
sion, the  General  Assembly  agreed  that 
the  list  of  rights  proposed  in  the  first  18 
articles  of  the  Covenant  did  not  contain 
certain  most  elementary  rights.  It  de- 
clared that  the  present  wording  of  the 
first  18  articles  should  be  improved  in 
order  to  protect  more  effectively  the  rights 
to  which  they  referred;  that  in  drafting 


the  Covenant  account  should  be  taken  of 
the  Purposes  and  Principles  of  the  Char- 
ter of  the  UN.  It  said  these  Purposes  and 
Principles  should  be  consistently  and  as- 
siduously protected.  The  Assembly  also 
suggested  a  study  of  a  federal-state  ar- 
ticle and  the  preparation  of  recommenda- 
tions for  securing  maximum  extension  of 
the  Covenant  to  the  constituent  units  of 
the  federal  states.  These  recommenda- 
tions would  take  into  account  the  consti- 
tutional problems  of  such  states.  The  As- 
sembly sought  thereby  to  determine  how 
the  Covenant  might  be  legally  applied  in 
a  federal  government  of  states,  like  the 
United  States. 

The  Assembly  further  suggested  that 
the  Commission  on  Human  Rights  include 
in  the  draft.  Covenant  a  provision  extend- 
ing the  Covenant,  or  applying  it  equally, 
to  signatory  metropolitan  states  and  to 
all  territories,  whether  non-self-govern- 
ing, trust,  or  colonial  territories,  which 
were  administered  or  governed  by  such 
metropolitan  states. 

The  Commission  was  asked  to  study 
ways  and  means  that  would  insure  the 
right  of  peoples  and  nationalities  to  self- 
determination.  It  was  requested  further 
"in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the 
Universal  Declaration  of  Human  Rights, 
to  include  in  the  draft  Covenant  a  clear 
expression  of  economic,  social  and  cul- 
tural rights,"  and  to  obtain  the  fullest  co- 
operation of  other  organs  of  the  UN  and 
specialized  agencies  in  consideration  of 
these  rights. 

Within  the  field  of  implementation,  the 
Commission  was  called  upon  to  proceed 
with  the  consideration  of  provisions,  to 
be  inserted  in  the  Covenant  in  separate 
protocols,  for  the  examination  of  peti- 
tions regarding  alleged  violations  of  the 
Covenant.  It  was  also  asked  to  take  into 
account,  in  its  studies  of  questions  relat- 
ing to  petitions  and  implementation,  cer- 
tain proposals  presented  to  the  General 
Assembly  by  Chile,  Ethiopia,  France, 
Israel,  and  Uruguay. 

At  its  Seventh  Session  in  the  spring  of 
1951,  the  Commission  on  Human  Rights 
had  time  to  deal  with  only  the  question 


DECLARATION  OF  HUMAN  RIGHTS 


331 


of  economic,  social,  and  cultural  rights, 
to  revise  the  articles  of  implementation 
drawn  up  at  its  previous  session,  and  to 
insert  in  the  draft  Covenant  the  article 
on  its  territorial  application  as  suggested 
by  the  General  Assembly.  It  did  not  deal 
with  the  question  of  petitions.  Nor  did 
it  study  the  question  of  the  federal-state 
article  or  a  draft  provision  for  its  applica- 
tion. 

The  Commission,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  International  Labour  Organization, 
the  UN  Educational,  Scientific  and  Cul- 
tural Organization  (UNESCO),  and  the 
World  Health  Organization,  drafted  14 
articles  to  be  included  in  the  Covenant. 
These  articles  recognize  the  rights  to 
work,  to  just  and  favorable  conditions  of 
work,  to  social  security,  to  adequate  hous- 
ing, to  an  adequate  standard  of  living, 
to  the  highest  standard  of  health  obtain- 
able, to  special  protection  of  mothers  and 
children,  to  join  trade  unions,  to  educate, 
to  take  part  in  the  cultural  life  of  the 
community,  and  to  enjoy  the  benefits  of 
scientific  progress.  They  declare  the  equal 
rights  of  men  and  women  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  all  economic,  social,  and  cultural 
rights  and  particularly  those  set  forth  in 
the  Covenant.  A  general  article  provides 
that  the  states  agreeing  to  the  Covenant 
will  undertake  steps  to  the  maximum  of 
their  available  resources,  with  a  view  to 
achieving  progressively  the  full  realiza- 
tion of  the  rights  recognized  in  this  Cov- 
enant. 

The  Commission  has  outlined  a  system 
of  reporting,  by  states  which  sign  the 
Covenant,  on  progress  in  the  observance 
of  these  rights.  The  reports,  which  would 
indicate  factors  affecting  the  degree  of 
fulfillment  of  the  obligations  of  the  states, 
would  be  submitted  in  stages,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  program  to  be  established  by 
the  Economic  and  Social  Council  after 
consultation  with  the  parties  and  the 
specialized  agencies  concerned.  To  avoid 
duplication,  the  Commission  provided 
that  if  states  had  already  furnished  in- 
formation to  the  UN  or  any  specialized 
agency,  their  later  reports  might  merely 
refer  to  it.  The  Council  would  make  ar- 


rangements with  the  specialized  agencies 
for  reports  by  them  on  progress  in  ob- 
servance of  the  provisions  of  the  Covenant 
falling  within  their  competence.  The  re- 
ports would  include  particulars  of  deci- 
sions taken  and  recommendations  adopted 
by  the  competent  organs. 

The  Economic  and  Social  Council 
would  transmit  all  reports  to  the  Com- 
mission on  Human  Rights  for  study  and 
recommendations.  It  would  also  submit  to 
the  General  Assembly,  with  its  own  re- 
port, periodical  reports  summarizing  data 
from  the  states  parties  and  the  special- 
ized agencies.  The  Council  would  also  be 
given  the  right  to  submit  either  to  the 
Technical  Assistance  Board,  or  to  any 
competent  international  organ,  conclu- 
sions by  the  Commission  on  Human 
Rights  which  might  assist  them  in  decid- 
ing on  international  measures  to  further 
implementation  of  the  Covenant. 

The  Human  Rights  Committee 

Another  instrument  to  be  provided  in 
the  Human  Rights  program  is  the  Human 
Rights  Committed  This  permanent  body 
would  judge  alleged  violations  and  make 
available  its  good  offices  to  the  states  con- 
cerned. It  would  seek  a  friendly  solution 
of  such  matters  on  the  basis  of  respect 
for  human  rights  as  defined  by  the  Cov- 
enant. If  such  a  solution  is  not  reached,  the 
Committee  is  to  state  its  recommenda- 
tions. 

This  Committee  is  to  be  composed  of 
nine  members  who  are  persons  "of  high 
moral  standing  and  recognized  compe- 
tence in  the  field  of  human  rights,  con- 
sideration being  given  to  the  usefulness 
of  participation  of  some  persons  having 
judicial  or  legal  experience."  They  are  to 
be  elected  by  the  International  Court  of 
Justice,  which  will  also  appoint  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Committee. 

In  order  to  expand  public  information 
on  the  work  of  human  rights  organs,  the 
UN  has  published  The  Yearbook  on  Hu- 
man Rights.  This  contains  constitutional 
and  legislative  texts  of  human  rights 
measures  throughout  the  world;  basic 
laws  in  trust  and  non-self-governing 


332 


THE  UN  AND  HUMAN  RIGHTS 


territories;  provisions  on  human  rights  in 
international  treaties  and  agreements,  and 
texts  adopted  by  specialized  agencies  and 
other  inter-governmental  organizations; 
and  a  survey  of  the  activities  of  the  UN 
in  the  field  of  human  rights.  The  Secre- 
tary-General of  the  UN  has  called  upon 
all  states  and  organizations  to  adopt  De- 
cember 10  of  each  year  as  "Human  Rights 
Day." 

Sub-Commissions  on  Minorities 

The  UN  has  also  been  active  in  com- 
bating discrimination  against  minority 
groups.  Until  1951,  the  Sub-Commission 
on  the  Prevention  of  Discrimination  and 
the  Protection  of  Minorities  was  mainly 
concerned  with  outlining  the  tasks  in  this 
field  to  be  carried  on  in  the  future  by 
other  UN  bodies. 

The  Economic  and  Social  Council  has 
decided  that  the  Sub-Commission  is  to 
be  abolished,  at  least  until  1954.  Unless 
the  General  Assembly  in  its  1951  session 
asks  the  Council  to  reconsider,  the  work 
of  this  body  begun  some  four  years  ago 
will  be  taken  over  by  the  Commission  on 
Human  Rights,  by  the  Council  itself,  or 
by  a  new  committee. 

In  reviewing  complaints  of  violations, 
the  Sub-Commission  was,  at  its  final  ses- 
sion, concerned  that  no  adequate  proce- 
dure had  been  adopted  by  the  UN  for 
dealing  with  them.  To  protect  minorities 
which,  as  matters  now  stand,  cannot  put 
their  case  before  the  UN  except  through 
a  government  outside  their  own  country, 
the  Sub-Commission  recommended  the 
establishment  of  international  machinery 
directly  accessible  to  minorities. 

A  definition  of  the  term  'minority'  was 
also  adopted.  It  stated: 

(a)  The  term  minority  includes  only  those 
nondominant  groups  in  a  population  which 
possess  and  wish  to  preserve  stable  ethnic, 
religious  or  linguistic  traditions  or  characteris- 
tics markedly  different  from  the  rest  of  the 
population. 

(b)  Such   minorities   should   properly   in- 
clude  a   number   of   persons   insufficient   by 
themselves  to  preserve  such  traditions  or  char- 
acteristics. 

(c)  Such  minorities  must  be  loyal  to  the 
State  of  which  they  are  nationals. 


The  general  principles  accompanying 
this  definition  point  to  the  undesirability 
of  imposing  unwanted  distinctions  upon 
groups  who  do  not  wish  to  be  so  treated. 

As  an  interim  measure,  the  Sub-Com- 
mission proposed  that  the  General  Assem- 
bly recommend  to  member  governments 
the  use  of  languages  of  minority  groups 
in  judicial  procedure  and  teaching  in 
state-supported  schools.  It  was  also  sug- 
gested that  the  Economic  and  Social 
Council  should  arrange  an  international 
convention  for  the  protection  of  minori- 
ties. 

To  strengthen  the  draft  Covenant  of 
Human  Rights,  the  Sub-Commission  sug- 
gested that  it  explicitly  outlaw  discrim- 
ination against  persons  born  out  of  wed- 
lock, as  well  as  any  advocacy  of  national, 
racial,  or  religious  hostility  constituting 
an  incitement  to  violence  or  hatred.  It 
also  suggested  that  a  general  provision 
forbidding  discrimination  in  regard  to 
economic,  social,  and  cultural  rights  pre- 
cede the  formulation  of  such  rights. 

UN  members  were  urged  to  review  their 
national  legislation  to  prevent  and  fight 
discrimination  and  to  establish  national 
or  local  committees  to  survey  discrimina- 
tory practices  within  the  country  and 
recommend  a  remedy  to  the  government. 

Certain  problems  which  the  Sub-Com- 
mission felt  needed  study  by  the  Com- 
mission included  the  definition  and  pro- 
tection of  political  groups  and  the  con- 
sideration of  appropriate  prevention  and 
punishment  in  the  cases  of  injuries  suf- 
fered by  groups  through  the  total  or  par- 
tial destruction  of  their  media  of  culture 
and  their  historical  monuments. 

In  the  interest  of  abolishing  discrimin- 
ation, the  Sub-Commission  has  achieved 
several  resolutions  which  have  been  acted 
upon  in  its  short  term.  One  significantly 
recognizes  a  principal  goal  of  social  edu- 
cation as  being  the  abolishment  of  all 
discrimination  and  the  eradication  of  such 
prejudices  as  might  lead  to  the  commis- 
sion of  unlawful  acts  of  discrimination. 
The  Sub-Commission  has  drawn  to  the 
attention  of  UN  members  the  urgent 
necessity  for  taking  steps  to  eliminate  all 


NEGROES  IN  THE  UN 


333 


forms  of  discrimination  in  schools.  In  this 
regard  they  have  noted  with  satisfaction 
the  work  of  UNESCO  in  conducting  edu- 
cational seminars  and  in  publication  and 
distribution  of  selected  materials  from 
each  seminar.  UNESCO  has  also  pre- 
pared a  statement  on  race  based  on  scien- 
tific knowledge,  and  the  Sub-Commission 
has  recommended  preparation,  publica- 
tion, and  dissemination  of  simple,  read- 
able books  and  pamphlets  based  on  scien- 
tific facts  and  explaining  the  fallacies 
of  mistaken  race  theories  and  religious 
and  other  prejudices. 

NEGROES  IN  THE  UN 

The  exact  number  of  Negroes  holding 
positions  with  the  UN  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine since  the  UN  does  not  indicate 
or  keep  any  record  of  the  race  of  its  em- 
ployees. Individuals  listed  here  are  in  the 
higher  professional  categories  and  have 
had  long  relationships  with  the  UN. 

Dr.  Ralph  J.  Bunche  fills  the  highest 
ranking  administrative  post  held  by  a 
Negro.  He  serves  as  Director  of  the  De- 
partment of  Trusteeship  and  Information 
from  Non-Self-Governing  Territories.  Dr. 
Bunche  received  international  acclaim  as 
Acting  UN  Mediator  in  Palestine,  through 
negotiations  that  achieved  an  armistice  in 
the  war  between  the  Arab  States  and 
Israel.  For  this  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel 
Peace  Prize  for  1950  and  numerous  acco- 
lades, including  the  One  World  Award, 
the  Spingarn  Medal,  the  Four  Freedoms 
Award,  the  Distinguished  Public  Service 
Award,  the  Father  of  the  Year  Award  for 
1949,  and  the  Silver  Buffalo  of  the  Boy 
Scouts  of  America. 

Dr.  Bunche  joined  the  staff  of  the  UN 
in  1946,  serving  as  Director  of  the  Divi- 
sion of  Trusteeship  until  December  1947, 
when  he  was  appointed  its  top-ranking 
Director.  His  affiliation  with  the  UN  fol- 
lowed a  two-year  tenure,  1944-46,  with 
the  U.S.  Department  of  State,  where,  as  a 
specialist  in  colonial  problems,  he  played 
an  important  role  in  early  preparations 
for  the  U.S.  delegation  at  the  Dumbarton 
Oaks  and  San  Francisco  Conferences, 


writing  much  of  the  material  included  in 
the  Charter  regarding  Trust  territories. 
He  acted  as  advisor  to  the  U.S.  delega- 
tion at  the  meeting  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  UN  Preparatory  Commis- 
sion in  London  in  1945,  and  served  as 
technical  adviser  on  Trusteeship  at  the 
first  session  of  the  General  Assembly  in 
London  in  1946. 

Prior  to  his  positions  in  the  State  De- 
partment and  with  the  UN,  Dr.  Bunche 
served  with  the  Office  of  Strategic  Ser- 
vices as  chief  of  the  African  section  of 
the  Research  and  Analysis  Branch  in 
1943-44  and  as  principal  research  analyst 
1942-43.  In  1941-42  he  was  with  the 
Office  of  the  Co-ordinator  of  Information 
as  senior  social  science  analyst. 

With  the  State  Department  he  served 
as  divisional  assistant  in  colonial  prob- 
lems, Division  of  Political  Studies,  1944; 
as  area  specialist  for  Africa  and  Depen- 
dent Areas,  February  to  June,  1945;  asso- 
ciate chief,  1945-47.  He  also  sat  as  U.S. 
Commissioner  with  the  Anglo-American 
Caribbean  Commission,  1945-47. 

Dr.  Bunche  was  born  in  Detroit,  Mich., 
Aug.  7,  1904.  After  his  parents  died,  he 
was  reared  by  his  grandmother.  His  early 
life  was  spent  in  California,  where  he  at- 
tended Los  Angeles'  Jefferson  High 
School.  He  graduated  from  UCLA  in 
June  1927  with  highest  honors  and  mem- 
bership in  Phi  Beta  Kappa.  He  received 
his  M.A.  and  Ph.D.  degrees  from  Har- 
vard University,  majoring  in  government 
and  international  affairs.  He  received 
several  scholarship  awards  while  at  Har- 
vard, including  a  University  Scholarship, 
the  Ozias  Goodwin  Fellowship  and  a 
Rosenwald  Fellowship.  Upon  graduation, 
he  received  a  travelling  fellowship  from 
the  Social  Science  Research  Council  and 
did  post-doctoral  work  at  Northwestern 
University,  the  University  of  Capetown, 
South  Africa,  and  the  London  School  of 
Economics. 

From  1928  until  1950  he  was  on  the 
faculty  at  Howard  University,  serving  as 
head  of  the  Government  Department  since 
1929.  In  1950  he  was  named  to  a  full 
professor's  post  in  the  Graduate  School 


334 


THE  UN  AND  HUMAN  RIGHTS 


at  Harvard,  and  is  currently  on  leave  from 
that  position. 

An  expert  in  colonial  problems  and 
dependent  areas,  his  work  with  the  UN 
has  been  concerned  primarily  with  the 
problems  of  Trust  territories  set  up  by 
the  UN  after  World  War  II.  In  addition 
to  his  regular  duties  he  has  served  as 
special  assistant  to  the  representative  of 
the  Secretary-General,  with  the  UN  Spe- 
cial Committee  on  Palestine,  1947;  as 
principal  secretary  and  personal  repre- 
sentative of  the  Secretary-General  with 
the  UN  Mediator  (Count  Folke  Berna- 
dotte)  in  Palestine,  1948,  and  as  Acting 
UN  Mediator  in  Palestine,  1948-49.  Dr. 
Bunche  has  received  over  20  honorary 
degrees  in  recognition  of  his  outstanding 
record  in  international  affairs. 

James  A.  Bough  holds  another  high 
administrative  post  in  the  Department  of 
Trusteeship  as  Chief  of  the  Caribbean 
Section.  Prior  to  assuming  this  post  in 
1946,  Mr.  Bough  served  as  an  assistant 
government  attorney  with  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  in  the  Virgin  Islands, 
1935-37;  as  a  district  attorney  with  the 
Department  of  Justice,  Virgin  Islands, 
1937-46.  He  was  born  in  the  Virgin  Is- 
lands, April  10,  1905,  and  was  educated 
at  Columbia  University,  receiving  his  B.A. 
with  honors  in  1932  and  his  LL.B.  in  1934. 
In  the  UN  he  has  served  as  a  member  of 
the  UN  Interne  Selections  Board  since 
1949  and  as  a  member  of  the  UN  Staff 
Board  of  Appeals  since  1950.  He  has  au- 
thored several  articles  on  the  problems 
|of  Non-Self-Governing  territories. 

Ben  F.  Carruthers  serves  as  a  Social 
Affairs  Officer  in  the  Human  Rights  Divi- 
sion of  the  Department  of  Social  Affairs. 
In  this  position  he  conducts  liaison  and 
public  relations  on  behalf  of  the  Universal 
Declaration  of  Human  Rights  and  other 
aspects  of  the  human  rights  program.  He 
has  also  represented  his  division  at  various 
regional  and  UNESCO  conferences.  Mr. 
Carruthers  received  his  B.S.  from  the 
University  of  Illinois.  Prior  to  his  UN 
post  he  was  an  instructor  in  romance 
languages  at  Howard  University,  an  asso- 

1  Died  January  1952. 


ciate  social  scientist  with  the  Office  of 
the  Co-ordinator  of  Inter-American  Af- 
fairs, a  propaganda  analyst  with  the  Office 
of  War  Information,  and  an  editor  with 
the  Brazilian  Board  of  Trade.  He  also 
served  as  a  public-relations  program  ex- 
ecutive with  Win  Nathanson  and  Asso- 
ciates in  New  York  and  Caracas,  Vene- 
zuela. He  collaborated  with  Langston 
Hughes  on  Afro-Cuban  Poetry,  published 
in  1948. 

William  H.  Dean  1  was  appointed  Chief 
of  the  African  unit,  Division  of  Economic 
Stability  and  Development,  Department 
of  Economic  Affairs.  He  joined  the  UN 
in  1946  as  Acting  Chief  of  the  African 
Unit,  becoming  Chief  in  1949.  He  has 
also  served  as  secretary  and  member  of 
the  UN  Technical  Assistance  Mission  to 
Haiti,  1948-49,  and  was  appointed  to  head 
the  Preparatory  Mission  of  Technical  As- 
sistance to  Libya  in  1950.  Prior  to  coming 
to  the  UN,  Mr.  Dean  served  on  the  facul- 
ties of  Atlanta  University  and  the  City 
College  of  New  York.  He  was  formerly 
a  consultant  with  the  National  Resources 
Planning  Board  and  Director  of  the  Na- 
tional Urban  League's  Community  Rela- 
tions Project.  A  native  of  Lynchburg,  Va., 
where  he  was  born  in  1910,  Mr.  Dean  was 
educated  at  Bowdoin  College,  from  which 
he  received  the  B.A.  degree,  summa  cum 
laude,  in  1930,  and  at  Harvard,  where  he 
received  his  M.A.  and  Ph.D.  degrees,  ma- 
joring in  economics. 

Edward  Lawson,  a  Social  Affairs  Offi- 
cer in  the  Division  of  Human  Rights, 
serves  with  the  Assignments  Control,  Edit- 
ing and  Reports  Section  and  is  secretary 
of  the  Sub-Commission  on  Prevention  of 
Discrimination  and  Protection  of  Minori- 
ties. He  was  a  former  regional  director 
of  the  President's  Committee  on  Fair  Em- 
ployment Practices,  heading  its  New  York 
area  office.  He  has  also  served  with  the 
UN  on  a  mission  to  Kashmir  with  Dr. 
Frank  Graham,  UN  Representative  in 
India  and  Pakistan,  during  the  negotia- 
tions of  the  dispute  over  that  territory. 

Marshall  E.  Williams  is  a  personnel 
officer  in  the  Department  of  Administra- 


NEGROES  IN  THE  UN 


335 


live  and  Financial  Services.  In  addition 
to  his  regular  duties,  Mr.  Williams  was 
detailed  as  Administrative  Officer  with 
the  UN  Commission  on  Korea  during  the 
period  from  November  1949  to  August 
1950,  and  served  in  Korea  during  this 
assignment.  He  was  formerly  with  the 
UN  Civil  Service  Commission  as  person- 
nel qualification  analyst. 

Ernest  C.  Grigg,  a  native  of  Lexington, 
Va.,  is  Chief  of  the  Division  of  Welfare 
of  the  International  Refugee  Organiza- 
tion (IRO).  He  has  been  with  UN  since 
1945,  when  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  welfare  program  for  UNRRA,  a  now 
defunct  UN  agency.  He  has  been  with 
IRO  since  1947,  serving  successively  as 
chief  of  care  and  eligibility  for  the  U.S. 
zone  of  Germany  and  as  chief  of  the 
welfare  division,  with  headquarters  in 
Geneva.  He  was  educated  at  Johnson  C. 
Smith  University  and  the  New  York 
School  of  Social  Work.  Formerly,  he  was 
associated  with  the  N.Y.C.  Department 
of  Welfare  and  the  U.S.  Federal  Security 
Board. 

Dr.  Jerome  S.  Peterson,  a  New  York 
physician,  is  currently  a  medical  officer 
with  the  World  Health  Organization 
(WHO).  Dr.  Peterson  was  born  in  New 
York  City  in  1903  and  was  graduated 
from  Syracuse  University  with  a  B.S. 
degree  in  1925.  He  received  his  M.D. 
from  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, Columbia  University,  1931.  He 
took  his  M.A.  in  Public  Health  at  Harv- 
ard University's  Public  Health  School  in 
1939.  He  has  published  numerous  articles 
on  epidemiology  in  this  country  and 
abroad.  He  has  been  with  WHO  since 
1947,  and  is  on  loan  from  the  U.S.  Public 
Health  Service.  Dr.  Peterson  first  came 
to  the  UN  as  an  epidemiologist  and  chief 
medical  officer  for  UNRRA.  In  1947-48 
he  served  as  chief  medical  officer  in 
charge  of  the  China  Health  Mission  for 
WHO.  He  was  lent  to  the  American 
Friends  Service  Committee  as  director  of 
the  medical  program  for  the  Gaza  area 
for  UN  Relief  for  Palestine  Refugees  in 
1949.  In  1950  he  became  chief  medical 
officer  for  UN  Relief  and  Works  Agency 


for  Palestine  Refugees,  and  assumed  the 
post  of  Director  of  the  Medical  Welfare 
and  Education  Division  of  that  unit  in 
1951.  Before  joining  WHO,  he  had  been 
a  resident  physician  at  the  Insular  Sani- 
tarium, Rio  Piedras,  Puerto  Rico;  acting 
medical  director  of  the  Anti-Tuberculosis 
Hospital,  Ponce,  Puerto  Rico;  medical 
director,  Anti-Tuberculosis  Sanitarium, 
Mayaquez,  Puerto  Rico;  epidemiologist, 
Puerto  Rico  Health  Department,  and  a 
district  health  officer  in  the  N.Y.C.  Health 
Department.  He  also  served  as  an  in- 
structor, assistant  professor,  and  profes- 
sor on  the  faculty  of  the  Long  Island 
College  of  Medicine  from  1944  to  1948. 
He  has  been  with  the  U.S.  Public  Health 
Service  since  1943  and  is  still  on  leave 
from  that  agency.  He  is  stationed  in 
Beirut,  Lebanon. 

Alvin  M.  Rucker  served  in  1950-51  as 
an  employment-service  expert  and  advisor 
with  the  International  Labour  Office  in 
Geneva.  Mr.  Rucker  is  a  native  of  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Universities  of  Illinois,  Pittsburgh,  and 
Chicago.  He  was  formerly  an  office 
manager,  vocational  adviser,  and  case 
worker  with  the  Chicago  Relief  Adminis- 
trations; a  manager  with  the  Illinois 
State  Employment  Service  in  Chicago; 
and  an  organization-and-methods  exam- 
iner with  the  U.S.  Employment  Service  in 
Puerto  Rico,  organizing  the  employment 
service  and  serving  as  insular  director. 
With  the  U.S.  Employment  Service  since 
1940,  he  was  on  loan  to  ILO  for  one  year 
only  and  has  recently  returned  to  the 
United  States  to  a  government  post. 

Mrs.  Edith  Spurlock  Sampson  is  one 
of  the  only  two  Negroes  who  have 
served  in  the  forums  of  the  UN  in  repre- 
sentative capacities.  In  1950  Mrs.  Samp- 
son, a  Chicago  attorney,  was  appointed 
an  Alternate  Delegate  to  the  Fifth  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  UN  by  President 
Truman.  She  was  the  U.S.  representative 
to  the  General  Assembly's  Social,  Hu- 
manitarian and  Cultural  Committee. 
Mrs.  Sampson  is  a  native  of  Pittsburgh 
and  was  educated  at  the  New  York 
School  of  Social  Work  and  John  Mar- 


336 


THE  UN  AND  HUMAN  RIGHTS 


shall  Law  School. in  Chicago.  She  has 
been  a  practicing  attorney  since  1927. 
She  was  formerly  an  assistant  state's 
attorney  in  Cook  County,  111.  She  is  a 
member  of  the  national  advisory  board  of 
the  India  League  of  America  and  Presi- 
dent of  the  World  Town  Hall  Seminar. 
In  1949  she  was  a  member  of  the  Seminar 
that  travelled  to  12  world  capitals.  In 
1951  she  was  in  eastern  Europe  on  a 
mission  for  the  U.S.  Department  of  State. 

Dr.  Channing  Tobias,  who  is  also  Direc- 
tor of  the  Phelps-Stokes  Fund,  was 
appointed  in  1951  as  an  Alternate  Dele- 
gate to  the  Sixth  General  Assembly  in 
Paris.  Dr.  Tobias  had  a  long  and  dis- 
tinguished career  as  an  official  with  the 
YMCA  from  1923  to  1946.  Since  then  he 
has  been  with  the  Phelps-Stokes  Fund. 
He  has  travelled  widely  and  studied  at 
first  hand  the  troubled  areas  of  India,  the 
Far  East,  and  Africa.  He  has  been  a 
member  of  the  board  of  directors  of  a 
number  of  colleges  and  national  organi- 
zations, including  Hampton  Institute, 
Howard  University,  Paine  College,  the 
Marshall  Field  Foundation,  Jessie  Smith 
Noyes  Fund,  Stettinius  Associates-Li- 
beria, Inc.,  and  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety. He  has  served  on  a  number  of 
national  advisory  groups,  including  the 
National  Committee  on  Segregation  in 
the  Nation's  Capital,  the  Advisory  Com- 
mittee on  Selective  Service,  and  the 
Committee  on  Welfare  and  Recreation 
during  World  War  II.  In  1946-47  he  was 
a  member  of  President  Truman's  Com- 
mittee on  Civil  Rights,  and  in  1950  served 
with  the  Mayor's  Special  Committee  to 
conduct  a  survey  of  municipal  govern- 
ment in  New  York  City.  He  received  the 
Spingarn  Medal  (1948)  and  is  cited  on 
the  Honor  Roll  of  Race  Relations  in  the 
New  York  Public  Library's  Schomburg 
Collection.  He  has  also  received  honorary 
degrees  from  numerous  colleges  for  his 
activity  in  religion  and  education. 

In  addition  to  those  employed  on  the 
permanent  staff  of  the  UN  several 
prominent  Negroes  who  have  served  with 
the  UN  Economic,  Social  and  Cultural 
Organization  at  various  times  in  different 


capacities  are:  Dr.  E.  Franklin  Frazier 
and  Dr.  Merze  Tate  of  Howard  Univer- 
sity; Dr.  Horace  M.  Bond  of  Lincoln 
University;  Dr.  Charles  S.  Johnson  of 
Fisk  University;  and  Professor  William 
M.  Cooper  of  Hampton  Institute. 

DISCRIMINATION 
COMPLAINTS  AND  THE  UN 

In  1948,  for  the  third  successive  year 
without  effect,  India  filed  a  formal  com- 
plaint against  the  Union  of  South  Africa 
for  its  policies  and  practices  of  racial 
discrimination. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  rebuffed 
the  UN  on  the  issue  of  South  West 
Africa.  On  two  occasions  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  UN  adopted  resolutions 
calling  on  the  Government  of  the  Union 
of  South  Africa  to  place  South  West 
Africa  under  the  Trusteeship  system,  but 
the  Union  avowed  intention  to  annex 
South  West  Africa. 

At  the  1949  meeting  in  Paris,  when  it 
was  decided  to  hear  the  Rev.  Michael 
Scott  present  the  views  of  the  Heroro  and 
Hottentot  tribes  under  South  African 
rule,  the  South  African  delegate,  G.  P. 
Jooste,  walked  out  of  the  session  in  pro- 
test. 

In  February  1948,  complaint  was  filed 
against  Great  Britain  in  a  petition  signed 
by  S.  Semakula  Mulumba,  who  claimed 
to  represent  Uganda.  He  claimed  inequi- 
table domination  of  14,000,000  Africans 
by  42,000  British  in  Uganda,  Kenya,  and 
Tanganyika. 

The  UN  Food  and  Agricultural  Or- 
ganization turned  down  the  offer  of  the 
University  of  Maryland  of  a  permanent 
headquarters  for  the  organization  after 
Liberia  and  India  protested  the  racial 
policies  of  the  University. 

The  NAACP  Appeal 

In  1947,  the  National  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Colored  People  is- 
sued An  Appeal  to  the  World  (a  state- 
ment on  the  denial  of  Human  Rights  to 
minorities  in  the  case  of  citizens  of  Negro 
descent  in  the  United  States  of  America) 


DISCRIMINATION  COMPLAINTS  AND  UN 


337 


and  appealed  to  the  UN  for  redress. 
Under  the  editorial  supervision  of  Dr. 
W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  the  appeal  was  divided 
into  six  sections,  prepared  by  Dr.  DuBois, 
Earl  B.  Dickerson,  Milton  R.  Konvitz, 
William  R.  Ming,  Jr.,  Leslie  S.  Perry,  and 
Rayford  W.  Logan.  No  action  was  taken 
on  the  appeal,  and  none  was  anticipated 


by  the  Commission  on  Human  Rights,  to 
which  it  was  presented.  It  served  its  pur- 
pose, however,  in  attracting  world  atten- 
tion to  the  Negro's  problems  in  the 
United  States. 

The  NAACP  named  Dr.  Rayford  W. 
Logan  as  its  observer  at  the  1951  UN  ses- 
sions in  Paris. 


23 

Trust  and  Non-Self-Governing 
Territories 


APPROXIMATELY  125  million  of  an  esti- 
mated 200  million  Negroes1  live  in  trust 
and  non-self-governing  territories.  Of 
these,  18  million  live  in  trust  territories, 
which,  from  1919  to  1945,  were  called 
mandates.  Over  100  million  live  in  non- 
self-governing  territories,  which,  until 
recently,  were  called  colonies.  The  popu- 
lation, size,  and  location  of  trust  and 
"Negro"  non-self-governing  territories 
and  the  names  of  administering  nations 
are  given  in  Table  1. 

NON-SELF-GOVERNING 
TERRITORIES 

Political  Developments 

Since  the  close  of  World  War  II,  meas- 
urable progress  toward  representative 
and  responsible2  self-government  is  evi- 
dent in  the  British  overseas  territories  of 
Jamaica,  Nigeria,  and  the  Gold  Coast. 

British  West  Indies 

The  Jamaica  Constitution  of  1944  pro- 
vided for  a  32-member  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives elected  by  non-poll-taxed  uni- 
versal suffrage.  The  Legislative  Council, 
or  upper  house,  consists  of  3  ex-officio, 
2  official,  and  not  less  than  10  unofficial 
members.  The  Executive  Council,  pre- 
sided over  by  a  Crown-appointed  gover- 
nor who  has  limited  veto  powers,  consists 
of  5  members  elected  by  and  from  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  5  from  the 
Legislative  Council  (3  of  whom  are  of- 
ficials) appointed  by  the  governor. 


TABLE  1 

POPULATION  AND  SIZE  OF  NON-SELF- 
GOVERNING,  TRUST  AND  MANDATED 
TERRITORIES 

NON-SELF-GOVERNING  TERRITORIES 

OVERWHELMINGLY  INHABITED    BY  NEGROES 

Area 
Pop.  (Sq.  M.) 


Africa 

British 

Basutoland 

556,390 

11,716 

Bechuanaland 

294,000 

275,000 

Somaliland 

700,000 

68,000 

Gambia 

249,217 

4,068 

Gold  Coast 

3,570,000 

91,843 

Kenya 

5,027,000 

224,960 

Nigeria 

28,000,000 

345,482 

N.  Rhodesia 

1,720,000 

287,680 

Nyasaland 

2,407,000 

36,829 

St.  Helena 

4,748 

47 

Seychelles 

36,000 

156 

Sierra  Leone 

2,000,000 

27,925 

Swaziland 

186,000 

6,704 

Uganda 

4,953,000 

93,981 

French 

Comoro 

152,276 

760 

Equal.  Africa 

3,975,000 

914,820 

Somaliland 

46,000 

8,376 

West  Africa 

16,375,000 

1,798,374 

Madagascar 

4,094,361 

228,859 

Reunion 

221,000 

970 

Belgium 
Congo 

10,965,837 

909,339 

Portuguese 

Angola 

3,886,788 

487,788 

Mozambique 

5,085,630 

297,654 

Cape  Verde  Is. 

181,489 

1,539 

Portuguese  Guinea 

351,089 

13,944 

Sao  Tome  and 

Principe 

60,490 

372 

Caribbean 

British 

Bahamas 

76,620 

4,375 

Barbados 

195,398 

166 

Bermuda 

35,560 

21 

Guiana 

402,615 

83,000 

Honduras 

59,149 

8,867 

Jamaica 

1,350,100 

4,722 

Leeward  Is. 

216,793 

422 

1  Sine*  no  scienU6c  definition  of  Negro  (or  of  any  other  race)  exists,  the  term  as  nsed  in  this  article  describes  per- 
ions  who  would  probably  be  considered  Negroes  in  the  United  State*. 

Responsible,  or  parliamentary  or  ministerial,  government  is  understood  to  be  a  system  in  which  power  is  vested 
in  a  cabinet  of  minsters  who  are  members  of  a  popularly  elected  legslature.  They  remain  in  power  as  long  as  their 
major  policies  are  approved  by  a  majority  of  the  legislature. 

338 


NON-SELF-GOVERNING  TERRITORIES 


339 


Area 

TRUST  TERRITORIES 

Pop. 

(Sq.  M.) 

OVERWHELMINGLY  INHABITED   BY  NEGROES 

Caribbean  (conf.) 

British  (cant.) 

Area 

Trinidad  and  Tobago 

586,700 

1,980 

Pop.             (Sq.  M.) 

Windward  Is. 

266,493 

820 

Africa 

French 

British 

Guadeloupe 

310,000 

686 

Cameroons                     1,033,000           34,081 

Martinique 

270,000 

427 

Tanganyika                     5,650,000          342,706 

Guiana 

34,740 

37,000 

Togoland                            382,768            13,040 

Dutch 

French 

Curacao 

148,530 

450 

Cameroons                      2,908,513          166,489 

Surinam 

207,684 

142,822 

Togoland                            972,906            20,072 

United  States 

Italian 

Virgin  Is. 

24,889 

132 

Somaliland                     1,300,000         194,000 

Pacific 

Belgian 

British 

Ruanda-Urundi             3,780,716           20,535 

Fiji 

277,372 

7,036 

Pacific 

Gilbert  and  Ellice 

35,940 

200 

Australian 

Solomon  Is. 

95,000 

14,600 

New  Guinea                      804,000           93,000 

Australian 

Papua 

300,000 

90,540 

LARGELY   NON-NEGRO 

French 

Pacific 

New  Caledonia 

61,250 

7,654 

Australian 

New  Hebrides  (British 

Nauru                                     2,383                     8 

Condominium) 

48,815 

4,633 

New  ^ealand 

Dutch 

Western  Samoa                   72,936              1,133 

New  Guinea 

200,000 

151,789 

United  States 

Trust  Territory  of  the 

LARGELY   NON-NEGRO 

Pacific  Islands                  54,299                 687 

Africa 

British 

MANDATED  TERRITORY  NOT  UNDER 

Aden 

650,000 

105,000 

TRUSTEESHIP 

Mauritius 

420,000 

804 

Zanzibar 

250,000 

1,020 

OVERWHELMINGLY  INHABITED    BY   NEGROES 

French 

Africa 

Morocco 

8,617,387 

153,870 

Union  of  South  Africa 

Tunisia 

O/.         '    1. 

3,230,950 

60,209 

Southwest  Africa               360,040          317,725 

Spanish 
Morocco 

1,082,009 

7,589 

Caribbean 

United  States 

The  Labor  Party,  which  has  held  an 

Puerto  Rico 
Pacific 

2,113,058 

3,423 

overwhelming  majority  in  the  House,  is 

British 

seeking  to  transform  the  embryonic  min- 

Brunei 
Hong  Kong 
Malaya 

40,657 
1,800,000 
4,956,993 

2,226 
391 
50,840 

isterial  system  into  one  which  would  give 
a  larger  share  of  power  to  the  party  that 

North  Borneo 

330,000 

30,000 

holds  a  majority  in  the  lower  house.  As 

Pitcairn  Is. 
Sarawak 

138 
546,361 

2 
50,000 

of  July  1,  1952,  Alexander  Bustamente, 

Singapore 

961,477 

217 

the  Labor  Party  leader,  is  expected  to 

French 
India 

329,000 

197 

become  chief  minister  without  portfolio 

Pacific  Settlements 

51,221 

1,545 

in  a  cabinet  containing  seven  elected  and 

Portuguese 
Macao 

374,737 

42 

five  nominated  members. 

India 

624,177 

1,538 

Other    B.W.I,    territories    are    moving 

Timor 

438,311 

7,330 

more   slowly   toward   representative    and 

New  Zealand 
Cook,  Niue  and 

especially    toward     responsible     govern- 

Tokelau Is. 

20,596 

204 

ment.  Barbados  has  a  House  of  Assembly 

United  States 
Samoa 

18,086 

73 

of  24  elected  members  chosen  by  men 

Guam 

25,168 

217 

and    women    who    can    meet    income    or 

Hawaii 
Other  Areas 

519,503 

6,400 

property  qualifications.  This  factor  per- 

British 

mits     large     numbers     of     agricultural 

Cyprus 
Falkland  Is. 
Gibraltar 

449,490 
-  2,500 
21,233 

3,572 
4,618 
2 

workers  to  vote.  The  Legislative  Council 
consists  of  15  nominated  members.  As  in 

United  States 

other    British    territories,    the    governor 

Alaska 
Denmark 

94,000 

586,400 

retains  reserve  veto  powers.  In  Trinidad 

Greenland 

21,829 

839,782 

and  Tobago,  the  Legislative  Council  is 

340 


TRUST  AND  OTHER  TERRITORIES 


composed  of  18  elected,  5  nominated 
unofficial,  and  3  official  members.  In 
British  Guiana  there  are  four  more 
elected  members  than  official  and  nomi- 
nated members  combined.  Voting  qualifi- 
cations permit  a  considerable  number  of 
the  population  to  vote.  Further  study  is 
being  made  of  proposed  reforms  in  the 
Legislative  Council  and  the  franchise. 
Bermuda's  elected  House  of  Assembly 
numbered  2  women  among  its  36  mem- 
bers in  1948.  The  British  Virgin  Islands 
has  no  legislature,  but  a  committee  has 
been  appointed  to  make  recommendations 
for  the  establishment  of  a  Legislative 
Council.  Universal  adult  suffrage  has 
been  introduced  into  the  four  Windward 
Islands.  The  Colony  of  the  Leeward 
Islands  consists  of  4  presidencies,  which 
have  a  federal  General  Legislative  Coun- 
cil and  Executive  Council  in  addition  to 
local  legislatures.  In  all  the  latter,  the 
elected  members  slightly  outnumber 
those  nominated. 

Plans  for  a  B.W.I.  Federation  are  still 
in  the  discussion  stage.  Many  obvious 
advantages  would  ensue  from  federation, 
among  which  would  be  the  reduction  in 
administration  costs  and  a  more  prac- 
ticable basis  for  self-government  for  the 
smaller  islands.  The  United  Kingdom, 
however,  has  insisted  upon  a  sine  qua  non 
which  is  almost  impossible  of  attainment, 
namely,  the  ability  of  the  colonies  to  pay 
their  own  way.  By  this  standard,  the 
United  Kingdom  itself  would  not  be 
ready  for  self-government.  Its  inequity  is 
obvious. 

It  is  evident  that  political  considera- 
tions still  largely  determine  whether  a 
territory  is  to  become  self-governing. 
Libya  has  proclaimed  her  independence 
after  a  preparatory  stage  of  approxi- 
mately two  years.  The  Churchill  govern- 
ment is  insisting  that  the  people  of  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  should  be  pre- 
pared to  become  self-governing  in  about 
two  years.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
American  officials  seem  convinced  that 
Italian  Somaliland  will  not  be  ready  for 
self-government  when  the  ten-year  trus- 
teeship period  expires. 


The  Gold  Coast 

The  Churchill  government  is  appar- 
ently continuing  the  progress  toward 
self-government  launched  by  the  Attlee 
government.  On  Dec.  21,  1950,  the  King 
of  Britain,  in  Council,  approved  a  con- 
stitution that  gave  the  people  of  the  Gold 
Coast  more  responsiblity  over  internal 
affairs  than  exercised  by  any  other  colo- 
nial territory  in  Africa.  The  constitution 
provides  for  a  governor,  an  executive 
council,  and  a  legislature.  The  Crown- 
appointed  governor  retains  the  right  of 
veto  in  essential  matters.  The  Executive 
Council,  which  heretofore  has  been 
mainly  an  advisory  body,  will  become  the 
principal  instrument  of  policy  and  will 
assume  embryonic  ministerial  responsi- 
bility. It  consists  of  the  Governor  as 
president,  3  ex-officio  members,  and  8 
Africans,  who  must  be  drawn  from  the 
majority  of  the  legislature.  A  two-thirds 
vote,  rather  than  a  bare  majority  as  in 
England,  is  necessary  to  overthrow  the 
cabinet. 

The  new  85-member  unicameral  legis- 
lature has  75  elected  representatives. 
The  3  ex-officio  cabinet  officers,  6  special 
members  chosen  by  the  Gold  Coast  Cham- 
bers of  Commerce  and  Mines,  and  the 
Speaker  of  the  House  compose  the  other 
10.  Of  the  elected  majority,  only  5  repre- 
senting the  larger  cities  are  directly 
elected. 

Men  and  women  over  21  who  are 
British  subjects  or  British  protected  per- 
sons with  a  residence  qualification  are 
franchised.  Voters  in  rural  primary  elec- 
tions must  pay  a  Native  authority  tax. 

Early  in  1951,  Kwame  Nkrumah's 
Convention  People's  Party  defeated  Dr. 
Danquah's  United  Gold  Coast  Convention 
Party,  which  is  reportedly  demanding 
immediate  self-government.  Nkrumah, 
whose  official  title  is  Leader  of  Govern- 
ment Business,  has  been  called  the  "First 
Prime  Minister  of  the  Gold  Coast."  In 
October  1951,  his  majority  in  the  legis- 
lature enabled  him  to  defeat  proposals 
which  might  have  caused  serious  unrest. 

Since  Jamaica  and  the  Gold  Coast  are 
being  critically  observed,  future  develop- 


NON-SELF-GOVERNING  TERRITORIES 


341 


ments  in  them  may  vitally  influence  deci- 
sions concerning  plans  for  self-govern- 
ment elsewhere. 

Nigeria 

Nigeria,  which  seemed  destined  to  be- 
come the  first  African  colony  to  attain 
self-government,  has  now  fallen  behind 
the  Gold  Coast.  With  an  estimated  popu- 
lation of  28  million,  approximately  24% 
million  more  than  that  of  the  Gold  Coast, 
Nigeria  has  complex  ethnic  and  religious 
problems  caused  by  the  large  numbers  of 
Moslems,  Yorubas,  Iboes,  and  other 
tribes  with  their  own  well-established 
systems  of  government. 

For  these  reasons,  Nigeria  has  3  re- 
gional legislatures  as  well  as  one  for  the 
entire  colony.  Regional  councils  were 
organized  under  the  1947  Constitution  in 
the  Northern,  Western,  and  Eastern  prov- 
inces. In  the  north,  where  the  population 
is  predominantly  Moslem,  the  regional 
council  consists  of  a  House  of  Chiefs  and 
a  House  of  Assembly.  The  Chief  Com- 
missioner, an  Englishman,  presides  over 
the  House  of  Chiefs,  which  is  composed 
of  13  first  and  10  second-class  chiefs.  The 
House  of  Assembly  consists  of  19  official 
members  and  from  20  to  24  unofficial 
members.  Of  these,  6  are  chosen  by  the 
governor  and  the  remainder  are  selected 
by  Native  authorities. 

The  single  House  of  Assembly  in  the 
Western  Provinces  consists  of  29  to  33 
members,  of  which  15  to  19  are  unofficial. 
The  unofficial  members  are  persons  of 
African  descent  and  include  3  chiefs, 
from  7  to  11  provincial  members  selected 
by  Native  authorities,  and  5  nominated 
by  the  Governor.  Under  the  1950  consti- 
tution provision  for  a  House  of  Chiefs 
was  made  in  the  Western  Provinces. 
These  two  Houses  of  Chiefs  have  equal 
and  concurrent  powers  with  the  regional 
Houses  of  Assembly. 

The  House  of  Assembly  in  the  Eastern 
Provinces,  which  is  similar  to  that  in  the 
Western  Provinces,  has  from  29  to  32 
members,  of  which  15  to  18  are  unofficial. 
From  1922  till  1947,  the  Nigerian  Cen- 
tral Legislative  Council  consisted  of  th« 


Governor  as  presiding  officer,  30  official 
members,  and  19  unofficial  members,  in- 
cluding 10  Africans,  3  of  whom  were 
elected  by  the  municipal  area  of  Lagos 
and  one  by  the  municipal  area  of  Calabar. 
A  majority  of  African  unofficial  members 
served  on  the  Finance  Committee  of  the 
Legislative  Council,  which  had  definite 
powers  on  questions  affecting  Nigeria  as 
a  whole. 

The  1947  constitution,  which  for  the 
first  time  provided  for  representation  of 
the  Northern  Provinces,  gave  the  Central 
Legislative  Council  an  unofficial  African 
majority.  Of  its  45  members,  28  are  un- 
official and  25  of  these  are  Africans. 
Under  the  revised  1950  constitution  pro- 
vision is  made  for  136  Nigerian  elected 
members  in  the  New  Central  House  of 
Representatives,  out  of  a  total  number  of 
148,  and  for  about  80  Nigerian  elected 
members  in  each  of  the  regional  Houses 
of  Assembly.  These  regional  Houses  of 
Assembly  are  to  have  restricted  powers 
over  legislation  and  finance  within  their 
own  regions  instead  of  the  purely  ad- 
visory powers  which  they  formerly  pos- 
sessed. But  the  Central  Council  of  Min- 
isters, consisting  of  18  members  (4  from 
each  of  the  regions  and  6  officials),  does 
not  possess  ministerial  responsibility. 

Problems  in  the  Gold  Coast  and  Nigeria 
It  is  too  early  to  determine  the  extent 
to  which  the  substance  of  power  in  the 
Gold  Coast  and  Nigeria  will  be  vested  in 
Africans  and  the  degree  to  which  they 
will  be  able  to  promote  the  economic, 
social,  and  educational  welfare  of  the 
people.  Since  both  Nkrumah  and  Nnamdi 
Azikiwe,  the  dynamic  leader  of  the  Na- 
tional Council  of  Nigeria  and  the  Came- 
roons,  both  received  their  higher  educa- 
tion in  the  United  States,  some  first-hand 
observers  are  hopeful  that  the  best  princi- 
ples of  American  and  British  democracy 
will  prevail.  Ever  present  is  the  rising  tide 
of  Moslem  nationalism,  spurred  by  Egyp- 
tian hatred  of  Britain,  and  the  demands 
for  Independence  in  Morocco,  Tunisia, 
and  Algeria.  There  is  already  discussion, 
as  in  The  (London)  Times  Weekly,  Dec. 


342 


5,  1951,  that  Northern  Nigeria  with  its 
overwhelmingly  Moslem  population  and 
system  of  rule  by  chiefs  may  become  a 
new  Pakistan.  Mallam  Abubaker  Tafawa 
Balewa,  the  political  leader  of  the  North- 
ern provinces,  whose  membership  in  the 
Central  Legislature  equals  that  of  the 
other  two  Regions,  looms  already  as  the 
principal  rival  for  power  of  Azikiwe, 
leader  of  the  "Southerners." 

Sierra  Leone  and  Gambia 

The  other  two  British  West  African 
territories  lag  far  behind  the  Gold  Coast 
and  Nigeria  in  political  development,  but 
the  tempo  of  change  is  being  accelerated. 
The  Legislative  Council  of  Sierre  Leone 
consists  of  11  official  members,  and  not 
more  than  7  nominated  unofficial  mem- 
bers, of  whom  3  are  Paramount  Chiefs 
of  the  Protectorate.  In  1943,  2  African 
unofficial  members,  one  of  them  a  Para- 
mount Chief,  were  appointed  to  the 
Executive  Council.  Gambia  was  allowed 
its  first  African  members  in  the  Executive 
Council  in  1947.  At  the  same  time  an 
unofficial  majority  and  an  elective  ele- 
ment were  introduced  into  the  Legislative 
Council.  It  consists  of  the  governor,  6 
official  and  7  unofficial  members,  of 
whom  one  is  elected  by  the  "colony"  and 
4  are  nominated  from  the  Protectorate 
from  a  list  submitted  by  the  Chiefs'  Con- 
ference. 

British  East  Africa 

The  slowest  progress  toward  self-gov- 
ernment is  in  British  East  Africa.  Uganda 
has  a  Legislative  Council  of  8  popularly 
elected  Africans,  4  nominated  European 
unofficials,  4  nominated  Indian  unofficials 
and  16  official  members.  In  1949,  Kenya's 
Legislative  Council  consisted  of  7  ex- 
officio,  9  nominated  official  members;  11 
European,  5  Indian,  1  Arab  and  no 
African  elected  members;  4  African  and 
1  Arab  nominated  unofficial  members. 
Northern  Rhodesia  and  Nyasaland  reveal 
similar  retardation  in  the  participation 
of  the  Natives  in  their  own  government. 


In  general,  the  assertion  that  experience 
in  local  government  is  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  Native  self-government  on  the 
territorial  level  dominates  current  prac- 
tice in  British  East  Africa.  But  even 
participation  on  the  local  level  is  less 
advanced  than  it  is  in  British  West 
Africa. 

Southern  Rhodesia 

Southern  Rhodesia,1  which  is  already 
virtually  self-governing,  is  pursuing  a 
policy  which  some  observers  fear  may 
result  in  retarding  the  development  to- 
ward Native  participation  in  government 
throughout  British  East  Africa.  Largely 
because  of  the  great  wealth  of  the  South- 
ern Rhodesian  mines,  a  small  English 
majority  has  pursued  a  policy  of  racial 
discrimination  similar  to  that  in  the 
Union  of  South  Africa.  At  the  end  of 
1950  the  number  of  voters  for  the  South 
Rhodesian  Parliament  was  52,000  Euro- 
peans, 572  Asians,  611  "coloureds,"  and 
419  Africans.  Until  recently  voters  had 
to  possess  an  income  of  £240  per  year 
or  property  valued  at  £500.  In  addition, 
every  applicant  had  to  be  a  British  citizen 
over  21  years  of  age  and  able  to  complete 
the  application  form  in  English  unaided. 
Income  and  property  qualifications  were 
increased  in  March  1951  because  of  cur- 
rency depreciation.  This  step  prevented 
some  6,000  Africans  from  voting.  Current 
policy  is  developing  the  idea  of  "two 
pyramids,"  that  is,  a  Native  area  where 
Europeans  are  generally  excluded,  in 
which  Africans  continue  to  develop  along 
their  own  lines,  and  a  European  or 
"Open"  area  where  Europeans  predomi- 
nate, though  in  theory  Africans  have 
equal  rights  if  they  conform  to  European 
standards  of  culture  and  proficiency.  The 
limited  Native  participation  in  govern- 
ment and  the  geographical  segregation 
cast  some  doubt  upon  the  equity  of  the 
proclaimed  policy  of  "partnership"  be- 
tween the  Africans  and  Europeans. 

Equally  disturbing  is  the  proposal  of 
the  Capricorn  Africa  Society,  which  en- 


1  This  and  the  following  paragraph  are  based  upon  an  article,   "S.  Rhodesian  Native  Policy,"  in   The   (London) 
Times  Review  of  the  British  Colonies,  Winter  1951,  pp.  15-16. 


NON-SELF-GOVERNING  TERRITORIES 


343 


visions  a  British  dominion  stretching 
from  the  southern  border  of  Abyssinia  to 
the  Union  of  South  Africa.  Liberal 
English  elements  fear  that  discriminatory 
policies  practiced  in  Kenya  and  Southern 
Rhodesia,  gathering  strength  from  the 
even  more  rigid  policies  in  the  Union  of 
South  Africa,  might  stifle  the  British 
policy  of  self-government  for  all  non-self- 
governing  territories — the  result  might  be 
a  dominion  in  which  a  small  white  minor- 
ity segregated  and  disfranchised  almost 
all  Africans. 

French  Policy 

French  policy  seeks  to  integrate  or 
assimilate  the  French  overseas  depart- 
ments and  territories,  both  non-self- 
governing  and  trust,  into  the  French 
Union.  High  government  officials  in 
France  have  said  that  the  French  Con- 
stitution of  Oct.  27,  1946,  is  sufficiently 
flexible  to  permit  evolution  in  the  direc- 
tion of  "horizontal  dispersion,"  as  they 
characterize  the  British  policy  of  pro- 
moting self-government.  But  these  French 
officials  hope  that  the  French  overseas 
departments  and  territories  will  prefer 
"vertical  assimilation"  within  the  French 
Union. 

French  Colonial  Organization 

The  French  Union  consists  of:  the 
French  Republic,  which  includes  metro- 
politan France,  the  Algerian  Depart- 
ments, the  overseas  Departments  of 
Martinique,  Guadeloupe,  Reunion,  and 
French  Guiana,  and  the  Overseas  Terri- 
tories; the  Associated  Territories  of 
Togoland  and  the  Cameroons;  and  the 
Associated  States  of  Morocco,  Tunisia, 
Laos,  Cambodia,  and  Viet-Nam  (the  last 
three  forming  the  Indo-Chinese  Federa- 
tion). The  constitution  envisions  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  evolution  of  the  Overseas 
and  Associated  Territories  into  overseas 
departments,  in  which,  theoretically,  the 
inhabitants  are  on  equal  terms  with 
Frenchmen  living  in  France.  Or,  in  the 
words  of  a  black  African  Deputy,  the 
overseas  territories  may  become  Associ- 
ated States.  There  is  as  yet,  however, 


little  demand  in  the  French  overseas  de- 
partments or  territories  for  independence. 

The  French  overseas  departments  and 
territories  are  represented  in  the  French 
National  Assembly,  the  only  body  that 
has  power  to  enact  laws.  But  they  are  not 
represented  on  the  basis  of  population. 
For  example,  1  deputy  from  Senegal  was 
elected  by  more  than  200,000  voters, 
whereas  many  Deputies  from  metropoli- 
tan France  are  chosen  by  an  electorate 
of  some  70,000  voters  each.  As  a  conse- 
quence of  this  inequality  of  representa- 
tion, there  are  only  76  Deputies  from  the 
overseas  departments  and  territories  out 
of  a  total  of  some  625.  (The  Associated 
States  are  not  represented  in  the  National 
Assembly.)  At  the  beginning  of  the  cur- 
rent National  Assembly,  27  of  these  76 
came  from  Algeria.  The  others  were  dis- 
tributed as  follows:  Dahomey,  2;  the 
Cameroons,  4;  Reunion,  3;  Gaboon- 
Middle  Congo,  2;  Tchad,  2;  Martinique, 
3;  Ubanghi-Chari,  2;  Niger,  2;  Upper 
Volta,  3;  Guinea,  3;  Sudan,  4;  Mada- 
gascar, 5;  Guiana,  1;  Ivory  Coast,  2; 
Guadeloupe,  3 ;  Togoland,  1 ;  Senegal,  2 ; 
French  Somaliland,  1;  New  Caledonia, 
1;  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  1;  Maure- 
tania,  1.  Many  are  Negroes. 

These  Deputies  do  not  generally  vote 
as  a  "colonial  bloc"  aligned  against  the 
Deputies  from  metropolitan  France.  They 
follow  rather  the  policies  of  the  parties 
to  which  they  belong.  Since  party  votes 
in  the  National  Assembly  are  generally 
unanimous,  the  influence  of  these  Depu- 
ties from  the  overseas  departments  and 
territories  depends,  therefore,  upon  their 
prestige  and  power  in  the  parties  that 
make  up  the  majority  in  the  Assembly. 
Thus,  a  bill  introduced  by  Deputy  Leo- 
pold Sedar-Senghor  from  Senegal  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  Africans  in  the 
local  assemblies  received  a  large  ma- 
jority in  the  Assembly,  as  did  a  bill  for 
an  improved  labor  code  in  the  Overseas 
Territories. 

These  bills  are  now  being  discussed  by 
the  Council  of  the  Republic,  which  may 
suggest  amendments  that  the  National 
Assembly  has  the  power  to  approve  or 


344 


TRUST  AND  OTHER  TERRITORIES 


reject.  This  Council  is  composed  of  320 
members;  253  represent  the  metropolitan 
departments  and  the  overseas  Depart- 
ments of  Guadeloupe  (2),  Martinique 
(2),  French  Guiana  (1),  and  Reunion 
(2).  The  Algerian  Departments  are  rep- 
resented by  14  members,  the  Overseas 
and  Associated  Territories  by  44.  French 
citizens  living  in  Indo-China,  Tunisia, 
Morocco,  and  foreign  countries  have  9 
Councilors.  The  presiding  officer  of  the 
Council  of  the  Republic  is  Gaston  Mon- 
nerville,  a  colored  member  from  French 
Guiana.  Two  of  its  most  distinguished 
colored  members  are  Madame  Eugenie 
Tell  Eboue,  the  widow  of  Governor-Gen- 
eral Felix  Eboue,  and  Madame  Jane 
Vialle,  a  member  of  the  UN  ad  hoc  com- 
mittee on  slavery  and  the  slave  trade. 
Councilors  are  elected  by  electoral  col- 
leges consisting  generally  of  Deputies 
and  departmental,  territorial,  or  munic- 
ipal councilors. 

The  overseas  departments  and  terri- 
tories are  also  represented  in  the  Assem- 
bly of  the  French  Union,  another  advisory 
body.  Of  the  240  members,  half  represent 
metropolitan  France,  75  the  Algerian 
Departments,  the  overseas  departments 
and  territories  and  the  Associated  Terri- 
tories, and  45  Morocco,  Tunisia,  and  the 
Indo-Chinese  Federation.  While  demands 
are  being  made  for  increased  powers  for 
both  the  Council  of  the  Republic  and  the 
Assembly  of  the  French  Union,  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  still  remains  the  real 
instrument  by  which  more  liberal  provi- 
sions toward  equality  in  "integral  inte- 
gration and  assimilation"  for  French 
black  citizens  must  be  achieved. 

Local  Government  in  French  Areas 

Meanwhile,  local  and  territorial  assem- 
blies are  given  these  citizens  fuller  par- 
ticipation in  the  management  of  their 
own  affairs  and  experience  for  represen- 
tation in  the  National  Assembly.  The 
territorial  assemblies,  composed  of  both 
European  and  African  Frenchmen,  have, 
for  example,  the  power  to  vote  the  budget 
and  to  allocate  expenditures  among  the 
various  departments.  The  French  are  thus 


beginning  to  attach  greater  importance  to 
the  development  of  Native  participation 
on  the  lower  level  instead  of  pursuing 
rigidly  the  former  policy  of  working  from 
the  top  down. 

Belgian  Policy 

In  contrast  to  the  proclaimed  British 
policy  of  self-government  for  all  non-self- 
governing  territories  and  the  French 
constitutional  provisions  looking  toward 
integration,  Belgium  insists  still  upon  a 
policy  of  "enlightened  paternalism."  The 
meaning  of  this  policy  has  been  made 
clear  in  official  pronouncements  and  more 
recently  in  the  Belgian  Congo  supple- 
ment of  the  Paris  edition  of  the  New 
York  Herald  Tribune,  Nov.  23, 1951.  This 
supplement  pointed  out  that  a  rigid 
policy  of  segregation  is  enforced  in  the 
Belgian  Congo  and  alleges  that  the  vast 
majority  of  the  Natives  are  well  satisfied 
and  content  with  the  segregation.  They 
were  pictured  as  being  until  recently  in 
a  state  of  savagery,  still  largely  illiterate, 
and  without  any  knowledge  of  social  and 
political  institutions  (despite  the  fact 
that  the  Congo  has  been  under  Belgian 
company  and  government  administration 
for  some  75  years). 

Not  a  single  Native  from  the  Congo 
has  been  sent  to  Europe  for  study  be- 
cause, in  the  words  of  the  Acting  Gov- 
ernor-General of  the  Congo,  it  would  be 
"most  dangerous"  to  send  even  one  to 
Europe  for  his  education.  The  few  Ne- 
groes in  trade  unions  are  directed  and 
controlled  by  whites.  Colored  American 
missionaries  are  no  longer  permitted  in 
the  Belgian  Congo  for  fear  that  they 
might  create  unrest  among  the  Natives. 
There  is  no  daily  Native  language  news- 
paper. Strict  censorship  of  movies  per- 
mits the  Natives  to  see  only  carefully 
selected  "westerns"  and  documentaries. 
The  Acting-Governor  General  envisages 
self-government  in  something  less  than 
100  years. 

A  statement  from  the  Commissioner  of 
Information  of  the  Belgian  Government 
Information  Center  early  in  1951  made 
clear  that  the  Natives  do  not  participate 


NON-SELF-GOVERNING  TERRITORIES 


345 


in  a  territorial  legislature  or  administra- 
tion and  that  they  are  not  represented  in 
the  Belgian  Parliament.  On  the  local 
level,  tribal  organizations  have  been 
"adapted  as  native  administrative  cells." 
Each  cell  has  its  own  chief  and  council 
selected  according  to  its  own  customs. 
"The  European  authority,"  this  statement 
continued,  "inducts  the  chief  in  a  solemn 
ceremony  during  which  he  is  recognized 
by  his  people  and  receives  his  emblems 
of  office."  These  chiefs  levy  and  adminis- 
ter limited  taxes  and  administer  their 
own  laws  in  circumscribed  areas. 

Dutch  Policy 

The  Dutch  government  has  moved  so 
far  in  the  direction  of  self-government  in 
the  small  West  Indian  islands  of  Curasao, 
Aruba,  and  Surinam  (Dutch  Guiana) 
that  the  Dutch  government  feels  that  it  is 
no  longer  called  upon  to  submit  reports 
to  the  UN  about  them.  The  Interim  Con- 
stitution of  Sept.  27,  1950,  granted  uni- 
versal suffrage.  The  people  vote  for  a 
legislature  (Staaten)  of  22  members — 
12  from  Curagao,  8  from  Aruba,  and  2 
from  the  other  islands.  The  principal 
leader  of  this  movement  toward  self- 
government  is  a  colored  man,  Mo'ises  da 
Costa  Gomez.  He  may  well  become  the 
first  Native  governor  of  the  territory  of 
Curagao.  It  is  hoped  that  when  self- 
government  has  been  achieved,  the  oil 
refineries  will  remain  in  Curagao  and 
Aruba  so  that  the  experiment  in  self- 
government  will  have  the  advantage  of 
the  prosperity  which  these  islands  have 
enjoyed  under  Dutch  rule. 

Policies  of  Spain  and  Portugal 

Since  Spain  and  Portugal  are  not 
members  of  the  UN,  information  about 
conditions  in  their  colonies  is  difficult  to 
obtain.  A  request  for  a  statement  of 
Spanish  policy  remained  unanswered. 
The  Portuguese  Embassy  in  Washington 
promised  to  obtain  a  statement  from 
Lisbon,  but  it  did  not  become  available. 

Policy  of  United  States 

The  United  States  is  continuing  its 
policy  of  granting  a  larger  share  of  self- 


government.  Puerto  Ricans  became  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  in  1917.  On 
Nov.  2,  1948,  the  people  of  Puerto  Rico 
voted  for  their  first  elective  governor, 
who  now  has  the  power  to  appoint  all 
members  of  his  cabinet,  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Puerto  Rican  Senate. 
The  only  territorial  officials  whose  ap- 
pointments continue  to  be  made  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States  are  the 
Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Puerto 
Rico  and  the  Auditor. 

The  Governor  may  veto  legislation.  If, 
however,  a  bill  is  repassed  over  his  veto 
by  two-thirds  of  both  houses,  it  goes  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States  for 
final  approval.  The  Congress  of  the 
United  States  may  annul  any  act  of  the 
insular  Legislature,  a  right  that  it  has 
never  exercised. 

Nineteen  senators  and  39  representa- 
tives in  the  insular  Legislature  are 
elected  every  4  years.  There  is  universal 
suffrage  for  all  citizens  of  the  United 
States  who  have  reached  the  age  of  21. 
Puerto  Rico  is  represented  in  Washington 
by  an  elective  Resident  Commissioner 
with  the  status  and  duties  of  a  Congress- 
man but  without  a  vote. 

The  smaller  Virgin  Islands  are  less 
advanced  toward  self-government  than 
Puerto  Rico.  However,  the  Virgin  Islands 
were  acquired  some  18  years  after 
Puerto  Rico.  U.S.  citizenship  rights  were 
granted  to  the  Virgin  Islands  by  Acts  of 
Congress  of  1928  and  1932.  The  Governor 
is  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  The  first  Negro  Governor, 
Judge  William  H.  Hastie,  was  appointed 
by  President  Truman  in  1946.  The  incum- 
bent Governor,  Morris  F.  de  Castro,  is  the 
first  Virgin  Islander  ever  to  hold  the 
office. 

The  Governor  may  veto  an  entire  bill 
or  any  item  in  it  appropriating  money 
for  a  specific  purpose.  The  Congress  of 
the  United  States  has  the  supreme  right 
of  legislation  for  the  islands,  but  has 
delegated  the  power  of  local  legislation  to 
the  two  Municipal  Councils  and  the  Leg- 
islative Assembly.  Congress  has  reserved 
the  power  and  authority  to  annul  locally- 


346 


TRUST  AND  OTHER  TERRITORIES 


enacted  laws,  but  it  has  never  exercised 
this  authority.  The  Municipal  Council  of 
St.  Thomas  and  St.  John  consists  of  7 
members  elected  by  qualified  voters  for 
a  term  of  two  years.  The  Municipal  Coun- 
cil of  St.  Croix  consists  of  9  members 
similarly  elected.  Joint  sessions  of  the 
two  Councils  are  designated  as  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly.  The  franchise  is  vested 
in  residents  of  the  islands  who  are  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  21  years  of  age 
or  over,  and  able  to  read  and  write 
English.  Proposals  for  the  appointment 
of  a  resident  commissioner  and  the  elec- 
tions of  the  Governor  by  the  people  of  the 
islands,  as  in  the  case  of  Puerto  Rico, 
are  being  discussed. 


UN  AND 

NON-SELF-GOVERNING 
TERRITORIES 

Paragraph  73  (e)  of  the  UN  Charter 
stipulates  that  nations  administering  non- 
self-governing  territories  shall  "transmit 
regularly  to  the  secretary-general  for 
information  purposes,  subject  to  such 
limitation  as  security  and  constitutional 
considerations  may  require,  statistical 
and  other  information  of  a  technical 
nature  relating  to  economic,  social, 
and  educational  conditions  in  the  terri- 
tories for  which  they  are  respectively 
responsible.  .  .  ."  At  the  Sixth  General 
Assembly  of  the  UN  in  Paris,  1951,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  require  administer- 
ing countries  to  include  information  on 
political  conditions.  As  a  result  of  the 
strenuous  objection  of  administering 
powers,  the  resolution  was  withdrawn 
and  a  compromise  was  arrived  at  by 
which  incidental  references  to  political 
conditions  would  be  permitted.  But  the 
delegate  of  the  United  Kingdom  served 
notice  that  his  government  would  not 
permit  "general  discussion  of  political 
matters  of  a  tendentious  nature."  Mean- 
while, the  United  States  in  particular  has 
continued  to  include  information  bearing 
on  the  political  conditions  in  the  terri- 
tories for  which  it  reports.  Moreover, 


since  political  development  cannot  be 
divorced  from  economic,  social,  and  edu- 
cational progress,  it  is  pertinent  to  note 
that  the  annual  reports  of  the  adminis- 
tering nations  provide  the  most  compre- 
hensive body  of  material  ever  made 
available  to  students  of  colonial  adminis- 
tration. These  reports  are  summarized  in 
official  publications  of  the  UN,  Non-Self- 
Governing  Territories,  Summaries  and 
Analyses  of  Information  Transmuted  to 
the  Secretary-General,  generally  called 
the  "Green  Book."  The  first  small  volume 
appeared  in  1947.  By  1950,  the  material 
required  two  large  volumes.  In  addition, 
the  UN  has  published  a  special  volume 
on  educational  conditions  and  is  prepar- 
ing another  on  problems  of  economic  de- 
velopment. 

The  information  given  below  on  eco- 
nomic, social,  and  educational  conditions 
is  based  on  these  annual  reports  and  the 
special  report  devoted  to  educational 
problems.  The  reports  show,  on  the 
whole,  that  steady  progress  is  being  made 
but  that  many  years  of  continued  and 
accelerated  progress  will  be  required 
before  inhabitants  of  "underdeveloped 
countries"  have  a  standard  of  living  com- 
parable to  that  of  the  more  advanced 
independent  nations. 

Education  and  Literacy 

Statistics  on  literacy  give  only  an  in- 
accurate picture.  Population  figures  are 
frequently  only  estimates.  The  definition 
of  literacy  varies  from  territory  to  terri- 
tory. It  may  mean  merely  the  ability  to 
read  and  write  only  the  simplest  words. 
It  may  apply  to  the  vernacular  language 
or  to  the  European  language.  While  these 
variables  should  be  kept  in  mind,  great 
differences  are  none  the  less  evident. 

Africa 

In  British  Somaliland  about  1%  of  the 
population  is  literate  and  2%  in  school. 
Gambia,  on  the  other  hand,  had  70%  of 
children  of  school  age  in  school.  Out  of 
12,000  children  of  school  age  in  French 
Somaliland,  only  1,438  attend,  and  of 
these  162  are  Europeans.  Five  per  cent 


NON-SELF-GOVERNING  TERRITORIES 


347 


of  children  of  school  age  in  French  West 
Africa  attended  school  in  1948.  In  French 
Equatorial  Africa  11.6%  of  the  total 
school  population  was  in  school.  Only 
17%  of  the  pupils  were  girls.  If  25%  of 
the  total  is  used  to  indicate  the  number 
of  children  of  school  age,  20%  were  in 
school  in  Madagascar,  28%  in  Bechuana- 
land.  Probably  80%  of  the  population  of 
the  Gold  Coast  was  still  illiterate  in  1949. 
The  school  enrollment  in  the  Moslem 
Northern  Provinces  was  particularly 
small.  In  the  "colony"  and  Ashanti,  35% 
of  children  of  infant- junior  school-going 
age  and  19%  of  those  of  senior-primary 
age  were  at  school. 

Kenya,  where  ideas  of  white  suprem- 
acy are  as  blantantly  proclaimed  and 
enforced  as  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa, 
presents  a  most  distressing  picture.  Euro- 
peans are  100%  literate  and  Asians  only 
slightly  less.  About  two-thirds  of  all 
African  children  attend  school  for  one 
year  or  more,  according  to  the  1950 
Green  Book,  but  it  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand how  this  figure  was  arrived  at. 
Since  the  Native  population  is  something 
more  than  5  million,  there  are  more  than 
a  million  children  of  school  age.  But  the 
report  for  1947  shows  that  there  were 
only  232,546  African  children,  or  about 
20%  of  those  of  school  age,  in  school.  Of 
these,  223,884  were  in  primary  grades. 
Even  more  shocking  has  been  the  dis- 
parity between  the  appropriations  for 
the  three  racial  groups.  In  1947  the  per 
capita  expenditure  for  European  children 
was  £50,  for  Asian  children  £8,  for 
African  children  less  than  £1.  The  fig- 
ures for  1948  showed  that  the  per  capita 
appropriation  for  African  children  had 
risen  to  more  than  £31.  The  editors  of 
the  Green  Book  called  the  increase  over 
that  for  1947  "extraordinarily  great." 

The  Green  Book  did  not  give  literacy 
figures  for  Nigeria.  Employing  the  usual 
basis  for  children  of  school  age,  one 
concludes  that  the  presence  of  something 
less  than  a  million  students  in  school  in 
1948  would  give  less  than  20%  receiving 
education.  Equally  vague  is  the  estimate 
that  in  Nyasaland  about  half  the  coun- 


try's children  attend  school  for  at  least 
some  period  between  the  ages  of  5  and 
18.  In  Seychelles,  one-fourth  of  the 
population  was  reported  as  literate;  in 
Sierra  Leone,  28.93%,  but  in  the  Protec- 
torate the  percentage  was  much  lower; 
in  Swaziland,  13%  was  literate  in  its  own 
language  and  5%  in  English.  Literacy 
statistics  were  unavailable  for  Uganda, 
but  about  25%  of  children  of  school  age 
were  in  school.  The  Green  Book  states 
that  more  than  half  of  the  children  of 
school  age  in  the  Belgian  Congo  were  in 
school,  but  the  New  York  Herald  Tribune 
Belgian  Congo  supplement  gave  as  one 
justification  for  the  slow  advance  toward 
self-government  the  allegation  that  the 
majority  of  the  Natives  were  illiterate. 

Pacific  Colonies 

Educational  conditions  in  the  Negro 
colonies  of  the  Pacific  reveal  wide  varia- 
tions. Papua  reported  about  50%  in 
school,  practically  all  of  them  in  mission 
schools.  More  than  90%  of  Fijian  males 
and  85%  of  Fijian  females  were  able  to 
read  and  write.  But  in  the  British  Solo- 
mons literacy  was  estimated  at  5%  and 
school  enrollment  at  20%  of  school  age 
population. 

The  Caribbean 

The  Caribbean  territories,  most  of 
which  have  been  under  the  administra- 
tion of  metropolitan  countries  longer 
than  the  African  territories,  present  on 
the  whole  a  brighter  picture.  More  than 
90%  of  the  children  of  school  age  in 
the  Bahamas  were  in  school;  there  were 
only  a  few  illiterates  in  Bermuda ;  British 
Guiana  was  78.64%  literate ;  British  Hon- 
duras about  82%  literate.  The  large 
island  of  Jamaica  was  73%  literate. 
Literacy  figures  were  not  given  for 
Antigua,  St.  Kitts-Nevis,  or  the  British 
Virgin  Islands,  but  some  80%  of  children 
of  school  age  were  in  school.  Similarly, 
in  Trinidad  and  Tobago  more  than  80% 
were  in  school.  St.  Vincent  was  80.9% 
literate;  Grenada  66%%,  and  Dominica 
65%%.  In  1946,  28.3%  of  Puerto  Rico's 
population  was  illiterate.  In  the  U.S. 


348 


TRUST  AND  OTHER  TERRITORIES 


Virgin  Islands,  92%  of  the  population  of 
St.  Thomas  and  82%  of  that  of  St.  Croix 
were  literate.  About  95%  of  the  Dutch 
islands  of  Curacao  and  Aruba  are  liter- 
ate. But  whereas  the  racial  distribution 
of  children  in  the  lower  grades  is  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  the  racial  distribu- 
tion of  the  population,  there  is  a  much 
larger  percentage  of  white  children  in 
higher  grades. 

Policy  and  Programs 

In  the  Congo,  Belgium  is  developing  a 
considerable  number  of  technical  and 
vocational  schools  because  of  insufficient 
skilled  European  workers.  By  contrast,  as 
already  pointed  out,  there  is  no  provision 
for  the  higher  education  of  Natives  in 
either  the  Congo  or  in  Europe.  France  is 
developing  territorial  institutions  of 
higher  learning,  especially  in  Senegal 
and  Madagascar,  but  the  realization  is 
growing  that  it  is  better  to  train  doctors 
in  France  than  in  the  necessarily  inferior 
medical  colleges  in  overseas  territories. 
Several  hundred  students  from  the  over- 
seas territories,  mostly  Negroes,  are 
studying  in  French  universities.  More 
than  200  of  them,  white  and  colored,  are 
housed  in  the  beautiful,  modern  Maison 
de  la  France  d'Outre-Mer,  constructed  in 
considerable  part  by  contributions  from 
the  overseas  territories.  Situated  on  the 
campus  of  the  Cite  Universitaire  in  Paris, 
where  there  are  also  American,  British, 
Belgian,  Swedish,  Greek,  Argentine,  and 
other  houses,  it  provides  an  opportunity 
for  these  students  to  mingle  daily,  espe- 
cially in  the  International  House  where 
all  take  their  meals,  with  students  of 
other  nations.  According  to  the  statement 
of  the  Minister  of  Overseas  France  at 
the  formal  opening  of  the  Maison  de  la 
France  d'Outre-Mer  in  December  1951, 
the  vast  majority  of  these  colored  stu- 
dents are  preparing  for  medicine,  den- 
tistry, pharmacy,  business,  engineering, 
and  government  administration  and  only 
a  small  number  for  law  and  the  liberal 
arts. 

The  United  Kingdom  is  rapidly  de- 
veloping the  Gold  Coast  University 


College,  the  University  College  of  Ibadan, 
Nigeria,  Fourah  Bay  College  in  Sierra 
Leone,  Makerere  College  in  Uganda,  and 
the  University  College  of  the  West  Indies 
in  Jamaica  with  an  extra-mural  depart- 
ment in  British  Guiana.  Scholarships  are 
also  provided  for  study  at  Fort  Hare  of 
the  University  of  Witwatersrand  in  South 
Africa.  Several  hundred  Negroes,  many 
of  them  aided  by  scholarships,  are  study- 
ing in  English  and  American  universities. 
While  the  secondary  schools  in  Curasao 
and  Aruba  are  excellent  in  training  and 
equipment,  only  a  very  small  number  of 
colored  D.W.I,  students  are  able  to  study 
in  Holland,  because  of  economic  reasons. 
The  University  of  Puerto  Rico  is  a  justly 
famous  institution,  especially  in  the  field 
of  medicine.  Some  students  from  Puerto 
Rico  and  a  smaller  number  from  the 
American  Virgin  Islands  come  to  the 
United  States  for  their  higher  education. 

The  UNESCO  Program 

The  UN  Educational,  Scientific  and 
Cultural  Organization  (UNESCO)  pro- 
motes the  exchange  of  students  and  pro- 
vides information  about  available  schol- 
arships. Even  more  important  is  the 
program  of  Fundamental  Education  fur- 
thered by  UNESCO.  The  primary  pur- 
pose of  this  program  is  a  mass  attack  on 
illiteracy,  but  it  also  includes  hygiene, 
sanitation,  and  the  development  of  agri- 
culture and  rural  industries. 

At  the  Paris  General  Conference  of 
UNESCO,  1950,  the  Constitution  of 
UNESCO  was  amended  to  provide  for 
Associate  Membership  for  non-self-gov- 
erning territories.  If  educational  leaders 
in  these  territories  make  effective  use  of 
this  Membership,  all  phases  of  education 
may  well  come  to  reflect  the  needs  and 
aspirations  of  the  Native  peoples  to  a 
fuller  degree  than  is  possible  when  only 
representatives  of  the  administering  na- 
tions formulate  plans.  Their  opinions 
would  be  especially  valuable  on  the  diffi- 
cult question  as  to  the  use  of  the  vernacu- 
lar or  a  European  language  or  a  lingua 
franca  (Hausa  or  Swahili,  for  example) 
as  the  language  of  instruction.  The 


NON-SELF-GOVERNING  TERRITORIES 


349 


present  trend,  especially  in  the  British 
and  Belgian  territories,  favors  the  use  of 
the  vernacular  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
education  of  large  numbers  of  Natives 
and  to  develop  the  best  aspects  of  Native 
culture  and  civilization.  The  French  still 
lean  toward  the  use  of  French,  since  their 
aim  is  to  make  the  inhabitants  of  the 
overseas  territories  French  citizens  with 
direct  representation  in  the  French  Na- 
tional Assembly.  Whatever  dangers  there 
may  be  in  the  development  of  an  elite 
class  which  considers  itself  superior  to 
the  masses  of  the  people,  a  minimum 
number  must  be  thoroughly  familiar  with 
a  European  language  in  order  to  prevent 
cultural  isolation. 

Economic  Development, 
Labor,  Social  Welfare 

In  addition  to  improvement  in  educa- 
tion and  a  fuller  participation  in  govern- 
ment, economic  viability  must  be  pro- 
moted in  overseas  territories.  Since  most 
still  rest  on  an  agricultural  subsistence 
economy  and  few  possess  known  raw 
materials  for  large-scale  industrial  de- 
velopment, immediate  emphasis  should 
be  placed  on  development  of  a  diversified 
agricultural  commercial  economy. 

The  United  States,  the  United  King- 
dom, France,  and  Belgium  have  prepared 
long-range  plans  for  investment,  largely 
through  government  funds,  of  capital  for 
the  development  of  their  overseas  terri- 
tories. The  United  Kingdom,  moreover, 
has  announced  the  commendable  policy 
of  consultation  with  their  overseas  terri- 
tories in  these  development  projects. 
While  some  of  the  funds,  as  well  as  a 
part  of  EGA  and  Mutual  Security  Funds, 
are  allocated  for  defense  purposes,  even 
these,  especially  those  used  for  road  and 
railroad  construction,  the  improvement 
of  ports  and  airports,  and  for  sanitation, 
should  benefit  the  overseas  territories. 
Other  projects  include  the  improvement 
and  development  of  agriculture  and  of 
mineral  resources  in  a  few  territories.  In 
addition,  the  Point  Four  program  of  the 
United  States  and  the  Expanded  Tech- 
nical Assistance  Program  of  the  UN  are 


directed  toward  similar  goals.  UNESCO 
has  given  top  priority  to  technical  assist- 
ance as  well  as  to  fundamental  education, 
and  the  United  States  fully  supports  this 
priority.  The  International  Labor  Or- 
ganization (ILO),  the  Food  and  Agricul- 
ture Organization  (FAO),  and  the  World 
Health  Organization  (WHO)  are  the 
other  specialized  agencies  of  the  UN 
which  are  especially  concerned  with  the 
expanded  technical  assistance  program. 
If  the  vast  expenditures  now  devoted  to 
armaments  should  be  reduced,  a  truly 
comprehensive  and  co-ordinated  program 
of  individual  nations  and  the  UN  should 
provide  the  economic  development  for  a 
sound  foundation  for  emerging  self-gov- 
erning territories. 

Private  capital  can  hardly  be  expected 
to  invest  heavily  in  overseas  or  other 
underdeveloped  territories  unless  assured 
protection  against  expropriation,  na- 
tionalization, and  instability,  and  guar- 
anteed convertibility  of  currency.  The 
basic  problem  is  the  need  of  private 
capital  investment  and  the  danger  that  it 
would  seek  control  over  the  political 
affairs  of  the  territories.  Curagao  and 
Aruba  illustrate  the  dilemma — the  oil 
refineries  of  the  Royal  Dutch  and  Stand- 
ard Oil  Companies  have  provided  a 
standard  of  living  for  colored  workers 
far  above  that  of  workers  in  agricultural 
territories,  but  leaders  of  the  movement 
for  self-government  fear  that  complete 
independence  might  result  in  removal  of 
the  refineries  to  Venezuela. 

Wages 

The  low  standard  of  living  of  the  vast 
majority  of  Native  workers  constitutes 
one  of  the  worst  indictments  of  colonial 
rule.  The  figures  below  are  from  the 
Green  Book;  the  foreign  currencies  have 
been  translated  into  dollars  and  cents, 
with  the  advantage  in  favor  of  the  foreign 
currency. 

In  Papua,  minimum  monthly  wages 
were  fixed  by  law  at  $3,  plus  rations  and 
accommodations.  Laborers  in  French 
Niger  were  paid  40tf  a  day;  in  Senegal 
90$  a  day;  in  Basutoland,  40$  a  day;  in 


350 


TRUST  AND  OTHER  TERRITORIES 


Gambia  50tf  a  day;  in  Kenya,  about  $2.40 
a  month,  plus  food  and  housing;  in 
Uganda  from  $2.80  to  $4.40  a  month.  A 
bricklayer  in  Leopoldville,  Belgian 
Congo,  earned  from  28tf  to  $1.40  a  day, 
while  artisans  in  Nigeria  were  paid  from 
90tf  to  $1.90  a  day.  Northern  Rhodesia 
provides  a  striking  example  of  the  con- 
trast between  wages  paid  to  Native  and 
European  workers.  The  former  received 
$10.20  a  month  as  surface  workers  and 
$12.60  as  underground  workers,  with  free 
rations  and  housing  valued  at  $8  a  month. 
European  workers  were  paid  $230  a 
month  for  surface  work  and  $272 
a  month  as  underground  workers,  plus  a 
cost-of-living  allowance,  bonuses,  and 
housing  at  a  low  rental.  Wages  in  the 
Caribbean  islands  were  generally  higher 
than  those  in  Africa  or  the  South  Pacific 
but  still  inadequate  for  a  decent  standard 
of  living.  The  Dutch  islands  of  Curasao 
and  Aruba  present  the  unusual  spectacle 
of  hourly  wages  ranging  from  47tf  to 
$1.13.  While  the  enormously  rich  oil  and 
shipping  companies  could  easily  pay 
higher  wages,  they  are  at  least  sufficiently 
enlightened  to  have  calculated  the  cost 
of  nourishing  food,  good  housing,  and 
decent  clothing  in  determining  the  wage 
scale.  The  standard  of  living  of  these 
workers  makes  clear  that  many  so-called 
racial  shortcomings  actually  have  an 
economic  explanation,  for  the  colored 
workers  there  are  more  advanced  than 
not  only  colored  workers  in  other  non- 
self-governing  territories  but  also  than 
many  white  workers  in  both  such  terri- 
tories and  independent  nations. 

The  comment  is  frequently  made  that, 
while  wages  in  non-self-governing  terri- 
tories are  generally  indecently  low,  they 
have  a  greater  purchasing  power  than 
they  would  have  in  industrialized  coun- 
tries. This  observation  is  true  in  so  far  as 
the  purchase  of  goods  raised  or  produced 
in  the  non-self-governing  territories  is 
concerned.  But  many  of  these  territories 
import  food  stuffs  as  well  as  manufac- 
tured goods.  Fifty  cents  .a  day  will  go  no 
further  in  an  African,  Caribbean,  or 
Pacific  territory  for  the  purchase  of  im- 


ported rice,  shoes,  radios,  books,  or  auto- 
mobiles than  the  fifty  cents  a  day  of  a 
cotton-picker  in  the  United  States. 

Labor  Unions 

Many  competent  observers  are  con- 
vinced that  the  development  of  strong 
Native  unions  is  imperative  before  wages 
will  be  appreciably  increased.  At  the 
present  time,  Native  trade  unions  in  the 
non-self-governing  territories  are  still  in 
the  embryonic  stage,  especially  in  Africa. 
French  West  Africa  leads  in  the  number 
of  unions  with  228,  followed  by  Nigeria 
with  124,  Madagascar  with  114,  and  the 
Belgian  Congo  with  53.  But  their  total 
membership  in  1948  was  only  69,000, 
89,345,  36,144,  and  10,811  respectively. 
In  the  Belgian  Congo,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, all  the  Native  trade  unions  are 
directed  and  controlled  by  whites.  French 
Equatorial  Africa  had  28  unions  with 
membership  not  specified;  Kenya  10  with 
membership  not  specified;  Sierre  Leone 
8  with  13,389  members;  Uganda  2  with 
membership  not  specified.  French  Soma- 
liland  and  Gambia  had  2  unions  each 
with  1,915  and  1,400  members  respec- 
tively. No  trade  unions  were  reported 
for  British  Somaliland,  Seychelles,  Basu- 
toland,  Bechuanaland,  Smaziland,  Co- 
moro, St.  Helena,  Solomon  Islands,  or 
Papua.  The  federation  of  trade  unions  in 
Cura§ao  and  Aruba  are  well  organized 
and  intelligently  directed.  Trade  unions 
in  Jamaica  are  perhaps  the  most  powerful 
of  all  the  unions  in  the  Caribbean  non-self- 
governing  territories,  and  the  Nigerian  tin 
workers  of  those  in  Africa. 

At  long  last,  trade  union  leaders  in  the 
highly  industrialized  countries  have  be- 
gun to  realize  that  the  solidarity  of  work- 
ers' interests  must  include  the  promotion 
of  strong,  intelligently  directed  Native 
trade  unions.  The  Executive  Board  of 
the  International  Federation  of  Free 
Trade  Unions  has  initiated  plans  for 
sending  experienced  European  union  or- 
ganizers into  underdeveloped  countries. 
It  is  encouraging  to  note  that  even  the 
Swedish  trade  unions  are  taking  an  in- 
terest in  this  program  of  workers'  educa- 


TRUST  TERRITORIES 


351 


tion.  Young  American  Negroes  seeking 
careers  that  will  allow  them  to  share  in 
the  responsibility  for  promoting  the  well- 
being  of  Negroes  in  less  favored  coun- 
tries might  well  prepare  themselves  for 
this  rewarding  service. 

UN  Economic  Organizations 

Social  welfare  should  also  improve 
materially  when  trade  unions  become  an 
important  factor  in  the  economic  and 
political  life  of  these  territories.  "The 
Minimum  Standards  of  Social  Policy  in 
Dependent  Territories,"  adopted  at  the 
General  Conference  of  the  ILO  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1944  and  at  Paris  in  1945, 
include  such  matters  as  the  prohibition 
of  slavery,  forced  labor,  opium  traffic, 
employment  of  women  and  children,  and 
racial  and  religious  discrimination.  This 
international  Magna  Carta  of  labor  also 
sets  standards  for  wages,  health,  housing, 
social  security,  and  industrial  and  co- 
operative organizations.  The  resolutions 
and  recommendations  of  the  ILO  are,  of 
course,  not  binding  on  the  signatory 
nations.  France,  however,  has  drafted  a 
new  labor  code  for  its  overseas  territories 
that  embodies  many  of  the  recommenda- 
tions. But  in  accordance  with  established 
French  practice,  the  administration  of 
the  new  law  may  vary  from  territory  to 
territory.  The  expected  publication  in 
1952  of  the  special  volume  of  the  UN  on 
social  conditions  in  non-self-governing 
territories  should  provide  a  clear  picture 
of  the  extent  to  which  the  "Magna  Carta 
of  labor"  has  been  applied  in  fact  to 
these  territories.  Meanwhile,  social  wel- 
fare is  almost  entirely  confined  to  public 
health  administration,  such  as  maternal 
and  infant  health,  medico-social  work, 
health  education,  and  medical  relief. 

Like  UNESCO  and  ILO,  the  FAO  and 
WHO  are  engaged  in  projects  to  raise 
the  standard  of  living  of  peoples  in  un- 
derdeveloped territories.  Even  if  the 
gloomy  predictions  of  the  neo-Malthu- 
sians  may  be  exaggerated,  there  is  a  dis- 
turbing insufficiency  of  food  produced  to 
satisfy  the  minimum  needs  of  mankind. 
It  is  necessary  to  increase  the  agricul- 


tural productivity  of  underdeveloped 
areas  not  only  for  the  inhabitants  of  those 
countries  but  for  the  inhabitants  of  in- 
dustrialized nations.  But  FAO  has  no 
power  to  move  people  from  overpopulated 
areas  into  sparsely  populated  ones  where 
production  might  be  measurably  in- 
creased. While  Africa  suffers  on  the 
whole  from  underpopulation,  some  Carib- 
bean islands  are  greatly  overpopulated. 
Since  most  of  the  workers  in  these  islands 
are  Negroes,  few  countries  want  them  as 
immigrants.  Moreover,  many  of  the  proj- 
ects of  WHO  tend  to  increase  the  birth 
rate  and  lower  the  death  rate  more 
rapidly  than  productivity  is  increased. 
What  is  clearly  needed  is  co-ordinated 
planning  by  these  specialized  agencies 
of  the  UN,  the  Economic  and  Social 
Council  of  the  UN,  the  Expanded  Tech- 
nical Assistance  Program  of  the  UN,  and 
the  development  projects  of  individual 
nations,  including  the  investment  of 
private  capital. 


TRUST  TERRITORIES 

Mandate  and  Trusteeship 
Systems 

Raymond  Leslie  Buell  proposed  in 
1940  that  colonies  should  be  put  under 
some  form  of  international  administra- 
tion, as  opposed  to  mere  international 
supervision.  The  Committee  on  Africa, 
the  War,  and  Peace  Aims,  composed  of 
representative  Americans  concerned  with 
the  problem,  recommended  in  1942  that 
international  administration  be  intro- 
duced into  those  colonies  which  might 
have  changed  hands  at  the  end  of  the 
war.  But  international  administration  has 
not  been  seriously  considered  outside  of 
academic  circles,  and  the  statesmen  at 
San  Francisco  in  1945  dismissed  the  pro- 
posal and  favored  retaining  the  traditional 
approach. 

Nor  did  the  UN  Charter  accept  the 
proposal  made  during  World  War  II  by 
Clement  Attlee  and  other  British  Labor- 
ites  that  all  colonies  be  placed  under 
mandate  or  trusteeship.  Chapter  XII  of 


352 


TRUST  AND  OTHER  TERRITORIES 


the  Charter  imposed  no  obligation  upon 
any  member  state  to  place  any  of  its  terri- 
tories under  trusteeship.  The  system  was 
to  apply  to  territories  held  under  man- 
date, to  territories  detached  from  the 
enemy,  and  to  colonies  which  the  member 
states  agreed  to  place  under  trusteeship. 
The  only  territories  that  have  been  placed 
under  trusteeship  are  the  former  man- 
dated Territories,  with  the  exception  of 
South  West  Africa  and  the  addition  of 
Italian  Somaliland.  The  former  Japanese 
mandates  in  the  Pacific  have  become  a 
strategic  trusteeship  of  the  United  States. 
The  basic  objectives  of  the  trusteeship 
system  are  stated  in  Article  76  as  fol- 
lows : 

(a)  To    further   international   peace    and 
security; 

(b)  To   promote   the   political,   economic, 
social  and  educational  advancement  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  trust  territories,  and  their 
progressive  development  towards  self-govern- 
ment or  independence  as  may  be  appropriate 
to  the  particular  circumstances  of  each  terri- 
tory and  its  peoples  and  the  freely  expressed 
wishes  of  the  peoples  concerned,  and  as  may 
be  provided  by  the  terms  of  each  trusteeship 
agreement ; 

(c)  To  encourage  respect  for  human  rights 
and  for  fundamental  freedoms  for  all  without 
distinction  as  to  race,  sex,  language  or  religion, 
and  to  encourage  recognition  of  the  interde- 
pendence of  the  peoples  of  the  world;  and 

(d)  To  insure  equal  treatment  in  social, 
economic  and  commercial  matters  for  all  mem- 
bers of  the  United  Nations  and  their  nationals, 
and  also  equal  treatment  for  the  latter  in  the 
administration  of  justice,  without  prejudice  to 
the  attainment  of  the  foregoing  objectives, 
and  subject  to  the  provisions  of  Article  80. 

Certain  differences  will  be  observed 
between  this  article  and  the  comparable 
article  under  Chapter  XI  which  deals 
with  non  -  self  -  governing  territories. 
Strangely  enough,  the  Administering 
Authorities  did  not  "accept  a  sacred 
trust"  for  the  trust  territories,  although 
they  did  so  for  the  non-self-governing 
territories  and  the  mandated  territories. 

Trust  territories  may  aspire  to  either 
self-government  or  independence,  while 
the  non-self-governing  territories  appar- 
ently may  look  forward  only  to  self- 
government.  Specific  reference  is  made 
to  "human  rights  and  fundamental  free- 


doms for  all  without  distinction  as  to 
race,  sex,  language  or  religion"  in  the 
trust  territories,  but  the  Charter  is  silent 
on  this  point  with  respect  to  non-self- 
governing  territories.  It  is  all  the  more 
important,  therefore,  that  the  "colonial 
clause"  in  the  draft  covenant  on  Human 
Rights  be  retained,  since  it  refers  to  non- 
self-governing  as  well  as  to  trust  terri- 
tories. 

While  the  Charter  has  abolished  the 
Class  A  and  Class  B  Mandate  categories 
established  after  World  War  I,  it  has 
provided  for  both  strategic  and  non- 
strategic  trust  territories.  The  United 
States  Trust  Territory  of  the  Pacific 
Islands  is  the  only  strategic  trust  terri- 
tory. It  is  placed  under  the  Security 
Council,  but  the  Trusteeship  Council  has 
responsibility  for  promoting  the  political, 
economic,  social,  and  educational  ad- 
vancement of  the  inhabitants.  As  an  in- 
dication of  the  desire  of  the  United  States 
to  advance  the  well-being  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  this  strategic  trust  territory,  it 
has  been  placed  under  civilian  govern- 
ment. While  the  backwardness  of  the 
inhabitants  will  retard  their  development 
in  accordance  with  the  principles  laid 
down  for  trust  territories,  some  observers 
believe  that  the  record  of  the  United 
States  in  the  Philippines  augurs  well  for 
the  steady  advance  of  these  small  islands, 
especially  after  the  tension  between  the 
United  States  and  its  allies  and  the 
Soviet  Union  and  its  allies  has  lessened. 

The  Trusteeship  Council  has  three 
rights  which  the  Council  of  the  League 
of  Nations  denied  to  the  Permanent  Man- 
date Commission,  the  right  to  draw  up  a 
questionnaire  as  the  basis  for  annual 
reports,  the  right  to  hear  oral  petitions, 
and  the  right  to  make  on-the-spot  investi- 
gations. The  questionnaire,  drafted  by 
the  secretariat  of  the  Trusteeship  Coun- 
cil, headed  by  Dr.  Ralph  J.  Bunche,  is  the 
most  comprehensive  that  colonial  experts 
could  devise.  While  there  has  been 
criticism  that  some  annual  reports  do 
not  answer  the  questions  satisfactorily, 
the  reports  are  much  more  detailed  and 
circumstantial  than  those  submitted  to 


TRUST  TERRITORIES 


353 


the  Permanent  Mandate  Commission. 
The  right  of  oral  petitions,  adopted  by 
the  Trusteeship  Council  as  one  of  its 
rules  of  procedure,  has  been  notably  used 
by  spokesmen  for  the  Ewe  tribes,  who 
protested  against  the  division  of  their 
country  between  British  and  French 
Togoland.  The  reports  of  the  Visiting 
Missions  to  Western  Samoa,  West  Africa, 
and  East  Africa  have  revealed  problems 
that  were  not  adequately  reported  by  the 
administering  powers. 

The  reports  of  the  administering  pow- 
ers show  that,  on  the  whole,  conditions 
in  trust  territories  are  scarcely  better 
than  those  in  non-self-governing  terri- 
tories. Perhaps  the  basic  reason  is  that 
the  trust  territories  are  poorer  in  natural 
resources  than  the  more  favored  non- 
self-governing  territories. 

Political  Developments 

French  Trust  Territories 

The  most  interesting  political  develop- 
ment in  the  trust  territories  is  the  repre- 
sentation of  French  Togoland  and  the 
French  Cameroons  in  the  French  Na- 
tional Assembly.  Some  criticism  has  been 
voiced,  especially  by  spokesmen  for  the 
Soviet  bloc,  that  this  representation  vio- 
lates the  basic  concept  of  trusteeship. 
Others  argue  that  since  this  representa- 
tion is  a  form  of  self-government,  it  is  in 
consonance  with  that  concept.  This  argu- 
ment would  be  more  valid  if  these  trust 
territories  had  equal  rights  of  representa- 
tion with  metropolitan  France.  In  any 
event,  the  right  of  representation  in  the 
French  National  Assembly  provides  a 
small  number  of  members  with  experi- 
ence that  should  be  valuable  should  the 
trust  territories  decide  to  become  self- 
governing. 

Until  1946,  French  Togoland  was  par- 
tially administered  as  a  part  of  Dahomey. 
It  now  enjoys  "autonomy."  In  1949,  fewer 
than  30,000  Native  inhabitants  out  of 
almost  a  million  belonged  to  political 
parties.  Since  Togoland's  organization  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  French  Cameroons, 
it  will  suffice  to  analyze  briefly  the  latter, 
which  has  almost  three  times  as  large  a 


population.  Some  500,000  Natives  of  the 
Cameroons  are  eligible  to  vote,  but  only 
a  small  number  exercise  that  right.  Some 
40,000  voted  for  representatives  of  the 
Cameroons  Representative  Assembly, 
which  consists  of  24  members  elected  by 
the  Natives  and  16  elected  by  resident 
Frenchmen.  Even  the  French  newspaper, 
Climats,  which  is  generally  critical  of 
Native  aspirations  for  a  fuller  share  of 
self-government,  wrote  approvingly  (Dec. 
6-12,  1951,  p.  3)  of  the  first  Representa- 
tive Assembly  of  the  Cameroons.  In  addi- 
tion to  voting  the  budget,  the  Assembly 
considered  more  than  one  hundred  ques- 
tions submitted  by  its  five  committees.  The 
debates  were  described  as  "lively,  cordial 
and  critical."  A  Negro  Senator,  Okala, 
praised  the  collaboration  of  Europeans 
and  Africans  and  expressed  the  hope 
that  the  Cameroons  would  soon  become 
"a  beautiful  country  in  the  French 
Union." 

There  are  also  some  14  Councils  of 
Notables,  presided  over  by  regional 
Chiefs,  in  the  French  Cameroons.  Al- 
though these  Councils  are  purely  consul- 
tative, they  give  the  French  administra- 
tive officials  and  the  central  government 
"the  possibility  of  sounding  out  the 
opinion  of  the  traditional  authorities,  who 
in  fact  play  the  role  of  intermediaries 
between  the  government  officials  and  the 
mass  of  the  population."  The  high  Chiefs 
and  the  cantonal  Chiefs  are  appointed  by 
the  High  Commissioner  on  nomination  by 
the  regional  head,  while  the  village 
Chiefs  are  normally  appointed  by  the 
regional  head  on  the  nomination  of  the 
head  of  the  subdivision.  Prior  consulta- 
tion is  held  with  the  population,  the 
notables,  and  the  heads  of  interested 
families.  Although  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  Cameroons,  as  in  southern  Togo- 
land,  the  impact  of  modern  civilization 
has  weakened  the  authority  of  the  Chiefs, 
France  intends  to  maintain  the  system. 
The  UN  Visiting  Mission  in  1949,  how- 
ever, doubted  that  in  the  south  the  in- 
ferior Chiefs  would  continue  to  play  as 
large  a  part  in  local  government  as  they 
have  done.  The  Mission  cautiously  but 


354 


TRUST  AND  OTHER  TERRITORIES 


pointedly  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
the  old  order  will  be  necessarily  changed 
whether  the  French  government  desires 
it  or  not.  These  observations  and  conclu- 
sions are  all  the  more  significant  because 
no  provision  is  made  for  such  on-the-spot 
investigations  of  non-self-governing  terri- 
tories. 

British  Trust  Territories 

British  Togoland  has  been  adminis- 
tered as  an  integral  part  of  the  Gold 
Coast  since  1922.  Because  the  southern 
section  of  British  Togoland  shares  with 
the  Gold  Coast  Colony  and  Ashanti, 
which  compose  the  general  coastal  area, 
a  more  advanced  stage  of  civilization  than 
does  the  northern  section,  it  also  shares 
in  a  larger  degree  in  the  new  Gold  Coast 
Constitution,  which  provides  for  one 
member  from  Togo.  This  member  to  the 
Gold  Coast  Legislative  Council  is  elected 
by  the  Southern  Togoland  Council,  which 
consists  of  3  representatives  from  each 
of  the  6  Native  Authorities.  These  Native 
Authorities,  advised  by  government  tech- 
nicians, administer  the  areas  under  their 
jurisdiction.  With  the  specific  approval 
of  the  District  Commissioners  in  the  case 
of  temporary  orders  and  of  the  Chief 
Commissioner  in  the  case  of  more  per- 
manent regulations,  the  Native  Authori- 
ties may  legislate  on  purely  local  matters. 
The  northern  section  does  not  yet  have  a 
member  in  the  Gold  Coast  Legislature, 
and  its  Native  Authorities  are  usually 
composed  of  a  Chief  and  Sub-Chiefs. 
The  people  are  only  just  beginning  to 
exercise  the  right  to  vote. 

The  British  Cameroons,  which  is  ad- 
ministered as  an  integral  part  of  Nigeria, 
has  represenetatives  in  the  Eastern  and 
Northern  regional  Houses,  2  in  the 
Northern  House  of  Chiefs,  1  in  the  House 
of  Assembly,  2  in  the  Eastern  House  of 
Assembly.  The  Cameroons  is  also  repre- 
sented by  a  small  number  of  members  in 
the  Nigerian  Central  Legislature.  The 
British  trust  territories  in  West  Africa 
are  thus  gradually  benefiting  from  the 
progress  toward  self-government  in  the 
Gold  Coast  and  Nigeria,  just  as  the 


French  trust  territories  are  moving  slowly 
toward  integration  in  the  French  Union 
along  with  the  French  overseas  terri- 
tories. 

But  the  retardation  noted  with  respect 
to  British  East  Africa  and  the  Belgian 
Congo  is  reflected  in  Tanganyika  and  in 
Ruanda-Urundi.  A  report  of  the  UN 
General  Assembly  dated  Oct.  9,  1951, 
reveals  its  concern  for  conditions  in  those 
two  territories  where  political  advance- 
ment is  particularly  slow. 

The  General  Assembly  is  still  disturbed 
lest  plans  for  an  East  African  Adminis- 
trative Union,  including  Tanganyika, 
Kenya,  and  Uganda,  may  involve  polit- 
ical changes  that  will  violate  the  prin- 
ciples and  purposes  of  the  Trusteeship 
System.  Satisfaction  was  expressed  by 
the  Trusteeship  Council  that  4  Africans 
had  been  appointed  members  of  a  Com- 
mittee on  Constitution  for  Tanganyika 
and  that  a  fourth  African  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  the  Territorial  Legislative 
Council.  But  the  Trusteeship  Council 
also  called  attention  to  the  absence  of 
any  electoral  law  in  the  territory  and 
expressed  the  hope  that  the  number  of 
Africans  on  the  Legislative  Council 
would  soon  be  increased  to  8  and  that 
they  would  be  elected  rather  than  ap- 
pointed. The  Council  also  recommended 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  provincial 
councils  and  the  number  of  African 
members  of  these  councils.  The  British 
administering  authorities,  however,  have 
continued  to  oppose  the  point  of  view  of 
the  Trusteeship  Council  that  tribal  organ- 
ization constitutes  an  obstacle  to  the 
political  and  social  progress  of  the 
Native  population.  Britain  has  further 
contended  that  it  has  been  difficult  to  find 
"Africans  capable  of  participating  use- 
fully and  effectively  in  the  deliberations 
of  the  Legislative  Council  and  who  at  the 
same  time  would  really  represent  the 
masses  of  the  people." 

Belgian  Trust  Territories 

The  Trusteeship  Council  also  continues 
to  keep  a  close  watch  on  the  administra- 
tive union  of  Ruanda-Urundi  with  the 


TRUST  TERRITORIES 


355 


Belgian  Congo  to  make  sure  that  it  like- 
wise does  not  violate  the  principles  and 
purposes  of  the  Trusteeship  System. 
Special  note  was  taken  that  no  legislative 
organ  in  the  Belgian  Congo  has  any 
powers  over  Ruanda-Urundi  and  that  the 
Vice-Government  General,  which  has 
consultative  powers  and  which  might  be 
transformed  into  a  legislative  body,  sits 
in  the  trust  territory.  The  Trusteeship 
Council  congratulated  Belgium  on  having 
admitted  two  members  of  the  Bami  tribe 
to  permanent  seats  on  the  Vice-Govern- 
ment General  and  expressed  hope  that 
this  body  would  soon  have  legislative 
powers.  For  the  time  being,  it  consists  of 
22  members,  7  ex-officio  and  15  ap- 
pointed. In  view  of  the  current  attitude 
of  the  Belgian  government  with  respect 
to  the  administration  of  the  Congo,  it  is 
pertinent  to  note  the  conclusion  of  the 
UN  Visiting  Mission  to  Ruanda-Urundi 
in  1948:  since  the  administration  of  the 
trust  territory  had  achieved  considerable 
material  results,  "might  it  not  now  be 
opportune  ...  to  allow  them  [the  Na- 
tives] a  greater  share  and  a  greater  voice 
in  the  administration  of  the  country?  .  .  . 
Overcautious  and  timid  experiments  are 
not  enough;  the  machinery  must  reso- 
lutely be  set  in  motion.  .  .  .  The  Mission 
feels  that  the  general  attitude  of  the 
European  administration  towards  the 
Native  authorities  might  perhaps  be 
modified  in  some  way.  ...  It  is  possible 
that  Belgian  Officials  might  not  all  be 
conscious  of  this  attitude  of  paternalism 
reminiscent  of  the  father  whose  very 
solicitude  prevents  him  from  seeing  that 
his  children  are  growing  up  and  that  the 
possibility  of  their  emancipation  has 
become  a  reality." 

New  Guinea 

This  same  attitude  of  "paternalism" 
apparently  controls  Australian  policy  in 
New  Guinea.  This  is  a  backward  area, 
of  which  only  some  40,000  out  of  93,000 
square  miles  have  been  brought  under 
effective  control,  with  an  additional 
35,000  under  partial  control.  Australia 
is  considering  the  establishment  of  Na- 


tive village  councils,  which  would  be 
authorized  to  submit  any  matter  to  an 
Advisory  Council  for  Native  Affairs.  In 
addition,  any  Native,  or  any  other  person 
with  the  permission  of  the  Advisory 
Council,  may  bring  to  the  attention  of 
the  latter  matters  affecting  Native  wel- 
fare. The  Council  will  tender  advice  to 
the  administrator  on  the  subject.  It  is 
expected  that  Natives  will  constitute  a 
majority  of  the  members  of  the  Advisory 
Council.  Village  councils  will  have  func- 
tions, as  fixed  by  Australian  law,  relating 
to  the  peace,  order,  and  welfare  of  the 
Natives. 

Italian  Somaliland 

Largely  as  a  result  of  the  "Catholic 
bloc"  in  the  UN,  Italy  has  been  made 
Trustee  for  Italian  Somaliland.  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  Somalian  Youth  League, 
the  Government  of  Ethiopia,  and  publi- 
cists who  remember  Italian  atrocities  in 
East  Africa  doubt  the  wisdom  of  this 
action  of  the  UN  General  Assembly. 
While  the  nations  that  voted  for  the  ten- 
year  trusteeship  by  Italy  have  hailed  with 
praise  the  report  of  the  administration  of 
Italian  Somaliland,  critics  point  to  the 
inability  of  Italy  to  promote  economic 
stability  at  home  without  aid  from  the 
United  States  and  express  doubt  that 
Italy  will  voluntarily  relinquish  control 
at  the  end  of  ten  years.  Prince  Valerio 
Borghese,  leader  of  the  neo-Fascist  Ital- 
ian Social  Movement,  is  already  demand- 
ing the  return  of  the  former  Italian 
colonies. 

South  West  Africa 

The  status  of  South  West  Africa  is  all 
the  more  disturbing  because  the  present 
Malan  government  has  gone  further  than 
the  Smuts  government  in  proclaiming 
and  enforcing  the  inferiority  of  Africans 
and  Indians.  Despite  all  the  efforts  of 
the  UN.  and  the  friendly  advice  of  indi- 
vidual nations,  the  Union  seems  deter- 
mined to  incorporate  this  former  mandate 
as  a  fifth  province.  In  1946,  1947,  and 
1948,  the  Union  was  invited  to  propose 
a  trusteeship  agreement  for  the  territory. 


356 


TRUST  AND  OTHER  TERRITORIES 


Since  the  Union  refused  to  comply  with 
the  request,  the  General  Assembly  asked 
the  International  Court  of  Justice  for  an 
advisory  opinion.  The  Court  decided  that, 
although  the  Union  is  not  legally  ob- 
ligated to  place  the  territory  under 
the  trusteeship  system,  it  does  continue 
to  have  international  obligations  under 
Article  XXII  of  the  Covenant  of  the 
League  and  the  Mandate  Agreement,  as 
well  as  the  obligation  to  transmit  peti- 
tions and  annual  reports  to  the  UN, 
which  is  to  exercise  supervisory  functions. 
The  Court  also  unanimously  decided  that 
the  Union  cannot  unilaterally  change  the 
international  status  of  the  territory;  com- 
petence to  do  so  rests  with  the  Union 
acting  with  the  consent  of  the  UN.  The 
Union,  however,  has  refused  to  agree 
to  supervision  of  the  territory  identical 
with  that  formerly  provided  by  the  Per- 
manent Mandate  Commission,  which 
would  be  implemented  by  special  machin- 
ery patterned  after  the  League's  Man- 
date system.  When  the  Fourth  (Trus- 
teeship) Committee  of  the  Sixth  General 
Assembly  voted  at  Paris  in  Decomber 
1951  to  hear  the  oral  petition  of  Herero 
chiefs  from  South  West  Africa,  the  Union 
withdrew  its  delegate  from  the  Com- 
mittee and  threatened  to  withdraw  from 
the  UN.  The  Union  took  the  position  that 
since  the  Trusteeship  Council  has  no 
jurisdiction  over  South  West  Africa,  the 
right  of  oral  petitions  has  no  basis. 

Education 

Since  the  basic  problems  of  education 
discussed  with  respect  to  the  non-self- 
governing  territories  apply  also  to  the 
trust  -territories,  it  will  suffice  to  sum- 
marize the  educational  provisions  for  the 
latter. 

British  Territories 

In  British  Togoland,  out  of  approxi- 
mately 95,692  children  of  school-going 
age  only  29,461  were  in  school  in  1949, 
something  less  than  one-third.  Although 
the  population  of  the  northern  section  is 
higher  than  that  of  the  southern  by 
37,618,  there  were  only  877  children  of 


the  former  in  school.  Students  desiring 
secondary,  technical,  and  higher  educa- 
tion must  go  outside  the  Territory.  A 
small  fee  is  charged  for  education  in  the 
southern  section  and,  except  in  the  gov- 
ernment day  schools,  in  the  northern 
section.  Special  provisions  are  made  for 
needy  cases. 

About  one-eighth  of  the  children  of 
school  age  are  in  school  in  the  British 
Cameroons.  Here  too,  better  facilities 
exist  in  the  southern  part.  In  1950,  there 
were  28,333  children  in  the  primary 
schools  out  of  a  total  population  of  325,- 
900.  But  only  1,818  children  out  of  a 
total  population  of  725,000  were  in  school 
in  the  northern  part.  Both  of  the  second- 
ary schools  in  the  territory  are  in  the 
southern  part.  No  fee  is  charged  for 
primary  education  in  the  northern  part, 
and  in  the  southern  part  the  small  fee 
is  often  remitted. 

The  education  of  Natives  in  Tanganyika 
is  progressing  steadily  but  slowly,  too 
slowly  in  the  opinion  of  the  sixth  session 
of  the  Trusteeship  Council.  The  total 
number  of  children  in  school  rose  from 
127,012  in  1947  to  149,356  in  1948  to 
164,626  (out  of  some  1,833,124  children) 
in  1949.  In  the  last  year  only  2,082  were 
in  secondary  schools.  Primary  education 
in  the  government  schools  is  free;  in  the 
government  secondary  schools  there  is  a 
boarding  fee  of  100  shillings  a  year.  No 
fee  is  charged  at  the  teacher  training 
schools,  attended  by  some  2,500  students. 
The  whole  cost  of  the  education  of  34 
students  at  Makerere  College  in  Uganda 
is  borne  by  the  government.  The  Trustee- 
ship Council  in  its  sixth  session  recom- 
mended the  establishment  of  institutions 
of  higher  learning  in  the  territory,  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  fellowships  for 
students  studying  outside  of  Africa,  im- 
provement in  conditions  for  training 
teachers  and  professors,  and  special  at- 
tention to  education  of  girls  and  young 
women.  The  Trusteeship  Council  "noting 
that  the  segregation  of  European,  Asian 
and  African  children  in  separate  schools 
incurs  the  danger  of  perpetuating  ideas 
of  racial  discrimination  and  superiority," 


TRUST  TERRITORIES 


357 


endorsed  the  recomendation  of  the  Visit- 
ing Mission  that  the  Administering  Au- 
thority consider  establishing  a  system  of 
primary  and  secondary  education  with- 
out any  racial  discrimination  whenever 
education  was  given  in  the  same  language. 
As  a  result  of  repeated  admonitions  by 
the  Trusteeship  Council,  it  appears  that 
educational  facilities  in  Ruanda-Urundi 
are  likewise  being  steadily  but  slowly  ex- 
panded. The  number  of  students  in 
primary  schools  had  increased  from  326,- 
500  in  1947  to  420,000  (out  of  a  total 
school-age  population  of  some  750,000) 
in  1948.  Secondary  education  is  being 
provided,  and  there  will  be  a  sufficient 
number  of  students  to  justify  the  open- 
ing of  a  university  center  in  1955.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  recommendations  made  with 
respect  to  Tanganyika,  the  sixth  session 
of  the  Trusteeship  Council  recommended 
that  the  Administering  Authorities  of 
Ruanda-Urundi  and  Tanganyika  study 
the  standardization  of  the  Swahili  lan- 
guage and  that  the  services  of  UNESCO 
be  utilized  to  this  end. 

French   Territories 

In  1950,  there  were  155  government 
primary  schools  attended  by  17,068  boys 
and  4,061  girls  in  the  French  Cameroons. 
Since  the  population  is  close  to  3,000.000, 
this  represents  less  than  10%  of  the  chil- 
dren of  school  age.  Many  of  the  teachers 
are  Frenchmen.  In  some  of  the  schools 
white  and  colored  children  sit  side  by 
side.  Catholic  mission  schools  were  at- 
tended by  62,231  pupils  and  Protestant 
mission  schools  by  30,594.  Both  are 
largely  subsidized  by  the  government. 
There  were  820  pupils  in  secondary 
schools,  with  an  undesignated  number  in 
technical  schools.  Seventy-six  scholarship 
students  from  the  Cameroons  were  at- 
tending secondary  schools  in  France. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  French  Togo- 
land  20%  of  the  population  can  read  and 
write  French  or  English  and  about  5% 
the  vernacular  languages  (Ewe,  Mina, 
Arab).  There  are  190  government  teach- 
ers, all  but  16  Natives;  18  Catholic 
teachers,  all  but  16  Natives;  51  Protes- 


tant teachers,  all  but  3  Natives.  About 
25,000  students  were  in  school.  The  ad- 
ministration was  particularly  proud  of 
the  high  school  at  Lome,  a  veritable 
French  high  school  in  Togoland. 

New  Guinea 

In  New  Guinea  education  is  free,  but 
the  only  facilities  provided  in  1948  were 
for  primary  and  technical  education. 
Since  there  was  not  one  secondary  school 
and  no  provision  for  sending  students  out 
of  the  territory,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
"no  Native  had  reached  a  secondary 
school  standard  of  education."  At  that 
time,  47  Natives  were  being  trained  for 
teaching.  The  Administering  Authority 
has  indicated  that  steps  have  been  taken 
to  provide  secondary  schools  for  the  Na- 
tive population. 

Industry,  Labor,  Social  Welfare 

When  the  UN  Visiting  Mission  was  in 
the  French  Cameroons  in  1949,  complaint 
was  made  against  the  minimum  salary  of 
about  16tf  a  day.  In  some  instances  not 
even  this  minimum  was  paid.  The  pro- 
posed monthly  salary  of  2,000  francs  for 
Africans  was  contrasted  with  that  of 
25,000  francs,  plus  social  security,  for 
Europeans.  The  Mission  cautiously  con- 
cluded that  inadequate  studies  of  the  cost 
of  living  made  it  impossible  to  determine 
the  real  value  of  Native  salaries.  In 
French  Togoland  the  minimum  varied 
from  26tf  to  46tf  a  day.  In  the  British 
Cameroons  in  1948,  the  daily  wage 
ranged  from  15tf  to  70$ ;  in  British  Togo- 
land  from  55$  to  65$.  In  Ruanda-Urundi 
(1947)  it  was  approximately  32$.  Work- 
ers engaged  in  mining  in  Tanganyika 
received  from  $4  to  $6  a  month  in  1949; 
agricultural  workers,  from  $3  to  $9.  In 
New  Guinea  the  Administration  fixed 
monthly  wages  for  plantation  and  mine 
workers  at  $2.40,  with  employers  supply- 
ing such  food  and  housing  as  they  con- 
sidered necessary.  In  New  Guinea,  which 
has  no  trade  unions,  almost  50%  of  the 
Native  workers  were  indentured  in  1948. 
The  Administering  Authority  hoped  to 
eliminate  this  baneful  condition  in  a  few 
years. 


358 


TRUST  AND  OTHER  TERRITORIES 


There  has  been  some  increase  of  co- 
operatives and  trade  unions  in  the  French 
Cameroons.  The  largest  of  the  trade 
unions,  affiliated  with  the  French  Gen- 
eral Confederation  of  Labor,  had  some 
12,000  members.  Of  the  British  trust 
territories,  only  the  Cameroons  had  trade 
unions  that  might  be  considered  worthy 
of  the  name.  Here  there  are  3  unions 
with  a  combined  membership  of  nearly 
20,000. 

Social  welfare  is  left  largely  in  the 
hands  of  the  family  or  tribe.  The  Admin- 
istering Authorities  confine  their  activi- 
ties largely  to  dispensing  medical  atten- 
tion and  programs  for  disease  prevention 
and  control.  Even  in  these  attempts  the 
territories  suffer  from  an  inadequate  num- 
ber of  doctors  and  nurses.  In  British 
Togoland,  for  example,  there  are  only  5 
physicians  and  3  hospitals,  plus  a  large 
number  of  medical  centers,  to  service 
382,768  residents;  however,  nearby  hos- 
pitals in  the  Gold  Coast  are  open  to 
them.  Australia  has  indicated  that  polit- 
ical control  is  extended  into  remote  areas 
by  first  offering  much-needed  medical 
attention.  An  increasing  number  of 
Africans  from  trust  territories  are  par- 
ticipating in  continental  conferences  on 
disease  and  pest  control. 


CONCLUSION 

Especially  since  the  deterioration  of  rela- 
tions between  the  West  and  the  Soviet 
bloc,  the  rate  of  progress  in  trust  and 
non-self-governing  territories  has  been  ac- 
celerated. While  some  statesmen  see 
cause  for  alarm  in  the  spread  of  Com- 
munism in  Africa,  it  is  likely  that  the 
spirit  of  nationalism  is  causing  the 
greater  amount  of  unrest.  One  of  the 
greatest  problems  of  modern  times  is  the 
execution  of  plans  by  the  Administering 
Authorities  with  sufficient  energy  to  sat- 
isfy the  legitimate  demands  for  self- 
government  or  equal  integration  and  for 
the  educational,  social,  and  economic 
development  of  these  territories  without 
proceeding  with  such  haste  that  their 
best  interests  will  be  endangered.  The 
experience  of  newly  emerging  nations, 
especially  Indonesia  and  Libya,  should 
provide  an  opportunity  for  realistic  study 
of  this  dilemma.  In  the  meanwhile,  the 
progress  of  the  trust  and  non-self-govern- 
ing territories  as  set  forth  in  the  official 
publications  of  the  UN  should  be  care- 
fully followed  by  those  who  envision  the 
elimination  of  colonialism  in  the  twen- 
tieth century  to  complete  the  elimination 
of  slavery  in  the  nineteenth. 


24 
Awards,  Honors,and  Other  Distinctions 


THE  LISTS  that  follow  are  not  all-inclusive 
but  give  a  view  of  the  wide  range  of 
awards,  honors,  and  other  distinctions 
that  are  received  by  Negroes  from  time 
to  time.1 

Persons  in  "Who's  Who  in 
America  1950-51" 

"The  standard  of  admissions  to  Who's 
Who  in  America  divides  the  eligibles  into 
two  classes:  (1)  those  selected  on  ac- 
count of  special  prominence  in  creditable 
lines  of  effort,  making  them  the  subjects 
of  extensive  interest,  inquiry  or  discus- 
sion; and  (2)  those  included  arbitrarily 
on  account  of  official  position — civil,  mili- 
tary, religious  or  educational." 

On  the  basis  of  these  standards,  the 
names  and  occupations  of  Negroes  ap- 
pearing in  Volume  26  follow.2 

Anderson,  Marian — Contralto 
Atkins,  Francis  L. — College  Pres. 
Atwood,  Rufus  B. — College  Pres. 
Bacoats,  John  A. — Educator,  Clergyman 
Barnett,  Claude  A. — Newspaper  Exec. 
Barthe,  Richmond — Sculptor 
Bell,  William  A. — College  Pres. 
Bethune,  Mary  McLeod — College  Pres.  Emeri- 
tus 

Bluford,  Ferdinand  D. — College  Pres. 
Bond,  Horace  M. — College  Pres. 
Bond,  J.  Max — Educator,  Administrator 
Bontemps,  Arna  W. — Author 
Bowen,  John  W.  E. — Bishop 
Brawley,  James  P. — College  Pres. 
Brice,  Carol — Concert  Singer 
Brooks,  Robert  N. — Bishop 
Brown,  Aaron — Educator 
Bunche,  Ralph  J.— Educator  (UN  Official) 
Cade,  Johnson — College  Teacher,  Dean 
Caliver,  Ambrose — Educator 
Carter,  Randall  A. — Bishop 
Clark,  Eugene  A. — College  Pres. 
Clark,  Felton  G. — University  Pres. 
Clement,  Rufus  E. — University  Pres. 
Cobb,  James  A. — Lawyer 
Colston,  James  A. — College  Pres. 


Cotter,  Joseph  S. — Author,  Educator 

Daniel,  Robert  P.— College  Pres. 
Davis,  Benjamin  O. — Army  Officer 
Davis,  John  W. — College  Pres. 
Davis,  Lawrence  A. — College  Pres. 
Davis,  Walter  S. — College  Pres. 
Dawson,  William  L. — Congressman 
Demby,  Edward  T. — Bishop 
Dent,  Albert  W. — University  Pres. 
Derbigny,  Irvin  A. — College  Dean 
Drake,  Joseph  F. — College  Pres. 
Drew,8  Charles  R. — Surgeon 
DuBois,  William  E.  B. —Editor,  Author 
Dudley,  Edward  R. — Ambassador 
Duncan,  Todd — Concert  Singer 
Dunham,  Katherine — Dancer,  Choreographer 
Elder,  Alfonso — Educator 
Ellison,  John  M. — Educator 
Evans,  Edward  B. — College  Pres. 
Evans,  James  C. — Govt.  Official 
Ferrell,  Harrison  H. — College  Dean 
Foster,  Laurence — Anthropologist 
Fountain,  William  A.,  Sr. — Bishop 
Franklin,4  John  H. — Professor 
Frazier,  Edward  F. — Sociologist 
Gibson,  Truman  K.,  Jr. — Lawyer 
Glass,  Dominion  R. — College  Pres. 
Gomillion,  Charles  G. — Educator 
Granger,    Lester   B. — Social    Service   Admin- 
istrator 

Grant,  George  C. — College  Dean 
Gray,5  William  H.,  Jr.— College  Pres. 
Gregg,  J.  A. — Bishop 

Handy,  William  C. — Composer 

Harris,  Abram  L. — University  Prof. 

Harris,  Marquis  L. — College  Pres. 

Harris,  Rugh  M. — College  Pres. 

Harrison,  G.  Lamar — University  Pres. 

Hastie,  William  H. — Federal  Judge 

Haynes,  George  E. — Sociologist 

Haywood,  John  W. — Clergyman 

Higgins,      Samuel     R. — Clergyman,     College 

Pres. 

Hill,  Charles  L.— College  Pres. 
Hill,  Leslie  P. — Educator 
Holley,  Joseph  W. — Educator 
Holmes,8  Dwight  O.  W. — College  Pres. 
Houston,8  Charles  H. — Lawyer 
Howard,      Perry     W. — Member,     Republican 

Nat'l  Comm. 

•Hughes,  (James)  Langston — Author 
Hurston,  Zora  N. — Author 
Imes,  William  L. — Clergyman 
Jemison,  David  V. — Clergyman 


1  Where   dates   have   not  been   obtained    from   recognized   directories,    they   have   been   gathered    from    newspapers, 
magazines,  and  other  press  releases.  Omissions  of  some  persons  is  certain  to  have  occurred 
*  Dr.  Harry  W.  Greene,  Dir.  of  Educ.  Research,  W.  Va.  State  Col.,  Institute,  W.  Va.,  collaborated  on  this  list 

3  Deceased. 

4  Monthly  Supplement,   1948-49. 

5  Now  minister  and    newspaperman. 


359 


360 


AWARDS,  HONORS,  DISTINCTIONS 


Jenkins,  Martin  D.— Educator,  College  Pres. 
Johnson,     Campbell    C.— Army    Off.,     Social 

Worker 

Johnson,  Charles  S. — Educator 
Johnson,  Hall— Choral  Conductor 
Johnson,  Joseph  L. — Physician,  College  Dean 
Johnson,  Mordecai  W. — University  Pres. 
Jones,  David  D.— College  Pres. 
Jones,  Eugene  K. — Social  Worker 
Jones,  Gilbert  H. — Educator 
Jones,  Lawrence  C. — Educator 
Jones,  Robert  E. — Bishop,  Methodist  Church 
Jones,    Virginia    L.    (Mrs.    E.    A.    Jones) — 

Librarian 

Jones,  William  H.— College  Pres. 
Kelly,  Edward  W.— Bishop 
King,  Willis  J.— Bishop 
Lanier,1  Raphael  O'H. — Diplomat 
Lewis,  John  H. — Sch.  Admin.,  Clergyman 
Listen,  Hardy,  Sr. — College  Pres. 
Locke,  Alain  L. — Prof.  Philosophy 
Logan,  Rayford  W. — University  Prof. 
Matheus,  John  F. — College  Prof. 
Maynor,  Dorothy — Soprano 
Mays,  Benjamin  E. — College  Pres. 
McCrorey,2  Henry  L. — Educator 
Moore,  Herman  E. — Judge 
Moore,  Richard  V. — Pres.,  Bethune-Cookman 

Col. 

Moron,  Alonzo  G. — Institute  Exec. 
Murphy,  Carl — Journalist 
Murray,  Peter  M. — Gynecologist 
Nelson,  William  S. — University  Dean 
Patterson,     Frederick     D. — Pres.,     Tuskegee 

Inst. 

Pickens,  William— Govt.  Official 
Pipes,  William  H. — Educator 
Powell,  Adam  C.,  Jr. — Congress,  Clergyman, 

Author 

Powell,  Clilan  B. — Physician 
Prattis,  Percival  L. — Journalist 
Randolph,  Asa  P. — Labor  Leader 
Reuben,  Odell  R. — Educator,  Clergyman 
Robeson,  Paul — Concert  Singer 
Robinson,8  Jack  R. — Baseball  Player 
Robinson,    James    H. — Educator,    Sociologist, 

Social  Welfare  Exec. 
Russell,  James  A. — Clergyman 
Schuyler,  George  S. — Author,  Journalist 
Scott,  John  I.  E. — Educator 
Scruggs,  Sherman  D. — University  Pres. 
Sengstacke,  John  H.  H. — Publisher 
Shaw,  Alexander  P. — Editor,  Clergyman 
Still,  William  G. — Composer 
Taylor,  Alrutheus  A. — Educator 
Terrell,  Mary  C. — Lecturer,  Author 
Thompson,  Charles  H. — Educator 
Tobias,    Channing    H. — Direc.,    Phelps-Stokes 

Fund 

Townsend,  Willard  S. — Labor  Leader 
Trenholm,  Harper  C. — College  Pres. 
Trent,  William  J. — College  Pres. 
Wall,  William  J.— Bishop 
Walton,  Lester  A. — Diplomat,  Journalist 
Waters,  Ethel — Actress,  Singer 
Wesley,  Charles  H.— College  Pres. 
White,  Clarence  C. — Violinist,  Composer 
White,  Walter  F.— Author  (Secy.  NAACP) 
Williams,  Sidney  D. — College  Pres. 


Woodson,2  Carter  G. — Editor,  Author 

Wright,  Louis  T. — Surgeon 

Wright,  Richard — Author 

Wright,  Richard  R.,  Jr. — Bishop,  Educator 

Yarbrough,  Dean  S. — College  Dean 

Yerby,  Frank — Novelist 

Young,  P.  B.,  Sr. — Newspaper  Ed.,  Publisher 

Doctors  of  Philosophy,  1947-51' 

It  has  always  been  difficult  to  secure 
an  accurate  and  complete  list  of  scholars 
holding  the  Ph.D.  degree.  Because  of  in- 
tegration, accurate  listing  will  become 
more  and  more  difficult.  There  are  with- 
out doubt  many  additional  persons  whose 
names  should  appear  here.  Another  fac- 
tor— that  so  many  persons  are  now  re- 
ceiving this  degree  as  a  necessary  part 
of  their  equipment  for  an  academic  or 
research  career — makes  its  possession 
less  significant  than  formerly. 

1947 
Alston,  John  C.,  Ohio  State  U. — Research  & 

Statistics 

Banner,  William  A.,  Harvard  U. — Philosophy 
Bowen,  Hilliard  A.,  Ohio  State  U. 
Bryson,  W.  O.,  Jr.,  U.  of  Penna. — Economics 
Gopher,   Charles   B.,   Boston  U. — Old  Testa- 
ment Theology 

Curtis,   L.    Semington,  U.  of   Chicago — Eco- 
nomics 

Darlington,  Roy  C.,  Ohio  State  U. — Pharmacy 
Davis,  Alonzo,  J.,  U.  of  Minn. — Psychology 
Dorsey,  James  E.,  U.  of  Penna. — Music 
Eubanks,  John  B.,  U.  of  Chicago — History  of 

Culture 

Faggett,  Harry  L.,  Boston  U. — English  Liter- 
ature 
Fontellio-Nanton,  H.  I.,  State  U.  of  Iowa — 

Journalism-Sociology 
Foster,   Dwight   L.,   Cornell  U. — Agriculture 

(Soils) 

Hill,  Viola  J.,  Ind.  U.— English 
Irving,  James  L.,  Ohio  State  U. — Education 
Jarret,  Thomas  D.,  U.  of  Chicago — English 
Jones,    Thomas    B.,    Ohio    State    U. — Social 

Studies 

Kalibala,  Ernest,  Harvard  U. — Sociology 
Kelsey,  George  D.,  Yale  U. — Religion 
Kennedy,  Melvin  D.,  U.  of  Chicago — History 
King,  John  W.,  U.  of  Pittsburgh 
Martin,  Robert  E.,  U.  of  Chicago — Govern- 
ment 
Matthew,  Eunice  S.,  Cornell  U. — Education 

(Supervision) 

Matthews,  Basil,  Fordham  U. — Sociology 
Morton,    Lena    B.,    Western    Reserve    U. — 

English 

Munday,  R.  A.,  U.  of  Mass. — Poultry  Breed- 
ing &  Genetics 
Nyabongo,  Virginia  S.,  U.  of  Wis. — Romance 

Languages 
Phillips,  Hilton  A.,  U.  of  S.  Calif. 


1  Now  University  President. 

8  Deceased. 

8  Monthly  Supplement,  1948-49. 

4  In   collaboration   with   Dr.   Henry  W.   Greene,   Dir.   of  Educ.   Research.    W.   Va.    State    Col.,    Institute,    W.   Va. 


DOCTORS  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


361 


St.  Clair,  Sadie  D.,  N.Y.U.— History 
Saylor,  Edward,  Ohio  State  U. — Sociology 
Strong,  Anne  E.,  U.  of  Pittsburgh — Sociology 
Troup,    Cornelius   V.,    Ohio    State   U. — Edu- 
cation 

Wiggins,    Garrett   T.,    Ohio    State   U. — Edu- 
cation 
Williams,  Dorothy,  G.,  U.  of  Chicago — Library 

Science 

Wormley,  Margaret  J.,  Boston  U. — English 
Wright,  Howard  E.,  Ohio  State  U. 
Young,  William  L.,  U.  of  Pittsburgh — Soci- 
ology 

1948 

Beatty,  Donald,  Ohio  State  U. — Economics 
Birney,  James,  Syracuse  U. — Zoology 
Boykin,  Leander  L.,  Stanford  U. — Education 
Burgess,    Landry    E.,    State    U.    of    Iowa- 
Biology 
Cason,   Louis   F.,   Iowa   State   Col. — Organic 

Chemistry 

Charlton,  Everett  Von,  Columbia  U. — Music 
Christopher,    Nehemiah    McK.,    U.    of    Pitts- 
burgh— Educational  Admin. 
Codwell,  John  E.,  U.  of  Mich. — Education 
Cole,  Flournoy,  U.  of  Penna. — Economics 
Duncan,  Catherine  W.,  Ohio  State  U. — Edu- 
cation 
Durham,  Elizabeth,  Penna.  State  Col. — Home 

Economics 

Farrell,  Alfred,  Ohio  State  U. — English 
Fenderson,  Lewis,  U.  of  Pittsburgh — English 
Fisher,    Miles    M.,    U.    of    Chicago — Church 

History 
Fleming,  G.  James,  U.  of  Penna. — Political 

Science 

Ford,  Charles  M.,  U.  of  Wis. — Bacteriology 
Freeman,  Thomas  F.,  U.  of  Chicago — -Special- 
ized Preaching 

Froe,  Otis  D.,  U.  of  Chicago — Education 
Goff,  Regina  M.,  Columbia  U. — Child  Develop- 
ment 

Harris,  Albert  T.,  U.  of  Mich. — Education 
Harrison,  Elton  C.,  Ohio  State  U. — Education 
Hartshorn,   Herbert  H.,   U.   of   Pittsburgh — 

Education 

Henderson,   Clara  A.,   Ohio   State   U.— Edu- 
cation 

Hopson,  James  O.,  U.  of  Pittsburgh — English 
Horry,  Ruth  N.,  N.Y.U.— French  (Professors 

&  Teachers  of  French) 
Maize,  William  S.,  Rutgers  U. — Education 
Marion,    Claud    C.,    Cornell    U. — Agri.    Educ. 
Mays,  David  W.,  Ohio  State  U. — Agriculture 
Moses,  Earl  R.,  U.  of  Penna. — Sociology 
Nichols,  Charles,  Brown  U. — English 
Parnell,  John  V.,  Harvard  U. — Biology 
Phifer,  Juliete  V.,  N.Y.U.— Education 
Pittman,  J.  Avery,  Teachers  Col.,   Columbia 

U. — Educ.  Research 

Rhaney,  Mahlon  C.,  U.  of  Mich. — Zoology 
Rose,  Alvin  W.,  U.  of  Chicago — Sociology 
Smallwood,  Osborn  T.,  N.Y.U. — English 
Statterwhite,   Mildred   McK.,   U.  of  Calif. — 

Educ.  Psychology 

Walker,  Dorsey  E.,  U.  of  Mich. — History 
Wallace,  (Mrs.)  Elsie  H.,  Northwestern  U. — 

Education 

Wallace,  Phyllis  A.,  Yale  U. — Economics 
Weatherford,  Allen  E.,  Penna.  State  Col. — 
Physical  Educ. 

1  Nineteen  years  old,  one  of  the  nation's  youngest  Ph.D. 

2  First  Negro  woman  to  get  a  Ph.D.  in  Business. 


Weaver,     Ollie     G.,    Temple    U. — Education 

(Secondary) 
Welch,  Lucille — Education 

1949 

Anglin,  Robert  A.,  U.  of  Ind. — Sociology 
Banks,    William    S.,    Jr.,    Ohio    State    U.— 

Sociology 
Bellegarde,    Auguste   D.,    Laval   U.,    Quebec, 

Canada 

Bellegarde,  Ida,  Laval  U.,  Quebec,  Canada 
Brice,  Edward  W.,  U.  of  Penna. — Education 
Brisbane,  Robert  H.,  Harvard  U. — History  & 

Government 

Brooks,  George  T.,  U.  of  Kans. — Entomology 
Brooks,  Ulysses  E.,  U.  of  Chicago — Chemistry 
Brown,  William  H.,  Ohio  State  U. — Education 
Byrd,  Willis  E.,  U.  of  Iowa— Physical 

Chemistry 

Clayton  Mae  B.,  N.Y.  U.— Philosophy 
Coles,  Florney  H.,  U.  of  Penna. — Economics 
Clinch,  Vernie  C.,  U.  of  Kans. — History 
Crump,  William  L.,  Northwestern  U.- — Educ. 
Curtis,    William    C.,   Harvard   U. — Eng.    Sci- 
ences &  App.  Physics 
Davis,     Lawrence     A.,     Cornell     U. — Educ. 

Admin. 

Dickson,  Watson  D.,  Harvard  U. — English 
George,    Marion    C.,    Jr.,    Ohio    State    U. — 

Agronomy 

Hale,  William  H.,  U.  of  Chicago — Sociology 
Hayre,  Ruth  W.,  U.  of  Penna. — English 
Henry,  Ruth,  N.,  N.Y.  U.— Philosophy 
Jones,  James  B.,  U.  of  Wash. — Education 
Justiss,   Valarie   A.,    Ohio    State   U. — Social 

Admin. 

Long,  Herman  H.,  U.  of  Mich. — Sociology 
Mahaffey,  Theodore,  Ohio  State  U. — Business 

Educ. 

Mosley,  John  E.,  Ohio  State  U. 
Paige,1     Clement,     McGill     U. — Physiological 

Psych. 

Parker,    Sellers   J.,    Cornell   U.— Agri.    Educ. 
Pawley,  T.  D.,  State  U.  of  Iowa 
Ppsey,  Thomas  E.,  U.  of  Wis. — Economics 
Richards,  A.  J.,  State  U.  of  Iowa — Romance 

Languages  (French) 

Simmons,  J.  Andrew,  Columbia  U. — Education 
Southall,  Mitchell,  State  U.  of  Iowa — Music 

(Composition) 

Stanley,  Charles  J.,  Jr.,  Yale  U. — Education 
Strickland,  Margaret  J.,  U.  of  Chicago — 

Zoology 

Taylor,  Albert,  Jr.,  N.Y.U.— Education 
Totten,  Ezra  L.,  U.  of  Wis. — Biochemistry 
Totty,2  Samuella  V.,  U.  of  Chicago — Manage- 
ment &  Finance 
Watkins,     Alma     T.,     Cornell     U. — Spanish, 

French  &  Romance  Linguistics 
Weatherford,  Allen  E.,   Penna.   State  Col. — 

Health  Educ.  &  Recreation 
Williams,  Elspn  K.,  N.Y.U. — Education 
Wilson,  Raleigh,  State  U.  of  Iowa — History 
Woodson,  Leroy  H.,  Catholic  U.,  Washington, 

D.C. — Foreign  Languages 
Woolfolk,     Oscar     E.,     U.     of     Pittsburgh- 
Chemistry 

1950 

Bradley,  Walter  O.,  Catholic  U.,  Washington, 
D.C. — Zoology 


362 


AWARDS,  HONORS,  DISTINCTIONS 


Burbridge,1  Charles  E.,  State  U.  of  Iowa — 
Hospital  Admin. 

Burghardt,  William,  N.Y.U.— Physical  Educ. 

Claiborne,  Montraville  I.,  N.Y.U. — Educ. 
Psychology 

Clem,  William  W.,  Jr.,  U.  of  Wis. 

Colston,  James  A.,  N.Y.U. — Higher  Education 
Administration 

Crossley,  Frank,  111.  Inst.  of  Tech.— Metal- 
lurgy 

Davis,  John  A.,  Columbia  U. — Public  Law  & 
Government 

Dickinson,  Charles  E.,  Ohio  State  U. 

Ferguson,  Ira  L..  Columbia  U. — Hygiene  & 
Education 

Fitchett,  E.  Horace,  U.  of  Chicago — Sociology 

Frierson,  Marguerite  S.,  Ohio  State  U. — Edu- 
cation 

Coins,  William  F.,  Ohio  State  U. — Education 

Holland,  Jerome,  U.  of  Penna. — Sociology 

Hoover,  Cecile  A.  (Mrs.  Gerald  A.  Edwards), 
Iowa  State  Col. — Nutrition 

Jackson,  Lewis,  Ohio  State  U. — Education 

Johnson,  Mary  E.,  U.  of  Paris — Philosophy 
of  French  Lit. 

Jordan,2  Mildred  N.,  Penna.  State  Col.— Tex- 
tile Chemistry 

Mapp,  Everette,  Chicago  U. — Zoology 

Nowlin,  William  F.,  Ohio  State  U.— Political 
Science 

Payne,  Arvella,  N.Y.U. — Economics  &  Bus. 
Admin. 

Pitts,  Nathan  A.,  Catholic  U.  of  America — 
Social  Science 

Pride,  Armistead  S.,  Northwestern  U. — Jour- 
nalism 

Proctor,    Bernard    S.,    Ohio    State   U. — Educ. 

Robinson,  Leonard  H.,  Ohio  State  U. — Soci- 
ology 

Russell,  Randa,  U.  of  Mich. — Physical  Educ. 

Saine,  M.  Lynette,  U.  of  Chicago — Education 

Sikes,  Melvin  P.,  U.  of  Chicago — Education 

Simmons,  Charles,  U.  of  111. — Education 

Singletary,  James  D.,  U.  of  Chicago — Educa- 
tion 

Smith,  Charles  U.,  State  Col.  of  Wash.— 
Sociology 

Yancey,  Sadie,  Cornell  U. — Psychology 

1951 

Allman,  Reva  W.,  U.  of  Mich. — Education 
Amos,  Harold,  Harvard  U. — Science 
Arnold,  Adam,  U.  of  Wis. — Business  Admin. 
Arnold,   Shirley,  U.  of  Wis. — Commerce 
Barksdale,  Richard  E.,  Harvard  U. — English 
Bradley,  Walter  O.,  Catholic  U.  of  America 

— Zoology   (Bacteriology) 
Brown,  Florence,  U.  of  111. — Sociology 
Campfield,  William  L.,  U.  of  111. — Accounting 
Cobb,  Robert  S.,  Jr.,  Ohio  State  U.— Health 

&  Physical  Educ. 

Cunningham,  Frank,  Boston  U. — Philosophy 
Edwards,  Gerald  A.,  U.  of  Buffalo — Physical 

Chemistry 
Foster,  Luther  H.,  Jr.,  U.  of  Chicago — Educ. 

Admin. 

Gooden,  Julius  H.,  Ohio  State  U. — Agricul- 
ture 


Kirk,  James  H.,  St.  Louis  U. — Sociology 
Lane,  Lenora  C.,  U.  of  Minn. — Child  Welfare 

&  Educ.  Psychology 
Lee,    Carleton   L.,    U.   of   Chicago — Ethics   & 

Society 

Lee,  Maurice  A.,  U.  of  Chicago — Education 
Lewis,  H.  G.,  U.  of  Chicago — Sociology 
May,  A.   Florence,  Northwestern  U. — Speech 

Educ. 
Mayberry,    Bennie    D.,    Mich.    State    Col. — 

Horticulture 

Murray,  Thelma  T. — Education 
Nelson,  Sophia,  U.  of  Pittsburgh — English 
Oliver,    James    B.,    U.    of    Montreal — Anglo- 
Saxon  Philology 

Phillips,  Sophia,  U.  of  Pittsburgh — English 
Proctor,  Nathaniel  K.,  U.  of  Penna. — Zoology 
Reynolds,  C.  J.,  Harvard  U. 
Shellhaas,  Joseph  B.,  Ohio  State  U. 
Singleton,  Stanton  J.,  Ohio  State  U. 
Stewart,  Albert  C.,  St.  Louis  U. — Chemistry 
Taylor,    Henry   L.,    Cornell    U. — Agricultural 

Educ. 

Taylor,  Julius  H.,  U.  of  Penna. — Physics 
Wiley,  Walter  E.,  Ohio  State  U. 
Wilson,  Marie  S.,  U.  of  Chicago — Linguistics 

• 

Persons  Elected  to 
Phi  Beta  Kappa,  1947-51 

1947 

Harris,  Murel  H.,  U.  of  S.  Calif. 
Mitchell,  Robert  E.,  Ohio  State  U. 
Turner,  Darwin,  U.  of  Cincinnati 

1948 

Beam,  Lillian  K.,  Ohio  State  U. 
Werd,  James  D.,  Denver  U. 

1949 

De  Priest,  Oscar  S.,  Ill,  Harvard  U. 
Evans,    Barbara,    Flora    Stone    Mather    Col., 

Western  Reserve 
Evans,    Margaret,    Flora    Stone   Mather   Col., 

Western  Reserve 

Locke,  Dorothy,  U.  of  Calif,  at  L.A. 
Walls,  Esther  J.,  State  U.  of  Iowa 
Wynge,  Johnny,  U.  of  Calif,  at  L.A. 

1950 

Hunn,  Dora  V.,  U.  of  S.  Calif. 
Macbeth,  Arthur,  U.  of  Calif,  at  L.A. 
Norman,  Jack,  Harvard  Medical  Sch. 

1951 

Davis,  June,  Smith  College 
Harrison,  Margie,  U.  of  Kansas 
Hunt,  Sybil,  Hunter  College 
McClain,  Richard,  U.  of  Kansas 

General  Awards,  Honors,  and 
Distinctions,  1951-1 951s 

ALFRED  B.  NOBEL  PEACE  PRIZE  :  Given  in 
1951  to  Ralph  J.  Bunchc,  UN  mediator  in 
Palestine ;  a  gold  medal,  a  diploma,  and 
$31,674.08.  Dr.  Bunche  is  the  first  person  of 
his  race  to  whom  a  Nobel  Prize  has  been 
awarded. 


1  First  person   of   his   race   and   second   in   the   country   to   receive   a   Ph.D.    in   Hospital   Administration.    Elected 
8  1 1  I-       M  American    Hospital   Administrators,    September    1951.    the    only    Negro    thus    honored    so    far. 

*  First  Negro  awarded  a  Ph.D.  in  Textile  Chemistry. 
Because   of   the   large   number   of  awards   received   during   the   period    1947-51,    it   is   impossible    to   include   all. 

>r  awards  in  sports,   see  chapter  on  SPOETS.  For  press  awards,   see  chapter  on   THE   NEGRO   PRESS.   Included   here 
are  some   white  persons   who  were  honored   because   of  activity   in   interracial   work. 


GENERAL  AWARDS  AND  HONORS 


363 


ROBERT  S.  ABBOTT  AWARD  :  In  memory  of 
founder  of  "Chicago  Defender" ;  Citation  and 
silver  plaque. 

Madame  Vijaya  Lakshmi  Pandit  (1950) 

President  Truman's  Committee  on  Equality 
of  Treatment  and  Opportunity  in  the  Armed 
Services  (1951) 

ROBERT  S.  ABBOTT  SCHOLARSHIP  :  Estab- 
lished by  "Chicago  Defender" ;  $500  each 
year  to  outstanding  students  in  Sch.  of  Jour- 
nalism, Lincoln  Univ.,  Mo. 

Spoffard  L.  Blackwcll  (1950) 

Kanu  C.  Okoro  (1950) 

Nina  Redd  (1951) 

AMERICAN  PUBLIC  RELATIONS  Ass.  MERIT 
AWARD  :  To  Howard  University,  Washington, 
D.C.,  for  outstanding  achievement  in  field  of 
international  relations  (1950). 

MARIAN  ANDERSON  SCHOLARSHIPS  :  Marian 
Anderson  won  Edward  Bok  Award  of  $10,000 
in  1941,  used  it  to  endow  grants  to  deserving 
young  singers ;  administered  by  Marian  An- 
derson Scholarship  Fund  of  Phila.,  Pa. 

Martha  Z.  Flowers,  New  York  City,  $1,000 
(1950) 

Georgia  Ann  Laster,  Los  Angeles,  Calif., 
$1,000  (1951) 

ANISFIELD-WOLF  AWARD:  Annually  for 
best  book  on  race  relations.  $1,000  to  Shirley 
Graham;  for  her  book,  "Your  Most  Humble 
Servant,"  biography  of  Benjamin  Banneker 
(1950). 

ANTI-BIAS  AWARDS  :  By  City  Comm.  on 
Human  Relations,  Chicago,  111. 

Lucy  P.  Garner  for  "distinguished  profes- 
sional service  in  bettering  intergroup  rela- 
tions" (1950) 

Carson  Pirie  Scott  &  Company  for  "be- 
coming the  first  state  department  store  to 
operate  on  a  fair  employment  practice  policy" 
(1950) 

Thornas  Crowe,  pres.  Catholic  Interracial 
Council ;  for  "promoting  understanding  of 
human  relations  problems"  (1950) 

Hyde  Park-Kenwood  Community  Confer- 
ence for  "work  with  a  racially  changing  com- 
munity in  maintaining  peace  and  harmony" 
(1950) 

Virginia  Mason,  Parent-Teachers  Ass. ;  for 
"her  work  with  local  parent-teachers  associ- 
ations for  study  and  action  on  human  rela- 
tions problems"  (1950) 

South  Congregational  Church  for  "opening 
its  services  to  all  persons,  regardless  of  race 
and  national  origin"  (1950) 

Perry  Wolfe,  producer-author  of  "The 
Quiet  Answer,"  radio  program  on  minority 
problems,  Station  WBBM  (1950) 

ATHERTON  MEMORIAL  AWARD  :  By  Univ. 
of  Montreal,  Canada,  to  Dr.  James  B.  Oliver 
for  "superior  scholarship  and  outstanding  re- 
search in  the  field  of  Old  English  Philology" 
(1951). 

ATLANTA  UNIV.  ANNUAL  EXHIBITION  OF 
PAINTINGS,  SCULPTURE  &  PRINTS  BY  NEGRO 
ARTISTS  :  Begun  in  1942  to  present  the  best 
creative  work  by  living  Negro  artists  in  oil 
and  water  color,  to  encourage  Negro  artists 
to  achieve  as  high  a  standard  of  work  as  pos- 
sible, to  discover  latent  talent,  to  stimulate 
art  education,  and  to  increase  an  appreciation 
of  the  fine  arts.  All  prize-winning  works  be- 


come part  of  Atlanta  Univ.  Collection.  Only 
first  awards  are  listed  here. 

William  Artis,  Syracuse,  N.Y. ;  first  At- 
lanta Univ.  Purchase  Award  of  $250,  "The 
Quiet  One,"  sculpture  (1951) 

Warren  L.  Harris,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. ;  first 
At.  Univ.  Pur.  Award  of  $125,  "East  River," 
water  color  (1950) 

John  Howard,  Pine  Bluff,  Ark. ;  John 
Hope  Pur.  Award  of  $250,  best  landscape, 
"Arkansas  Landscape,"  oils  (1950) 

Eddie  F.  Jordan,  Orangeburg,  S.C. ;  Ed- 
ward B.  Alford  Pur.  Award  of  $250,  "Ma- 
donna and  Child,"  sculpture  (1950) 

James  R.  Reed,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Edward  B. 
Alford  Pur.  Award  of  $300,  best  portrait  or 
figure  painting,  "Depressed,"  oil  (1950) 

Donald  H.  Roberts,  Washington,  D.C. ;  first 
At.  Univ.  Pur.  Award  of  $125,  "Peace,  It's 
Wonderful,"  water  color  (1951) 

Samclla  Sanders,  Baltimore,  Md. ;  first  At. 
Univ.  Pur.  Award  of  $25,  "Cane  Field,"  print 
(1950) 

Walter  A.  Simon,  Petersburg,  Va. ;  first  At. 
Univ.  Pur.  Award  of  $300,  best  portrait  or 
figure  painting,  "String  Dance,"  oil  (1951) 

Merton  D.  Simpson,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. ;  John 
Hope  Pur.  Award  of  $250,  best  landscape, 
"Landscape  Symphony,"  oil  (1951)  ;  first  At. 
Univ.  Pur.  Award  of  $150,  any  subject,  "Por- 
trait of  the  Wise  Men,"  oil  (1950) 

S.  Charles  White,  New  York  City;  first 
At.  Univ.  Pur.  Award  of  $25,  "John  Brown," 
print  (1951) 

Hale  A.  Woodruff,  New  York  City;  first 
At.  Univ.  Pur.  Award  of  $150,  any  subject, 
"The  Yellow  Bird,"  oil  (1951) 

BETA  DELTA  Mu  UNITY  AWARD  :  To  Ted 
Poston,  reporter ;  for  his  "efforts  to  promote 
interracial  brotherhood  and  amity"  (1951). 

MARY  McLEOD  BETHUNE  MEDALLION  : 

Marjorie  S.  Joyner,  exec,  of  Madam  C.  J. 
Walker,  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  past-pres.  Natl. 
Ass.  of  Beauty  School  Owners  &  Teachers 
(1951) 

D.  E.  Williams,  Fla.  State  Supvr.  of  Negro 
Education  (1950) 

MARY  E.  BORETZ  CONTEST  :  Conducted  by 
Child  Welfare  League  of  America ;  prizes  for 
manuscript  making  most  significant  contribu- 
tion to  field  of  child  welfare  during  past  year. 
First  prize  of  $250  and  citation  to  Lucile  T, 
Lewis,  Supvr.,  Negro  Div.,  Child  Welfare 
Ass.,  Atlanta,  Ga.  (1951). 

BOY  SCOUTS  OF  AMERICA  AWARD  :  To  Dr. 
Ralph  J.  Bunche,  Silver  Buffalo  Award  for 
"distinguished  service  to  boyhood"  (1951). 

EDWARD  STUTIFF  BRAINARD  MEMORIAL 
PRIZE  :  By  Columbia  Univ.  to  Norman  Skin- 
ner, talented  sports  star,  who  graduated  with 
650  other  seniors  at  Columbia  College  (1950). 

HEYWOOD  BROUN  AWARD:  (See  chapter  on 
THE  NEGRO  PRESS.) 

RALPH  J.  BUNCHE  SCHOLARSHIPS  :  Four 
$350  scholarships  established  by  Oslo  Univ. 
for  American  students  to  study  in  Norway ; 
available  through  gift  from  Ass.  of  Electro- 
Chemical  &  Electro-Metallurgical  Industries 
of  Norway.  To  Anita  Lyons,  specialist  in 
speech  correction,  public  schools,  Kansas  City, 
Mo. ;  to  study  at  Univ.  of  Oslo,  Norway 
(1951). 


364 


AWARDS,  HONORS,  DISTINCTIONS 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON  CARVER  FELLOW- 
SHIPS: The  George  Washington  Carver 
Foundation,  incorporated  at  Tuskegee  Inst., 
offers  research  fellowships  and  assistantships 
to  students  who  have  received  undergraduate 
degree  with  major  in  science  from  accredited 
institutions  and  whose  records  indicate  re- 
search ability  and  aptitude  for  advanced  work 
in  science ;  covering  work  in  chemistry  and 
areas  of  agricultural  sciences  in  which  Tuske- 
gee Inst.  offers  work  on  graduate  level.  Dur- 
ing 1944-51,  fellowships  and  assistantships 
awarded  to  32  individual  students,  with  ag- 
gregate sum  of  $49,620  paid  as  stipends. 

Houston  G.  Brooks,  Jr.,  Alexandria,  Va. — 
Chemistry — 1950-51 

Julius  Con-way,  Jr.,  Covington,  Ky. — Chem- 
istry—1950-51 

Nina  M.  Johnson,  Beaufort,  N.C. — Nutri- 
tion— 1951 

Caselle  C.  Knox  II,  Memphis,  Tenn. — 
Chemistry — 1950-51 

Bennie  Lacy,  Spur,  Tex. — Chemistry — 1951 

Thomas  M.  Madison,  Austin,  Tex. — Chem- 
istry— 1950-51 

John  C.  Moore,  Federal  Point,  Fla. — 
Agronomy — 1950-5 1 

Bruce  C.  Neale,  Jr.,  New  Orleans,  La. — 
Chemistry — 1950-51 

Odell  O.  Owens,  Gadsden,  Ala. — Chemistry 
—1950 

Lolla  M.  Patterson,  Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala. — 
Nutrition — 1950-51 

Hillard  W.  Pouncy,  Jr.,  Apalachicola,  Fla. 
— Chemistry — 1950-51 

James  R.  Rhone,  Oklahoma  City,  Okla. — 
Chemistry — 1951  • 

Homer  H.  Turner,  Birmingham,  Ala. — 
Chemistry — 1951 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON  CARVER  MEMORIAL 
AWARD  :  Gold  plaque,  annually  by  Carver 
Memorial  Inst.  for  outstanding  contributions 
to  betterment  of  race  relations. 

Jackie  Robinson,  second  baseman  of  Brook- 
lyn Dodgers  (1950) 

Lewis  S.  Rosenstiel,  pres.  and  chrmn.  of 
bd.,  Schenley  Industries,  Inc.  (1951) 

CHICAGO  TRIBUNE  CIVILIAN  HERO  AWARDS  : 
$100  a  month  awarded  persons  who  have  put 
themselves  in  great  personal  danger  above 
and  beyond  the  duty  of  citizenship.  To 
Gerald  Best  and  Joseph  Wyatt,  students  of 
Dunbar  Trade  and  Vocational  Sch.,  Chicago, 
111. ;  for  braving  smoke  and  flame  to  rescue 
two  children  left  in  a  locked  and  blazing 
apartment  (1950). 

CHICAGOAN  OF  THE  YEAR  :  To  Dr.  Percy 
L.  Julian,  chemist,  direc.  of  research,  Soya 
Products,  Div.  of  Glidden  Co.  (1950). 

DR.  CHRISTIAN  CONTEST  :  Awards  made 
yearly  by  Cheseborough  Manufacturing  Co. 
To  Carl  Holman,  prof.  English,  Clark  College, 
Atlanta,  Ga. ;  $350  for  his  script,  "The  Other 
One"  (1950). 

CHRISTIAN  STREET  YMCA  EMBLEM  CLUB 
AWARD  (Phila.,  Pa.)  :  To  Josephine  Baker, 
for  "distinguished  interracial  service"  (1951). 

CHOPIN  SCHOLARSHIP:  First  of  annual 
series  by  Kosciuszko  Foundation,  New  York 
City,  to  talented  young  pianists  and  com- 
posers. To  Roy  Eaton,  New  York  City; 
$1,000,  after  nationwide  competition  (1950). 


CITIZEN  OF  THE  YEAR  :  To  Dr.  E.  Franklin 
Frazier,  sociologist,  Howard  Univ. ;  from 
Ted  Poston,  toastmaster,  annual  Press  Club 
Banquet,  New  York  City  (1950). 

COMMITTEE  FOR  THE  NEGRO  IN  ARTS  : 
Scroll  to  William  Warfield  for  "his  outstand- 
ing contributions  in  music  and  the  theatre" 
(1951). 

DECALOGUE  SOCIETY  OF  LAWYERS'  MERIT 
AWARD  :  To  Dr.  Percy  L.  Julian,  plaque  for 
"distinguished  service  to  his  country  as  a 
patriot  and  scientist,  for  his  outstanding  cre- 
ative achievements  in  the  interest  of  the  com- 
mon good,  for  the. boon  and  blessings  his  sci- 
entific learning  and  discoveries  have  bestowed 
upon  man,  for  his  unparalleled  devotion  to  the 
needs  of  humanity,  the  cause  of  decency  and 
the  progress  of  free  America"  (1950). 

DIAMOND  CROSS  OF  MALTA  :  By  Phila- 
delphia Cotillion  Society,  presented  by  Miss 
Marian  Anderson  to  Dr.  Ralph  J.  Bunche  for 
"upholding  the  highest  ideals  of  American 
citizenship  and  his  maintenance  of  the  rights 
of  all  men,"  Convention  Hall,  Phila.,  Pa. 
(1950). 

BILLBOARD  MAGAZINE'S  DONALDSON  AWARD  : 
To  Todd  Duncan,  singing  star  of  "Porgy  and 
Bess"  (1951). 

"DRAW  THE  DREAM  You  SAVE  FOR"  CON- 
TEST :  Co-sponsored  by  Nat'l  Cartoonist  Soc. 
and  Savings  Bonds  Div.  of  U.S.  Treasury. 
To  Bernard  C  havers,  12,  fourth  grade  student 
Madison  St.  Sch.,  Ocala,  Fla. ;  first  colored 
student  winner  of  a  national  cartoonists' 
contest  (1951). 

EDWIN  R.  EMBREE  MEMORIAL  SCHOLAR- 
SHIPS :  In  memory  of  president  of  Julius 
Rosenwald  Fund.  (See  National  Scholarship 
Service  &  Fund  for  Negro  Students.) 

FORD  FOUNDATION  FACULTY  FELLOWSHIPS  : 
Dr.  Albert  W.  Dent,  pres.  Dillard  Univ.,  New 
Orleans,  La.,  is  only  Negro  member  of  coun- 
try-wide committee  appointed  to  administer 
faculty  fellowship  program,  for  which  Ford 
Foundation  has  appropriated  $2,250,000 ; 
fundamental  purpose :  to  provide  opportuni- 
ties for  teachers  of  demonstrated  ability  not 
employed  for  next  year  but  having  assur- 
ances of  employment  following  year. 

Gladys  Childress,  ass.  prof,  music,  South- 
ern Univ. ;  to  work  toward  her  doctorate  at 
Columbia  Univ.  and  Juilliard  Sch.  of  Music 
(1951) 

Astor  W.  Kirk,  prof,  gov't.,  Tillotson  Col- 
lege, Austin,  Tex.  (Of  14  Texas  professors 
who  received  fellowships,  Mr.  Kirk  is  only 
Negro  so  honored)  (1951) 

Dr.  Winston  McAllister,  ass.  prof,  philoso- 
phy, Howard  Univ. ;  for  study  at  Univ.  of 
Mich.  (1951-52) 

FOUR  FREEDOMS  AWARD:  Bestowed  in  com- 
memoration of  public  service  of  Franklin  D. 
Roosevelt,  to  person  who  has  done  most  for 
the  cause  of  the  Four  Freedoms.  Ferdinand 
Pecora,  former  N.Y.  State  Supreme  Court 
Justice,  is  chairman  of  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt 
Four  Freedoms  Award  Committee.  To  Dr. 
Ralph  J.  Bunche,  UN  mediator  in  Palestine 
(1951). 

FREEDOMS  FOUNDATION  AWARDS  :  Estab- 
lished 1949,  Valley  Forge,  Pa. ;  cash  awards 


GENERAL  AWARDS  AND  HONORS 


365 


($100,000)  and  honor  medals  annually  for 
outstanding  sermons,  editorials,  addresses, 
cartoons,  etc.,  on  American  Way  of  Life.  To 
Rev.  Kenneth  R.  Williams,  member  Bd.  of 
Aldermen,  Winstpn-Salem,  N.C. ;  for  cour- 
ageous fight  against  control  of  unions  in 
Winston-Salem  'by  Communists  (highest 
award  presented  any  colored  American  or 
for  any  event  about  race  relations)  (1951). 

FUND  FOR  ADVANCEMENT  OF  EDUCATION 
FELLOWSHIPS  : 

G.  Murray  Branch,  Faculty  of  Religion, 
Morehouse  College ;  $4,200  for  study  towards 
doctorate  at  Hebrew  Union-Jewish  Inst.  of 
Religion,  Cincinnati,  Ohio  (1951) 

James  Pendcrgrast,  prof,  chemistry,  A.&T. 
College,  N.C.  (1951) 

INTERNATIONAL  AWARD:  Annually  by  Wom- 
en for  Achievement,  Inc.,  to  women  who 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  world,  na- 
tion, and  state  affairs.  To  Edith  S.  Sampson, 
native  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  practicing  lawyer 
in  Chicago,  appointed  in  1950  by  President 
Truman  as  an  Alternate  Delegate  to  UN 
General  Assembly ;  based  on  her  varied  ex- 
perience, including  travel  to  important  cen- 
ters of  the  world  with  World  Town  Hall 
Seminar. 

IRVING  GEIST  FOUNDATION  AWARDS:  (See 
chapter  on  THE  NEGRO  PRESS.) 

GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD  GRANT  FOR  RE- 
SEARCH &  STUDY  :  To  Dr.  Alain  L.  Locke, 
prof,  philosophy,  Howard  Univ.,  Washington, 
B.C.  (1951-52). 

GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD  SCHOLARSHIPS: 
Awarded  to  limited  number  of  most  prom- 
ising seniors  in  accredited  southern  colleges, 
selected  by  colleges  on  basis  of  exceptional 
intellect,  imagination,  personality  and  schol- 
arship. The  Board  hopes  students  will  obtain 
best  training  available  in  their  fields  of  study 
and  eventually  pursue  careers  in  southern 
colleges  and  universities,  contributing  to 
improvement  of  education  in  the  South. 
Scholarships  provide  tuition  and  certain  re- 
quired fees,  travel  to  and  from  place  of 
study,  and  subsistence  stipend  of  $1,125. 
Award  is  for  one  academic  year,  not  renew- 
able. 

Nathaniel  A.  Crippens,  Tenn.,  Dept.  of 
Educ.,  consultant  for  in-teacher  training  and 
ass.  prof,  education  at  A.&I.  State  College ; 
to  study  education  at  Univ.  of  Chicago 
(1951) 

Will  Gray,  Jr.,  graduate  Morehouse  Col- 
lege, native  of  Winchester,  Tenn.  (1950) 

Charles  W.  Johnson,  graduate  Fisk  Univ., 
native  of  San  Antonio,  Tex. ;  to  study  mathe- 
matics at  Mass.  Inst.  of  Tech.  (1951) 

Elisabeth  Jones,  graduate  Spelman  College ; 
to  pursue  advanced  courses  in  literature  at 
institution  of  her  choice  (1950) 

Linda  R.  Samuels,  New  York  City,  senior 
Fisk  Univ. ;  to  study  sociology  at  Cornell 
Univ.  (1951) 

Francis  Simmonds,  St.  Thomas,  Virgin  Is., 
graduate  Morehouse  College  (1950) 

John  Vaughan,  Louisville,  Ky.,  senior  Fisk 
Univ. ;  to  teach  and  do  graduate  work  in 
physics  at  Dartmouth  College  (1951) 

W.  Bruce  Welch,  head  Dept.  of  Educ.  and 
direc.  Educational  Testing  Bureau  and  Read- 


ing Clinic,  Jackson  College,  Jackson,  Miss. ; 
to  study  at  Indiana  Univ.  (1950) 

GOTHAM  CLUB  ACHIEVEMENT  AWARD  (New 
York  City)  : 

Dennis  Baron,  first  Negro  appointed  to 
faculty  of  Fordham  Univ.;  trophy  (1950) 

Althea  Gibson,  tennis  star,  Fla.  A.&M. 
College;  trophy  (1950) 

JOHN  SIMON  GUGGENHEIM  FELLOWSHIPS  : 
Established  by  late  U.S.  Senator  Simon  Gug- 
genheim and  Mrs.  Guggenheim  as  memorial 
to  son ;  to  further  research  and  artistic  crea- 
tion. Fellowships  provide  opportunities  for 
men  and  women  of  high  ability,  regardless 
of  race,  creed  or  color.  To  Dr.  John  H. 
Franklin,  prof,  history,  Howard  Univ. ;  to 
study  southern  travelers'  reactions  to  north- 
ern civilization  during  1800-60  (1950). 

HAMPTON  INST.  ALUMNI  ACHIEVEMENT 
AWARD  :  To  /.  G.  St.  Clair  Drake,  member 
faculty  Roosevelt  College,  Chicago,  111.,  co- 
author of  "Black  Metropolis" ;  presented  at 
Hampton's  81st  commencement  (1951). 

HERALD  TRIBUNE  SPRING  FESTIVAL  AWARD  : 
To  Elizabeth  Yates,  for  "the  most  outstand- 
ing book  in  the  'books  for  older  children' 
group,  published  since  the  first  of  the  year," 
"Amos  Fortune,  Free  Man"  (1950). 

SIDNEY  HILLMAN  SCHOLARSHIPS  & 
AWARDS  :  These  scholarships  and  awards  to 
several  colleges  and  organizations,  including 
grant  of  $5,000  to  Univ.  of  Chicago  for  a 
text-book  study  to  "root  out  the  teaching  of 
prejudice  and  discrimination,"  were  an- 
nounced April  1951.  Other  awards  given  an- 
nually by  Amalgamated  Clothing  Workers 
of  America,  CIO,  went  to :  Southern  Regional 
Council,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  $5,000  for  Sidney 
Hillman  lecture  series;  $2,500  for  improving 
race  relations  and  social  justice  in  the  South  ; 
Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.C.,  $2,000 ; 
Fisk  Univ.,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  $1,000. 

HISPANIC  INST.  OF  COLUMBIA  UNIV.  POETRY 
RECITATION  CONTEST  :  To  Joseph  D.  demons, 
senior  Long  Island  Univ.,  N.Y. ;  first  prize, 
volume  of  poems,  in  annual  inter-collegiate 
contest  in  Spanish  (1951). 

HORACE  HEIDT'S  ORIGINAL  YOUTH  OPPOR- 
TUNITY PROGRAM  (Minneapolis,  Minn.)  :  To 
Jesse  Owens,  baritone,  winner  of  first  quarter 
finals ;  $750  first  prize  for  his  rendition  of 
"Glory  Road"  (1950). 

JAMES  J.  HOEY  AWARD  :  Established  by 
family  of  late  James  J.  Hoey,  former  Federal 
collector  of  internal  revenue,  N.Y.,  and  one 
of  organizers  and  first  president  of  N.Y. 
Catholic  Interracial  Council.  Council  annu- 
ally presents  silver  medal  to  a  Negro  and  a 
white  Catholic  layman  for  rendering  "the 
greatest  service  during  the  year  to  the  cause 
of  interracial  justice." 

Dr.  Francis  M.  Hammond,  head  Dept.  of 
Philosophy,  Seton  Hall  College,  S.  Orange, 
N.J.  (1951) 

/.  Howard  McGrath,  U.S.  Attorney-Gen- 
eral (1950) 

Lou  Montgomery,  pres.  Catholic  Inter- 
racial Council,  Hartford,  Conn.  (1950) 

Mrs.  Roger  L.  Putnam,  Springfield,  Mass., 
founder  and  pres.  Catholic  Scholarships  for 
Negroes  (1951) 


366 


AWARDS,  HONORS,  DISTINCTIONS 


HOWARD  UNIV.   ALUMNI  AWARDS: 

Dr.  F.  D.  Bluford,  Greensboro,  N.C. ;  for 
achievement  in  education  (1951) 

Dr.  Roderick  Brown,  Jr.,  Huntington,  W. 
Va. ;  for  achievement  in  medicine  (1950) 

Dr.  Leonard  H.  B.  Foote,  Tallahasse,  Fla. ; 
for  achievement  in  medicine  (1951) 

Oliver  W.  Hill,  attorney,  first  Negro  elec- 
ted member  City  Council  of  Richmond,  Va., 
since  1888;  for  achievement  in  law  (1950) 

Jesse  H.  Mitchell,  pres.  Industrial  Bank  of 
Washington,  D.C. ;  for  achievement  in  busi- 
ness (1950) 

Spottswood  W.  Robinson,  attorney,  Rich- 
mond, Va. ;  for  achievement  in  law  (1950) 

HOWARD  UNIV.  NAT'L  COMPETITIVE  SCHOL- 
ARSHIP WINNERS  FOR  1951  :  For  high  school 
seniors  and  graduates  who,  in  national  or 
area  competition,  meet  following  qualifica- 
tions: placement  among  first  six  students  on 
Howard  Univ.  Nat'l  Competitive  Scholarship 
Exam.,  superior  scholarship,  specific  ability 
in  course  student  anticipates  taking,  need, 
personality. 

AWARD  OF  $2,000 :  To  Betty  J.  Herbert, 
Washington,  D.C. 

AWARDS  OF  $1,000: 

Alcee  O.  Courtney,  Gary,  Ind. 

Daniel  A.  Hall,  Phila.,  Pa. 

Geddcs  W.  Hanson,  Bronx,  N.Y. 

Florence  E.  Jackson,  Staten  Is.,  N.Y. 

William    R.    Jones,    Louisville,    Ky. 

Reginald  Washington,  New  York  City 

AWARDS  OF  $500 : 

Mercedes  B.  Allain,  Washington,    D.C. 

Geraldyne  Baker,   Middletown,    Ohio 

William  A.  Cooper,  Lexington,   Ky. 

Bernard  C.  Dyer,  Charleston,  W.  Va. 

Joel  E.  Gibson,  Chicago,  111. 

Elisabeth  L.  Haakmat,  Charleston,   S.C. 

Beatrice  V.  Lomax,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Clarence   C.    Martin,    Pleasantville,    NJ. 

Leslie  L.  Morris,  New  York  City 

Mary  F.  Moss,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

Carlton  Rush,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Barbara  E.  Thompson,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

HOWARD  UNIV.  RECIPIENTS  OF  SCHOLAR- 
SHIPS &  FELLOWSHIPS  TO  GRADUATE  SCHOOL, 
WINTER  QUARTER,  1951  : 

John  E.  Anderson,  Hinton,  W.  Va. — Ro- 
mance Languages 

Ernest  Blacker,  Washington,  D.C. — Psy- 
chology 

Sarah  E.  Brooks,  Tyler,  Tex. — Romance 
Languages 

Krishnaprasad  Bhansali,  Gijarat,  India — 
Zoology 

_  Martha  L.  Coffee,  Washington,  D.C. — So- 
ciology 

Philmore  Crichlow,  Washington,  D.C. — 
Zoology 

Obbonaga  Emeruwa,  Kano,  Nigeria — Eco- 
nomics 

Luther  S.  Evans,  Washington,  D.C. — Phi- 
losophy 

David  A.  Franks,  Washington,  D.  C. — 
Mathematics 

Spurgeon  R.  Gaskins,  Washington,  D.C. — 
Botany 

William  A.  Giles,  Washington,  D.C. — Eng- 
lish 

Thomas  Gilmore,  Newark,  NJ. — Religious 
Education 


Gordy  Hammond,  Atlanta,  Ga. — Economics 
John   Harvard,   Elizabeth  City,   N.J. — Psy- 
chology 

Rufus  Lyons,  Brookhaven,  Miss. — Educa- 
tion 

James  W.  Mayo,  Atlanta,   Ga. — Physics 
Wilma     McGeachy,     Washington,     D.C. — 
Zoology 

Christopher  McHoney,  Washington,  D.C. — 
Botany 

Fits.  H.  Morrison,  Washington,  D.C. — Zool- 
ogy 

Lucille  Murray,   Richmond,   Va. — Zoology 
Bernice  L.  Norman,  Boston,  Mass. — Home 
Economics 

Ruth  Pelzer,   Philadelphia,   Pa. — Sociology 
Wilbert  C.  Petty,  Asheville,  N.C.— -Art 
John  A.  Steele,  Charlotte,  N.C. — Chemistry 
Bernice  Strickland,   Charleston,   W.   Va. — 
Romance  Languages 

John  B.  Teeple,  Baltimore,  Md. — Psychol- 
ogy 

Clarence  Vaughn,  Richmond,  Va. — Chem- 
istry 

Anita   Webster,  Chicago,   111. — Economics 
Roger     Wilkins.     Newport     News,     Va. — 
Mathematics 

Ruby  Williams,  Lakewood,  N.J. — English 
Louis  N .  Williams,  Nashville,  Tenn. — Psy- 
chology 

Yolande  R.  Williams,  Washington,  D.C. — 
Mathematics 

James  F.  Wise,  Jr.,  Washington,  D.C. — Art 
Romaine  S.  W.  Walker,  Yeadon,  Pa. — Eng- 
lish 

Andranetta  Yeldell,  Washington,  D.C. — 
Mathematics 

HUMANITY  GOLD  MEDAL  AWARD  :  Parama- 
hansa  Yogananda,  founder,  and  Bd.  of  Di- 
rectors of  Self-Realization  Fellowship  Church 
announced  following  winners  : 

Producer,  writer,  director,  and  members 
of  cast  of  "Stars  in  My  Crown,"  for  con- 
tribution toward  humanitarian  service  ;  Juano 
Hernandez,  San  Juan,  Puerto  Rico,  was 
member  of  cast  (1951). 

Dr.  J.  A.  Sommerville,  first  colored  person 
appointed  member  of  Los  Angeles  Police 
Comm.  (1951) 

INTERNATIONAL  SINGING  COMPETITION  AT 
GENEVA,  SWITZERLAND:  To  Mattiwilda  Dobbs, 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  first  prize  winner  (1951). 

IOWA  STATE  COLLEGE  ALUMNI  MERIT 
AWARD  :  Bestowed  upon  outstanding  alumni 
for  meritorious  service  in  their  fields  and  for 
contributions  to  their  fellowmen.  To  Dr.  Rus- 
sell W.  Brown,  prof,  bacteriology,  chrmn. 
Graduate  Sch.,  Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala.  (1951). 

LINCOLN  UNIV.  AWA^D  (Pa.)  : 

Judge  Herbert  E.  Millen,  Lincoln  Univ., 
Class  of  1910  (1951) 

Dr.  E.  P.  Roberts  (81),  New  York  City's' 
oldest  colored  physician,  graduate  of  Lin- 
coln Univ.,  Pa.,  in  1891  (1950) 

SIGMUND  LIVINGSTON  MEMORIAL  FUND  OF 
CHICAGO  FELLOWSHIPS  :  Named  for  founder 
of  Anti-Defamation  League  of  B'nai  B'rith 
(Jewish)  ;  fellowship  available-  to  university 
social  science  departments,  organized  and 
equipped  for  research  in  problems  of  inter- 
group  relations.  Universities  themselves  ap- 
point the  fellows. 


GENERAL  AWARDS  AND  HONORS 


367 


Lois  Johnson,  graduate  student,  Dept.  of 
Sociology,  Atlanta  Univ.  (1951) 

Eula  M.  Jones,  graduate  student,  Dept.  of 
Sociology,  Atlanta  Univ.  (1951) 

Leatrice  Taylor,  graduate  student,  Dept.  of 
Sociology,  Atlanta  Univ.  (1951) 

LOUISVILLE  TUBERCULOSIS  Ass.  CONTEST: 
To  Marguerite  Mack,  Central  High  Sch. 
senior,  Louisville,  Ky. ;  $5  in  school  contest, 
$25  in  city-county  contest,  $50  in  state  con- 
test for  her  essay,  "What  Can  Be  Done  to 
Prevent  the  Spread  of  Tuberculosis?"  (1951) 

Lox  AND  BAGEL  HUMAN  RELATIONS  AWARD 
(Jewish  Award)  :  To  Dr.  Clarence  Holmes, 
dentist,  Denver,  Col. ;  for  outstanding  fight 
for  minority  rights  and  work  as  founder  of 
Cosmopolitan  Club  (1951). 

MANHATTANVILLE  COLLEGE  OF  THE  SACRED 
HEART  SCHOLARSHIP  (New  York  City)  :  To 
Geraldine  Vivian  Henry,  senior  St.  Brigid 
High  Sch.,  Xenia,  Ohio;  $1,700  per  year  for 
four  years  (1951). 

JOHN  MARSHALL  COLLEGE  SCHOLARSHIP: 
Set  up  by  trustees  when  disbanded  in  1951, 
and  its  facilities  acquired  by  Seton  Hall 
College.  To  Phil  Thigpen  for  his  "splendid 
example  of  a  real  Setonian  both  in  the  class 
room  and  in  athletic  competition"  (1951) 

MEDAL  OF  VALOR,  NATIONAL  HEADLINERS 
CLUB:  (See  chapter  on  THE  NEGRO  PRESS). 

MEMBER  OF  DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMM.  ON 
WOMEN  IN  THE  SERVICES:  Established  1951 
by  U.S.  Department  of  Defense  to  help  guide 
armed  forces  in  efforts  to  expand  women's 
services  by  many  thousands  of  volunteers. 
Dorothy  I.  Height,  New  York  City,  is  one 
of  48  outstanding  women  to  serve  on  the 
newly  created  committee  (1951). 

METROPOLITAN  OPERA  AUDITIONS  OF  THE 
AIR:  (See  chapter  on  Music.) 

MIAMI  UNIV.  ACHIEVEMENT  AWARD: 
Plaque  and  annual  award,  born  out  of  in- 
spiration of  Campus  Interracial  Club.  To 
Nat  "King"  Cole  and  his  Trio,  "in  recog- 
nition of  their  outstanding  achievement  in 
the  musical  field  which  has  encouraged  better 
interracial  relations"  (first  time  a  trio  has 
been  so  honored)  (1950). 

MISSOURI  STATE  FAIR  ARTS  COMPETITION 
(Sedalia,  Mo.)  :  To  Ted  D.  Johnson,  senior 
art  major,  Lincoln  Univ.,  Mo. ;  first  prize  in 
oil  painting  (1950). 

LUCY  E.  MOTEN  TRAVEL  FELLOWSHIPS: 
By  Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.C. 

John  W.  Coleman,  Washington,  D.C. ;  $700 
to  study  bio-physics  at  Univ.  of  Gottingen 
and  live  6  weeks  among  the  Germans  (1950) 

Billie  Henderson,  New  York  City ;  $700  to 
travel  and  study  in  England,  observing  and 
collecting  data  on  National  Health  Plan  of 
that  country  (1950) 

Patricia  Huggins,  Baton  Rouge,  La. ;  $700 
to  make  a  six  weeks'  tour  and  study  com- 
parative cultures  in  Western  Europe  (1950) 

NATIONAL  Ass.  FOR  ADVANCEMENT  OF  COL- 
ORED PEOPLE  CITATION  :  To  Thurgood  Mar- 
shall, "America's  outstanding  civil-rights 
lawyer"  (1951). 

NATIONAL  CONFERENCE  OF  CHRISTIANS  AND 
JEWS  HUMAN  RELATIONS  AWARDS  :  Citations 


in  recognition  of  services  in  bettering  human 
relations,  by  Chicago  Women's  Division.  To 
Dr.  Mary  McLeod  Bethune,  founder  and 
pres.  Bethune-Cookman  College  (1951). 

NATIONAL  INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS  AND  LETTERS 
GRANT  :  To  Shirley  Graham,  noted  biographer 
of  famous  Negroes;  $1,000  (1950). 

NATIONAL  SCHOLARSHIP  SERVICE  &  FUND 
FOR  NEGRO  STUDENTS  :  Founded  by  Mrs. 
Felice  N.  Schwartz,  New  York  City,  to  help 
colored  students  get  scholarships  in  non- 
segregated  U.S.  colleges ;  gave  service  to  764 
students  in  1950.  Ten  supplementary  scholar- 
ships of  $200  to  $400  each  and  8  Edwin  R. 
Embree  awards  made  in  July  1951  (Edwin 
R.  Embree  Memorial  supplementary  scholar- 
ships, $100  to  $400,  named  in  honor  of  late 
Dr.  Embree,  who  served  as  Direc.  Nat'l 
Scholarship  Service  until  his  death). 

Kathryn  Corum,  St.  Paul,  Minn. — Mt. 
Holyoke  (1951) 

Shrylee  Dallard,  Phila.,  Pa.— Smith  (1951) 

Goldia  Dargan,  Columbia,  S.C. — Rockford 
(1951) 

Dorothy  Dean,  White  Plains,  N.Y. — Rad- 
cliffe  (1951) 

Lois  A.  Dickson,  Portland,  Me. — Bryn  Mawr 
(1951) 

Nina  Douglas,  Jacksonville,  Fla. — Black- 
burn (1951) 

Richard  Fairley,  Washington,  D.C. — Dart- 
mouth (1951) 

Moslyn  Hamilton,  Hope,  Ark. — Blackburn 
(1951) 

Anthony  Mason,  Baltimore,  Md. — Swarth- 
more  (1951) 

Joyce  Mitchell,  Sharon,  Pa.- — Bryn  Mawr 
(1951) 

Gurney  Nelson,  Columbia,  S.C. — Ohio  Wes- 
leyan  (1951) 

Laura  Pedro,  New  York  City — Skidmore 
(1951) 

Patricia  Rice,  Boston,  Mass. — Barnard 
(1951) 

Jewel  A.  Taylor,  Ansonia,  Conn. — Radcliffe 
(1951) 

John  E.  Walters,  Washington,  D.C. — 
Blackburn  (1951) 

Mary  E.  White,  Smithtown  Branch,  L.I. — 
Barnard  (1951) 

Nolan  Williams,  Washington,  D.C. — Har- 
vard Univ.  (1951) 

NATIONAL  URBAN  LEAGUE  FELLOWSHIP 
AWARDS  :  The  League's  Fellowship  program 
has  been  in  operation  for  more  than  40  years. 
The  Fellowships  are  awarded  for  graduate 
study  in  social  work.  Those  made  in  1950  and 
1951  follow: 

ADAM  HAT  FELLOWSHIPS  :  Made  possible 
by  grants  from  the  Adam  Hat  Company. 

George  Davis  (1950;  1851) 

Nellie  Hamm  (1951) 

Ivor  B.  Johnson  (1950) 

Maida   Springer   (1951) 

BENEZET  ASSOCIATION  OF  PHILADELPHIA 
FELLOWSHIPS:  In  memory  of  Anthony 
Benezet,  Quaker  philanthropist  and  hu- 
manitarian, to  residents  of  Philadelphia 
and  environs.  To  Delia  M.  Bell  (1950; 
1951). 

ELLA  SACHS  PLOTZ  FELLOWSHIPS  :  Made 
possible  by  funds  from  the  Ella  Sachs 
Plotz  legacy.  To  Doris  Carnegie  (1951). 


368 


AWARDS,  HONORS,  DISTINCTIONS 


NATIONAL  URBAN  LEAGUE  CERTIFICATES  OF 
RECOGNITION  :  To  grant  recognition  to  Amer- 
ican Negro  citizens  who,  in  the  course  of 
the  year  and  in  the  opinion  of  the  committee 
of  awards,  have  contributed,  some  humbly, 
some  with  outstanding  distinction,  to  the  rich 
heritage  of  our  nation.  Since  1948,  the  Na- 
tional Urban  League  has  yearly  given  an 
average  of  300  persons  a  certificate  of  recog- 
nition. 

Two  FRIENDS  AWARD  :  Made  annually  to  a 
Negro  and  a  white  citizen  who  have  co- 
operated in  an  outstanding  instance  of  inter- 
racial teamwork  for  the  good  of  the  Ameri- 
can community.  To  Dwight  R.  G.  Palmer, 
pres.  General  Cable  Corp.,  and  John  H.  Seng- 
stacke,  editor-publisher,  Chicago  Defender, 
for  their  work  as  members  of  President  Tru- 
man's Committee  of  Equality  of  Treatment 
and  Opportunity  in  the  Armed  Services 
(1951). 

EDWARD  M.  GREER  SCHOLARSHIP:  Scholar- 
ship of  $400,  given  to  two  students  during 
the  1951-52  school  year,  founded  by  Edward 
M.  Greer,  president,  Freer  Hydraulics.  Inc., 
Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  "to  encourage  and  assist 
young  Negroes  in  engineering  careers."  To 
Gustav  Loundermon,  Danville,  Va.,  Howard 
Univ.  electrical  engineering  student  (1951). 

JOHN  NEWBERRY  MEDAL  :  By  Children's 
Librarian  Section  of  American  Library  Ass., 
for  most  distinguished  contribution  to  Amer- 
ican literature  for  children.  To  Elizabeth 
Yates,  for  her  book,  "Amos  Fortune,  Free 
Man"  (1950) 

AGNES  WAHL  NIEMAN  FELLOWSHIPS  :  (See 
chapter  on  THE  NEGRO  PRESS.) 

NORTHERN  ILLINOIS  REGIONAL  SCHOLASTIC 
ART  CONTEST  :  To  Theresa  Stubbs,  Galesburg 
High  Sch.  junior,  Galesburg,  111. ;  seven  keys 
and  eight  place  awards  (1950). 

OHIO  STATE  UNIV.  SCHOLAR:  To  Samuel 
DuB.  Cook,  graduate  student,  Dept.  of  Po- 
litical Science ;  $400  with  exemption  from  all 
fees  except  a  $15  matriculation  levy  (1949- 
50). 

OLD  GOLD  GOBLET  AWARD  :  By  alumni  of 
DePauw  Univ.  To  Dr.  Percy  L.  Julian,  chem- 
ist, direc.  of  research,  Soya  Products,  Div. 
of  Glidden  Co. ;  for  "eminence  in  life  and 
service  to  his  alma  mater"  (1950). 

ORDER  OF  COMMANDER  OF  MERIT  :  By  Gov- 
ernment of  Haiti.  To  Marian  Anderson, 
named  as  honorary  citizen  of  Port-au-Prince 
(1950). 

PAGE  ONE  AWARDS:  By  Durham  Press 
Club,  composed  of  newspaper  men  working 
in  the  Old  North  State. 

William  H.  Hastie,  Judge,  U.S.  Ct  of 
Appeals,  Third  Circuit  (1950) 

Conrad  O.  Pearson,  chrmn.,  N.C.  Legal 
Redress  Committee  of  NAACP ;  for  20  years 
in  forefront  of  legal  battle  to  get  equal 
graduate  and  professional  opportunities  for 
Negroes  (1951) 

C.  C.  Spaulding,  pres.  Mechanics  and  Far- 
mer s  Bank  and  N.C.  Mutual  Life  Insurance 
Co.,  Durham,  N.C.,  internationally  known 
religious,  civic,  and  business  leader ;  honored 
in  his  home  city  for  the  first  time  on  a  large 
scale  (1951) 


Lt.  Ellison  Wynn,  Greensboro.  N.C.,  win- 
ner of  Distinguished  Service  Cross  for  con- 
spicuous bravery  in  the  Korean  zone  (1951) 

PILLSBURY  MILLS'  NAT'L  BAKE-OFF  CON- 
TEST :  To  Lillie  F.  Young,  Courtland,  Va. ; 
$1,000,  a  G.E.  Stratoliner  range  and  mixer, 
a  Casco  table  and  chair,  and  all  expenses 
paid  to  New  York  City  for  three  days,  for 
her  cobbler,  best  in  dessert  class  (1950). 

GEORGE  POLK  MEMORIAL  AWARD  :  (See 
chapter  on  THE  NEGRO  PRESS.) 

PRO    ECCLESIA    ET    PONTIFICE    MEDAL  :    Pope 

Pius  XII  conferred  this  award  for  the  first 
time  on  a  member  of  the  Richmond,  Va., 
Diocese  on  75-year  old  Mrs.  Lydia  Nicholas 
of  Columbia,  Va.,  in  recognition  of  her  47 
years  as  a  mission  teacher  (1951). 

PULITZER  PRIZE:  Established  by  late  Joseph 
Pulftzer  in  bequest  to  Columbia  Univ.,  New 
York  City ;  awarded  annually  by  trustees  of 
the  Univ.  on  recommendation  of  Advisory 
Bd.  of  the  Sch.  of  Journalism  at  Columbia. 
To  Gwendolyn  Brooks  (Blakely),  $500  for  a 
distinguished  volume  of  verse,  "Annie  Allen," 
published  by  Harper  &  Bros.,  which  describes 
the  life  of  a  woman  whose  environment  is  a 
place  called  Bronzeville.  Mrs.  Blakely  is  the 
first  Negro  woman  ever  to  receive  a  Pulitzer 
Prize  (1950). 

RAILROAD  MAN  OF  THE  YEAR  AWARD  :  Pre- 
sented to  railroad  employee  distinguished 
for  continuous  outstanding  service  and  cour- 
tesy to  the  traveling  public,  by  Federation 
for  Railway  Progress,  Passenger  Relations 
Dept.,  Washington,  D.C.  To  Albert  J.  Lively, 
Louisville,  Ky.,  $100  U.S.  War  Bond  and  a 
gold  medal  (1951). 

RAILROAD  MEDAL  OF  HONOR  :  Sixty-third 
issued  since  1905 ;  highest  railroad  award. 
To  James  E.  Dowell,  St.  Charles,  Va.,  brake- 
man  for  Southern  Railway,  for  rescuing  a 
child  from  path  of  on-rushing  train  (1950). 

JOHN  RUSSWURM  CITATION  :  Named  for 
founder  of  first  Negro  newspaper,  "Free- 
dom's Journal" ;  for  outstanding  achieve- 
ments making  possible  a  richer  conception 
of  democratic  principles ;  by  Negro  News- 
paper Publishers  Association. 

American  Council  on  Human  Rights  and 
Legal  Dept.  of  NAACP,  for  their  recently 
successful  efforts  in  fighting  discrimination 
in  travel  and  in  education  before  U.S.  Su- 
preme Court  (1950) 

Mrs.  Mary  McLeod  Bethune,  founder  and 
retired  pres.  Nat'l  Council  of  Negro  Women 
(1950) 

Roy  Campanella,  catcher  for  Brooklyn 
Dodgers,  Nat'l  Baseball  League  (1950) 

Senator  Earl  C.  Clemens,  ex-governor  of 
Kentucky  (1950) 

Dr.  Charles  Drew,  creator  of  the  "banked 
blood"  system,  special  posthumous  citation 
(1950). 

Alfred  Driscoll,  Governor  of  New  Jersey 
(1950) 

James  Folsom,  Ala.  (1950) 

Horace  Heidt,  orchestra  leader  (1951) 

Charles  Houston,  late,  noted  civil  rights 
attorney  (1951) 

Senator  Hubert  Humphrey,  Dem.,  Minn. 
(1951) 


GENERAL  AWARDS  AND  HONORS 


369 


Dr.  Luther  Jackson,  chrmn.  History  Dept., 
Va.  State  College,  special  posthumous  cita- 
tion (1950) 

Frank  J.  Lausche,  Governor  of  Ohio  (1951) 

Dr.  Julian  Percy,  direc.  of  research,  Glid- 
den  Co.,  Chicago  (1950) 

Julius  Krug,  former  Secy,  of  the  Interior 
(1950) 

Thurgood  S.  Marshall,  chief  NAACP  coun- 
sel (1951) 

Motion  Picture  Industry,  based  upon  fol- 
lowing four  productions :  "Home  of  the 
Brave,"  "Lost  Boundaries,"  "Pinky"  and  "In- 
truder in  the  Dust,"  which  dared  to  break 
with  tradition  in  story  selection  and  treat- 
ment where  Negroes  are  involved  (1950) 

Philip  B.  Perlman,  Solicitor-General,  Dept. 
of  Justice  (1950) 

President's  Committee  on  Equality  of 
Treatment  and  Opportunity  in  the  Armed 
Services  (1950) 

Edith  S.  Sampson  (Mrs.  Joseph  E.  Clay- 
ton), U.S.  Alternate  Delegate  to  UN  (1951) 

Julius  A.  Thomas,  of  the  Nat'l  Urban 
League  (1951) 

President  Harry  S.  Truman,  for  his  "un- 
relenting dedication  to  the  fight  to  assure 
every  American  the  right  to  live  and  work 
unhampered  by  consideration  of  race,  color, 
creed,  or  national  origin"  (1950) 

Dr.  Carter  G.  Woodson,  founder  of  Ass. 
for  Study  of  Negro  Life  and  History,  spe- 
cial posthumous  citation  (1950) 

D wight  Young,  pres.  American  Soc.  of 
Newspaper  Editors  (1951) 

SAINT  GENESIUS  MEDAL  (Patron  Saint  of 
Actors)  :  By  American  Nat'l  Theatre  Art 
Academy.  To  Ethel  Waters  (1951). 

SALUTE  TO  THE  ARTS  AWARDS  :  By  Phila- 
delphia Fellowship  Commission.  To  Willard 
Motley,  author  of  "Knock  On  Any  Door," 
(1951). 

SPINGARN  MEDAL:  Established  by  late  Joel 
E.  Spingarn,  chrmn.  Executive  Committee, 
NAACP ;  gold  medal  to  man  or  woman  of 
African  descent  and  American  citizenship 
who,  during  the  year,  makes  the  highest 
achievement  in  any  field  of  human  endeavor. 

Charles  H.  Houston,  Sr.,  "stalwart  defender 
of  democracy,  inspired  teacher  of  youth,  and 
leader  in  the  legal  profession  ;"  awarded  35th 
Spingarn  Medal  posthumously  and  acclaimed 
the  engineer  of  broad  socio-legal  program  re- 
sulting in  many  victories  upholding  civil 
rights  in  the  courts  (1950) 

Mrs.  Mabel  K.  Staupers,  many  years  exec, 
secy,  and  later  pres.  Nat'l  Ass.  of  Colored 
Graduate  Nurses ;  36th  Spingarn  Medal,  for 
"spearheading  the  successful  movement  to  in- 
tegrate Negro  nurses  into  American  life  as 
equals"  (1951) 

TALLADEGA  COLLEGE  SCHOLARSHIPS  :  All  ex- 
pense scholarship  of  $2,300  awarded  through 
competitive  scholarship  examination  given 
high  school  seniors  in  13  southern  states. 

Weldon  Williams,  Tuskegee  Inst.  High 
Sch.,  Ala.  (1951) 

Esther  V.  Young,  Douglass  High  Sch., 
Oklahoma  City,  Okla.  (1950) 

TEXAS  STATE  FAIR  ANNUAL  AWARD  (Dal- 
las, Texas)  :  To  Dr.  Benjamin  E.  Mays,  pres. 
Morehouse  College,  Atlanta,  Ga.  (1950). 


TUSKEGEE  INST.  KEYS  &  CERTIFICATES  OF 
APPRECIATION  :  To  workers  with  25  years  or 
more  of  service.  Seventy-six  persons  received 
these  awards  in  1951,  the  first  given. 

TUSKEGEE  MAN  OF  THE  YEAR  :  Charles  G. 
Gomillion,  dean  of  students,  Tuskegee  Inst., 
Ala. ;  honored  by  Tuskegee  Civic  Ass.  (1950). 

TYNG  AWARD  :  Offers  full  college  education 
at  Williams  College,  Williamstown,  Mass.,  to 
outstanding  students  of  limited  means,  plus 
opportunity  for  three  years'  study  at  graduate 
level.  To  Herbert  E.  Kinds,  Cleveland,  Ohio ; 
first  Negro  to  win  this  award  (1951). 

JOHN  HAY  WHITNEY  FOUNDATION  SCHOL- 
ARSHIPS :  For  full  year  of  serious  work,  not 
for  incidental  or  temporary  projects;  open  to 
any  citizen  of  U.S.  who  has  given  evidence 
of  special  ability  and  has  not  had  full  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  his  talents  because  of  ar- 
bitrary barriers  of  race,  cultural  background, 
religion,  or  residence.  Grants  range  from 
$1,000  to  $3,000  depending  on  proposed  proj- 
ect. General  age  limit:  22  to  35.  Dr.  Robert 
C.  Weaver  is  director  of  the  program,  30 
Rockefeller  Plaza,  New  York  20,  N.  Y. 

Samuel  C.  Adams,  Jr.,  Houston,  Tex. ;  grad- 
uate study  in  sociology  at  the  Univ.  of  Chi- 
cago (1951) 

Dr.  Theodore  E.  Bolden,  Montclair,  N.  J., 
research  fellow  in  dentistry  at  the  Univ.  of 
Illinois;  graduate  study  in  anatomy  (1951) 

C.  Philip  Butcher,  Washington,  D.C.,  ass. 
prof.  English,  Morgan  State  College ;  gradu- 
ate study  in  English  at  Columbia  Univ. 
(1951) 

Helen  E.  Colbert,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  study 
in  music  at  Juilliard  Sch.  of  Music  (1951) 

Alma  Collinsh,  Los  Angeles,  Calif.  (1951) 

Samuel  J.  Cullers,  Chicago,  111. ;  study  in 
City  Planning  at  Mass.  Inst.  of  Tech.  (1951) 

Calvin  O.  Dash,  New  York  City ;  study  in 
music  at  Juilliard  Sch.  of  Music  (1951) 

Mattiwilda  Dobbs,  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  year's 
study  in  Europe  (1950) 

Alexander  A.  Farrelly,  Charlotte  Amalie, 
St.  Thomas,  Virgin  Is.,  student  at  St.  John's 
Univ.  to  enter  law  school  (1951) 

Jose  Ferrer,  Santurce,  Puerto  Rico,  in- 
structor Spanish  languages  and  literature, 
Dillard  Univ.;  study  in  Spanish  (1951) 

Marie  Fielder,  Los  Angeles,  Inst.  Leader, 
Los  Angeles  Bd.  of  Educ. ;  study  in  education 
at  the  Univ.  of  Chicago  (1951) 

Charles  B.  E.  Freeman,  Richmond,  Va., 
student  at  Boston  Univ. ;  legal  education 
(1951) 

Richard  Gibson,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  crea- 
tive writing  (1951) 

Carol  J.  Graham,  Washington,  D.C. ;  grad- 
uate study  in  biology  and  secondary  educa- 
tion at  Sarah  Lawrence  College  (1951) 

Theresa  G.  Green,  Baltimore.  Md. ;  study  in 
music  at  Juilliard  Sch.  of  Music  (1951) 

Matalie  Hinderas,  pianist,  Oblerlin,  Ohio, 
Juilliard  student,  also  recipient  of  two  Rosen- 
wald  grants  and  two  Samaroff  Foundation 
Scholarships ;  to  study  and  tour  European 
continent  for  six  months  (1951) 

Orlando  S.  Hobbs,  Brentwood,  Md.,  stu- 
dent at  Dartmouth  College ;  to  enter  Yale 
Univ.  Law  Sch.  (1951) 

Lloyd  L.  Hogan,  Chicago.,  111. ;  study  in 
economics  at  Univ.  of  Chicago  (1951) 


370 


AWARDS,  HONORS,  DISTINCTIONS 


Miyoko  Ito,  Chicago,  111. ;  creative  painting 
(1951) 

George  T.  Jones,  Baltimore,  Md. ;  study  in 
philosophy  at  Columbia  Univ.  (1951) 

John  C.  Leak,  Jr.,  Washington,  B.C. ;  study 
in  chemistry  at  Univ.  of  Illinois  (1951) 

Roy  N.  Moore,  Jamaica,  N.Y. ;  creative 
painting  (1951) 

Norman  Morgan,  New  York  City ;  creative 
painting  (1951) 

William  A.  Robinson,  Jr.,  Phoenix,  Ariz. ; 
creative  writing  (1951) 

Linda  R.  Samuels,  Gambara,  Canal  Zone, 
student  at  Fisk  Univ. ;  graduate  study  in 
sociology  (1951) 

Rawn  Spearman,  Tallahassee,  Fla. ;  study 
in  voice  at  American  Theatre  Wing  (1951) 

World  Health  Organization  International 
Fellowship  (United  Nations)  :  WHO,  hq. 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  is  largest  of  UN  spe- 
cialized agencies,  has  membership  of  20  coun- 
tries throughout  the  world.  Nine  WHO  fel- 
lowships for  1951  went  to  physicians,  scien- 
tists, and  selected  persons  in  specialized  fields 
in  health  in  United  States,  including  Mamie 
O.  Hale,  public  health  nursing  consultant 
with  the  Ark.  State  Bd.  of  Health,  Little 
Rock;  for  study  abroad  in  midwifery,  mater- 
nal and  child-health  programs  in  England, 
Sweden,  Holland,  Norway,  and  Denmark 
(1951). 

Special  Educational  Honors, 
1950-51 

Mrs.  Maudelle  B.  Bousfield,  Principal, 
Wendell  Phillips  High  Sch.,  Chicago,  111., 
Chicago's  only  Negro  high  school  principal ; 
$1,000  and  movie  camera  from  her  faculty 
upon  her  retirement  (1950). 

Mrs.  Ruth  L.  Douglas,  instructor  at  Central 
Junior  High  Sch.,  Shreveport,  La. ;  named 
"Classroom  Teacher  of  the  Year"  by  "Negro 
Educational  Review"  and  Nat'l  Teacher  Re- 
search Ass.  (1951). 

Vada  L.  Easter,  internationally  known 
pianist  and  musicologist ;  first  woman  and 
first  Negro  to  receive  Doctor  of  Fine  Arts 
Degree,  June  15,  from  Chicago  Musical  Col. 
(1950). 

Merl  R.  Eppse,  Prof.  History,  Direc.  Div. 
of  History  and  Geography,  Tenn.  State  Col., 
Nashville;  his  books,  "The  Negro,  Too,  In 
American  History"  and  "An  Elementary 
History  of  America,  Including  the  Contribu- 
tions of  the  Negro  Race,"  have  been  adopted 
for  use  in  all  public  schools  of  Common- 
wealth of  Kentucky  for  1950-55  (1950). 

Imogene  Ford,  junior  at  Prairie  View 
A.&M.  Col.,  Prairie  View,  Tex.,  selected  by 
acclamation  to  serve  as  leader  of  South- 
western students  from  Oklahoma,  Arkansas, 
Louisiana,  New  Mexico,  Texas ;  first  time  a 
Negro  student  elected  president  of  major 
student  professional  organization  in  South- 
west (1951). 

Dr.  E.  Franklin  Frazier,  Chairman,  Dept. 
of  Sociology,  Howard  Univ.,  Washington, 
D.C. ;  appointed  to  Housing  Research  Ad- 
visory Comm.  by  Housing  Admin.  Raymond 
M.  Foley.  This  Committee  gives  advice  and 
guidance  on  entire  housing  research  program 
(1950). 


Miss  Joan  Garland.  For  first  time  since 
Ralph  Bunche  was  student  commencement 
speaker  in  1927,  a  Negro  graduating  senior 
spoke  at  Univ.  of  Calif,  at  L.A.  commence- 
ment exercises,  June  15.  University  officials 
announced  Miss  Garland  had  been  selected 
on  basis  of  scholarship,  participation  in  extra- 
curricular activities,  and  public  speaking  abil- 
ity (1951). 

James  L.  Gibbs,  Jr.,  Ithaca,  N.Y. ;  was 
,  elected  president  of  next  year's  senior  class 
at  Cornell  Univ.  A  State  scholarship  student, 
he  is  majoring  in  anthropology  in  the  Univer- 
sity's Col.  of  Arts  and  Sciences  (1951). 

Mrs.  Ruby  B.  Goodwin,  writer  and  lecturer ; 
graduated  with  class  of  22  from  San  Gabriel 
Col.  and  became  first  Negro  in  world  to  re- 
ceive degree  in  World  Understanding  and 
Peace.  San  Gabriel,  state-chartered  and  first 
college  in  world  to  offer  the  degree,  was 
founded  for  advanced  study  in  art,  mythology, 
geopolitics,  literature,  philosophy,  economics 
(1950). 

Mrs.  Edna  W.  Griffin,  former  winner  of 
"Afro-American"  citation  for  outstanding 
community  work ;  recently  became  first  col- 
ored officer  elected  to  office  in  Philadelphia 
Teachers  Ass.  (1951). 

Juano  Hernandez,  famous  Puerto  Rican 
actor,  received  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Fine  Arts  from  Univ.  of  Puerto  Rico  in 
May.  In  his  citation  he  was  called  "an  eternal 
pilgrim  in  the  realm  of  art."  Dr.  Hernandez 
is  self-educated  and  had  no  school  diploma  or 
certificate  until  he  received  his  honorary 
doctorate  (1950). 

Julius  H.  Hughes,  Dean  of  Men  and  Ass. 
Prof,  of  Education,  Langston  Univ. ;  awarded 
teaching  fellowship  in  area  of  human  devel- 
opment by  Syracuse  Univ.,  Syracuse,  N.Y. 
(1950). 

Alma  T.  Jones;  first  Negro  teacher  to  be 
employed  by  City  of  Massillon,  Ohio,  July 
(1950). 

Frank  S.  Jones,  Second  Marshall  of  Class 
of  1950,  Harvard  Univ.  Election  means  he 
will  be  arranging  reunions  and  class  anni- 
versaries for  next  25  years  or  more  (1950). 

Julian  R.  Miller,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  member 
of  1915  Class  of  St.  Michael's  Col.,  Winooski 
Park,  Burlington,  Vt. ;  elected  to  school 
board  of  his  Alma  Mater  by  unanimous  ap- 
proval of  Alumni  Ass.  (1950). 

Harold  £.  Murray,  Johnson  City,  Tenn. ; 
third  American  educator  of  his  race  to  be 
sent  to  Turkey  by  American  Bd.  of  Commis- 
sioners, as  teacher  of  mathematics  in  Ameri- 
can Col.,  Tarsus,  Turkey  (1951). 

Dr.  F.  D.  Patterson,  Tuskegee  Inst.,  and 
Dr.  David  D.  Jones,  Bennett  Col.,  named  to 
advisory  council  to  help  guide  development 
of  medical  school  at  Yeshiva  Univ.,  New 
York  City  (1951). 

Dr.  F.  D.  Patterson,  President  of  Tuskegee 
Inst.,  and  Dr.  Mordecai  Johnson,  President 
of  Howard  Univ.,  represented  their  colleges 
at  Nice,  France,  at  founding  of  new  Interna- 
tional Conference  of  Univs. ;  only  delegates 
from  American  Negro  colleges  attending 
(1951). 

Dr.  Alma  T.  Watkms,  Prof.  Romance  Lan- 
guages and  head  of  department,  Tenn.  State 
Col.,  Nashville ;  invited  to  be  member  and 


MEDICAL  HONORS 


371 


participate  in  Fifth  International  Congress  of 
International  Inst.  in  Spanish  and  Spanish- 
American  Literature  (1951). 

Malcom  S.  Whitby,  Norman,  Okla.,  former 
news  editor  and  reporter  on  "Black  Dispatch," 
first  GI  of  his  race  to  enroll  at  Univ.  of 
Okla. ;  appointed  research  scholar  at  the  Uni- 
versity (1950). 

Dr.  Malcom  D.  Williams,  Wilson,  N.C., 
first  Negro  President  of  Student  Council  of 
Teachers  Col.,  Columbia  Uinv.  (1951). 

Special  Medical  Honors,  1950-51 

Mrs.  Forrest  L.  Adams,  Psychiatric  Tech- 
nician, NJ.  State  Hosp.,  Greystone  Park ; 
named  Psychiatric  Technician  of  1950  and 
awarded  citation  and  $500  for  "outstanding 
citizenship  by  participating  in  the  life  of  the 
hospital  and  community."  Honor  is  made  an- 
nually during  Mental  Health  Week  by  Nat'l 
Ass.  for  Mental  Health,  Inc.,  Qren  Root, 
pres.  To  be  nominated,  the  technician  must 
show  skill,  initiative  and  imagination,  kind- 
ness and  devotion  to  patients,  citizenship,  and 
evidence  of  outstanding  service  (1950). 

Dr.  Prince  P.  Barker,  Chief,  Neuropsychi- 
atric  Services,  Vet.  Admin.  Hosp.,  Tuskegee, 
Ala. ;  was  given  exceptional  promotion  to 
Doctor,  Chief  Grade,  Dept.  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  Vet.  Admin.  1951.  The  term  "ex- 
ceptional" means  the  full  time  of  7  years  in 
preceding  Senior  Grade,  ordinarily  required, 
was  waived  because  of  exceptional  work. 
Other  physicians  who  hold  this  grade  at  Tus- 
kegee Vet.  Admin.  Hosp.  include  Dr.  T.  T. 
Tildon,  Dr.  G.  C.  Branche,  and  Dr.  W.  S. 
Quinland.  Chief  Grade  is  highest  grade  any 
physician  may  attain  in  Vet.  Admin.  Dr. 
W.  E.  Lewis^  of  Neuropsychiatric  Services 
was  made  Diplomat  of  American  Board  of 
Psychiatry,  1949. 

Dr.  Lloyd  T.  Barnes;  appointed  to  staff 
of  New  York  Hosp.,  first  time  such  recogni- 
tion has  been  given  a  Negro  physician. 

Mrs.  Stanley  Beckett,  Nurse  at  Syracuse 
Memorial  Hosp.,  Syracuse,  N.Y. ;  recipient  of 
Linda  Richards  award  for  "outstanding  quali- 
fications as  a  graduate  registered  nurse," 
presented  by  the  N.Y.  State  Nurses  Ass. 
(1950). 

Dr.  Joseph  A.  Berry,  Vet.  Admin.  Hosp., 
Tuskegee,  Ala. ;  made  Fellow  of  American 
Col.  of  Surgeons,  Nov.  9,  1951.  Fellowship 
in  the  association  is  highest  honor  that  can 
come  to  any  surgeon ;  it  is  based  on  train- 
ing, experience,  specialization,  calibre  of 
work,  professional  standing,  character,  and 
opinion  and  appraisal  of  other  Fellows. 

Mrs.  Etnah  R.  Boutte,  Pharmacist ;  Dr. 
John  E.  Moseley,  Chief  Radiologist,  Syden- 
ha_m  Hosp. ;  Dr.  Louis  T.  Wright,  Surgical 
Director,  Harlem  Hosp. :  for  first  time  three 
Negroes  were  elected  to  Board  of  Directors, 
N.Y.  City  Cancer  Comm.,  which  sets  policy 
and  does  over-all  planning  for  the  Commit- 
tee. The  N.Y.C.  Comm.  is  a  division  of  Amer- 
ican Cancer  Soc.  (1951). 

Dr.  John  W.  Chenault,  Head,  Div.  Ortho- 
paedic Surgery,  John  A.  Andrew  Memorial 
Hosp.,  Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala. ;  by  examination, 
on  Feb.  11,  1950;  became  Diplomate,  Amer- 
ican Board  of  Orthopaedic  Surgery ;  on  Jan. 


29,  1951,  elected  Fellow  of  American  Acad. 
of  Orthopaedic  Surgeons. 

Dr.  W.  Montague  Cobb,  Member  of  staff 
of  Medical  Sch.  of  Howard  Univ.  and  editor 
Journal  of  Nat'l  Medical  Ass.;  elected  to 
Board  of  Directors,  American  Heart  Ass. 
(1951). 

Dr.  Thomas  J.  Davis,  Jr.,  Vet.  Admin. 
Hosp.,  Tuskegee,  Ala. ;  American  Cancer 
Soc.,  Clinical  Fellow  in  Radiology  at  Colum- 
bia Presbyterian  Medical  Center,  New  York 
City,  Sept.  1,  1950,  to  Sept.  1,  1951  ;  on  Sept. 
20,  1951,  American  Board  of  Radiology 
voted  him  its  Certificate  in  Radiology. 

Dr.  Helen  O.  Dickens,^  Chief  Obstetrics 
and  Gynecology  Dept.,  Philadelphia's  Mercy- 
Douglas  Hosp. ;  first  Negro  woman  named 
Fellow  of  American  Col.  of  Surgeons,  the 
country's  top  surgical  society  (1951). 

Dr.  Charles  R.  Drew ;  story  of  his  life  and 
work  inserted  in  U.S.  Congressional  Record, 
April  10,  1950,  by  Senator  Hubert  H.  Hum- 
phrey (Dem.,  Minn.) 

Clifton  O.  Dummett,  D.D.S.,  Chief,  Dental 
Service,  Vet.  Admin.  Hosp.,  Tuskegee,  Ala. ; 
received  following  honors,  1950-51  :  First 
Negro  to  represent  Vet.  Admin,  as  lecturer  at 
Conference  on  Periodontal  Disease,  Inst.  of 
Pathology,  Western  Reserve  Univ.;  Cleve- 
land, Ohio ;  first  Negro  to  be  lecturer  at  Inst. 
of  Periodontology,  Univ.  of  Mich.,  Sch.  of 
Public  Health ;  selected  by  Vet.  Admin,  to  be 
member  of  first  Dental  Psychiatric  Indoctri- 
nation Course  in  the  world :  first  U.S.  Cor- 
respondent member  of  British  Soc.  of  Perio- 
dontology ;  selected  by  national  Dental  Ass., 
1951,  to  receive  its  award  "in  recognition  of 
work  in  the  field  of  race  relations,  as  an 
educator,  for  outstanding  contributions  to 
Dentistry  in  all  its  phases." 

Dr.  Horace  G.  Dwiggins,  Vet.  Admin  Hosp., 
Tuskegee,  Ala. ;  inducted  into  full  Fellowship 
in  American  Col.  of  Surgeons,  Nov.  9,  1951  ; 
approved  for  membership  in  American  Ass. 
for  Research  in  Ophthalmology,  December 
1951.  Accredited  June  1,  1951,  for  training 
of  Residents  in  highly  technical  and  exclusive 
field  of  ophthalmology ;  the  department  which 
Dr.  Dwiggins  heads  at  Vet.  Admin.  Hosp,  is 
first  Residency  in  Ophthalmology  entirely 
under  supervision  of  a  Negro. 

Dr.  Rivers  Frederick,  New  Orleans,  Con- 
sultant in  Surgery,  Flint  Goodrich  Hosp., 
generally  referred  to  as  "Dean  of  Surgeons;" 
Dr.  Ulysses  G.  Dailey,  Chicago,  Consultant 
in  Surgery,  Provident  Hosp. ;  Dr.  Nelson  M. 
Russell,  New  York  City,  Ass.  Prof.  Gyne- 
cology, N.Y.  Medical  Col.  Flower  Fifth  Ave. 
Hosp. :  these  three  famous  American  sur- 
geons were  honored  at  Univ.  of  Italy  on  oc- 
casion of  banquet  for  Internat'l  Col.  of  Sur- 
geons, April  30-May  13.  Dr.  Frederick  was 
given  honorary  degree  by  Univ.  of  Florence, 
first  time  a  European  university  has  so  hon- 
ored an  American  colored  man  (1951). 

Dr.  Robert  Gladden,  Washington,  D.C. ;  in- 
ducted as  active  Fellow  of  American  Acad. 
of  Orthopaedic  Surgeons  at  annual  meeting, 
Jan.  27-Feb.  1,  1951. 

Dr.  Raymond  Hayes,  Prof.  Oral  Medicine, 
Col.  of  Dentistry,  Howard  Univ.;  $2,997 
grant  for  research  in  relation  of  vitamin  C 
blood  levels  to  perio-dental  diseases,  by  Fed. 
Sec.  Admin.  (1950). 


372 


AWARDS,  HONORS,  DISTINCTIONS 


Dr.  Edward  E.  Holloway,  Chairman  Div. 
of  Medicine,  Mercy-Douglas  Hosp.,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa. ;  named  Fellow  of  American  Col. 
of  Physicians  (1950). 

Dr.  Mildred  F.  Jefferson,  native  of  Pitts- 
burgh, Tex. ;  first  Negro  woman  to  graduate 
from  Harvard  Univ.  Medical  Sch.,  Cam- 
bridge,, Mass.  (1951). 

Dr.  John  B.  Johnson,  Chief,  Dept.  of  Medi- 
cine,.  Freemen's  Hosp.;  inducted  as  full  Fel- 
low of  American  Col.  of  Physicians  (1951). 

Dr.  Peter  M.  Murray,  New  York  City ; 
took  seat  in  house  of  delegates,  American 
Medical  Ass.,  June  26 ;  first  Negro  elected  to 
policy-forming  body  of  AMA,  elected  by  N.Y. 
State  Medical  Soc.  (1950). 

Dr.  Ethel  L.  Nixon,  Washington,  D.C. ; 
recipient  of  Commonwealth  Fellowship  in 
psychiatry  from  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  and 
appointed  asst.  psychiatrist  in  Out-Patient 
Dept.  of  the  famous  hospital ;  first  Negro  to 
receive  this  appointment  (1950). 

Dr.  E.  T.  Odom,  Chief,  Gen'l  Medical 
Service,  Vet.  Admin.  Hosp.,  Tuskegee,  Ala. ; 
made  Associate,  American  Col.  of  Physi- 
cians, 1950;  is  Fellow,  American  Medical 
Asso.  -From  Aug.  1-Nov.  1,  1950,  pursued  re- 
fresher work  in  internal  medicine,  New 
England  Medical  Center. 

Dr.  Howard  M.  Payne,  Tuberculosis  Spe- 
cialist, Howard  Univ.  Medical  Sch. ;  awarded 
$16,041  by  Microbiological  Inst.  of  Nat'l  Inst. 
of  Health,  Fed.  Sec.  Admin.,  for  study  of 
therapeutic  efficacy  of  hydroxethyl  sulfene  in 
pulmonary  tuberculosis  (1951). 

Dr.  Gerald  Peltier;  first  Negro  physician 
named  as  examiner  for  Equitable  Life  Ins. 
Soc.,  N.Y.  (1951). 

Dr.  J.  J.  Peters,  Vet.  Admin.  Hosp.,  Tus- 
kegee, Ala. ;  elected  1950  to  membership  in 
Radiological  Soc.  of  N.  America  ;  had  been 
made  Diplomate  of  American  Board  of  Ra- 
diology, 1937,  and  member  of  American  Col. 
of  Radiology,  1940. 

Dr.  Alan  P.  Smith,  Jr.,  Vet.  Admin.  Hosp., 
Tuskegee,  Ala. ;  received  unusual  honors  dur- 
ing 1950  and  1951.  His  "Spontaneous  Art 
i  Expressions  in  the  Study  of  Emotional  Prob- 
•  lems,"  a  research  project,  was  approved  by 
Research  Div.,  Dept.  of  Medicine  and  Sur- 
gery, Vet.  Admin.,  Washington,  D.C.,  Sep- 
tember 1950,  as  "sponsored  by  the  Veterans 
Administration."  This  is  a  projective  tech- 
nique for  both  diagnostic  and  therapeutic 
evaluation  by  the  psychiatrist  of  patients  with 
emotional  problems  and  low  minimal  verbal- 
ization score  who  are  able  to  communicate 
or  transmit  expressions  of  their  unconscious 
conflicts  in  drawings  revealing  quantitative 
and  qualitative  psychodiagnostic  data.  San- 
doz  Pharmaceuticals,  Div.  of  Sandoz  Chem- 
ical Works,  Inc.,  New  York  City,  in  Novem- 
ber 1951  requested  permission  for  national 
distribution  of  Dr.  Smith's  original  paper, 
"Emotogenic  Disease  in  the  Practice  of  Medi- 
cine." published  in  Journal  of  Nat'l  Medical 
Asso.,  November  1951.  Dr.  Smith  was  guest 
Psychiatrist  at  1951  meeting  Fla.  A.&M.  Col. 
and  Hosp.  Center,  Tallahassee,  and  visiting 
Consultant  Psychiatrist  at  fourth  annual 
"Marriage  and  Family  Life  Institute,"  State 
A.&M.  Col.,  Orangeburg,  S.C. 

Dr.  Charles  C.  Stewart,  Greensboro,  N.C. ; 
honored  with  membership  in  Internat'l  Col. 


of  Surgeons,  Oct.  31,  Cleveland,  Ohio  (1950). 

Dr.  Hilda  G.  St raker;  first  Negro  derma- 
tologist in  New  York  City  to  hold  position 
on  staff  of  mid-Manhattan  Post-Graduate 
Hosp.,  first  Negro  woman  physician  in  U.S. 
to  become  Diplomate  of  American  Board  of 
Dermatology  and  Syphilology  (1950). 

Dr.  LcRoy  Swift,  Acting  Director,  Student 
Health  Serv.,  N.C.  Col. ;  first  Negro  medical 
man  in  the  South  certified  by  American 
Board  of  Obstetrics  and  Gynecology  (1951). 

Dr.  Rafael  A.  Toro,  Howard  Univ.  Medical 
Sch.  Faculty ;  $7,590  for  study  of  allergic 
aspects  of  mycology,  seasonal  and  cyclic 
variation  in  fungus  spores  and  their  aller- 
genicity,  by  Microbiological  Inst.  of  Nat'l 
Inst.  of  Health,  Fed.  Sec.  Admin.  (1951). 

Dr.  Charles  D.  Watts,  native  of  Atlanta, 
Ga. ;  first  Negro  medical  man  in  North  Caro- 
lina certified  by  American  Board  of  Surgery 
(1951). 

Gertrude  E.  Whitchead,  Wilson,  N.C., 
former  Head  Nurse,  St.  Philip  Hosp.,  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  Staff  Nurse  with  Instructive  Visit- 
ing Nurse  Assn. ;  awarded  fellowship  to  study 
at  Univ.  of  Mich,  summer  school  for  six 
weeks.  Fellowship  provides  graduate  study 
in  health  education  and  includes  tuition,  liv- 
ing expenses,  and  transportation ;  one-third 
of  expense  of  fellowship  provided  by  Nat'l 
Tuberculosis  Assn.,  remainder  shared  by 
Virginia  and  Richmond  Tuberculosis  Assns. 
(1950). 

Dr.  Louis  T.  Wright,  Direc.  Surgery,  Har- 
lem Hosp.,  New  York  City ;  admitted  to 
honorary  fellowship  in  Internat'l  Col.  of 
Surgeons,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Oct.  31-Nov.  3, 
1950. 

Dr.  Asa  G.  Yancey,  Chief,  Surgery  Service, 
Vet.  Admin.  Hosp.,  Tuskegee,  Ala.;  Oct.  27, 
1950,  made  Fellow  of  American  Col.  of  Sur- 
geons; in  November  1949  made  Fellow  of 
Internat'l  Col.  of  Surgeons ;  in  December 
1948  certified  by  American  Board  of  Surgery. 

Provident  Medical  Associates 
Fellowships 

The  annual  national  fellowships  of  the 
Provident  Medical  Associates  for  1950-51  for 
graduate  and  undergraduate  study  in  medi- 
cine were  announced  by  Dr.  N.  O.  Calloway, 
exec,  direc.  Awards  include  11  renewals  and 
14  new  fellows.  The  following  represent  the 
P.M. A.  Fellows  and  their  fields  of  study  for 
1950-51: 

RENEWALS 

Dr.  James  A.  Batts,  Philadelphia,  Pa. — 
Obstetrics  and  Gynecology — Harlem  Hosp., 
New  York  City 

Dr.  David  V.  Bradley,  Philadelphia,  Pa. — 
Urology — Vet.  Admin.  Hosp.,  Bronx,  N.Y. 

Dr.  Harold  E.  Burt,  Wilmington,  Del.— 
Obstetrics  and  Gynecology — Brewster  Hosp., 
Jacksonville,  Fla. 

Dr.  Maurice  C.  Clifford,  Washington,  D.C. 
— Obstetrics  and  Gynecology — Philadelphia 
General  Hosp.,  Pa. 

Dr.  James  L.  Curtis,  Albion,  Mich. — Psy- 
chiatry, Long  Island  Col.  of  Medicine — Psy- 
choanalytic Medicine,  Columbia  Univ.,  New 
York  City 

Dr.  Joseph  G.  Gros,  formerly  Port-Au- 
Prince,  Haiti,  now  U.S.  citizen — Internal 


U.S.  GOVERNMENT  AWARDS 


373 


Medicine — Research    and     Education     Hosp., 
Univ.  of  111.,  Chicago 

Dr.  Richard  M.  Hairston,  Winston- Salem, 
N.C. — Interne — Kate  B.  Reynolds  Memorial 
Hosp.,  Winston-Salem,  N.C. 

John  B.  Harris,  Chicago,  111. — Second-year 
Medical  School — Univ.  of  Chicago 

Dr.  John  A.  Kenney,  Jr.,  Montclair,  NJ. — 
Dermatology  and  Syphilology — Univ.  Hosp., 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Dr.  Frederick  R.  Randall,  Washington, 
D.C. — Surgery — Presbyterian  Hosp.,  New 
York  City 

Dr.    Theodore   R.   Sherrod,    Chicago,    111. — 
Interne — Research     and     Educational     Hosp., 
Univ.  of  111.,  Chicago 
NEW  FELLOWS 

Dr.  Samuel  P.  Adams,  Chicago,  111. — An- 
esthesiology — Los  Angeles  Cty.  General  Hosp., 
Calif. 

Dr.  Thomas  H.  Brewer,  Columbus,  Ga. — 
General  Surgery — Homer  G.  Phillips  Hosp., 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Dr.  Claude  P.  Dapremont,  New  Orleans, 
La. — Internal  Medicine — Freedmen's  Hosp., 
Washington,  D.C. 

Dr.  William  L.  Farmer,  New  York — Gen- 
eral Surgery — Freedmen's  Hosp.,  Washington, 
D.C. 

Dr.  Joseph  P.  Foster,  Atlanta,  Ga. — Surgery 
— Presbyterian  Hosp.,  New  York  City 

Dr.  Homer  E.  Harris,  Jr.,  Seattle,  Wash. — 
Dermatology — Univ.  of  111.  Graduate  Sch.  of 
Medicine,  Chicago 

Lawton  V.  C.  Manderson,  Jamaica,  N.Y. — 
First-year  Medical  School — N.Y.  Univ.  Col. 
of  Medicine 

Dr.  Marcus  W .  Moore,  Sr.,  Baltimore,  Md. 
— Chest  Surgery — Freedmen's  Hosp.,  Wash- 
ington, D.C. 

Dr.  Oswald  J.  Nickens,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. — 
Radiology — Univ.  of  Penna.,  Philadelphia 

Dr.  Henry  G.  Nixon,  Macon,  Ga. — General 
Surgery — Freedmen's  Hosp.,  Washington, 
D.C. 

Milford  Parker,  White  Plains,  N.Y.— 
Third- year  Medical  School — N.Y.  Univ. 

Dr.  Jeanne  Spurlock,  Detroit,  Mich. — Psy- 
chiatry— Inst.  for  Juvenile  Research,  Chicago, 
111. 

Hercules  Timpton,  Chicago,  111. — Third- 
year  Medical  School — Univ.  of  111.  Col.  of 
Medicine,  Chicago 

Dr.  Jack  E.  White,  New  York — Cancer 
Surgery — Memorial  Hosp.  for  Cancer  &  Al- 
lied Diseases,  New  York  City 


U.S.  Government  Awards, 
1950-51 

Under  the  various  grants-in-aid  pro- 
grams conducted  by  the  Department  of 
State,  U.S.  government  educational-ex- 
change activities  have  expanded  until 
they  are  now  on  a  world-wide  basis.1  In 


1951,  nearly  10,000  persons  were  being 
exchanged  with  more  than  60  foreign 
countries  for  study,  teaching,  lecturing, 
research,  and  other  educational  activities. 
The  programs  conducted  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  State  include  the  Fulbright 
program;2  the  U.S.  Information  and 
Educational  Exchange  Act  (USIE), 
popularly  known  as  the  Smith-Mundt 
Act;  Convention  for  the  Promotion  of 
Inter-American  Cultural  Relations,  popu- 
larly known  as  the  Buenos  Aires  Con- 
vention; specialized  programs  for  Ger- 
many and  Austria ;  educational  exchanges 
with  Finland;  the  Iranian  Trust  Fund; 
the  Point  Four  program;  and  the  Eco- 
nomic Cooperation  Administration  (EGA) 
program.  Most  training  activities  are 
currently  conducted  under  the  technical- 
co-operation  program  (Point  Four  and 
the  EGA).  The  training  program  under 
USIE  is  limited  to  fields  or  countries  not 
covered  under  the  Point  Four  or  EGA 
programs. 

Negroes  Studying  Under 
Exchange  Program 

FOR  GRADUATE  STUDY 

Robert  H.  Bailey,  Senior,  Talladega  Col. — 
Sociology — U.  of  Birmingham,  England 
(1951) 

Dr.  Leonard  Broom,  Ass.  Prof.  Sociology, 
U.  of  Calif,  at  L.  A.— Research  in  B.W.I. 
(1950) 

John  W.  Colcman,  Washington,  D.C. — 
Physics — U.  of  Delft,  the  Netherlands  (1950) 

Will  M.  Cook — Research,  Romance  Lan- 
guages— France  (1951-52) 

Anne  M.  Cooke — Research,  Theatre — Nor- 
way (1951-52) 

Audrey-Dickerson,  Washington,  D.C. — In- 
ternational Relations — U.  of  Paris  (1950) 

Marion  J.  Downs — Lyric  Soprano — Opera 
Sch.  of  Milan  Conservatory,  Italy  (1950) 

George  F.  Ellis,  Jr.,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.— 
Medicine— U.  of  Brussels  (1950) 

Doris  V .  Evans,  Inst.  Music  History,  How- 
ard U. — Musicology — Oxford  U.,  England 
(1950) 

Rosetta  E.  Gardner,  Dir.  South  Parkway 
YWCA,  Chicago,  111.— Oxford  U.,  England 
(1950) 

Alfred  Griffin,  Evanston,  111. — Music — U. 
of  Oslo,  Norway  (1950) 

Benjamin  Hudson,  French  Dept.,  N.C.  Col. 
— U.  of  Paris  (1951) 

Benjamin  T.  Johnson,  Boston,  Mass. — Lan- 
guage &  Literature — Italy  (1950) 


1  For    an    adequate    description    of    U.S.    government    international    exchange    opportunities,    see    Department    of 
State    Publication    4198,     "International     Information     and     Cultural     Series     16,"     released     May,     1951,     bupt.     o 
Documents,   U.S.   Gov't   Printing   Office,   Washington   25,   D.C. 

2  A   report   containing    the    names    of    the    1951    Fulbright   grantees   was    published    by    the    State    Department    in 
March,   1952. 


374 


AWARDS,  HONORS,  DISTINCTIONS 


Mary  E.  Johnson;  Howard  U. — Romance 
Languages— U.  of  Paris  (1949-50) 

Richard  Keith,  Ass.  Prof.  Music,  Howard 
U. — Research— Rome  (1951-52) 

Martin  B.  A.  Koneri,  Howard  U. — Soci- 
ology—(1950-51) 

Dr.  Rayford  W.  Logan,  Prof.  History, 
Howard  U. — Study  of  Administration  of 
French  Overseas  Territories — Paris  (1951-52) 
John  M.  Lopez,  Nantucket  Is.,  Mass. — 
French  Language,  Literature,  Culture — U.  of 
Paris  (1950) 

John  W.  Manigaulte,  New  York  City — 
History— Italy  (1950) 

Amelia    L.     Meyers,    Jacksonville,     Fla. — 
Music — National   Conservatory,  Paris   (1950) 
Evelyn  W.  Moore,  Ga. — French  Literature 
— U.  of  Grenoble  (1950-51) 

John  W.  Rhoden — Artist — American  Acad. 
in  Rome  (1950) 

F.  M.  Snowden,  Jr. — Research,  Archae- 
ology—Italy (1950-51) 

Patricia  De  L.  Stewart,  Washington,  D.C. 
— Phonetics  &  19th  Cent.  Frecnh  Novel — U. 
of  Lyon  (1950-51) 

Donald    W.    Wyatt,    Prof.    Sociology,    Fisk 
U.— Research— U.  of  Paris  (1950) 
FOR  TEACHING 

Thomas  H.  Countee,  Inst.  Armstrong  High 
Sch.,  Washington,  D.C. — Assigned  Johan  de 
Wit  Sch.,  the  Hague,  the  Netherlands  (1951- 
52) 

Maxine  E.  Daly,  Inst.  Cordoza  High  Sch., 
Washingon,  D.C. — Assigned  Risley  Second- 
ary Modern  Sch.,  London,  England  (1951-52) 
Philip  P.  Haggard,  Inst.  Newton  St.  Sch., 
Newark,  N.J. — Assigned  Hunslet  Carr  Sch., 
Leeds,  England  (1951-52) 

Rose  E.  King,  Inst.  E.  Pulaski  Sch.,  Gary, 
Ind. — Assigned  Ker  St.  Residential  Center, 
Plymouth,  England  (1950-51) 

Vera  L.  Sumncr,  Inst.  Dunbar  Sch.,  Madi- 
son,   111. — Assigned    Beaufort    St.    Jr.    Sch., 
Liverpool,  England  (1950-51) 
FOR  UNIVERSITY  TEACHING  OR  LECTURING 

Dr.  Marguerite  Brainard,  Ass.  Prof.  Home 
Econ.,  Howard  U. — Teaching  under  auspices 
of  U.S.  Office  of  Educ.  (1951-52) 

Dr.   Margaret   Butcher — Lecturing,    Ameri- 
can Language  &  Literature,  France  (1949-50) 
Dr.    Catherine    W.    Duncan — Fourah    Bay 
Col,.  Sierra  Leone,  Africa 

Dr.  Edward  S.  Hope,  Prof.  Civil  Eng., 
Howard  U. — Teaching  under  auspices  of 
Point  IV  Program,  Beirut,  Syria  (1951-52) 

Dr.  Leon  Shereshcfsky,  Prof.  Chemistry, 
Howard  U. — Teaching  under  sponsorship  of 
Dept.  of  State,  Haifa,  Israel  (1951-52) 

Dr.  Merz  Tate — Lecturing,  Political  Sci- 
ence (1950-51) 

Other  U.S.  Government  Awards 

MERITORIOUS  SERVICE  AWARD 

Frank  E.  Finder,  Key  West,  Fla.,  head 
agricultural  production  specialist  of  U.S. 
Economic  Mission  in  Liberia — presented  Meri- 
torious Service  Award  by  Secy,  of  State 


Acheson    "because    of    the    outstanding    con- 
tributions to  the  important  work  of  the  De- 
partment and  the  Foreign  Service"  (1950) 
SUPERIOR  SERVICE  AWARD 

Second  highest  honor  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture accords  its  employees.  Prior  to  1951, 
received  by  only  two  Negro  workers :  T.  M. 
Campbell,  field  agent  of  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 
Extension  Service ;  Otis  S.  O'Neal,  former 
county  agent-at-large  of  Georgia. 

James  P.  Davis — Admin.  Officer — Produc- 
tion and  Marketing  Administration  (1951) 

Mrs.  Homoselle  R.  Jarvis — Scientific  Aide 
— Bureau  of  Home  Econ.  and  Human  Nutri- 
tion (1951) 

John  W.  Jeffries — Ass.  State  Agent — N.C. 
Extension  Service  (1951) 

Mrs.  Lea  E.  Lusk — Cty.  Home  Demonstra- 
tion   Agent — Texas    State    Extension    Service 
(1951) 
LENGTH'  OF  SERVICE  AWARD 

Luther  W.  McLeod,  Washington,  D.C. — 
served  Dept.  of  Agriculture  almost  exactly 
40  years,  entering  its  employ  May  1,  1911; 
presentation  made  by  Secy.  Charles  F.  Bran- 
nan. 

CERTIFICATE  FOR  DEVISING 
TIME-SAVING  PROCEDURE 

Elmer  C.  House,  St.  Louis,  Mo. — Voucher 
Examiner — U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture ;  re- 
ceived certificate  and  $50  for  devising  time- 
saving  procedure  in  handling  production-and- 
marketing-administration  vouchers  which 
saves  $1,400  a  year;  presented  by  Karney  A. 
Basfield,  director  of  Fiscal  Branch,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.  (1950) 

Some  Heroic  Deeds  and 
Exploits,  1950 

CARNEGIE  HERO  FUND  COMMISSION 
AWARDS  : 1  Established  by  deed  of  gift  from 
fortune  of  Andrew  Carnegie  to  recognize 
heroic  efforts  to  save  human  life  made  by  those 
following  peaceful  vocations,  and  for  allied 
purposes : 

Arnold  J.  Davis,  14,  school  boy :  bronze 
medal  and  $250  for  a  worthy  purpose,  for 
saving  Donald  W.  Pilosky,  13,  school  boy, 
from  drowning,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Feb.  21, 
1949. 

James  C.  Walker,  40,  store  manager  ;  bronze 
medal  and  $500  for  a  worthy  purpose,  for 
saving  Carl  W.  Tummler,  40,  taxicab  driver, 
from  burning,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  April  25, 
1949. 

Matthew  A.  Henson,  Arctic  explorer  and 
only  living  member  of  expedition  which  dis- 
covered North  Pole,  was  honored  in  1950 
before  a  distinguished  audience  at  Pentagon 
Bldg.  on  occasion  of  41st  anniversary  of  dis- 
covery of  Pole  on  April  6,  1909.  The  cere- 
mony was  held  under  joint  sponsorship  of 
Afro-American  newspapers  and  U.S.  Dept.  of 
Defense,  on  direct  orders  of  Secy,  of  Defense 
Johnson. 


Awards  were  made  April  27,   1951,  to  James  E.   Dowell  and   Mattie   Y.  Woods;   but    details   were   not  available. 


''-"""-; ;    25  "  ;, 

National  Negro  Organizations 


THE  LIST  below  is  based  upon  unpub- 
lished and  preliminary  materials  sup- 
plied by  the  Dept.  of  Commerce,  Bureau 
of  the  Census.  On  this  basis,  it  is  com- 
plete as  of  Feb.  15,  1952.  Final  data  on 
Negro  organizations  will  be  presented  in 
a  bulletin  being  prepared  by  the  Census 
Bureau  and  scheduled  for  release  in 
Spring  1952. 

Educational  Organizations 

American  Assn.  of  College  Business  Officers. 
Glenwood  E.  Jones,  Shaw  University,  Ral- 
eigh, N.C.  Org. :  April  1939,  Howard  Univ., 
Washington,  D.C. 

American  Bridge  Assn.,  Inc.  Victor  R.  Daly, 
1614  T  St.,  N.W.,  Washington  9,  D.C. 

American  Teachers  Assn.  Pres.,  Dr.  George 
W.  Gore,  Jr.,  Florida  A.&M.  College,  Tal- 
lahassee, Fla. 

American  Tennis  Assn.  Pres.,  Bertram  L. 
Baker,  399  Jefferson  Ave.,  Brooklyn  21, 
N.Y. 

Assn.  of  College  and  Secondary  Schools  for 
Negroes.  Pres.,  Dr.  George  W.  Gore,  Jr., 
Florida  A.&M.  College,  Tallahassee,  Fla. 
Org. :  1934,  Atlanta  Univ.,  Atlanta  Ga. 

Assn.  of  Deans  of  Women  and  Advisers  to 
Girls  in  Negro  Schools.  Pres.,  Dr.  Virginia 
S.  Nyabongo,  Tennessee  State  University, 
Nashville,  Tenn.  Org. :  1923,  Washington, 
D.C. 

Assn.  of  Social  Science  Teachers  in  Negro 
Colleges.  Pres.,  Prof.  Merl  R.  Eppse,  Ten- 
nessee State  University,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Org. :  1935,  Johnson  C.  Smith  Univ.,  Char- 
lotte, N.C. 

Beta  Kappa  Chi  Honorary  Society.  Pres.,  Dr. 
E.  E.  O'Bannon,  Prairie  View  A.&M.  Col- 
lege, Prairie  View,  Tex. 

College  Language  Assn.  Pres.,  Edward  A. 
Jones,  Morehouse  College,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Conference  on  Adult  Education  and  the 
Negro.  Pres.,  Dr.  Edward  Brice,  Informa- 
tion and  Education  Section,  State  Dept., 
Washington,  D.C. 

Conference,  of  Presidents  of  Negro  Land- 
Grant  Colleges.  Pres.,  Dr.  E.  B.  Evans, 
Prairie  View  A.&M.  College,  Prairie  View, 
Tex.  Org. :  1923,  Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala. 

General  Intercollegiate  Athletic  Assn.  Prof. 
G.  G.  Singleton,  Virginia  State  College, 
Petersburg,  Va. 

Mid-Western  Athletic  Assn.  Pres.,  George  F. 
David,  Central  State  College,  Wilberforce, 
Ohio.  Org. :  1931,  Ky.  St.  Col.,  Frankfort,  Ky. 

Nat'l  Alumni  Assn.  Roby  W.  Hilliard,  2302 
E.  Alabama  St.,  Houston,  Tex. 


Nat'l  Assn.  of  College  Women.  Pres.,  Mrs. 
Inez  B.  Brewer,  2143  Broadway,  Gary, 
Ind.  Org.:  1924,  Washington,  D.C. 

Nat'l  Assn.  of  Collegiate  Deans  and  Regis- 
trars in  Negro  Schools.  Pres.,  A.  A.  Mc- 
Pheeters,  Clark  College,  Atlanta,  Ga.  Org. : 
1926,  A.&T.  Col.,  Greensboro,  N.C. 

Nat'l  Assn.  of  Jeanes  Supervisors.  Pres.,  Mrs. 
Ida  N.  Givens,  Baton  Rouge,  La.  Org. : 

1942,  Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala. 

Nat'l  Assn.  of  Personnel — Deans  and  Advis- 
ers of  Men  in  Negro  Educational  Institu- 
tions. Pres.,  C.  J.  Dunn,  Alabama  State 
College,  Montgomery,  Ala.  Org. :  1935, 
Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.C. 

Nat'l  Congress  of  Colored  Parents  and  Teach- 
ers. Pres.,  Mrs.  J.  S.  Morgan,  168  Jones 
St.,  Cartersville,  Ga.  Org.:  1926,  Atlanta, 
Ga. 

Nat'l  Institute  of  Science.  Pres.,  Dr.  Joseph 
J.  Dennis,  Clark  College,  Atlanta,  Ga.  Org. : 

1943,  Chicago,  111. 

Nat'l  Pan-Hellenic  Council,  Inc.  Mrs.  Mae 
W.  Downs,  1209  Pressman  St.,  Baltimore, 
Md. 

Nat'l  Student  Health  Assn.  Exec.  Dir.,  Dr. 
Paul  B.  Comely,  Howard  University,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  Org.:  1940,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Nat'l  Teachers'  Research  Assn.  Pres.,  Dr.  J. 
Irving  Scott,  South  Carolina  State  College, 
Orangeburg,  S.C. 

Southeastern  Athletic  Conference.  L.  L.  Stall- 
worth,  Claflin  College,  Orangeburg,  S.C. 

Southern  Intercollegiate  Athletic  Conference. 
Pres.,  Dr.  St.  Elmo  Brady,  Fisk  University, 
Nashville,  Tenn.  Org.:  1913,  Morehouse 
Col.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Southwestern  Athletic  Conference.  Pres.,  S. 
E.  Lassiter,  Bishop  College,  Marshall,  Tex. 
Org. :  1920,  Houston,  Tex. 

United  Golfers  Assn.  Pres.,  A.  DeV.  Crosby, 
114  N.  17  St.,  Columbus  3,  Ohio. 

Organizations  for  General  Advancement 

The  American  Council  on  Human  Rights. 
Dir.,  Elmer  W.  Henderson,  1130  Sixth  St., 
N.W.,  Washington,  D.C.  Org. :  1948,  Wash- 
ington, D.C. 

Assn.  for  the  Study  of  Negro  Life  and  His- 
tory. Dir.,  Dr.  Ray  ford  W.  Logan,  1538 
Ninth  St.,  N.W.,  Washington,  D.C.  Org.: 
1915,  Chicago,  111. 

Council  on  African  Affairs.  Chairman,  Paul 
Robeson,  53  W.  125  St.,  New  York  27, 
N.Y.  Org.:  1937,  New  York  City. 

Farmers  and  Home  Makers  Conference.  Dr. 
James  N.  Freeman,  Lincoln  University, 
Jefferson  City,  Mo. 

The  Frontiers  of  America,  Inc.  Pres.,  Nimrod 
B.  Allen,  107  N.  Monroe  'Ave.,  Columbus 
3,  Ohio.  Org. :  1936,  Columbus,  Ohio. 


375 


376 


NATIONAL  NEGRO  ORGANIZATIONS 


The  John  A.  Andrew  Clinical  Society.  Exec. 
Secy.,  Dr.  Eugene  H.  Dibble,  Jr.,  Tuskegee 
Institute,  Ala.  Org. :  1917,  Tuskegee  Inst., 
Ala. 

Nat'l  Achievement  Clubs,  Inc.  Founder  & 
Pres.,  Mrs.  Alma  Illery,  2839^  Wylie  Ave., 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Org. :  1944,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Nat'l  Assn.  for  the  Advancement  of  Colored 
People.  Exec.  Secy.,  Walter  White,  20  W. 
40  St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y.  Org.:  1909, 
New  York  City. 

Nat'l  Convention  of  Gospel  Choirs  and 
Choruses,  Inc.  Thomas  A.  Dorsey,  4048 
Lake  Park  Ave.,  Chicago,  111. 

Nat'l  Junior  League,  Inc.  Mrs.  William  E. 
King,  4140  South  Parkway,  Chicago  15,  111. 

Nat'l  United  Ushers  Assn.  of  America,  Inc. 
Allan  A.  C.  Griffith,  Sr.,  1704  Fourth  St., 
N.W.,  Washington,  D.C. 

Nat'l  Urban  League,  Pres.,  Lloyd  K.  Garri- 
son, 575  Madison  Ave.,  New  York  22,  N.Y. 
Exec.  Secy.,  Lester  B.  Granger,  1133 
Broadway,  New  York  1,  N.Y.  Org.:  1910, 
New  York  City. 

Negro  Organization  Society,  Inc.  Pres., 
Lorenzo  C.  White,  Hampton  Institute,  Va. 

Tuskegee  Institute  Food  Show,  Nutrition  In- 
stitute, and  Buyers  Conference.  Mgr.,  R.  R. 
Moton,  Jr.,  Tuskegee  Institute,  Ala.  Org. : 
1946,  Tuskegee  Inst,  Ala. 

Organizations  for 
Economic  Advancement 

American  Savings  and  Loan  League.  J.  S. 
Stewart,  114  W.  Parrish  St.,  Durham,  N.C. 

Assn.  of  Colored  Railway  Trainmen  and 
Locomotive  Firemen,  Inc.  Grand  Pres.,  S. 
H.  Clark,  919  Gilmer  Ave.,  N.W.,  Roanoke 
17,  Va.  Org.:  1912,  Knoxville,  Tenn. 

Brotherhood  of  Sleeping  Car  Porters.  Inter- 
nat'l  Pres.,  A.  Philip  Randolph,  217  W. 
125  St.,  New  York  27,  N.Y.  Org.:  1925, 
New  York  City. 

Nat'l  Alliance  of  Postal  Employees.  Pres., 
Ashby  B.  Carter,  5633  S.  Wabash  Ave., 
Chicago,  111.  Org.:  1913,  Chattanooga, 
Tenn. 

Nat'l  Assn.  of  Fashion  and  Accessory  De- 
signers, Inc.  Pres.,  Mrs.  Freddye  S.  Hen- 
derson, 839  Booker  Washington  Drive, 
N.W.,  Atlanta,  Ga.  Org. :  1949. 

Nat'l  Assn.  of  Real  Estate  Brokers,  Inc.  W. 
D.  Morrison,  Jr.,  11646  Oakland  Ave., 
Detroit  11,  Mich. 

Nat'l  Bankers  Assn.  Pres.,  John  H.  Wheller, 
Merchants  and  Farmers'  Bank,  Durham, 
N.C.  Org.:  1917,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Nat'l  Beauty  Culturists'  League,  Inc.  Pres., 
Mrs.  Cordelia  G.  Johnson,  294  Forest  St., 
Jersey  City,  NJ. 

Nat'l  Builders  Assn.  Pres.,  T.  M.  Alexander, 
Security  Construction  Co.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
Org. :  1923,  Hampton  Inst.,  Va. 

Nat'l  Convention  of  Madam  C.  J.  Walker 
Agents  and  Beauticians.  Robert  L.  Broken- 
burr,  617  Indiana  Aye.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Nat'l  Negro  Advertising  Service  Bureau. 
Mgr.,  Dr.  Reverdy  C.  Ransom,  3rd,  P.O. 
Box  111,  Hartford  1,  Conn. 

Nat'l  Negro  Business  League,  Inc.  Pres., 
Horace  Sudduth,  1927  Eleventh  St.,  N.W., 
Washington,  D.C.  Org.:  1900,  Boston, 
Mass. 


Nat'l  Negro  Funeral  Directors  Assn.,  Inc 
Pres.,  C.  L.  Dennis,  8515  Cohn  St.,  New 
Orleans,  La. 

Nat'l  Negro  Insurance  Assn.  Pres.,  Charles 
A.  Shaw,  P.O.  Box  2097,  Houston,  Tex. 
Org. :  1921,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Nat'l  Newspaper  Publishers  Assn.  Pres., 
Louis  E.  Martin,  3435  Indiana  Ave.,  Chi- 
cago, 111.  Org. :  1940,  Chicago,  111. 

Nat'l  Society  of  Accountants.  Pres.,  J.  B. 
Blayton,  239  Auburn  Ave.,  N.E.,  Atlanta, 
Ga.  Org. :  1934,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Nat'l  Technical  Assn.,  Inc.  Pres.,  Calvin  J. 
McKissack,  Nashville,  Tenn.  Org. :  1926, 
Springfield,  111. 

New  Farmers  of  America.  W.  T.  Spanton, 
U.S.  Office  of  Educ.,  Washington  25,  D.C. 

Pullman  Porters  Benefit  Assn.  of  America. 
Pres.,  E.  M.  Graham,  6  E.  Garfield  Blvd., 
Chicago  15,  111. 

United  Beauty  School  Owners  and  Teachers 
Assn.  Pres.,  Mrs.  Allura  G.  Stams,  237 
Vance  St.,  Memphis,  Tenn.  Org.:  1947, 
Bethune-Cookman  Col.,  Daytona  Beach, 
Fla. 

Organizations  for 
Professional  Advancement 

American    Assn.    of    Chiropodists-Podiatrists. 

Pres.,    Dr.    Mildred    K.    Dixon,    Tuskegee 

Institute,  Ala. 

Assn.  of  Former  Internes  of  Freedmen's  Hos- 
pital. Dr.  Leonidas  H.  Berry,  412  E.  47 

St.,  N.E.,  Chicago,  111.  _ 

The  Coordinating  Council  for  Negro  Per- 
formers. Chairman,  Lester  A.  Walton,  165 

W.  46  St.,  New  York  36,  N.Y.  Org.:  1951, 

New  York  City. 
Nat'l    Assn.    of    Business    and    Professional 

Women's    Clubs.    Pres.,    Mrs.    Geneva    K. 

Valentine,   1011  U  St.,  N.W.,  Washington, 

D.C. 
Nat'l  Assn.  of  Dental  Hygienists.  Pres.,  Mrs. 

Love  J.  Wright,  325  W.  Adams  St.,  Pleas- 

antville,  NJ.  Org.:   1939,  New  York  City. 
Nat'l   Assn.  of   Negro   Musicians,   Inc.    Pres., 

Dr.   Roscoe  R.   Polin,   333   W.   30   St.,   In- 
dianapolis,   Ind.    Org. :    1919,    Washington, 

D.C. 
Nat'l    Bar    Assn.    Pres.,    Scovel    Richardson, 

4300   St.   Ferdinand,   St.  Louis,   Mo.   Org. : 

1923,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
Nat'l  Conference  of  Hospital  Administrators. 

John  L.  Procope,  Provident  Hospital,  1514 

Division  St.,  Baltimore  17,  Md. 
Nat'I  Dental  Assn.  Dr.  W.  M.  Springer,  637 

W.  Court  St.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  Org. :  1918, 

Buckroe  Beach,  Va. 
Nat'l    Medical    Assn.    Pres.,    Dr.    Joseph    G. 

Gathings,    Washington,    D.C.    Org.:     1895, 

Atlanta,  Ga. 
Nat'l  Pharmaceutical  Assn.  Pres.,  Howard  O. 

Reckling,  211   W.   149   St.,   New  York   31, 

N.Y. 
Negro  Actors  Guild  of  America,  Inc.   Pres., 

J.  C.  Hill,  1674  Broadway,   New  York   19, 

N.Y.  Org. :  1936,  New  York  City. 
Postgraduate    Medical    Assembly.    Dr.    F.    E. 

Williams,  Jr.,  305 y2  N.  Spring  Ave.,  Tyler, 

Tex. 
Women's  Auxiliary  to  the  Nat'l  Medical  Assn. 

Mrs.    Henrine    Knaive,    321    Jefferson    St., 

Laurel,  Miss. 


NATIONAL  NEGRO  ORGANIZATIONS 


377 


Secret  Fraternal  Orders 

Afro-American  Sons  and  Daughters.  T.  J. 
Huddleston,  511  Calhoun  Ave.,  Yazoo  City, 
Miss. 

American  Woodmen,  Supreme  Camp  of.  Su- 
preme Commander,  Lawrence  H.  Lightner, 
2100  Downing  St.,  Denver  5,  Col. 

Ancient  United  Order  of  Sons  and  Daugh- 
ters, Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Moses.  Wil- 
liam T.  Thomas,  203  Oakwood  Place, 
Orange,  NJ. 

Daughters  of  Improved  Benevolent  and  Pro- 
tective Order  of  Elks  of  the  World — 
Grand  Temple.  Mrs.  Elizabeth  R.  Gordon, 
406  M  St.,  N.W.,  Washington  1,  D.C. 

Daughters  of  Isis  Auxiliary,  Imperial  Court. 
Mrs.  Ercelle  Harmon  Moore,  125  Northland 
Ave.,  Buffalo  8,  N.Y. 

Easter  Star,  Order  of.  Mrs.  C.  N.  Pitts,  1221 
Hunter  St.,  N.W.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Elks  of  the  World,  Improved  Benevolent 
Protective  Order  of.  Grand  Exalted  Ruler, 
J.  Finley  Wilson,  1813  Vernon  St.,  N.W., 
Washington,  D.C. 

General  Grand  Masonic  Congress.  Edward 
Love,  1609  Eleventh  St.,  N.W.,  Washing- 
ton, D.C. 

Good  Samaritans,  Independent  Order  of. 
John  H.  Dale,  Jr.,  1269  Sumner  Rd.,  S.E., 
Washington,  D.C. 

Grand  United  Order  of  Oddfellows  in  Amer- 
ica and  Jurisdiction,  Ernest  D.  Cooke,  131 
Warwick  St.,  Boston  20,  Mass. 

Household  of  Ruth,  Grand  (Oddfellows). 
Grand  Recorder,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Delaney, 
30  Fifteenth  St.,  Coyington,  Ky. 

Imperial  Council,  Ancient  Egyptian  Arabic 
Order,  Nobles  of  the  Mystic  Shrine  of 
North  and  South  America,  Inc.  Dr.  Ray- 
mond E.  Jackson,  132  Hedley  Place,  Buf- 
falo 8,  N.Y. 

King  David,  Imperial  Order  of.  Mrs.  Irene  J. 
Johnson,  Buckner,  Va. 

Knights  of  Peter  Claver,  Nat'l  Council.  J. 
Roland  Prejean,  P.O.  Box  286,  Opelousas, 
La. 

Knights  of  Pythias,  Supreme  Lodge.  Secy., 
H.  H.  Young. 

Knights  Templar,  Grand  Encampment. 
Charles  R.  Wilson,  135  W.  135  St.,  New 
York  30,  N.Y. 

Prince  Hall  Masons,  Conference  of  Grand 
Masters  of.  Amos  T.  Hall,  107  */2  N.  Green- 
wood St.,  Tulsa  3,  Okla. 

Reindeer,  Benevolent  Protective  Order  of. 
James  H.  Mabane,  1400  Mattison  Ave., 
Asbury  Park,  NJ. 

St.  Luke,  Independent  Order  of.  Mrs.  Hattie 
N.  F.  Walker,  902-3  St.  James  St.,  Rich- 
mond, Va. 

Tents,  Grand  United  Order  of.  Grand  Ma- 
tron, Mrs.  J.  B.  Goldsboro,  116  Eagle  St., 
Chester.  Pa. 


United  Supreme  Council,  A.A.S.R.  (P.H.A.). 
George  W.  Crawford,  205  Church  St.,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 

Organizations  in  the 
Interest  of  Women 

Nat'l  Assn.  of  Colored  Women,  Inc.  Pres., 
Mrs.  Ella  P.  Stewart,  1114  O  St.,  N.W., 
Washington  5,  D.C.  Org. :  1896,  Washing- 
ton, D.C. 

Nat'l  Assn.  of  Ministers'  Wives.  Pres.,  Mrs. 
Elizabeth  C.  Bouey.  1827  Maplewood  Ave., 
Richmond  20,  Va.  Org.:  1941,  Richmond, 
Va. 

Nat'l  Council  of  Negro  Women,  Inc.  Pres., 
Dr.  O.  Ferebee,  1318  Vermont  Ave.,  N.W., 
Washington  5,  D.C.  Org. :  1935,  New  York 
City. 

College  Fraternities 

Alpha  Phi  Alpha.  Gen'l  Pres.,  Belford  V. 
Lawson,  Jr.,  Esq.,  2001  Eleventh  St.,  N.W., 
Washington  1,  D.C.  Org.:  1906,  Cornell 
Univ.,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Kappa  Alpha  Psi.  Pres.,  J.  Ernest  Wilkins, 
Sr.,  180  W.  Washington  St.,  Chicago  2,  111. 
Org.:  1911,  Univ.  of  Ind.,  Bloomington, 
Ind. 

Omega  Psi  Phi.  Grand  Basileus,  Grant  Rey- 
nolds, 270  Broadway,  New  York  7,  N.Y. 
Org.:  1911,  Howard  Univ.,  Washington, 
D.C. 

Phi  Beta  Sigma.  Nat'l  Pres.,  Dr.  R.  0.  John- 
son, 634  Beckwith  St.,  S.W.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
Org. :  1914,  Howard  Univ.,  Washington, 
D.C. 

College  Sororities 

Alpha  Kappa  Alpha.  Supreme  Basileus,  Mrs. 
Laura  T.  Lovelace,  1303  Burdett  Ave., 
Cincinnati  6,  Ohio.  Org. :  1908,  Howard 
Univ.,  Washington,  D.C. 

Chi  Eta  Phi  (  Nurses),  Supreme  Basileus, 
Mrs.  Anita  K.  Bass,  Carver  Court,  Tuske- 
gee  Institute,  Ala. 

Delta  Sigma  Theta.  Grand  Pres.,  Miss 
Dorothy  I.  Height,  600  Lexington  Ave., 
(c/o  YWCA),  New  York  22,  N.Y.  Org.: 
1913,  Howard  Univ.,  Washington,  D.C. 

Iota  Phi  Lambda.  Pres.,  Mrs.  Jeanne  S.  Scott, 
3405  Iowa  St.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Org. :  1929, 
Chicago,  111. 

Lambda  Kappa  Mu.  Org. :  1937. 

Phi  Delta  Kappa  (Teachers'  sorority).  Su- 
preme Basileus,  Mrs.  Marion  H.  Bluitt, 
1264  Hamlin  St.,  N.E.,  Washington  17, 
D.C.  Org. :  1923,  Jersey  City,  NJ. 

Sigma  Gamma  Rho.  Org. :  1922,  Butler  Univ., 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Zeta  Phi  Beta.  Grand  Basileus,  Dr.  Nancy  B. 
Woolridge,  Box  145,  Hampton  Institute. 
Hampton,  Va.  Org. :  1920,  Howard  Univ.. 
Washington,  D.C. 


26 
Deaths:  1947-1951 


INCLUDED  here  are  prominent  Negroes  as 
well  as  white  persons  influential  in  the 
life  of  the  Negro,  with  place  and  date  of 
death.  A  *  indicates  the  deceased  is 
white. 

1947 

Anderson,  Dr.  John  W.,  physician,  philanthro- 
pist ;  generous  donor  to  Meharry  Medical 
Col.  (his  Alma  Mater),  Moorland  Branch 
YMCA,  Dallas,  Texas,  Wiley  Col.,  Mar- 
shall, Texas:  Dallas,  Tex.,  May  30. 

*Armstrong,  Capt.  Daniel  W.  (54),  trustee 
Hampton  Inst.,  son  of  Institute's  founder, 
Gen.  Samuel  C.  Armstrong :  New  York  City, 
July  21. 

Arnold,  James  C.  (57),  exec.  dir.  Harlem 
Branch  YMCA:  New  York  City,  June  13. 

*Bilbo,  Senator  Theodore  G.  (69),  champion 
of  white  supremacy ;  introduced  legislation 
in  U.S.  Congress  to  ship  13,000,000  Amer- 
ican Negroes  to  Africa ;  advocated  physical 
violence  against  colored  would-be  voters  in 
Miss.  Dem.  primary,  1947 :  New  Orleans, 
La.,  Aug.  21. 

Bragg,  Jubie  B.,  Sr.  (71),  founder  Southern 
Intercollegiate  Athletic  Conference  of  Ne- 
gro Colleges ;  retired  vice-pres.  Fla.  A.&M. 
Col.  for  Negroes ;  nationally  known  as 
"grand  old  man  of  football" :  Tallahassee, 
Fla.,  Nov.  26. 

Bruce,  Mrs.  Clara  B.  (65),  wife  of  Roscoe 
C.  Bruce ;  first  woman  to  become  chief  edi- 
tor Law  Review,  Boston  Univ. ;  one  of  first 
women  admitted  to  Harvard  Univ.  courses 
in  education :  New  York  City,  Jan.  22. 

Bullock,  Ralph  W.  (52),  program  and  re- 
search dir.  Colored  Work  Div.,  Nafl 
YMCA :  Bronx,  N.Y.,  Dec.  18. 

Carter,  William  J.  (81),  attorney;  joined 
W.E.B.  DuBois  in  forming  Niagara  Move- 
ment, which  later  became  NAACP;  How- 
ard Univ.  trustee :  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Mar. 
23. 

Chisum,  Col.  W.  Woodruff  (64),  commanding 
officer  1 5th  Infantry  Reg. ;  first  Negro  to 
hold  office  in  N.Y.  Guard  Assn.  (vice- 
pres.)  ;  first  to  form  and  have  recognized 
in  the  State  a  Junior  Guard  of  youth  of 
community :  New  York  City,  July  25. 

*Cross,  Rev.  Judson  L.  (68),  retired  pres. 
Tougaloo  Col.,  Miss. :  Wellesley,  Mass., 
Oct.  20. 

*Davis,  Dr.  Jackson  (64),  educator;  pres. 
Phelps-Stokes  Fund ;  vice-pres.  and  dir. 
Gen'l  Educ.  Bd.  of  N.Y. :  Cartersville,  Va., 
Apr.  15. 

Dogan,  Matthew  W.  (84),  educator:  pres.- 
emeritus  Wiley  Col.  46  years :  Marshall, 
Tex.,  June  24. 


Fisher,  Bishop,  H.  L.,  presiding  bishop  and 
pres.  United  Holy  Church  of  America, 
Inc. :  Henderson,  N.C.,  July  24. 

*Ford,  Henry  (83),  automobile  mfgr. ;  indus- 
trial genius  who  fathered  modern  mass 
production ;  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  George 
Washington  Carver;  benefactor  of  man- 
kind :  Detroit,  Mich.,  Apr.  7. 

Gandy,  Dr.  John  M.  (76),  educator;  pres.- 
emeritus  Va.  State  Col. :  Petersburg,  Va., 
Oct.  6. 

Gibson,  Joshua  (Josh)  (35),  star  catcher 
Washington  Homestead  Grays ;  nationally 
known  as  "Negro  Babe  Ruth" :  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.,  Jan.  20. 

Godfrey,  George  (50),  one-time  contender  for 
world's  heavyweight  crown :  Los  Angeles, 
Calif.,  Aug.  13. 

Harbut,  Will  (Old  Will),  Man  O'  War's 
devoted  groom,  photographed  many  times 
with  famous  horse :  Lexington,  Ky.,  Oct.  4. 

Hawkins,  Dr.  Mason  A.  (73),  principal  Doug- 
lass High  Sch.,  Baltimore :  Baltimore,  Md., 
Jan.  28. 

Haywood,  David  (Uncle  Dave)  (74),  butler 
to  14  governors  of  N.C. :  Raleigh,  N.C., 
Nov.  21. 

Hill,  T.  Arnold  (58),  social  worker;  former 
dir.  Industrial  Relations  Dept.,  Nat'l  Urban 
League;  former  exec.  secy.  Chicago  Urban 
League ;  vocational  dir.  Fisk  Univ. :  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  Aug.  8. 

Hope,  Mrs.  John  (76),  widow  of  late  pres. 
Atlanta  Univ.  and  Morehouse  Col. :  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  Aug.  14. 

*Hornsby,  Marion  A.  (57),  chief  of  police, 
Atlanta ;  noted  for  arrests  and  indictments 
of  Columbians,  a  hate  group :  Atlanta,  Ga., 
Jan.  31. 

*Jones,  Dr.  M.  Ashby  (78),  Baptist  minister ; 
a  founder  Commission  on  Interracial  Co- 
operation (organized  1918,  Atlanta)  :  At- 
lanta, Ga.,  Jan.  2. 

*LaGuardia,  Fiorello  H.  (65),  mayor  New 
York  City  (1934-48),  known  to  millions  as 
"the  Little  Flower" ;  appointed  four  Ne- 
groes to  N.Y.C.  judgeships :  Bronx,  N.Y., 
Sept.  20. 

Lewis,  Abram  L.  (83),  a  founder  Afro- Amer- 
ican Life  Ins.  Co. :  Jacksonville,  Fla., 
March  10. 

Lightfoot,  George  M.  (78),  prof.  Latin,  How- 
ard Univ.  1891-1939:  Washington,  D.C., 
Dec.  24. 

Lunceford,  James  M.  (Jimmie)  (45),  interna- 
tionally famous  orchestra  leader,  whose 
band  was  known  as  the  "Harlem  Express" ; 
Seaside,  Ore.,  July  12. 

Marshall,  Jimmie  (50),  mgr.  Harlem's  Apollo 
Theater ;  star  with  Whitman  Sisters ;  fam- 
ous Broadway  dancer  :  New  Rochelle,  N.Y., 
Jan.  18. 


378 


DEATHS:  1948 


379 


Minton,  Dr.  Henry  M.  (76),  dir.  Mercy  Hosp. 
(Phila.)  22  years;  Phila.'s  first  Negro 
pharmacist ;  founder  of  Alpha  Boule :  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  Jan.  5. 

Moody,  Dr.  Harold  A.  (65),  pres.-founder 
League  of  Colored  Peoples,  Hq.,  London : 
Peckham,  London,  England,  Apr.  24. 

Nail,  John  E.  (63),  distinguished  business 
man  of  Harlem ;  member  bd.  dirs.  Nat'l 
Urban  League,  NAACP,  YMCA ;  pres. 
Harlem  Bd.  Commerce ;  first  Negro  ap- 
pointed N.Y.  Real  Estate  Bd.  and  Advisory 
Council  on  employment  problems :  New 
York  City,  March. 

Pearson,  William  G.  (89),  banker,  educator, 
civic  leader,  philanthropist ;  recipient  of 
Harmon  Award ;  pres.  Bankers  Fire  Ins. 
Co.,  Southern  Fidelity  &  Surety  Co.,  Peo- 
ple's Bldg.  &  Loan  Assn.,  Michaux  &  Co. ; 
chrmn.  Finance  Corp. ;  dir.  Mechanics  & 
Farmers  Bank:  Durham,  N.C.,  Sept.  22. 

Phillips,  Archdeacon  Henry  L.  (100),  first 
Negro  Episcopal  clergyman  appointed  to 
archdeaconship  (1902-30)  :  Germantown, 
Pa.,  June  3. 

*  Powell,    Richard    H.    (71),    trustee    George 

Washington  Carver  Foundation ;  attorney 
for  Tuskegee  Inst. ;  former  mayor,  Tuske- 
gee,  Ala. ;  for  a  great  number  of  years  mem- 
ber Ala.  State  Bd.  Educ. :  Tuskegee,  Ala., 
Nov.  13. 

Ransom,  Freeman  B.  (65),  gen'l  mgr.  and 
attorney  for  Madam  C.  J.  Walker  Mfg.  Co. : 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  Aug.  6. 

Sanders,  William  W.  (73),  educator,  min- 
ister ;  state  librarian  of  W.  Va. ;  state  supvr. 
Negro  schools ;  pres.  Nat'l  Assn.  of  Teach- 
ers in  Colored  Schools  (now  American 
Teachers  Assn.),  in  1933  made  its  exec, 
secy,  with  Hq.  in  Washington,  D.C. :  Key- 
stone, W.  Va.,  Dec.  27. 

Shephard,  Dr.  James  E.  (72),  educator;  pres.- 
founder  N.C.  Col. :  Durham,  N.C.,  Oct.  6. 

Stubbs,  Dr.  Frederick  D.  (40),  nationally 
known  chest  specialist :  New  York  City, 
Feb.  17. 

*Surles,  Mai.  Gen.  Alexander  D.  (61),  dir. 
public  relations  War  Dept.  during  World 
War  II ;  made  it  possible  for  Negro  press 
to  enjoy  same  privileges  as  white  press : 
Washington,  D.C.,  Dec.  12. 

Trammell,  Mrs.  Beatrice  J.  (38),  noted  pub- 
lic health  nurse  whose  services  brought  her 
national  recognition :  Tuskegee,  Ala.,  Oct. 
11. 

*  Wright,    Arthur    D.    (62),    pres.    Southern 

Educ.  Foundation,  Inc.,  (union  of  Anna  T. 
Jeanes,  John  F.  Slater,  and  Peabody  Funds 
in  1937)  :  Boston,  Mass.,  May  10. 
Wright,  Maj.  Richard  R.,  Sr.  (94),  soldier, 
educator,  banker ;  first  pres.  Ga.  State  Col. ; 
founder-pres.  Citizens  &  Southern  Bank  & 
Trust  Co.  of  Phila. ;  trustee  Atlanta  Univ. ; 
inspirer  of  first  U.S.  postage  stamp  named 
for  Negro  (Booker  T.  Washington  Stamp)  ; 
founder-organizer  Nat'l  Freedom  Day, 
1941,  celebrating  adoption  of  Thirteenth 
Amendment :  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  2. 

1948 

Alstork  Bishop  Frank  W.  (63),  AME  Zion 
Conference  of  Va.  and  N.C. :  Washington, 
D.C.,  July  5. 


Barrett,  Mrs.  Janie  P.,  founder  Va.  State 
Fed.  of  Colored  Women's  Clubs  and  Va. 
Ind.  Sch.  for  Girls  at  Peake's  Turnout, 
Va. ;  winner  Harmon  Award  1929  for  "in- 
spiration and  achievement  in  education" : 
Hampton,  Va.,  Aug.  27. 

Baskett,  James  (44),  radio,  stage,  screen 
actor;  winner  special  Academy  Award 
1948  for  outstanding  work  in  Walt  Dis- 
ney's "Song  of  the  South"  and  role  of 
Gabby  Gibson,  fast-talking  lawyer  on 
"Amos  and  Andy"  program :  Hollywood, 
Calif.,  July  9. 

*Benedict,  Dr.  Ruth  F.  (61),  noted  anthro- 
pologist; co-author  of  The  Races  of  Man- 
kind, famous  pamphlet  arguing  the  equality 
of  all  races :  New  York  City,  Sept.  24. 

Bousfield,  Dr.  Midian  O.  (62),  colonel, 
medical  admin. ;  commanding  officer  Army 
hospital  at  Fort  Huachuca  World  War  II : 
Chicago,  111.,  Feb.  16. 

Brown,  Dr.  Sara  W.  (80),  retired  physician, 
philanthropist ;  first  alumna  named  to  bd. 
trustees,  Howard  Univ.  (1924)  :  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  Nov.  12. 

Burch,  Dr.  Charles  E.  (57),  acknowledged 
U.S.  authority  on  18th  century  English 
writer  Daniel  Defoe ;  chrmn.  English  Dept., 
Howard  Univ.  20  years:  Washington,  D.C., 
Mar.  31. 

Cox,  Dr.  James  M.  (88),  Pres.-emeritus  Phi- 
lander Smith  Col. ;  first  Negro  citizen  of 
Ark.,  listed  in  Who's  Who  In  America 
(1916)  :  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  January. 

De  Berry,  Dr.  William  N.  (78),  minister; 
trustee  Fisk  Univ. ;  recipient  Harmon 
Award  1927  for  "distinguished  service  in 
religion  and  social  welfare  among  Negroes 
of  the  United  States;"  in  1928  City  of 
Springfield,  Mass.,  awarded  him  William 
Pynchon  Medal  "for  distinguished  public 
service  as  a  citizen  of  that  city" :  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  Jan.  20. 

Downs,  Rev.  Karl  E.  (35),  pres.  Sam  Houston 
Col.;  author  of  Meet  the  Negro;  traveled 
with  E.  Stanley  Jones,  missionary  to  India : 
Austin,  Tex.,  Feb.  26. 

*Flanagan,  Father  Edward  J.  (61),  Catholic 
priest ;  founder  Boys  Town,  Neb.,  open  to 
all  races  and  creeds  Berlin,  Germany,  May 

Harris  George  W.  (60),  civic  leader,  politi- 
cian, journalist;  first  Negro  to  serve  on 
Bd.  Aldermen,  New  York  City;  founder  of 
former  New  York  News,  daily  newspaper: 
New  York  City,  Apr.  3. 

Jones,  J.  Richardson  (47),  cinematographer, 
newspaperman ;  filmed  newsreel  "Atlanta's 
Parade  of  Progress,"  which  had  nation- 
wide showing :  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Feb.  9. 

Lewis,  Ira  F.  (65),  pres.  and  gen'l  mgr. 
Pittsburgh  Courier:  New  York  City, 
Sept.  4. 

Mason,  Charles  C.  (97),  court  interpreter  of 
Chinese :  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  April. 

McKay,  Claude  (58),  poet,  author:  Chicago, 
111.,  May  22. 

Newton,  Herbert  (44),  one  of  first  Negro 
Communists;  shocked  nation  in  1930's  by 
marriage  to  daughter  of  white  Mich, 
banker,  John  G.  Emery,  nat'l  commander 
of  American  Legion  in  1921  ;  editor  The 
Liberator,  radical  weekly:  New  York  City, 
August. 


380 


DEATHS:  1947-1951 


Peeler,  Rev.  Silas  A.  (84),  Methodist  min- 
ister ;  former  ores.  Bennett  Col. :  Greens- 
boro, N.C..  Dec.  3. 

Potter,  Mrs.  M.  E.,  editor,  owner,  publisher 
Tampa  Bulletin,  Florida's  leading  weekly : 
Tampa,  Fla..  Nov.  21. 

Redmond,  Dr.  S.  D.  (90),  lawyer,  leader, 
physician ;  chrmn.  Miss.  Rep.  Exec.  Comm. 
24  years ;  reputedly  third  largest  income- 
taxpayer  in  Miss. :  Jackson,  Miss.,  Feb.  13. 

Russell,  Bishop  Charles  L.  (64),  presiding 
head  Sixth  Episcopal  Dist.,  CME  Church  : 
Newport  News,  Va.,  Feb.  8. 

Svphax,  Edward  M.  (70),  educator,  organist; 
one  of  first  members  bd.  trustees  of  colored 
schools  of  Washington,  D.C. ;  Syphax 
School  named  for  him ;  35  years  organist 
First  Congregational  Church  (white)  : 
Washington,  B.C.,  Sept.  8. 

Taylor,  James  (Candy  Jim)  (63),  mgr.  Chi- 
cago American  Giants;  known  as  "Grand 
Ole  Man  of  Baseball" ;  Chicago,  111.,  Apr.  3. 

Thomas,  Julian  B.  (48),  chrmn.  George  Wash- 
ington Carver  Memorial  Seal  Comm. ;  con- 
ceived idea  of  creating  memorial  stamp : 
New  York  City,  May  6. 

Turpin,  Dr.  Donnley  H.  (55),  dean-emeritus 
Meharry  Dental  Col. ;  past  pres.  Nat'l  Den- 
tal Assn. :  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Mar.  26. 

Waring,  Laura  W.  (61),  artist;  her  portrait 
paintings  in  collection  of  Harmon  Founda- 
tion, New  York  City,  and  Armory  of  369th 
Field  Artillery ;  dir.  Negro  Art  Exhibit  at 
Sesquicentennial  Expos.,  Phila.,  1926: 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Feb.  3. 

1949 

Atwell,  Ernest  T.  (70),  noted  recreation  work 
leader;  representative  Nat'l  Recreation 
Assn.;  business  mgr.  at  Tuskegee  Inst.  17 
years  under  late  Booker  T.  Washington : 
New  York  City,  Aug.  6. 

Bond,  Theophilus  (70),  one  of  richest  cotton 
farmers  in  America ;  dir.  Bondol  Labs. 
(Madison,  Ark. ;  embalming  fluid)  :  Madi- 
son, Ark.,  Apr.  28. 

Brown,  Hallie  Q.  (95),  noted  club  and  civic 
leader;  former  leader  Nat'l  Assn.  of  Col- 
ored Women's  Clubs;  made  possible  Emory 
Hall  at  Wilberforce  Univ. ;  former  dean 
Tuskegee  Inst. :  Wilberforce,  Ohio,  Sept. 
30. 

Burleigh,  Harry  T.  (82),  singer,  composer ; 
arranger  of  spirituals,  including  "Deep 
River ;"  soloist  53  years  at  St.  George's 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  New  York 
City :  Stamford,  Conn.,  Sept.  12. 

Campfield,  Charles  G.,  Sr.  (65),  noted  teacher  ; 
later  mging.  editor  Service  Magazine, 
which  he  brought  to  national  prominence : 
Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala.,  Jan.  17. 

Cook,  Mrs.  Fannie  (55),  author,  painter, 
worker  for  interracial  understanding ; 
chrmn.  Mo.  Comm.  for  Rehabilitation  of 
Sharecroppers;  won  first  George  Washing- 
ton Carver  Memorial  Award,  $2,500,  for 
Mrs.  Palmer's  Honey:  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Aug. 
25. 

Evans,  Joseph  H.  (57),  asst.  exec.  secy.  Pres- 
ident's Comm.  of  Equality  of  Treatment 
and  Opportunity  in  the  Armed  Services ; 
appointed  special  asst.  to  admin,  of  Farm 
Sec.  Admin,  by  Pres.  Roosevelt  in  1937: 
Washington,  D.C.,  Nov.  17. 


*Forrestal,  James  V.  (57),  ex-Defense  Secy.; 
exponent  of  racial  integration  in  U.S.  Navy : 
Bethesda,  Md.,  May  28. 

Foster,  Dr.  Luther  H.  (61),  treas.-business 
mgr.  Va.  State  Col.  1913-43,  pres.  since 
1943 ;  chrmn.  exec.  comm.  Negro  Land 
Grant  Col.  Assn. ;  financial  advisor  20  years 
for  all  colored  institutions  which  received 
funds  from  General  Educ.  Bd. :  Petersburg, 
Va.,  July  6. 

Freeman,  Dr.  Henry  W.  (73),  first  Negro 
medical  inspector  in  Dist.  of  Columbia 
1916-39;  acting  surgeon-in-chief  Freed- 
men's  Hosp. ;  Dist.  of  Columbia  tennis 
champion :  Washington,  D.C.,  Aug.  6. 

Graves,  Jesse  A.,  well-known  motion  picture 
actor;  played  roles  in  "None  Shall  Escape," 
"State  of  the  Union,"  "Mission  to  Mos- 
cow," "Ghost  of  a  Zombie,"  "They  Drive 
by  Night,"  "Jezebel,"  "Big  Boy,"  "Na- 
gana,"  and  others.  Hollywood,  Calif.,  March. 

Hayes,  Thomas  H.,  Sr.,  (86),  mortician;  as- 
sociate and  traveling  companion  of  Booker 
T.  Washington  ;  helped  organize  Nat'l  Negro 
Business  League :  Memphis,  Tenn.,  Nov.  9. 

Hill.  Mrs.  Lula  L.,  a  founder  and  first  person 
to  write  history  of  Central  Church  (Metho- 
dist) in  Atlanta :  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Sept.  26. 

*Jester,  Gov.  Beauford  H.  (56),  exponent  of 
civil  rights ;  signed  into  law  an  anti-lynch- 
ing'  bill  under  which  guilty  persons  will  be 
subject  to  imprisonment  or  death :  Houston, 
Tex.,  July  11. 

Johnson,  Willie  (Bunk)  (69),  musician;  cred- 
ited with  teaching  orchestra  leader  Louis 
Armstrong  to  play  the  trumpet :  New  Ibe- 
ria, La.,  July  7. 

Jones,  George  G.  (78),  pioneer  businessman 
and  inventor ;  operated  Favorite  Brass  Foun- 
dry ;  among  his  inventions  is  trolley  \yheel 
cast  in  an  alloy  which  requires  no  oiling, 
used  by  Cleveland  Electric  Ry.  Co.  and  now 
in  use  all  over  the  country :  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
Nov.  9. 

Knox,  L.  Amasa,  known  as  "dean"  of  Kansas 
City  Negro  lawyers  ;  first  Negro  elected  to 
Kans.  State  Legislature  (1928)  ;  served  as 
member  of  Nat'l  Rep.  Convention  and  as 
member  of  GOP  national  planning  board : 
Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Sept.  7. 

Ledbetter,  Huddie  (Leadbelly)  (60),  inter- 
nationally known  guitarist  and  singer  of 
folk  songs ;  carried  "Good  Night,  Irene" 
north  from  Caddo  Lake,  La. ;  "King  of 
twelve-string  guitar,"  an  instrument  not  now 
in  general  use;  discovered  by  John  and  Alan 
Lomax,  authorities  on  American  folklore: 
Shreveport,  La.,  Dec.  6. 

Lewis,  William  H.  (80),  famed  attorney; 
twice  Harvard  All-American  grid  star 
(1892-93);  first  Negro  to  captain  an  Ivy 
League  team ;  Ass.  Attorney-Gen'l  of  U.S. 
during  administration  of  Pres.  Taft :  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Jan.  8. 

*Low,  Rev.  A.  Ritchie  (49),  originator  <  of 
Vermont  Plan  (children  of  Harlem  visit 
homes  of  white  Vermont  families  for  two- 
week  periods),  famed  project  has  spread  to 
Conn.,  111.,  New  Hamp. :  New  York  City, 
Dec.  24. 

Morton,  Ferdinand  Q.  (68),  retired  chrmn. 
N.Y.C.  Civil  Service  Comm. :  Washington, 
D.C.,  Nov.  8. 


DEATHS:  1950 


381 


Murphy,  Robert  S.,  half-brother  of  poet  Paul 
Laurence  Dunbar ;  native  of  Dayton,  Ohio ; 
lived  in  Chicago  since  1 892 ;  known  to  many 
as  unsung  poet :  Chicago,  111.,  Nov.  8. 

Roberts,  Needham  (49),  veteran  hero  of  World 
War  I ;  one  of  first  to  get  Croix  de  Guerre  ; 
member  of  famed  "Harlem  Hell  Fighters" : 
Newark,  N.J.,  Apr.  25. 

Robinson,  Bill  (Bojangles)  (71),  famed  danc- 
ing star:  New  York  City,  Nov.  25. 

*Rosenwald,  Mrs.  Adelaide  R.  (80),  widow 
of  famed  Chicago  philanthropist,  Julius  Ro- 
senwald :  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  Sept  .28. 

Sanford,  J.  W.,  ex-pres.  Langston  Univ. ;  pres. 
Texas  Negro  Teachers  Ass. ;  pres.  Okla. 
Negro  Chamber  of  Commerce ;  pres.  Okla. 
Negro  Democratic  Ass. :  Oklahoma  City, 
Okla.,  March. 

Simms,  Harry  (63),  former  principal  of  Snow 
Hill  Inst.,  Snow  Hill,  Ala. ;  war  bond  spe- 
cialist for  State  of  Ala.  during  World  War 
II :  Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala.,  Mar.  6. 

*Strozier,  Harry  S.,  distinguished  attorney, 
editor;  known  for  brilliant  defense  in  Pri- 
mus E.  King  suit,  which  resulted  in  decision 
upholding  right  of  Negroes  to  partcipate  in 
all  elections  in  Ga. :  Macon,  Ga.,  Sept.  8. 

Thompson,  Sidney  B.  (74),  veteran  GOP 
leader ;  retired  deputy  coll.  of  int.  rev. : 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  February. 

Trotman,  Mrs.  Minta  B.,  businesswoman, 
world  traveler ;  pres.  Foreign  Study  Club, 
which  entertained  many  foreign  notables  in- 
cluding Madam  Naidu,  famous  Indian  leader 
and  friend  of  late  Mahatma  Ghandi ;  in- 
strumental in  getting  important  contribu- 
tions to  Fisk  Univ.  African  Collection : 
Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  May  13. 

Vaughn,  Judge  George  L.  (64),  ass.  attorney- 
gen'l  of  Mo. ;  first  lawyer  to  present  a  re- 
strictive covenant  case  (1948)  and  win  it 
before  U.S.  Supreme  Court;  honored  as 
"most  outstanding  St.  Louis  Negro  in 
1947":  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Aug.  24. 

*Villard,  Oswald  G.  (77),  one  of  original 
founders  NAACP ;  grandson  of  William 
Lloyd  Garrison,  abolitionist ;  exponent  of 
civil  liberties  and  pacifism ;  New  York  City, 
Oct.  1. 

Walters,  Mrs.  Lelia  (83),  first  colored  woman 
to  become  public  school  principal  in  Ky. ; 
widow  of  late  Bishop  Alexander  Walters : 
New  York  City,  April. 

Whittaker,  Dr.  Miller  F.  (56),  prominent  in 
education,  physics,  and  architecture ;  third 
pres.  S.C.  State  A.&M.  Col.:  Oranbegurg, 
S.C.,  Nov.  7. 

*Wickersham,  Charles  A.  (86),  Southern  RR. 
exec. ;  trustee  Tuskegee  Inst. :  Atlanta,  Ga., 
July  12. 

*Wise,  Rabbi  Stephen  S.  (75),  pres.  American 
Jewish  Congress ;  vigorous  fighter  against 
discrimination  and  segregation :  New  York 
City,  Apr.  26. 

*  Woods,  Mrs.  Andriana  E.  N.  (90),  married 
her  Negro  chauffeur  (Allan  L.  G.  Woods.  28 
years  old,  who  cared  for  her  in  her  old  age 
and  illness)  so  he  could  inherit  her  prop- 
erty :  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  June  4. 

*Yenser,  Thomas  (83),  editor  and  publisher 
Who's  Who  In  Colored  America:  New  York 
City,  September. 

Young,  George  B.,  Bishop  AME  Church ; 
missionary  to  Africa:  Waco,  Tex.,  Feb.  16. 


1950 

Alexander,  Hilliard  B.  (93),  established  first 
livery  and  riding  academy  owned  and  oper- 
ated by  colored  people  in  Phila.  in  1875  : 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  22. 

Anderson,  Ivie  (Mrs.  Walter  Collins)  (45), 
nationally  known  song  stylist;  for  many 
years  with  Duke  Ellington's  Orchestra :  Los 
Angeles,  Calif.,  Dec.  28. 

Anthony,  Dr.  Luke  (70),  native  physician; 
graduate  Lincoln  Univ.,  Pa.,  Univ.  of 
Penna.,  Flowers  Medical  Col.,  N.Y. ;  known 
for  diagnosis  of  Liber ian  epidemic  of  1905, 
declared  by  French  minister  to  be  yellow 
fever,  proved  by  Dr.  Luke  to  be  "plasmo- 
dium  of  malaria,"  necessitating  no  quaran- 
tine, thus  leaving  natives  free  to  protect 
themselves  against  threat  of  foreign  inva- 
sion ;  credited  with  having  proposed  estab- 
lishment of  Univ.  of  Liberia  :  Monrovia,  Li- 
beria, October. 

*Benet,  William  R.  (64),  distinguished  Ameri- 
can poet,  critic,  editor ;  won  Pulitzer  Poetry 
Prize  in  1942;  member  Civil  Rights  De- 
fense Comm. ;  fought  for  equal  rights  of 
Negro  people :  New  York  City,  May  25. 

Binga,  Jesse  (85),  first  Negro  banker  above 
Mason-Dixon  Line:  Chicago,  111.,  June  13. 

Bolden,  Ed  (68),  one  of  all-time  greats  of 
Negro  baseball ;  owner  of  Phila.  Stars : 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  13. 

Brown,  S.  Joe  (75),  nationally  known  lawyer, 
civil  rights  leader;  founder  Crocker  St. 
YMCA  and  Des  Moines  Branch  of  NAACP  : 
Des  Moines,  la.,  July  31. 

Bruce,  Roscoe  C,  Sr.,  (71),  son  of  Recon- 
struction Senator  Blanche  K.  Bruce ;  ass. 
supt.  public  schools,  Washington,  D.C. :  New 
York  City,  Aug.  19. 

Bruseaux,  Sheridan  A.  (60),  investigator; 
founder,  operator  Bruseaux  Nat'l  Detective 
Service,  Chicago :  New  York  City,  Sept.  9. 

Butcher,  Dr.  George  H.  (71),  dentist;  instru- 
mental in  inaugurating  dental  operators  in 
public  schools  of  Washington,  D.C. ;  first 
visiting  dentist  Freedmen's  Hosp. ;  one  of 
organizers  in  1913  of  Tri-State  Dental  Soc., 
which  in  1932  developed  into  Nat'l  Dental 
Ass. :  Washington,  D.C,  July  20. 

Cole,  I.  Willis  (63),  publisher,  business,  civic 
and  church  leader ;  founder,  owner  I.  Wil- 
lis Cole  Publishing  Co.,  which  publishes 
The  Louisville  Leader :  Louisville,  Ky., 
Feb.  23. 

Crossland,  Dr.  J.  R.  A.  (82),  physician,  po- 
litical leader,  U.S.  Minister  and  Consul- 
General  to  Liberia,  alternate  delegate-at- 
large  to  Rep.  Nat'l  Conventions :  St.  Joseph, 
Mo.,  Sept.  27. 

Drew,  Dr.  Charles  R.  (45),  famous  blood 
plasma  expert ;  chief  surgeon  at  Freed- 
men's Hosp.,  Washington,  D.C. ;  prof,  surg- 
ery, Howard  Univ. :  Burlington,  N.C.,  Apr.  2. 

DuBois  Mrs.  W.E.B.,  wife  of  Dr.  W.E.B. 
DuBois,  the  noted  author,  educator,  soci- 
ologist :  Baltimore,  Md.,  June  26. 

*Embree,  Dr.  Edwin  R.  (66),  pres.  Julius  Rp- 
senwald  Foundation  from  its  inception  in 
1920  until  its  liquidation  in  1948  ;  sociologist, 
author:  New  York  Cty,  Feb.  21. 

*Glenn,  John  M.  (91),  social  service  leader; 
one  of  original  trustees  Russell  Sage  Foun- 
dation :  New  York  City,  Apr.  20. 


382 


DEATHS:  1947-1951 


Green,  Eddie  (54),  versatile  actor,  comedian 
of  stage,  screen  and  radio ;  beloved  star  of 
"Duffy's  Tavern"  and  "The  Hot  Mikado"  : 
Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  Sept.  26. 

Hinton,  Albert  L.  (46),  ass.  editor  Norfolk 
Journal  and  Guide ;  first  Negro  war  corre- 
spondent to  lose  his  life  in  any  theatre  of 
action:  vicinity  Oshima  Island,  on  way  to 
battle  front  in  Southern  Korea,  July  27. 

Holsey,  Albon  L.  (67),  ass.  to  pres.  Tuskegee 
Inst. ;  secy.  Nat'l  Negro  Business  League ; 
founder  Colored  Merchants'  Ass. ;  secy.  Bd. 
Trustees,  Tuskegee  Inst. :  Tuskegee  Inst., 
Ala.,  Jan.  16. 

Houston,  Charles  H.  (54),  nationally  promi- 
nent lawyer,  civil  rights  leader :  Washington, 
D.C.,  Apr.  22. 

Jackson,  Dr.  Luther  P.  (37),  historian,  educa- 
tor, civic  leader ;  appeared  before  House  Ju- 
diciary Comm.,  Va.  General  Assembly, 
speaking  on  behalf  of  historic  Boothe  Bill, 
which  would  have  banned  segregation  on 
public  carriers  in  Va. ;  head  History  Dept., 
Va.  State  Col. :  Petersburg,  Va.,  Apr.  12. 

*Jaffe,  Louis  I.  (62),  editor  The  Norfolk  Vir- 
ginian-Pilot; forceful  champion  of  human 
rights;  winner  Pulitzer  Prize  1929  for  best 
newspaper  editorial :  Norfolk,  Va.,  Mar.  12. 

*  Jones,  Dr.  Thomas  J.  (76),  former  dir. 
Phelps-Stokes  Fund ;  trustee  Howard  Univ., 
Fisk  Univ.,  Hampton  Inst.,  Indian  Rights 
Ass.,  Near  East  Foundation,  Penn.  Sch., 
Calhoun  Sch.,  and  Agricultural  Missions : 
New  York  City,  Jan.  5. 

Jordan,  Mrs.  Lena  L.  (66),  registered  nurse; 
founder  Lena  Jordan  Hosp. :  Little  Rock, 
Ark.,  Oct.  15. 

Kenney,  Dr.  John  A.  (75),  medical  leader; 
personal  physician  to  Booker  T.  Washington 
and  Dr.  George  Washington  Carver ;  medi- 
cal dir.  and  chief  surgeon  John  A.  Andrew 
Mem.  Hosp.  and  Nurses'  Training  Sch., 
Tuskegee  Inst. ;  founded  John  A.  Andrew 
Annual  Clinics  in  1912 :  Montclair,  N.J., 
Jan.  29. 

*Kerlin,  Robert  T.  (84),  author,  educator,  re- 
former ;  prof,  literature,  Va.  Military  Inst., 
from  which  dismissed  for  writing  open  let- 
ter to  Gov.  of  Ark.  protesting  hanging  of 
Negro  survivors  of  Elaine  riot ;  author  of 
The  Voice  of  the  Negro  (1920),  Negro 
Poets  and  Their  Poems  (1923)  :  Cumber- 
land, Md.,  Mar.  15. 

Layten,  Mrs.  S.  Willie  (76),  religious  and 
civic  leader ;  pres.-emeritus  Women's  Con- 
vention Auxiliary  of  Nat'l  Baptist  Conven- 
tion :  Philadelphia  Pa.,  Jan.  14. 

Lewis,  James,  Jr.  (85),  insurance  exec.,  hu- 
manitarian ;  pres.-emeritus  Peoples  Indus- 
trial Co.,  New  Orleans :  New  Orleans,  La., 
December. 

Loomis,  Floyd  A.  (51),  noted  attorney;  Mich.'s 
first  Negro  ass.  prosecutor :  Detroit,  Mich., 
Sept.  7. 

Lyle,  Mrs.  Ethel  H.  (63),  founder  Alpha 
Kappa  Alpha  Sorority :  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Nov.  28. 

McDonald,  William  M.  (Gooseneck  Bill)  (84), 
banker,  politician,  fraternal  leader ;  be- 
lieved one  of  nation's  wealthiest  Negroes ; 
founder  Fort  Worth  Fraternal  Bank  &  Trust 
Co.  in  1908 :  Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  July  12. 

*Metcalf,  D.  L.,  Sr.  (54),  trustee  Carver 
Foundation:  Columbus,  Ga.,  Dec.  15. 


Mills,  Dr.  Clarence  H.  (55),  educator,  scholar, 
teacher;  first  Negro  to  receive  Ph.D.  in  ro- 
mance languages  and  literature ;  member 
Phi  Beta  Kappa  Honor  Society ;  teacher 
Wilberforce  Univ. :  Dayton,  Ohio,  Apr.  29. 

Murray,  Freeman  H.  M.  (Pop)  (90),  veteran 
newspaperman;  retired  head  Afro-Ameri- 
can proofreading  dept. ;  founder  Alexandria 
Home  News  and  Washington  Tribune  (both 
now  out  of  existence)  ;  founded  Murray 
Bros.  Printing  Co.,  Washington,  D.C. : 
Alexandria,  Va.,  Feb.  19. 

Owens,  Prof.  George  W.,  teacher  trainer ; 
founder  New  Farmers  of  America ;  ass.  to 
Dr.  George  Washington  Carver ;  head  dept. 
agr.,  Va.  State  Col. :  Petersburg,  May  27. 

Palmer,  Dr.  Lutrelle  F.  (62),  educator,  re- 
ligious and  civic  leader ;  leader  in  fight  for 
equality  of  pay  for  Va.'s  colored  teachers ; 
sec'y.  Va.  Teachers  Ass. ;  assoc.  prof,  edu- 
cation, Hampton  Inst.,  Va. :  Newport  News, 
Va.,  Nov.  18. 

Palmer,  John  H.  (84),  first  registrar  Tuske- 
gee Inst. :  Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala.,  May  29. 

Patterson,  Mrs.  Mary  S..(77),  Marian  Ander- 
son's first  music  teacher :  Pleasantville, 
N.J.,  Aug.  26. 

Roberts,  Leroy  (Buggs),  noted  arranger  for 
Louis  Jordan,  Benny  Goodman,  Billy  Eck- 
stine,  Sarah  Vaughn,  Earl  Hines  and  others  : 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Dec.  25. 

Robinson,  Dr.  Julia  C.,  pioneer  business- 
woman, pharmacist ;  first  woman  to  receive 
degree  of  doctor  of  pharmacy  from  Howard 
Univ. ;  first  colored  woman  to  conduct  drug 
store  in  Phila. ;  established  and  conducted 
Hair  Vim  Chemical  Co.,  New  York  City : 
New  York  City,  Oct.  7. 

Sawyer,  Dr.  William  B.  (63),  physician; 
reputedly  Miami's  wealthiest  Negro  :  Miami, 
Fla.,  Aug.  5. 

Smith,  Emory  B.  (64),  clergyman,  Municipal 
Court  Judge:  Washington,  D.C.,  Oct.  15. 

Suarez,  Miss  M.  E.,  former  Dean  of  Women, 
Prairie  View  A.&M.  Col. ;  served  under 
Booker  T.  Washington  at  Tuskegee  Inst. ; 
served  in  Europe  with  Nat'l  Amer.  Red  Cross 
in  World  War  I :  Houston,  Tex.,  May  30. 

Talbert,  Wendell  P.,  composer,  gifted  orches- 
tra and  choral  direc. ;  first  Negro  musical 
direc.  of  75  piece  orchestra  at  Madison  Sq. 
Garden,  which  played  for  all  leading  sports 
events  for  four  years :  New  York  City,  De- 
cember. 

Tandy,  Vertner  W.  (64),  first  Negro  registered 
architect  in  N.Y.  State ;  one  of  first  to  be 
member  American  Inst.  of  Architects ;  de- 
signer several  N.Y.  churches  and  apartment 
bldgs. ;  a  founder  Alpha  Phi  Alpha  Fra- 
ternity :  New  York  City,  Nov.  7. 

Taylor,  Horace  (Old  Steamboat)  (88),  famed 
boxing  trainer  of  Joe  Cans,  Jack  Johnson 
and  others  ;  dancer  :  Phoenix,  Ariz.,  Nov.  24. 

Toney,  Charles  E.  (72),  one  of  first  two  Ne- 
groes elected  judges  in  Manhattan  Munici- 
pal Court :  New  York  City,  Mar.  22. 

Valentine,  Dr.  Byron  W.,  pres.  Benedict  Col. 
from  1912-21  :  St.  Petersburg,  Fla.,  July  21. 

Ward,  Dr.  Edgar  E.  (57),  physician,  business, 
civic  and  religious  leader ;  former  pres.  Dal- 
las Negro  Chamber  of  Commerce ;  chrmn. 
Negro  Day  for  1950  State  Fair  of  Texas; 
declared  outstanding  Negro  leader  of  Texas 
for  1950 :  Dallas,  Tex.,  Sept.  27. 


DEATHS:  1951 


383 


Whitman,  "Pops"  (26),  celebrated  tap  artist 
of  famed  team  of  Pops  and  Louie :  Athens, 
Greece,  July. 

Williams,  Joe  (Cyclone  Joe)  (63),  early  star 
of  Negro  professional  baseball ;  managed  old 
Lincoln  Giants  1910-17  before  joining 
Grays,  for  whom  he  pitched  18  years :  New 
York  City,  Feb.  26. 

Woodson,  Dr.  Carter  G.  (74),  noted  historian, 
editor ;  founder,  direc.  Ass.  for  Study  of 
Negro  Life  and  History :  Washington,  D.C., 
Apr.  3. 

Yerby,  Dr.  William  J.  (82),  veteran  in  U.S. 
diplomatic  service  over  30  years  ;  stationed 
in  France,  Portugal,  Africa :  Chicago,  111., 
July. 

1951 

Blevins,  William  (56),  baritone,  radio  artist; 
South's  first  Negro  radio  announcer :  Bir- 
mingham, Ala.,  Mar.  21. 

Clovese,  Joseph  (Uncle  Joe)  (107),  last  surviv- 
ing Negro  veteran  Union  Army  in  Civil 
War:  Dearborn,  Mich.,  July  13. 

DePriest,  Hon.  Oscar  S.  (80),  first  Negro  to 
serve  on  Chicago's  City  Council  (1915-17)  ; 
first  elected  from  a  northern  state  to  Con- 
gress (1929-35):  Chicago,  111.,  May  12. 

Edmonson,  William  (69),  prominent  sculptor; 
honored  with  one-man  show  in  Museum  of 
Modern  Art,  New  York  City ;  work  dis- 
played in  Paris  1938  in  exhibit  of  "Three 
Centuries  of  Art  in  the  United  States" : 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  Feb.  10. 

Fields,  A.  N.  (75),  columnist  Pittsburgh 
Courier  and  Chicago  Defender,  political  ana- 
lyst :  Gary,  Ind.,  May  24. 

Freeman,  Benjamin  G.,  speaker,  House  of 
Representatives  of  Republic  of  Liberia ;  in- 
fluential religious,  educational  and  fraternal 
leader :  Monrovia,  Liberia,  Feb.  9. 

Hall,  Abram  T.  (99),  pioneer  Negro  news- 
paperman ;  only  colored  writer  in  U.S.  em- 
ployed on  white  newspaper  in  1874  ;  instru- 
mental in  starting  first  Negro  fire  company 
in  Pittsburgh  :  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Jan.  8. 

Henderson,  Dr.  Elmer  A.  (64),  Baltimore's 
first  Ass.  Supt.  of  Sch. :  Baltimore,  Md., 
July  7. 

Jeffress,  Rev.  James  M.  (78),  leader,  founder 
Grand  United  Order  of  Moses :  Charlotte 
Court  House,  Va.,  Apr.  4. 


*Keck,  Charles  (76),  noted  sculptor  of  some 
of  nation's  best  known  monuments,  includ- 
ing Booker  T.  Washington  Monument  at 
Tuskegee  Inst. ;  Carmel,  N.Y.,  Apr.  23. 

Lawson,  Mrs.  Lula  L.  (78),  founder  Phyllis 
Wheatley  YWCA  in  Washington,  D.C.; 
Washington,  D.C.,  Mar.  15. 

McCrorey,  Dr.  Henry  L.  (88),  pres.-emeritus 
Johnson  C.  Smith  Univ. ;  outstanding  Pres- 
byterian leader:  Charlotte,  N.C.,  Apr.  1. 

Micheaux,  Oscar,  first  Negro  motion  picture 
direc.  and  producer  to  make  movie  over  three 
reels  long  with  all-Negro  cast :  Charlotte, 
N.C.,  Mar.  31. 

*Ovington,  Mrs.  Mary  W.  (86),  a  founder 
NAACP ;  author  several  books,  including 
The  Walls  Came  Tumbling  Down  (autobi- 
ography), history  of  NAACP:  Newton, 
Mass.,  July  15. 

Page,  "Pete"  (84),  fabulous  political  and 
business  figure  of  Hot  Springs,  Ark. :  Hot 
Springs,  Ark.,  Jan.  3. 

Phillips,  Charles  H.  (93),  Bishop  CME 
Church ;  acted  as  dir.  Fed.  Council  of 
Churches  of  Christ  in  America  :  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  Apr.  11. 

Roberts,  Brig.  James  N.,  nation's  highest  rank- 
ing Negro  Salvation  Army  official :  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  Mar.  27. 

Rogers,  Garfield  D.,  Sr.  (66),  pres.  Central 
Life  Ins.  Co.  of  Fla. :  Tampa,  Fla.,  Mar.  1. 

Shaw,  Benjamin  G.  (72),  Bishop  AME 
Church  :  Salisbury,  N.C.,  Apr.  14. 

Simmons,  Roscoe  C.  (75),  distinguished  ora- 
tor, writer,  prominent  political  figure ;  col- 
umnist for  Chicago  Tribune ;  nephew  of  late 
Mrs.  Margaret  M.  Washington,  wife  of 
Booker  T.  Washington :  Chicago,  111.,  Apr. 
27. 

Thompson,  Pfc.  William  (23),  awarded  Con- 
gressional Medal  of  Honor  posthumously  for 
heroic  performance  in  Korea :  Brooklyn, 
N.Y.,  July  20. 

Tucker,  Walter  E.,  first  Negro  member  Penna. 
State  Legislature:  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  Jan. 
15. 

Utz,  Dr.  David  W.  (42),  noted  pediatrician; 
one  of  12  Negro  fellows  American  Acad.  of 
Pediatrics:  St.  Albans,  N.Y.,  Feb.  15. 

Williams,  Mrs.  Mamie  G.  (75),  first  Negro 
woman  member  Nat'l  Rep.  Comm. :  Savan- 
nah, Ga.,  July  8. 


27 

Books  and  Pamphlets  by  or 
Relating  to  Negroes,  1 947-1 951 


THE  ENTRIES  here  are  listed  in  three 
main  sections:  those  relating  to  the 
United  States,  those  relating  to  Africa, 
those  relating  to  the  West  Indies.  An  * 
indicates  the  author  is  .known  to  be  a 
Negro.1 

REFERENCES  RELATING 
TO  THE  U.S. 

Agriculture 

Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics.  The 
Hired  Farm  Working  Force,  1948  and  1949. 
With  Special  Reference  to  Coverage  of  Hired 
Farm  Workers  Under  Old-Age  and  Survivors 
Insurance;  Chief  Activity  of  4,100,000  Per- 
sons Who  Worked  on  Farms  for  Wages  in 
1949.  Washington,  B.C.:  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 
Nov.  1950.  45  p. 

*  Jones,  Lewis  W.  The  Changing  Status  of 
the  Negro  in  Southern  Agriculture.  Proceed- 
ings of  Tuskegee  Rural  Life  Conference,  June 
18-20,  1950;  Bulletin  No.  3.  Tuskegee  Inst., 
Ala.,  Rural  Life  Council,  1950.  132  p.  Pro- 
ceedings of  conference  on  problems  of  small 
farmers  in  South. 

Migratory  Labor  in  American  Agriculture. 
Report  of  President's  Commission  on  Migra- 
tory Labor.  Washington,  D.C. :  U.S.  Govt. 
Print.  Off.,  1951.  188  p.  Condition  of  various 
types  of  migratory  workers. 

The  Armed  Forces 

*Furr,  Arthur.  Democracy's  Negroes.  Bos- 
ton:  House  of  Edinboro,  1947._315  p.  Facts 
concerning  activities  of  Negroes  in_World  War 
II,  through  author's  connections  with  Dept.  of 
the  Army. 

*Nelson,  Dennis  D.  The  Integration  of  the 
Negro  into  the  United  States  Navy  1776-1947. 
Second  printing,  1948.  212  p.  Monograph  from 
doctoral  thesis  of  same  title,  Howard  Univ. 
Historical  and  sociological  study  of  Negro's 
participation  in  U.S.  Navy,  measurement  and 
evaluation  of  his  services. 

*Nelson,  Dennis  D.  The  Integration  of  the 
Negro  Into  the  U.  S.  Navy.  New  York :  Far- 
rar,  Straus  &  Young,  1951.  238  p.  Introduc- 
tion to  historical  background  of  American  Ne- 
gro in  U.S.  Navy,  objective  analysis  of  Navy's 
attempt  and  unique  success  in  utilizing  his 
potential  skills. 


Stouffer,  Samuel  A.,  and  Others.  The  Amer- 
ican Soldier:  Adjustment  During  Army  Life. 
Vol.  I.  Princeton,  N.J. :  Princeton  Univ.  Press, 
1949.  599  p.  Studies  in  social  psychology  in 
World  War  II. 

Stouffer,  Samuel  A.,  and  Others.  The  Amer- 
ican Soldier:  Combat  and  Its  Aftermath.  Vol. 
II.  Princeton,  N.J. :  Princeton  Univ.  Press, 

1949.  675  p. 

Art 

Adams,  Agatha  B.  Contemporary  Negro 
Arts.  Univ.  of  N.C.  Library  Extension  Publi- 
cation, Vol.  13,  No.  5.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ. 
of  N.C.  Press,  1948.  44  p. 

Miller,  Henry.  The  Amazing  and  Invariable 
Beauford  Delaney.  No.  2  of  "Outcast"  Series 
of  Chapbooks,  issued  twice  yearly  by  Oscar 
Baradinsky  at  Alicat  Book  Shop,  287  S.  Broad- 
way, Yonkers  5,  N.Y.  New  York :  Alicat  Book 
Shop,  1945.  24  p.  Description  of  a  Negro  ar- 
tist's works. 

Autobiography 

Arstein,  Helen,  and  *Moss,  Carlton.  In  Per- 
son Lena  Home.  New  York :  Greenberg,  1950. 
249  p.  How  Lena  Home  became  a  movie  star 
and  what  happened  to  her  after  she  achieved 
her  goal. 

*Campbell,  T.  M.  The  School  Comes  to  the 
Farmer.  London,  New  York,  Toronto :  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.,  1947.  64  p.  English  ver- 
sion of  "The  Movable  School  Goes  to  the  Ne- 
gro Farmer." 

*Carnegie,  Amos  H.  Faith  Moves  Moun- 
tains. Washington,  D.C. :  Rev.  Amos  H.  Car- 
negie, Carver  Hall,  211  Elm  Street,  N.  W., 

1950.  114  p.  Story  of  triumphant  faith  in  na- 
tional self-help  hospitalization  movement. 

Finkelstein,  Louis.  American  Spiritual  Auto- 
biographies. New  York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1948. 
276  p.  Sketches  of  15  Americans,  representing 
east  and  west,  Negro  and  white,  native  and 
foreign-born,  Catholic,  Protestant,  Jew. 

*Holley,  Joseph  W.  You  Can't  Build  a 
Chimney  from  the  Top.  The  South  Through 
the  Life  of  a  Negro  Educator.  New  York : 
William-Frederick  Press,  1948.  226  p.  "Re- 
yeals  what  it  means  to  remain  a  Negro  in 
America,  in  a  special  part  of  America." 

*Louis,  Joe.  My  Life  Story.  New  York : 
Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce,  1947.  188  p.  Includes 
pictures  highlighting  champion's  career. 

*Lyons,  Georgia  A.  My  Life  in  Slavery. 
Nacogdoches,  Texas :  Weaver  Publishing  Co., 


1  Included    here    are    a   few   entries    published    before    1947    but    not    appearing    in    the    1947    edition    of    the 
Negro  Year  Book. 

384 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


385 


1950.  18  p.  Record  of  her  life  in  slavery  and 
freedom. 

Ovington,  Mary  W.  The  Walls  Came  Tum- 
bling Down.  New  York :  Harcourt,  Brace  & 
Co.,  1947.  307  p.  History  of  NAACP  told  by  a 
founder ;  social  history  of  a  life. 

*  Patterson,    Haywood,    and    Conrad,    Earl. 
Scottsboro  Boy.  Garden  City,  N.Y. :   Double- 
day  &  Co.,  1950.  309  p.  Haywood  Patterson's 
own   story  of   infamous   Scottsboro   case  and 
aftermath. 

Perry,  J.  Edward.  Forty  Cords  of  Wood. 
Memoirs  of  a  Medical  Doctor.  Jefferson  City, 
Mo. :  Lincoln  Univ.,  1947.  459  p.  Story  of  in- 
dividual born  to  illiteracy  and  poverty  who 
rose  during  50  years  to  be  civic  and  public 
servant. 

*  Peyton,  Thomas  R.  Quest  for  Dignity.  Los 
Angeles:  Warren  F.  Lewis,  1950.  156  p.  De- 
picts struggle  of  a  Negro  for  medical  educa- 
tion and  how  he  got  it  by  musical  talent. 

*Ransom,  Reverdy  C.  The  Pilgrimage  of 
Harriet  Ransom's  Son.  Nashville,  Tenn. : 
A.M.E.  Sunday  School  Union.  336  p.  Life  of 
a  bishop  of  AME  Church  in  his  quest  for 
legal  freedom  for  Negroes. 

*Redding,  J.  Saunders.  On  Being  Negro  in 
America.  Indianapolis  &  New  York :  Bobbs- 
Merrill  Co.,  1951.  156  p.  Incidents  primarily 
concerned  with  finding  way  out  of  dilemma 
attending  being  Negro  in  America. 

*Robinson,  Jackie.  Jackie  Robinson.  As 
Told  to  Wendell  Smith  of  Pittsburgh  Courier 
and  Chicago  Herald  American.  New  York: 
Greenberg,  1948.  170  p.  Experiences  in  the 
long,  hard  pull  with  Montreal  and  Dodgers 
baseball  clubs  and  his  great  football  career  at 
UCLA. 

*Robinson,  James  H.  Road  Without  Turn- 
ing. New  York :  Farrar,  Straus  &  Co.,  1950. 
312  p.  Young  Negro's  rise  from  Knoxville 
slum  to  ministry. 

*Somerville,  Dr.  J.  Alexander.  Man  of  Color. 
Los  Angeles  :  Lorrin  L.  Morrison,  1915  South 
Western  Avenue,  1949.  170  p.  Negro's  educa- 
tional, financial  and  cultural  status. 

*  Stevens,  Walter  J.  Chip  on  My  Shoulder. 
Boston:  Meador  Publishing  Co.,  1946.  315  p. 
Negro  whose  career  is  comparable  to  that  of 
average  white  boy. 

*Waters,  Ethel,  with  Samuels,  Charles.  His 
Eye  Is  on  the  Sparrow.  Garden  City,  New 
York:  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1951.  278  p.  Faith 
and  courage  of  one  of  America's  great  blues 
singers  and  actresses. 

*White,  Walter.  A  Man  Called  White.  New 
York:  Viking  Press,  1948.  382  p.  Soul  of  a 
man  fighting  against  racism ;  record  of 
NAACP's  fight  for  Negro's  rights  from  its 
formation  in  1909. 


Biography 

Albus,  Harry  J.  The  'Deep  River'  Girl.  Life 
of  Marian  Anderson.  Grand  Rapids :  Wm.  B. 
Eerdmans  Publishing  Co.,  1949.  85  p.  Biogra- 
phy in  fiction  style,  adhering  closely  to  facts. 

Albus,  Harry  J.  The  Peanut  Man.  Life  of 
George  Washington  Carver  in  Story  Form. 
Grand  Rapids :  Wm.  B.  Eerdmans  Publishing 
Co.,  1949.  89  p.  Pictorial  account  of  boyhood, 
education,  accomplishment,  permeating  influ- 
ence of  his  Christianity. 


*Alexis,  Stephen.  Black  Liberator.  Life  of 
Toussaint  L'Ouverture.  New  York :  Macmil- 
lan  Co.,  1949.  227  p.  Includes  details  of  secret 
treaties  with  Negro  population  of  Haiti  and 
Santo  Domingo,  and  letters  of  George  III  and 
President  John  Adams. 

Angle,  Paul  M.  The  Lincoln  Reader.  New 
Brunswick,  NJ. :  Rutgers  Univ.  Press,  1947. 
564  p.  179  selections  from  65  writers,  arranged 
to  form  integrated  narrative. 

*Braithwaite,  William  S.  The  Bewitched 
Parsonage.  New  York:  Coward-McCann,  1950. 
238  p.  Interpretation  of  the  Brontes'  genius, 
in  narrative  form. 

Burckel,  Christian  E.,  and  Others.  Who's 
Who  in  the  United  Nations.  Authoritative,  Il- 
lustrated, Biographical  Dictionary  of  Key  Per- 
sons Associated  with  UN.  Yonkers-on-Hudson, 
New  York :  Christian  E.  Burckel  &  Associ- 
ates, 1951.  580  p.  Contains  names  of  several 
Negroes  connected  with  UN. 

Coy,  Harold.  The  Real  Book  about  George 
Washington  Carver.  Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Gar- 
den City  Books,  by  arrangement  with  Franklin 
Watts,  Inc.,  1951.  191  p.  Story  of  long  busy 
years  of  one  who  grew  to  be  loved  and  hon- 
ored throughout  world.  Illustrated. 

Cunningham,  Virginia.  Paul  Laurence  Dun- 
bar  and  His  Song.  New  York :  Dodd,  Mead  & 
Co.,  1947.  282  p.  Based  largely  on  scrapbooks 
and  documents,  on  letters  written  by  and  to 
Dunbar  and  his  mother,  on  books,  music,  and 
other  relics  in  Dunbar  House,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

Daly,  John  J.  A  Song  in  His  Heart.  Phila- 
delphia &  Toronto :  John  C.  Winston  Co., 
1951.  102  p.  Life  and  times  of  James  Bland, 
Negro  minstrel  showman,  composer  of  about 
700  songs  ;  how  he  became  toast  of  Europe  and 
America  during  1890's,  his  sudden  fall  from 
prominence,  discovery  of  his  grave,  gradual 
realization  of  rich  heritage  he  left  this  country. 

*Davenport,  M.  Marguerite.  Azalia.  Boston : 
Chapman  &  Grimes,  1947.  196  p.  Contribution 
of  Mme.  E.  Azalia  Hackley  to  the  contempo- 
rary American  musical  scene. 

Eaton,  Jeanette.  David  Livingstone,  Foe 
of  Darkness.  New  York :  William  Morrow  & 
Co.,  1947.  256  p.  Medical  missionary,  explorer, 
scientist,  friend  of  mankind,  who  helped  end 
slave  trade  in  Africa. 

Ernest,  Brother,  C.S.C.  The  Black  Saint. 
Story  of  St.  Benedict  the  Negro.  Notre  Dame : 
Dujarie  Press,  1949.  94  p.  How  a  Negro  boy 
became  a  great  saint  in  the  Catholic  Church. 

*Fleming,  G.  James,  and  Burckel,  Christian 
E.  Who's  Who  In  Colored  America.  Illus- 
trated Biographical  Directory  of  Notable  Liv- 
ing Persons  of  African  Descent  in  U.S.  Sev- 
enth ed.  Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York : 
Christian  E.  Burckel  &  Associates,  1950.  648  p. 

*Fleps,  Jettie.  The  Lost  Tongues.  Corpus 
Christi :  Christian  Triumph  Press,  1950.  146 
p.  Includes  biographical  sketches  of  outstand- 
ing American  Negroes. 

Foner,  Philip  S.  The  Life  and  Writings  of 
Frederick  Douglass,  Early  Years  1817-1849. 
Vol.  I.  New  York :  International  Publishers, 
1950.  448  p.  First  of  4  volumes. 

Foner,  Philip  S.  The  Life  and  Writings  of 
Frederick  Douglass.  Pre-Civil  War  Decade, 
1850-1860.  Vol.  2.  New  York:  International 
Publishers,  1950.  576  p.  How  Douglass  be- 
came a  leading  champion  of  militant  abolition- 


386 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


ism  and  its  greatest  organizer  and  agitator  in 
the  years  before  the  conflict. 

*Graham,  Shirley.  The  Story  of  Phyllis 
Wheatley.  New  York :  Julian  Messner,  1949. 
171  p.  Life  history  of  a  slave  girl,  Negro's  first 
woman  of  letters. 

*Graham,  Shirley.  There  Was  Once  a  Slave. 
New  York:  Julian  Messner,  1947.  310  p.  How 
Frederick  Douglass  learned  to  read  and  taught 
his  fellow  slaves ;  how  he  finally  escaped  from 
Maryland  to  New  Bedford;  his  long  public 
career ;  his  works,  causes  he  espoused,  friends, 
positions  of  trust  and  honor. 

*Graham,  Shirley.  Your  Most  Humble  Ser- 
vant. New  York:  Julian  Messner,  1949.  235  p. 
Story  of  Benjamin  Banneker,  Negro  astron- 
omer and  inventor. 

Jordan,  Philip  D.  Singin'  Yankees.  Minne- 
apolis :  Univ.  of  Minn.  Press,  1946.  305  p. 
America's  famous  band  of  family  singers,  the 
Hutchinsons,  who  dared  sing  cause  of  abolition 
and  temperance  length  and  breadth  of  young 
republic. 

Kellersberger,  Julia.  A  Life  for  the  Congo. 
Story  of  Althea  Edmiston.  New  York :  Flem- 
ing H.  Revell  Co.,  London  &  Edinburgh,  1947. 
171  p.  Brave  Negro  woman,  only  one  genera- 
tion removed  from  slavery,  who  left  Missis- 
sippi plantation  to  carry  Gospel  to  Africa. 

Kibler,  Lillian.  Benjamin  F.  Perry,  South 
Carolina  Unionist.  Durham,  N.C. :  Duke  Univ. 
Press,  1946.  562  p.  New  light  on  secession  con- 
flict that  dominated  political  life  of  South 
Carolina  for  decades  preceding  Civil  War. 

*Lemon,  Harriet  B.  S.  W.  (Comp.)  Radio 
Speeches  of  Major  R.  R.  Wright,  Sr.  Philadel- 
phia: Farmer  Press,  1949.  189  p.  Educator, 
banker,  humanitarian,  Maj.  Wright  was  color- 
ful and  important  figure  in  Negro  life,  1865- 
1947. 

Lomax,  Alan.  Mr.  Jelly  Roll.  New  York : 
Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce,  1950.  336  p.  Story  of 
early  New  Orleans  jazz. 

Mathews,  Basil.  Booker  T.  Washington. 
Cambridge,  Mass. :  Harvard  Univ.  Press,  1948. 
350  p.  His  life,  character,  convictions;  story  of 
progress  of  Negro  race  from  slave  days 
through  emancipation  to  coming  of  educational 
age. 

Nolan,  Jeannette  C.  John  Brown.  New  York  : 
Julian  Messner,  1950.  181  p.  Stormy,  blood- 
stained era  that  led  up  to  Civil  War. 

Peare,  Catherine  O.  Mary  McLeod  Bethune. 
New  York:  Vanguard  Press,  1951.  219  p.  Ca- 
reer of  distinguished  educator-humanitarian 
who  founded  a  college  on  faith,  was  consultant 
at  UN  San  Francisco  Conference,  is  world- 
famous  fighter  against  intolerance. 

Pullen,  A.  M.  Despite  the  Colour  Bar.  Lon- 
don:  S.  C.  M.  Press,  1946.  119  p.  Life  and 
work  of  George  Washington  Carver. 

*Quarles,  Benjamin.  Frederick  Douglass. 
Washington,  D.C. :  Associated  Publishers, 
1948.  378  p.  Facts  pro  and  con  on  all  phases 
of  Douglass'  life. 

Randall,  J.  G.  Lincoln  the  Liberal  States- 
man. New  York :  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  1947. 
266  p.  Illuminated  by  tolerance,  moderation, 
judiciousness. 

Rice,  Jessie.  /.  L.  M.  Curry,  Southerner, 
Statesman  and  Educator.  New  York :  King's 
Crown  Press,  Columbia  Univ.,  1949.  242  p. 
Life  of  Curry  and  his  interest  in  problem  of 
winning  support  of  Negro  schools. 


Robinson,  Bradley.  Dark  Companion.  New 
York :  Robert  M.  McBride  &  Co.,  1947.  266  p. 
Life  of  Matthew  Henson,  first  Negro  explorer, 
and  Admiral  Peary's  loyal  companion  on  the 
trip  to  the  North  Pole. 

Roeder,  Bill.  Jackie  Robinson.  New  York : 
A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.,  1950.  183  p.  Story  of  his 
unprecedented  march  to  success. 

*Rogers,  J.  A.  World's  Great  Men  of  Color. 
2  Vols.  New  York:  J.  A.  Rogers,  37  Morning- 
side  Ave.,  1946  &  1947.  Biographical  sketches 
from  3000  BC  to  1946  AD. 

Saddler,  Harry  D.  John  Brown,  the  Mag- 
nificent Failure.  Philadelphia  :  Dorrance  &  Co., 
1951.  374  p.  He  had  no  patience  with  "milk 
and  honey  principles"  of  milder  abolitionists 
but  demanded  vigorous  action  rather  than 
words  against  slave  power. 

Schwab,  Janet  H.  Plant  Doctor,  George 
Washington  Carver.  London :  Edinburgh 
House,  The  Sheldon  Press,  Northumberland 
Ave.,  W.C.  2,  1949.  16  p. 

Scott,  Neil.  Joe  Louis.  New  York  :  Green- 
berg,  1947.  122  p.  Picture  story  of  the  cham- 
pion. 

Singmaster,  Elsie.  I  Speak  for  Thaddeus 
Stevens.  Boston :  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
1947.  446  p.  Word  portrait  of  champion  of 
rights  of  Negroes. 

Stevenson,  Augusta.  Booker  T.  Washing- 
ton, Ambitious  Boy.  111.  by  Charles  V.  John. 
Indianapolis  &  New  York  :  Bobbs-Merrill  Co., 
1950.  199  p.  15th  in  Childhood  of  Famous 
Americans  series. 

Thomas,  Benjamin  P.  Portrait  for  Poster- 
ity. Lincoln  and  His  Biographers.  111.  by  Ro- 
maine  Proctor.  New  Brunswick,  N.J. :  Rut- 
gers Univ.  Press,  1947.  329  p.  Personalities 
and  human  emotions  of  Lincoln  and  biogra- 
phers. 

Thomas,  Benjamin  P.  Theodore  Weld: 
Crusader  for  Freedom.  New  Brunswick,  N.J. : 
Rutgers  Univ.  Press,  1950.  305  p.  Study  of 
great  abolitionist. 

Torrence,  Ridgely.  The  Story  of  John  Hope. 
New  York :  Macmillan  Co.,  1948.  398  p.  Educ- 
cator  and  President,  Atlanta  Univ.,  John  Hope 
struggled  to  give  Negro  widest  education  in 
liberal  arts. 

Widdemer,  Mabel  C.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe, 
Connecticut  Girl.  Indianapolis  &  New  York  : 
Bobbs-Merrill  Co.,  1949.  196  p.  The  little  girl 
who  grew  up  to  be  woman  of  tremendous  in- 
fluence. 

*  Wilson,  Charles  H.,  Sr.  God!  Make  Me  a 
Man.  Biographical  Sketch  of  Dr.  Sidney  D. 
Redmond.  Boston :  Meador  Publishing  Co., 
1950.  61  p.  Life  of  one  of  America's  ten 
wealthiest  Negroes. 

Business 

Bell,  William  K.  A  Business  Primer  for  Ne- 
groes. New  York :  Bell  Publications,  P.O.  Box 
308,  College  Station,  1948.  198  p.  Practical 
ways  of  improving  quality,  volume,  service  of 
business  concerns  owned,  operated,  managed  by 
Negroes. 

*Kinzer,  Robert  H.,  and  Sagarin,  Edward. 
The  Negro  in  American  Business.  The  Con- 
flict Between  Separatism  and  Integration.  New 
York  :  Greenberg,  1950.  220  p.  Traces  business 
life  of  American  Negro  and  historical  roots 
of  a  separate  economy. 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


387 


*Oak,  Vishnu  V.  The  Negro  Newspaper. 
Yellow  Springs,  Ohio:  Antioch  Press,  1948. 
170  p.  Negro  Entrepreneur  series. 

*Oak,  Vishnu  V.  The  Negro's  Adventure  in 
General  Business.  Vol.  II  of  Negro  Entrepre- 
neur Series.  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio :  Antioch 
Press,  1949.  223  p.  History  of  development  of 
Negro  business,  opportunities  open  to  Negroes, 
new  ventures,  organizations  for  business  ad- 
vancement. 

*Pierce,  Joseph  A.  Negro  Business  and 
Business  Education.  Present  and  Prospective 
Development.  New  York  &  London :  Harper 
&  Bros.,  1947.  338  p.  Background,  present 
status  and  probable  future  of  business  enter- 
prises owned  and  operated  by  Negroes ;  prob- 
lems of  business  education  in  Negro  colleges 
and  universities. 

*  Pitts,  Nathan  A.  The  Cooperative  Move- 
ment in  Negro  Communities  of  North  Caro- 
lina. Washington,  D.C. :  Catholic  Univ.  of 
America  Press,  1950.  201  p.  A  doctoral  dis- 
sertation which  describes  and  analyzes  organi- 
zation and  operation  of  the  movement. 

Children's  Literature 

Beini,  Jerrold,  and  *Crichlow,  Ernest. 
Twelve  O'Clock  Whistle.  New  York :  William 
Morrow  &  Co.,  1946.  60  p.  Picture  book  illus- 
trating that  it  take  a  lot  of  people  to  get  a 
big  job  done  and  that  each  one's  part  is  im- 
portant. 

Beim,  Jerrold,  and  Darling,  Louis.  Swim- 
ming Hole.  New  York :  William  Morrow  & 
Co.,  1950.  44  p.  Picture  story  telling  how  Steve 
learned  color  doesn't  matter ;  how  he  and 
Larry  became  good  friends. 

Benedict,  Ruth,  and  Weltfish,  Gene.  In 
Henry's  Backyard.  New  York :  Henry  Schu- 
man,  1948.  50  p.  Picture  story  of  better  rela- 
tionship between  races. 

*Bontemps,  Arna,  and  Conroy,  Jack.  Sloppy 
Hooper,  the  Wonderful  Sign  Painter.  Boston : 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1946.  44  p.  Picture 
story  of  famous  and  funny  character  of  Amer- 
ican folklore. 

Decker,  Duane.  Hit  and  Run.  New  York : 
M.  S.  Mill  and  William  Morrow  &  Co.,  1949. 
188  p.  Baseball  story  of  how  a  white  boy  and 
colored  boy  helped  each  other  to  become  really 
"big  league"  in  spirit  and  action. 

Elting,  Mary,  and  Gossett,  Margaret.  Patch. 
Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1949.  159 
p.  How  a  farm  dog,  unliked  by  neighboring 
farmer,  saves  experimental  wheat  crop  of  both 
farms  and  is  assured  a  permanent  home. 

Evans,  Eva  K.  All  About  Us.  Illustrated  by 
Vana  Earle.  New  York:  Capitol  Publishing 
Co.,  1947.  95  p.  Story  of  people,  their  begin- 
nings, wanderings  over  earth,  changes  in  skin 
color,  customs,  and  language  that  resulted 
from  separation  and  different  environment. 

Faulkner,  Georgene.  Melindy's  Happy  Sum- 
mer. 111.  by  Elton  C.  Fax.  New  York :  Julian 
Messner,  1949.  182  p.  Based  on  summer  vaca- 
tion exchange  of  Negro  children,  a  successful 
experiment  in  tolerance  and  understanding. 

Harper,  Wilhelmina.  Down  in  Dixie.  111. 
by  Dorothy  B.  Morse.  New  York:  E.  P. 
Dutton  &  Co.,  1948.  245  p.  Anthology  of 
stories  covering  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisi- 
ana, Texas,  Oklahoma,  Arkansas,  Tennessee 
and  other  sections  of  the  South. 


Hogan,  Inez.  Nappy  Has  a  New  Friend. 
New  York:  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1947.  41  p. 
Illustrated  tale  of  good  will  existing  among 
children  who  plan,  work  and  build  toward 
common  goal. 

Lattimore,  Eleanor  F.  Indigo  Hill.  New 
York:  William  Morrow  &  Co.,  1950.  128  p. 
Good  times  of  children  of  Indigo  Hill,  S.C. 

Lattimore,  Eleanor  F.  Jeremy's  Isle.  New 
York:  William  Morrow  &  Co.,  1947.  123  p. 
How  little  South  Carolina  boy  earned  visit 
to  island  with  help  of  toy  boat  and  duck 
that  ran  away.  His  Negro  playmates  are 
depicted. 

Savage,  Joan.  Hurray  for  Bobo.  111.  by 
Berta  Schwartz.  Chicago :  Children's  Press, 
1947.  36  p.  Picture  story  of  Bobo  and  play- 
mates. 

Sullivan,  Sarah  A.  and  Zoa  C.  The  Animals 
Talk  to  Gussie.  111.  by  Emma  Lessen.  Wil- 
mington, N.C. :  Garey-Mintz  Printing  Co., 
1951.  28  p.  Pictorial  story  of  Gussie's  con- 
versations with  domestic  animals. 

*Tarry,  Ellen.  The  Runaway  Elephant.  111. 
by  Oliver  Harrington.  New  York :  Viking 
Press,  1950.  38  p.  Two-color  pictures  of 
Hezekiah,  of  Harlem,  and  would-be  elephant 
hunters  on  Westchester  farm. 

Taylor,  Margaret.  Jasper,  the  Drummin' 
Boy.  New  York:  Viking  Press,  1947.  63  p. 
Although  Mamma  wanted  Jasper  to  be  con- 
cert pianist,  he  wanted  to  be  hot-drummer. 

Wolf,  C.  Umhau.  Freddie.  111.  by  Jim  Seed. 
Columbus,  Ohio:  Wartburg  Press,  1948.  31  p. 
Boy  with  dark-colored  skin  who  acts  like  all 
other  normal  boys  of  his  age  but  for  some 
reason  is  unhappy. 

Yates,  Elizabeth.  Amos  Fortune,  Free  Man. 
111.  by  Nora  S.  Unwin.  New  York :  Aladdin 
Books,  1950.  181  p.  .Story  of  ex-slave. 

Civil  Rights 

The  American  Negro  and  Civil  Rights  in 
1950.  The  Journal  of  Negro  Education.  The 
Yearbook  Number,  XX,  Summer  1951.  Part 
1.  International  Character  of  Human  Rights. 
Part  2.  America's  Disadvantaged  Minorities. 
Part  3.  Some  Organized  Efforts  to  Obtain 
and  Protect  Civil  Rights  of  Minorities.  Part 
4.  Segregation  and  Civil  Rights  of  Negroes. 
Part  5.  Critical  Summary. 

Baldwin,  Roger  N.  Human  Rights,  World 
Declaration  and  American  Practice.  Public 
Affairs  Comm.,  Inc.,  22  E.  38  St.,  New  York 
16,  N.Y.,  Dec.  1950.  32  p.  "Sets  forth  four 
suggestions  for  making  the  international  en- 
forcement of  human  rights  more  effective." 

Becker,  Carl  L.,  and  Others.  Safeguarding 
Civil  Liberty  Today.  Edward  L.  Bernays 
Lectures,  1944,  given  at  Cornell  Univ.  New 
York:  Peter  Smith,  1949.  158  p.  On  civil 
liberties. 

Biennial  Report,  Including  Annual  Statis- 
tical Reports  for  the  Years  of  July  1,  1949, 
to  June  30,  1951,  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey, 
Department  of  Education,  Division  Against 
Discrimination.  Newark  2,  N.J.,  State  of  N.J., 
Dept.  of  Educ.,  Div.  Against  Discrimination, 
1060  Broad  St.,  1951.  24  p.  What  has  hap- 
pened in  last  six  years  to  better  human  rela- 
tions, legislation  aimed  at  eliminating  dis- 
crimination in  employment  based  on  race, 
creed,  color,  national  origin  or  ancestry. 


388 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


Carr,  Robert  K.  Civil  Rights  in  America; 
Annals  of  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science.  Volume  275.  Philadel- 
phia :  American  Academy  of  Political  & 
Social  Science,  3817  Spruce  St.,  1951.  238  p. 
Ideological  basis  for  American  civil  liberties 
and  discussions  of  ways  our  present  society 
can  carry  forward  workable  means  of  putting 
ideology  into  practice. 

Carr,  Robert  K.  Federal  Protection  of  Civil 
Rights :  Quest  for  a  Sword.  Ithaca,  N.Y. : 
Cornell  Univ.  Press,  1947.  284  p.  Study  of 
our  changing  concept  and  administration  of 
civil  liberties  in  war  and  peace. 

Civil  Rights  at  Mid-Century.  NAACP  An- 
nual Report,  42nd  Year,  1950.  New  York: 
National  Ass.  for  Advancement  of  Colored 
People,  20  W.  40  St.,  1951.  68  p.  41-year-old 
fight  to  establish  basic  equality  for  all  citi- 
zens. 

Civil  Rights  in  the  United  States  in  1949; 
A  Balance  Sheet  of  Group  Relations.  Amer- 
ican Jewish  Congress  and  NAACP,  1950. 
71  p.  Deals  with  civil  rights  denied  persons 
because  of  race,  color,  religion,  national 
origin  or  ancestry. 

Civil  Rights  in  the  United  States  in  1950. 
New  York:  NAACP,  1951.  96  p.  Develop- 
ments in  protection  and  extension  of  inter- 
group  equality. 

Fast,  Howard.  Peekskill:  USA,  a  Personal 
Experience.  New  York :  Civil  Rights  Con- 
gress, 23  W.  26  St.,  1951.  127  p.  What  hap- 
pened during  the  two  Peekskill  incidents  of 
1949. 

*Guzman,  Jessie  P.  Civil  Rights  and  the 
Negro.  Records  and  Research  Pamphlet  No. 
2.  Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala. :  Dept.  of  Records  and 
Research,  1950.  28  p.  Selected  list  of  per- 
tinent books  and  of  periodical  references  and 
pamphlets. 

Human  Rights  and  Human  Relations.  Re- 
port of  Sixth  Annual  Inst.  of  Race  Relations. 
Nashville,  Tenn. :  Race  Relations  Dept.,  Fisk 
Univ.  and  American  Missionary  Ass.,  1951. 
92  p.  Summary  of  national  issues  of  civil 
rights  and  international  concern. 

Konvitz,  Milton  R.  The  Constitution  and 
Civil  Rights.  New  York :  Columbia  Univ. 
Press,  1947.  254  p.  Civil  rights  and  privi- 
leges and  immunities  of  citizens. 

Lerner,  Max.  Actions  and  Passions.  New 
York:  Simon  &  Schuster,  1949,  367  p. 
Theme  is  "civil  rights  cannot  be  preserved 
by  resorting  to  tyranny,  suppression,  coer- 
cion and  character  assassination." 

*Long,  Herman  H.,  and  *Johnson,  Charles 
S.  People  vs  Property — Race  Restrictive 
Covenants  in  Housing.  Nashville,  Tenn. : 
Fisk  Univ.  Press,  1947.  107  p.  The  schemes 
which  assist  keeping  minority  groups  ill- 
housed. 

MacArthur,  Kathleen  W.  The  Bible  and 
Human  Rights.  New  York:  Woman's  Press, 
1949.  95  p.  Explores  religious  motivations 
of  democracy. 

Miller,  Henry  J.  Blasted  Barriers.  Boston : 
Christoper  Publishing  House,  1950.  140  p. 
Congressional  efforts  to  enact  civil  rights 
legislation. 

Nye,  Russell  B.  Fettered  Freedom.  Dis- 
cussion of  Civil  Liberties  and  Slavery  Con- 
troversy in  U.S.,  1830-1860.  East  Lansing, 


Mich.:  Mich.  State  Col.  Press,  1949.  273  p. 
Important  for  present  day  discussions  of 
civil  rights. 

Our  Uncertain  Liberties.  U.S.  Liberties, 
1947-48.  New  York:  American  Civil  Liber- 
ties Union,  170  Fifth  Ave.,  1948.  87  p.  Re- 
view of  civil  rights  program. 

RepPY,  Alison.  Civil  Rights  in  the  United 
States.  New  York:  Central  Book  Co.,  1951. 
298  p.  Development  of  civil  rights  in  U.S., 
with  specific  emphasis  on  1948,  1949,  and 
1950  up  to  the  beginning  of  October  term 
of  Supreme  Court. 

Rogge,  O.  John.  Our  Vanishing  Civil  Lib- 
erties. New  York :  Gaer  Associates,  1949.  287 
p.  Exposes  and  attacks  practices  of  Un- 
American  Activities  Committee  and  Loyalty 
Board. 

Ross,  Irwin.  The  Communists,  Friends  or 
Foes  of  Civil  Liberties?  New  York:  Amer- 
ican Jewish  Committee,  386  Fourth  Ave., 
1950.  26  p.  Examination  of  facts  relative  to 
Communist  activity. 

To  Secure  These  Rights.  Report  of  Presi- 
dent's Committee  on  Civil  Rights.  Washing- 
ton, D.C. :  U.S.  Govt.  Print.  Off.,  1947.  178 
p.  Serious  civil  rights  violations  in  all  sec- 
tions of  country,  with  recommendations. 

Your  Civil  Rights.  Handbook  for  Trade 
Union  Members  and  Organizers.  Pamphlet 
No.  135.  Prepared  by  Legal  Dept.,  CIO,  Lee 
Pressman,  General  Counsel.  Washington, 
D.C. :  CIO,  718  Jackson  Place,  N.W.,  1947. 
64  p.  Tells  union  organizers  and  union  mem- 
bers how  to  protect  their  civil  rights  to 
make  them  valuable  possessions  they  were 
intended  to  be. 

Virginia  and  the  Civil  Rights  Program.  Sym- 
posium of  Papers  Delivered  at  Annual  Meet- 
ing of  Va.  Social  Science  Ass.,  1949.  Char- 
lottesville,  Va. :  Bureau  of  Population  and 
Economics  Research,  Univ.  of  Virginia.  54  p. 
Economics,  race,  politics,  civil  rights,  edu- 
cation. 

Wormser,  Margot  H.,  and  Selltiz,  Claire. 
How  to  Conduct  a  Community  Self-Survey 
of  Civil  Rights.  Foreword  by  Gordon  W.  All- 
port.  New  York:  Association  Press,  1951. 
271  p.  Provides  help  with  technical  problems 
of  conducting  survey. 

Civil  War 

Coulter,  E.  Merton.  Travels  in  the  Confed- 
erate States:  a  Bibliography.  Norman,  Okla. : 
Univ.  of  Okla.  Press,  1948.  289  p.  492  ac- 
counts by  travelers  in  the  South,  1861-65. 

Cuthbert,  Norma  B.  Lincoln  and  the  Balti- 
more Plot  1861.  From  Pinkertpn  Records 
and  Related  Papers.  San  Marino,  Calif. : 
Huntington  Library,  1949.  161  p.  Contem- 
porary reports  of  Pinkerton  and  his  men, 
accounts  of  anxious  conferences  and  hasty 
decisions  of  men  traveling  with  Lincoln. 

Dowdey,  Clifford.  Experiment  in  Rebellion. 
Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1946. 
455  p.  History  of  why  Confederacy  became 
an  actuality ;  follows  war  through  to  final 
fall  of  the  South. 

^Hesseltine,  William  B.  Lincoln  and  the 
War  Governors.  New  York :  Alfred  A. 
Knopf,  1948.  405  p.  How  Lincoln  destroyed 
forces  of  disunity  in  North  and  established 
power  of  Federal  government  to  act  in  crisis. 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


389 


Drama 

Birdoff,  Harry.  The  World's  Greatest  Hit, 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  New  York :  S.  F.  Vanni, 
Publishers  and  Booksellers,  30  W.  12  St., 
1947.  440  p.  Account  of  popular  folkplay 
which  achieved  longest  run  in  theatrical 
history. 

Carter,  Jean.  Country  Gentlemen.  New 
York :  Exposition  Press,  1950.  64  p.  Four- 
act  play  in  which  Louise,  estranged  from 
her  family  and  her  Negro  lover,  discovers 
one  person  who  practices  living  Christianity. 

Harburg,  E.  Y.,  and  Saidy,  Fred.  Finian's 
Rainbow.  Musical  Satire.  New  York :  Ran- 
dom House,  1947.  143  p.  Irishman  borrows 
pot  of  gold  from  leprechaun,  brings  it  to 
U.S.  Gold's  magic  powers  turn  Senator 
Billboard  Rawkins  first  into  black  man, 
then  into  kindly  one.  Leprechaun  gradually 
turns  into  a  man. 

Isaacs,  Edith  J.  R.  The  Negro  in  the 
American  Theatre.  New  York :  Theatre  Arts, 
1947.  174  p.  Negro's  early  efforts  to  partici- 
pate in  theatrical  activity,  evolution  of  min- 
strel show,  inclusion  of  Negroes  in  it,  all- 
Negro  musicals  of  last  40  years,  development 
of  Negro  music  forms  in  theatre. 

Lampell,  Sgt.  Millard.  The  Long  Way 
Home.  New  York:  Julian  Messner,  1946.  174 
p.  14  plays  produced  over  radio  by  men  of 
Army  Air  Forces  who  have  come  home  from 
war  wounded,  shocked,  or  just  plain  tired. 

Leaf,  Earl.  Isles  of  Rhythm.  New  York : 
A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.,  1948.  211  p.  Pictorial 
record  of  dance  cultures. 

*Whittaker,  F.  S.  K.  Thirty  Pieces  of 
Silver.  Play.  New  York :  Exposition  Press, 
1951.  47  p.  Betrayal  of  Jesus  by  Judas  Is- 
cariot. 

Wolfe,  Thomas.  Mannerhouse.  New  York : 
Harper  &  Bros.,  1948.  183  p.  Play  of  Civil 
War  in  South  and  aftermath.  Several  Negro 
characters  and  slaves. 

Education 

ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

The  Availability  of  Education  in  the  Negro 
Separate  School.  The  Journal  of  Negro  Edu- 
cation, The  Yearbook  Number,  XVI,  Sum- 
mer 1947.  Part  1.  General  Character  and 
Extent  of  Separate  Schools.  Part  2.  Avail- 
ability of  Education  in  the  Several  States. 
Part  3.  Availability  of  Education  for  Negroes 
in  U.S. 

Brown,  William  H.,  and  Robinson,  Wil- 
liam A.  Serving  Negro  Schools.  Report  on 
Secondary  School  Study,  Its  Purposes,  Work- 
ing Techniques  and  Findings.  Atlanta :  Sec- 
ondary School  Study  of  Ass.  of  Colleges  and 
Sec.  Schs.  for  Negroes,  distributed  by  At- 
lanta Univ.  Sch.  of  Educ.,  Ga.,  1946.  88  p. 

Conant,  James  B.  Education  in  a  Divided 
World.  The  Function  of  Public  Schools  in 
Our  Unique  Society.  Cambridge,  Mass. : 
Harvard  Univ.  Press,  1949.  249  p.  How 
American  free  public  education  can  put  more 
fully  into  practice  proclaimed  ideals,  adjust 
itself  to  demands  and  stresses  of  armed  truce, 
including  exigencies  of  military  training. 

Dabney,  Lillian  G.  The  History  of  Schools 
for  Negroes  in  the  District  of  Columbia, 
1807-1947.  Washington,  D.C. :  Catholic  Univ. 


of  America  Press,  1949.  287  p.  Doctoral 
thesis. 

Faculty  of  Moultrie  High  and  Elementary 
School,  Moultrie,  Ga.  Miss  Parker,  the  New 
Teacher.  In  co-operation  with  Secondary 
School  Study  of  Ass.  of  Colleges  and  Sec. 
Schs.  for  Negroes.  Albany,  Ga. :  Albany 
State  College,  1946.  72  p.  Development  of 
Moultrie  High  and  Elementary  Sch.  for  Ne- 
gro Youth  during  its  membership  in  Sec. 
Sch.  Study. 

Federal  Security  Agency,  Office  of  Educa- 
tion. Directory  of  Secondary  Schools  in  the 
United  States.  Showing  Accredited  Status, 
Enrollment,  Staff,  and  Other  Data.  Circular 
250,  January  1949.  Washington,  D.C. :  U.S. 
Govt.  Print.  Off.,  1949.  496  p.  Directory  of 
public  high  schools  in  U.S.  as  of  1946,  and 
private  high  schools  as  of  1948. 

""Partridge,  Deborah  C.  Understanding  Our 
Resources.  Report  of  a  Regional  Resource 
Use  Education  Work  Conference.  Comm.  on 
Southern  Regional  Studies  and  Education 
of  American  Council  on  Education.  Tuskegee 
Inst,  Ala.,  Aug.  22-27,  1948.  79  p.  Orienta- 
tion sessions  and  related  problems  presented 
by  participants,  planning  sessions  for  insti- 
tution teams,  clinics  on  information  and  skill 
needs. 

Ryan,  W.  Carson;  Gwynn,  J.  Minor;  and 
King,  Arnold  K.  Secondary  Education  in  the 
South.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C. 
Press,  1946.  269  p.  Rise  and  development  of 
public  high  school  in  South  over  past  40 
years. 

GENERAL  REFERENCES  ON  EDUCATION 

Benjamin,  Harold.  True  Faith  and  Alle- 
giance. Washington,  D.C. :  Nat'l  Education 
Ass.,  1950.  100  p.  Directed  at  teachers  and 
civic  groups  urging  them  to  recognize  preju- 
dices and  educate  against  them. 

Embree,  Edwin  R.,  and  Waxman,  Julia. 
Investment  in  People.  Story  of  Julius  Rosen- 
wald  Fund.  New  York :  Harper  &  Bros., 
1949.  291  p.  Account  of  unique  experiment 
in  philanthropy. 

Fine,  Benjamin.  Our  Children  Are  Cheat- 
ed. The  Crisis  in  American  Education.  New 
York:  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1947.  244  p. 
Teachers  qualifications,  insufficient  number, 
inadequate  pay,  buildings,  inadequacies  of 
curricula,  dual  system,  plight  of  colleges, 
effect  of  war,  future  needs. 

*Johnson,  Charles  S.  Education  and  the 
Cultural  Crisis.  New  York :  Macmillan  Co., 
1951.  113  p.  Treats  basic  social  forces  which 
affect  school  and  teaching ;  author  sees  prime 
problem  in  "cultural  pockets"  of  relatively 
isolated  15,000,000  Negroes,  2,000,000  Mon- 
goloids, other  minority  groups  excluded 
from  full  participation  in  dominant  cultural 
patterns. 

Kempfer,  Homer.  Adult  Education  Activi- 
ties of  the  Public  Schools,  Report  of  a  Sur- 
vey, 1947-48.  Pamphlet  No.  107.  Washing- 
ton, D.C. :  U.S.  Govt.  Print.  Off.,  1949.  21  p. 
Summarizes  some  activities  through  which 
schools  keep  doors  of  education  open  for 
men  and  women  of  their  communities. 

Knight,  Edgar  W.  A  Documentary  His- 
tory of  Education  in  the  South  Before  I860. 
Five  Volumes.  Volume  II :  Toward  Educa- 


390 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


tional  Independence.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. : 
Univ.  of  N.C.  Press,  1950.  603  p.  Illustrating 
growing  independence  of  America  from  Euro- 
pean higher  education. 

McGrath,  Earl  J.  Annual  Report  of  the 
Federal  Security  Agency.  Washington,  B.C. : 
FSA,  Office  of  Education,  U.S.  Govt.  Print. 
Off.,  1950,  38  p.  Activities  of  Office  of  Educ. 
for  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1950. 

National  Standards  Committee  for  Voca- 
tional Education  in  Agriculture.  An  Evalu- 
ation of  Local  Programs  of  Vocational  Edu- 
cation in  Agriculture.  Washington,  D.C. : 
U.S.  Govt.  Print.  Off.,  1949.  75  p.  Study  of 
20  evaluative  scales  showing  how  each 
state's  level  of  attainment  compares  with 
whole  country. 

HIGHER  EDUCATION 

Abstracts  of  the  First  One  Hundred  Mas- 
ters' Theses.  Montgomery,  Ala. :  Paragon 
Press,  1948.  286  p.  Doctoral  thesis. 

Berkowitz,  David  S.  Inequality  of  Oppor- 
tunity in  Higher  Education.  Study  of  Minor- 
ity Group  and  Related  Barriers  to  College 
Admission,  A  Report  to  Temporary  Com- 
mission on  Need  for  a  State  University, 
Legislative  Document  (1948)  No.  33.  Albany, 
N.Y. :  Williams  Press,  1948.  203  p. 

*Caliver,  Ambrose.  Education  of  Negro 
Leaders.  Influences  Affecting  Graduate  and 
Professional  Studies.  Bulletin  No.  3.  FSA, 
Office  of  Education.  Washington  25,  D.C. : 
U.S.  Govt.  Print.  Off.,  1948.  64  p.  Study 
points  out  conditions  which  influence  Ne- 
groes' demand  for  opportunity  to  obtain 
type  of  education  required  to  develop  leaders, 
with  recommendations. 

*Derbigny,  Irving  A.  General  Education 
in  the  Negro  College.  Stanford  Univ.,  Calif. : 
Stanford  Univ.  Press ;  London :  Oxford 
Univ.  Press,  1947.  255  p.  Compares  aims, 
curricula,  patterns,  general  education  courses, 
and  guidance  and  evaluation  practices  of  18 
Negro  colleges  with  those  in  other  American 
colleges,  with  significant  findings. 

*Guzman,  Jessie  P.  Some  Achievements 
of  the  Negro  through  Education.  Records 
and  Research  Pamphlet  No.  1.  Second  Re- 
vised ed.  Tuskegee  Inst.,  Ala. :  Dept.  of 
Records  and  Research,  1951.  41  p.  Shows 
educational  opportunity,  not  race,  is  factor 
in  success. 

Higher  Education  in  the  South.  Report  of 
Cooperative  Studies  Conducted  under  Aus- 
pices of  Comm.  on  Work  Conferences  on 
Higher  Education  of  Southern  Ass.  of  Col- 
leges and  Sec.  Schs.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ. 
of  N.C.  Press,  1947.  171  p. 

Negro  Higher  and  Professional  Education 
in  the  United  States.  The  Journal  of  Negro 
Education,  The  Yearbook  Number,  XVII, 
Summer  1948.  Part  1.  Evolution  and  Present 
Status.  Part  2.  Negro  Higher  and  Profes- 
sional Education  in  the  Several  States.  Part 
3.  Looking  Ahead. 

Pierson,  Mary  B.  Graduate  Work  in  the 
South.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C. 
Press,  1947.  265  p.  Beginnings,  develop- 
ment, present  status,  trends,  needs,  oppor- 
tunities. 

Plaut,  Richard  L.  Opportunities  in  Inter- 
Racial  Colleges.  First  edition.  New  York: 


National  Scholarship  Service  and  Fund  for 
Negro  Students,  31  W.  110  St.,  1951.  240  p. 
Information  about  admissions  policies  and 
requirements,  curricula,  costs,  housing  facili- 
ties, freshman  scholarships ;  estimates  of 
attitudes  of  admissions  offices  towards  appli- 
cations from  qualified  Negro  students  and  of 
racial  attitudes  on  campuses  and  in  neigh- 
boring communities ;  information  about  stu- 
dent organizations  on  individual  campuses 
which  are  interested  in  building  a  more 
representative  and  well-integrated  student 
body. 

Range,  Willard.  The  Rise  and  Progress  of 
Negro  Colleges  in  Georgia,  1864-1949.  Ath- 
ens, Ga. :  Univ.  of  Ga.  Press,  1951.  254  p. 
Describes  initial  wave  of  teachers  who  in- 
vaded South  immediately  after  1865  to  bring 
cultural  education  to  freedmen,  and  second 
wave  which  established  foundation  on  which 
the  modern  colleges  were  based  and  from  which 
they  have  grown  in  stature. 

Roche,  Richard  J.  Catholic  Colleges  and 
the  Negro  Student.  Catholic  Univ.  of  Amer- 
ica Studies  in  Sociology,  Vol.  28.  Washing- 
ton, D.C. :  Catholic  Univ.  of  America  Press, 
1948.  245  p.  Sociological  investigation  of  re- 
ception of  Negro  students  into  Roman  Cath- 
olic system  of  high  education  in  U.S.  Doc- 
toral thesis. 

Russell,  James  E.  Federal  Activities  in 
Higher  Education  after  the  Second  World 
War.  New  York :  King's  Crown  Press,  Col- 
umbia Univ.,  1951.  257  p.  Description  of 
various  Federal  activities  in  higher  educa- 
tion and  analysis  of  their  effects,  in  1947. 

*  Scott,  J.  Irving.  Finding  My  Way.  Boston  : 
Meador  Publishing  Co.,  1949.  344  p.  Data  on 
the  problem  of  collegiate  freshman  orientation 
from  the  student's  viewpoint. 

*Scott,  J.  Irving.  Negro  Students  and 
Their  Colleges.  Boston :  Meador  Publishing 
Co.,  1949.  179  p.  Information  for  many  Ne- 
gro high  school  students  still  undecided  about 
their  college  careers. 

Smith,  S.  L.  Builders  of  Goodwill.  Nash- 
ville, Tenn. :  Tennessee  Book  Co.,  1951.  185 
p.  Achievements  in  Negro  education,  health 
service,  other  lines. 

Stetler,  Henry  C.  College  Admission  Prac- 
tices with  Respect  to  Race,  Religion  and  Na- 
tional Origin  of  Connecticut  High  School 
Graduates.  Hartford,  Conn. :  Conn.  State 
Inter-Racial  Commission,  1949.  Ill  p.  Ex- 
periences of  approximately  1400  graduates 
of  9  high  schools  in  6  cities  in  Conn,  who 
applied  for  admission  to  institutions  of 
higher  learning  within  and  outside  of  Conn, 
during  1946-47. 

Thomas  Jessie  Jones,  In  Memoriam,  1873- 
1950.  Education  Director,  Phelps-Stokes 
Fund,  1913-1946.  New  York:  Phelps-Stokes 
Fund,  101  Park  Ave.,  1950.  31  p.  Transcripts 
of  eulogies  in  commemoration  of  an  edu- 
cator, humanitarian,  sociologist,  who  died 
Jan.  5,  1950, 

*Trenholm,  H.  Councill.  Some  Background 
and  Status  of  Higher  Education  for  Negroes 
in  Alabama.  1949  Association  Year  Book. 
Montgomery,  Ala. :  Ala.  State  Teachers  Ass., 
State  Teachers  Col.,  March  1949.  60  p. 
Review  of  trends  of  higher  education  for 
Negroes  in  Ala. 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


391 


Fiction 

Alman,  David.  The  Hourglass.  New  York : 
Simon  &  Schuster,  1947.  208  p.  Entire  social 
pattern  of  life  in  South  as  Southerners  see  it. 

Alman,  David.  The  Hourglass.  New  York : 
New  York:  Simon  &  Schuster,  1948.  278  p. 
Intermarriage  between  whites  and  Negroes 
and  problems  involved. 

Anderson,  Barbara.  Southbound.  New 
York:  Farrar,  Straus  &  Co.,  1949.  339  p. 
Beautiful  and  talented  Amanda  Crane  strug- 
gles to  understand  herself  and  world  in 
which  she  must  live. 

Baer,  Howard.  O,  Huge  Angel.  New  York : 
Roy  Publishers,  1949.  161  p.  Violent,  inar- 
ticulate Negro  seaman  has  fear  so  possessive 
and  devastating  it  drives  discoverer  of  a  mur- 
der to  become  a  murderer. 

Bennett,  Peggy.  The  Varmints.  New  York : 
Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1947.  287  p.  Life  of 
natives,  white  and  black,  in  small  Florida 
Gulf-coast  town. 

Brand,  Millen.  Albert  Sears.  New  York : 
Simon  &  Schuster,  1947.  272  p.  Race  rela- 
tions. 

Briggs,  Argye  M.  This,  My  Brother.  Grand 
Rapids :  Wm.  B.  Eerdmans  Publishing  Co., 
1950.  347  p.  Problems  of  everyday  Christian 
living  as  depicted  by  white  and  Negro  boy 
in  Texas  setting. 

*Brown,  Lloyd  L.  Iron  City.  New  York: 
Masses  &  Mainstream,  1951.  255  p.  Experi- 
ences of  labor  prisoner. 

Bruff,  Nancy.  The  Beloved  Woman.  New 
York:  Julian  Messner,  1949.  179  p.  Inter- 
racial love  story. 

Caldwell,  Erskine.  Episode  in  Palmetto. 
New  York:  Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce,  1950. 
Lovely,  impressionable  young  teacher  finds 
first  position  a  trial  as  she  adjusts  to  life  in  a 
southern  town. 

Caldwell,  Erskine.  Journeyman.  New  York : 
American  Library  of  World  Literature,  245 
Fifth  Ave.,  1949.  137  p.  Georgia  community 
falls  under  spell  of  journeyman  preacher 
who  cheats  men  out  of  money,  makes  free 
with  women,  winds  up  with  burlesque  revival 
meeting.  Negro  characters  involved. 

Caldwell,  Erskine.  Place  Called  Esther- 
mile.  New  York :  Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce, 
1949.  244  p.  Life  in  small  southern  town 
where  young  Negro  smashes  into  economic 
and  social  barriers. 

Capote,  Truman.  Other  Voices,  Other 
Rooms.  New  York:  Random  House,  1948. 
231  p.  Young  boy's  experiences  in  desolate 
southern  rural  community  as  he  moves  pain- 
fully into  emotional  maturity. 

Carter,  Hodding.  Flood  Crest.  New  York : 
Rinehart  &  Co.,  1947.  278  p.  Against  back- 
ground of  Mississippi  in  flood,  idealism  and 
unscrupulous  political  scheming,  courage, 
violence  and  convict  brutality  behind  threat- 
ened levee. 

Coker,  Elizabeth  B.  Daughter  of  Strangers. 
New  York :  E.  P.  Duttpn  &  Co.,  1950.  383  p. 
Panoramic  view  of  life  on  several  social 
levels  in  ante-bellum  S.C. 

Collins,  Norman.  Black  Ivory.  New  York : 
Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce,  1948.  305  p.  Wild 
adventure  and  hairbreadth  escape  in  slave 
trade. 


Cozzens,  James  G.  Guard  of  Honor.  New 
York:  Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co.,  1949.  631  p. 
The  soldier's  profession ;  conflicts  inherent 
in  personality  differences. 

Crabb,  Alfred  L.  A  Mockingbird  Sang  at 
Chickamauga,  a  Tale  of  Embattled  Chatta- 
nooga. Indianapolis  &  New  York :  Bobbs- 
Merrill  Co.,  1949.  297  p.  Civil  War  espionage 
and  intrigue,  battle  and  heroic  struggle,  cour- 
age and  devotion. 

Davis,  Burke.  Whisper  My  Name.  New 
York,  Toronto :  Rinehart  &  Co.,  1949.  282  p. 
Jew  driven  by  his  fears  to  surrender  his 
birthright  in  Carolina  town. 

*Demby,  William.  Beetlecreek.  New  York, 
Toronto:  Rinehart  &  Co.,  1950.  223  p.  An 
old  white  man  lives  in  colored  part  of  town 
15  years  waiting  for  something  to  happen. 

*Dodson,  Owen.  Boy  at  the  Window.  New 
York:  Farrar,  Straus  &  Young,  1951.  212  p. 
Recaptures  the  deliciously  painful  and  divine 
mysteries  in  growing  mind  and  absorptive 
heart  of  boy. 

Dwoksin,  Charles.  Shadow  Over  the  Land. 
New  York:  Beechhurst  Press,  1946.  285  p. 
Post-war  America  symbolized  by  Flemings, 
family  of  New  London,  Conn.,  and  specifi- 
cally by  Dan,  who  wanted  to  see  the  "little 
people"  untroubled. 

Edmunds,  Murrell.  Behold,  Thy  Brother. 
New  York:  Beechhurst  Press,  1950.  80  p. 
A  "Jackie  Robinson"  story  of  young  Negro, 
first  of  his  race  to  play  with  Eagles,  a  major 
league  club  fighting  for  pennant. 

Ellson,  Hal.  Duke.  New  York:  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  1949.  170  p.  Day-to-day 
story  of  teen-age  gang  leader  in  Harlem. 

Ewing,  Annemarie.  Little  Gate.  New  York, 
Toronto  :  Rinehart  &  Co.,  1947.  278  p.  Vivid 
portrayal  of  jazz  era,  in  which  Bessie  Smith, 
Coleman  Hawkins,  Louis  Armstrong,  other 
outstanding  jazz  men  move  with  stature 
and  dignity. 

Fast,  Howard.  Clarkton.  New  York :  Duell, 
Sloan  &  Pearce,  1947.  239  p.  An  American 
town  and  the  man  who  owned  it ;  how_  his 
industry  faced  strikes  and  other  situations. 

Faulkner,  William.  Intruder  in  the  Dust. 
New  York:  Random  House,  1948.  247  p. 
Study  of  a  murder  and  the  mass  mind  ;  of 
accused  Negro  whose  guilt  or  innocence 
becomes  secondary  to  larger  moral  problems 
of  justice. 

Faulkner,  William.  Knight's  Gambit.  New 
York:  Random  House,  1949.  246  p.  Inte- 
grated pattern  of  folkways  of  South. 

Faulkner,  William.  Requiem  for  a  Nun. 
New  York:  Random  House,  1951.  286  p. 
A  colored  nurse  murders  Temple's  baby. 
Evil  and  corrupt,  Temple  confesses  her  past 
to  the  Governor  to  win  a  pardon  for  the 
nurse. 

Felsen,  Henry  G.  Bertie  Takes  Care.  111. 
by  Jane  Toan.  New  York:  E.  P.  Dutton  & 
Co.,  1948.  184  p.  Achievement  and  good 
sportsmanship  established  by  Bertie,  who 
rounds  up  town's  unhappiest  ragamuffins, 
organizes  camp  of  his  own,  and  see  his  team 
beat  snobbish  and  egotistic  baseball  nine  at 
Camp  Ijoboko. 

Fleming,  Berry.  The  Lightwood  Tree. 
Philadelphia  &  New  York:  J.  B.  Lippincott 
Co.,  1947.  378  p.  Story  of  Fredericksville, 


392 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


Ga.,  and  George  Cliatt,  teacher  who  lived 
and  worked  there  and  was  willing  to  fight 
for  rights  of  the  many. 

Foley,  Martha,  and  Rothberg,  Abraham. 
17.  S.  Stories.  New  York:  Farrar,  Straus, 
1949.  683  p.  One  story  from  each  state  and 
Washington,  D.C.,  representing  vividly  a 
facet  of  life  in  each.  In  addition  to  stories 
concerning  Negroes,  Richard  Wright  is  in- 
cluded among  story  tellers. 

*Ford,  Nick  A.,  and  *Faggett,  H.  L.  Best 
Short  Stories  by  Afro-American  Writers. 
Boston:  Meador  Publishing  Co.,  1950.  307  p. 
40  stories  portraying  Negroes  in  their  nor- 
mal activities  as  American  citizens. 

Gaither,  Frances.  Double  Muscadine.  New 
York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1949.  335  p.  Spec- 
tacular murder  trial  on  Mississippi  planta- 
tion during  slavery  illuminates  problems  and 
conflicts  of  master,  mistress,  slaves. 

Gelder,  Robert  Van.  Important  People. 
Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1948. 
339  p.  A  society  that  permits  authority  by 
inheritance,  not  by  proved  worth.  New  York, 
including  Harlem,  is  setting  of  this  probing 
novel  of  social  and  ideological  changes  due 
to  war  conditions. 

Gibson,  Jewel.  Joshua  Beene  and  God. 
New  York:  Random  House,  1946.  238  p. 
Built  around  imposing  six-foot  figure  of 
bumptious,  fractious,  generally  contankerous 
old-time  regilious  leader  in  Texas  village, 
including  his  philosophy  toward  Negroes. 

Giles,  Barbara.  The  Gentle  Bush.  New 
York:  Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co.,  1947.  552  p. 
Relations  between  Negro  and  white ;  a 
Louisiana  plantation  family  on  its  last  legs. 

Gobay,  Hazel  H.  Georgia  Clay.  New  York : 
Beechhurst  Press,  1948.  224  p.  Passing  of 
sharecropper  and  beginning  of  better  day 
for  South. 

Gordon,  Arthur.  Reprisal.  New  York: 
Simon  &  Schuster,  1950.  310  p.  Mob  violence 
in  southern  town ;  no  hope  that  southern 
justice  would  ever  exact  penalty  for  the 
crime. 

Habe,  Hans.  Walk  in  Darkness.  Tr.  by 
Richard  Hanser.  New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons,  1948.  314  p.  Negro  catches  first  glimpse 
of  freedom,  passio.n,  self-respect  as  soldier 
in  occupied  Germany ;  but  through  romance 
with  German  girl,  illicit  marriage,  bitter 
fatherhood,  meets  ultimate  catastrophe  in 
"little-publicized  jungle  of  the  German  under- 
world." 

Harris,  Bernice  K.  Hearthstones.  New 
Yorjc:  Doubleday  &  Co,,  1948.  273  p.  Ante- 
bellum life  of  Day  family  in  Roanoke  River 
country  of  eastern  N.C. 

Harris,  M.  Virginia.  Weddin'  Trimmin's. 
New  York:  Exposition  Press,  1949.  233  p. 
Theme  is  mulatto  lives  in  limbo  between 
two  worlds,  wholly  acceptable  to  neither. 

Helmut,  Jan.  Daisy's  Fanny.  New  York : 
Vantage  Press,  1951.  "225  p.  Tender  love 
story  of  Negro  boy  and  Daisy's  illegitimate 
girl  in  remote  Tennessee  hills. 

Hervey,  Harry.  Barracoon.  New  York : 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1950.  274  p.  Slavery- 
days  tale. 

Hewlett,  John.  Harlem  Story.  New  York : 
Prentice-Hall,  1948.  242  p.  Conflicts  between 
black  and  white  in  Harlem. 


Hewlett,  John.  Wild  Grape.  New  York, 
London :  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  1947.  364  p. 
Conflicts  in  black  and  white  pattern  of 
southern  life. 

*Himes,  Chester.  Lonely  Crusade  New 
York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1947.  398  p.  Prob- 
lem of  Negro  in  dominantly  white  society. 

Howard,  Elizabeth.  North  Winds  Blow 
Free.  New  York :  William  Morrow  &  Co., 
1949.  192  p.  Girl  swept  by  compassion  which 
impelled  men  to  help  fleeing  slaves  regard- 
less of  own  safety. 

*Hunter,  H.  L.  The  Miracles  of  the  Red 
Altar  Cloth.  New  York :  Exposition  Press 
1949.  213  p.  Italian  boy  finds  childhood 
sweetheart  engaged  to  marry  own  brother ; 
miraculous  Red  Altar  Cloth  protects  him 
through  many  trials  and  reunites  lovers. 

*Hurston,  Zora  N.  Seraph  on  the  Suwanee. 
New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1948. 
311  p.  Love  conquers  caste  line  between 
Florida  crackers  and  aristocrats. 

*Jackson,  Jesse.  Anchor  Man.  111.  by  Doris 
Spiegel.  New  York  &  London :  Harper  & 
Bros.,  1947.  142  p.  Their  school  burnt  down, 
Negro  students  are  brought  to  white  school  ; 
Charley  assumes  responsibility  to  bring 
mutual  understanding  to  tense  situation. 

*Jarrette,  A.  Q.  Beneath  the  Sky.  New 
York :  Weinberg  Book  Supply  Co.,  1949. 
151  p.  Conflict  between  poor  whites,  Negroes, 
landed  gentry  in  South,  with  love  and  mur- 
der. 

Jenkins,  Sarah.  We  Gather  Together.  New 
York:  Thomas  Y.  Crowell  Co.,  1948.  243  p. 
Portrayal  of  Negro-white  relationships  in  Mt. 
Olive,  Ga. 

Johnson,  Victor  H.  The  Horncasters.  New 
York :  Greenberg,  1947.  239  p.  Author's  ex- 
perience and  intimate  knowledge  of  discrimina- 
tion, injustice,  oppression,  terror  under  which 
Negro  in  South  exists. 

Kane,  Harnett  T.  Bride  of  Fortune.  Gar- 
den City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1948,  301 
p.  Portrait  of  a  passionate,  warm-hearted 
woman  who  never  failed  in  her  devotion ; 
picture  of  modern  America  in  making,  of 
Washington  and  wartime  Richmond,  and 
woman  behind  man  in  spotlight.  Based  on 
life  of  Mrs.  Jefferson  Davis. 

*Kaye,  Philip  B.  Taffy.  New  York :  Crown 
Publishers,  1950.  258  p.  Harlem's  switch- 
blade knife  fights  and  orgiastic  parties ;  sen- 
sitive portrayal  of  character  in  conflict  with 
society. 

Key,  Alexander.  Island  Light.  Indianapolis 
&  New  York:  Bobbs-Merrill  Co.,  1950.  326 
p.  Homecoming  of  Confederate  sea-raider 
ruined  by  war,  his  bitterness  and  desire  for 
revenge,  his  struggle  for  rehabilitation. 

Key,  Alexander.  The  Wrath  and  the  Wind. 
Indianapolis  &  New  York :  Bobbs-Merrill 
Co.,  1949.  366  p.  A  story  of  Florida,  revealing 
a  man's  downfall,  repentance,  chance  to  rise 
again,  in  which  Zeda,  mute  girl  caught  in 
slave  trade,  is  involved. 

Kimbrough,  Edward.  Night  Fire.  New 
York  &  Toronto :  Rinehart  &  Co.,  1946.  343 
p.  Mississippi,  the  South  and  its  problems. 

King,  Mary  J.  Vine  of  Glory.  Indianapolis 
&  New  York:  Bobbs-Merrill  Co.,  1948.  357  p. 
Girl's  fight  against  ignorance  and  prejudice 
in  small  southern  town. 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


393 


Kroll,  Harry  H.  Lost  Homecoming.  New 
York:  Coward-McCann,  1950.  311  p.  Return 
of  poor-white  farmer  to  southern  town  to  be 
feted  and  honored  at  world  premiere  of 
film  made  from  his  best-selling  novel  about 
South ;  his  chance  to  see  artistocratic  girl 
whom  he  loved  more  important  to  him  than 
premiere ;  his  tragic  effort  to  reconcile  two 
different  cultures. 

Laing,  Frederick.  Six  Seconds  a  Year.  New 
York:  Thomas  Y.  Crowell  Co.,  1948.  307  p. 
How  hard-boiled,  go-getting  young  cynic 
achieves  emotional  maturity  too  late;  unfold- 
ing a  free  enterprise  developing  into  monop- 
oly and  industrial  drift  toward  fascism. 

Lauria,  Lew.  Ghost  of  the  South.  Holly- 
wood, Calif. :  Radco  Publishers,  1948.  247  p. 
Small-town  southern  hospitality  as  experi- 
enced by  two  hot-headed  and  hot-hearted 
young  Northerners  who  crash  against  its 
grim  prejudices. 

Lewis,  Lloyd.  It  Takes  All  Kinds.  New 
York:  Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co.,  1947.  276  p. 
Anecdotes,  personality  sketches,  explorations 
of  history,  tales  of  famous  and  obscure 
Americans. 

Lewis,  Sinclair.  Kingsblood  Royal.  New 
York:  Random  House,  1947.  348  p.  De- 
nunciation of  "white  supremacy." 

Liddell,  Viola  G.  Without  a  Southern  Ac- 
cent. Norman,  Okla. :  Univ.  of  Okla.  Press, 
1948.  261  p.  Alabama  family  from  1880's  to 
1920's. 

Lowry,  Robert.  Find  Me  in  Fire.  Garden 
City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1948.  280  p. 
Four  confused,  groping  young  people  try  to 
find  selves ;  one  is  Len  Sharpe,  fourteen 
and  Negro. 

Mcllwaine,  Shields.  Memphis  Down  in 
Dixie.  New  York:  E.  P.  Button  &  Co.,  1948. 
400  p.  Traces  growth  through  planter  era, 
its  river  glory,  Federal  occupation,  yellow 
fever  scourge,  and  when  W.  C.  Handy 
brought  blues  out  of  Beale  Street. 

Meadowcraft,  Enid  La  M.  By  Secret  Rail- 
way. New  York :  Thomas  Y.  Crowell  Co., 
1948.  275  p.  Chance  encounter  with  young 
Negro  led  David  into  strange  and  thrilling 
adventures  and  involved  him  in  Underground 
Railroad ;  with  important  implications  for 
young  Americans  today. 

Moon,  Bucklin.  Without  Magnolias.  Gar- 
den City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1949.  274 
p.  Whole  panorama  of  Negro's  world — con- 
servative middle  class,  intellectual,  idealistic 
radical,  always  leavening  force  of  down- 
trodden Negro  masses. 

*Morris,  Earl  J.  The  Cop.  New  York: 
Exposition  Press,  1951.  126  p.  Negro  police- 
man's story  which  mirrors  author's  own  ex- 
perience and  philosophy. 

*Motley,  Willard.  Knock  on  Any  Door. 
New  York  &  London :  D.  Appleton-Century 
Co.,  1947.  504  p.  Sensitive  boy  dreams  of 
stars  and  stumbles  into  gutter,  with  author 
catching  pulse-beat  of  great  American  me- 
tropolis. 

*Motley,  Willard.  We  Fished  All  Night. 
New  York:  Appleton-Century-Crofts,  1951. 
560  p.  Haunted  men  of  Chicago  are  brought 
comfort  and  reassurance  of  love  by  their 
women,  who  too  live  under  shadow  of  fear 
and  disillusion,  in  a  post-war  America. 


Neumann,  Robert.  Children  of  Vienna. 
New  York:  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1947.  233  p. 
Tragedy  and  hope  of  post-war  Europe,  as 
experienced  by  Reverend  Hoseah  W.  Smith, 
Negro  Chaplain  in  U.S.  Army,  in  cellar  of 
ruined  house  in  Vienna. 

North,  Sterling.  So  Dear  to  My  Heart. 
New  York:  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1947.  255  p. 
Swamplands  of  South  where  co-mingled 
racial  strains  united  to  build  our  independ- 
ence. 

Parrish,  Anne.  A  Clouded  Star.  New  York  : 
Harper  &  Bros.,  1948.  242  p.  Nine  slaves 
who  were  led  by  their  Moses,  Harriet  Tub- 
man  ;  a  story  of  human  fortitude  and  spir- 
itual strength. 

Paul,  Elliot.  Linden  on  the  Saugus 
Branch.  New  York:  Random  House,  1947. 
401  p.  Recollections  of  boyhood  in  New  Eng- 
land, in  which  Jeff  Lee,  justly  famous  cook, 
plays  role. 

*Petry,  Ann.  Country  Place.  Boston: 
Houghtpn  Mifflin  Co.,  1947.  266  p.  Justice 
and  injustice  clash  in  small  New  England 
town. 

Phillips,  Thomas  H.  The  Golden  Lie.  New 
York  &  Toronto:  Rinehart  &  Co.,  1951.  279 
p.  Love  of  remarkable  father  for  fine  en- 
dearing son ;  frustrated,  meaningless  love  of 
boy's  mother  for  another  man.  Relationship 
of  Negroes  and  whites  in  South. 

Porteous,  Clark.  South  Wind  Blows.  New 
York :  Current  Books,  A.  A.  Wyn,  1948.  192 
p.  Small  southern  community  tracks,  lynches 
helpless  fugitive  who  may  not  have  com- 
mitted crime. 

*Redding,  J.  Saunders.  Stranger  and 
Alone.  New  York :  Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co., 
1950.  308  p.  Dilemma  of  mulatto  who  wants 
decent  way  of  life,  can  find  only  indecent 
ways  of  achieving  it. 

Robbins,  Harold.  Never  Love  a  Stranger. 
New  York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1948.  443  p. 
Depiction  of  life  with  Negro  family  and 
Jewish  family  in  big  city ;  and  portrayal  of 
Communists  during  depression. 

Roberts,  Kenneth.  Lydia  Bailey.  Garden 
City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1947.  488  p. 
Historical  novel  of  1800's ;  beginning  in 
Boston,  carries  hero  to  Haiti,  France,  Tripoli. 
Interwoven  is  story  of  Toussaint  L'Ouver- 
ture  and  Dessalines. 

Rothman,  Nathan.  Virgie,  Goodbye.  New 
York :  Crown  Publishers,  1947.  248  p.  Young 
prostitute  who  feels  she  is  like  everybody 
else. 

Russell,  William.  A  Wind  is  Rising.  New 
York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1950.  292  p. 
Plantation  Negroes  in  Mississippi  delta  con- 
trolled by  sharecropper  system. 

*Savoy,  Willard.  Alien  Land.  New  York: 
E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1949.  320  p.  A  white 
Negro  "passes." 

Schulberg,  Budd.  The  Harder  They  Fall. 
New  York:  Random  House,  1947.  343  p. 
Relentless  disclosure  of  fight  racket  and  men 
and  women  involved  in  it. 

Schwartz,  Irving.  Every  Man  His  Sword. 
Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1951. 
307  p.  Violence  in  small  southern  town. 

Sheean,  Vincent.  A  Certain  Rich  Man. 
New  York:  Random  House,  1947.  378  p. 
Man  of  great  wealth  suddenly  finds  himself 


394 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


discontent  with  marriage  and  way  of  life, 
including  plight  of  Negro  tenants  in  Harlem 
properties  he  has  inherited. 

Shute,  Nevil.  The  Chequer  Board.  New 
York:  William  Morrow  &  Co.,  1947.  380  p. 
Negro  boy  stationed  in  small  English  village 
impulsively  kisses  girl  and  is  accused  of  at- 
tempted rape. 

Slaughter,  Frank  G.  The  Golden  Isle.  Gar- 
den City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1947.  373 
p.  Plantation  life  on  island  Amelia  and  life 
in  Fernandina,  island's  principal  city,  in 
1817. 

Slaughter,  Frank  G.  The  Stubborn  Heart. 
New  York:  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1950.  The 
South  during  Reconstruction. 

*Smith,  William  G.  Last  of  the  Conquer- 
ors. New  York:  Straus  &  Co.,  1948.  262  p. 
Negro  soldier  in  Army  of  Occupation  finds 
himself  accepted  as  equal  by  Germans  and 
looked  upon  as  inferior  by  white  comrades 
in  arms. 

Spicer,  Bart.  Blues  for  the  Prince.  New 
York:  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  1950.  249  p.  Negro 
jazz  and  blues  composer  is  killed  in  studio 
of  his  sprawling,  palatial  home. 

Stark,  Irwin.  The  Invisible  Island.  New 
York:  Viking  Press,  1948.  377  p.  White 
teacher  in  Negro  school  in  Harlem  is  also 
young  man  in  love ;  his  struggle  toward 
maturity  runs  parallel  with  growth  as  social 
being. 

Steen,  Marguerite.  Twilight  on  the  Floods. 
Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1949. 
782  p.  Hopes,  fears,  adventures,  loves  of 
ruthless  dynasty  which  became  powerful  as 
kings. 

Sumner,  Cid  R.  But  the  Morning  Will  Come. 
Indianapolis  &  New  York :  Bobbs-Merrill 
Co.,  1949.  302  p.  Daughter  of  seamstress  in 
Miss,  town,  happy  until  discovered  why  whis- 
per ran  about  the  Cljurstons :  a  strain  of 
Negro  blood. 

Taylor,  Peter.  A  Long  Fourth,  and  Other 
Stories.  New  York :  Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co., 
1948.  166  p.  Stories  portray  nice,  moral 
aspects  of  southern  life. 

Teilhet,  Hildegarde  T.  The  Terrified  So- 
ciety. New  York:  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1947.  374 
p.  World-famous  violinist  gives  concert  in 
southern  city  before  audience  that  must 
include  Negroes.  Unexpected  violence  leaves 
musician's  wrist  permanently  shattered. 

Tennyson,  Hallam.  The  Wall  of  Dust,  and 
Other  Stories.  New  York :  Viking  Press, 
1948.  188  p.  All  concern  individual  or  small 
group  suddenly  transplanted  to  foreign  land; 
in  one  instance,  Englishmen  in  Cairo ;  in 
another,  Negro  troops  in  Italy ;  etc. 

*Thomas,  Will.  Love  Knows  No  Barriers. 
Originally  published  as  God  is  for  White 
Folks  by  Creative  Age  Press ;  revised  by 
author  for  Signet  edition.  New  York :  New 
American  Library  of  World  Literature,  501 
Madison  Ave.,  1950.  207  p.  Two  lovers  of 
mixed  blood  face  hatred  of  girl's  white  ad- 
mirer, who  incites  Klan  uprising. 

Waller,  Leslie.  Show  Me  the  Way.  New 
York:  Viking  Press,  1947.  322  p.  Passionate 
physical  relationship  and  closeness  of  spirit 
between  two  people. 

Walz,  Jay  and  Aubrey.  The  Bizarre 
Sisters.  New  York:  Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce, 


1950.  Branch  of  famous  Randolph  clan  of 
Va.,  gets  involved  in  an  ante-bellum  plantation 
scandal. 

*West,  Dorothy.  The  Living  is  Easy. 
Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1948.  347  p. 
Manners  of  first-,  second-,  third-generation 
Negro  Bostonians. 

Westheimer,  David.  Summer  on  the 
Water.  New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1948. 
273  p.  Tragedy  strikes  Negro  maid  when 
her  mistress  wonders  who  was  father  of 
maid's  son. 

White,  W.  L.  Lost  Boundaries.  New  York : 
Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co.,  1948.  91  p.  Negro 
family  that  passed  for  white  in  New  Eng- 
land town. 

Whitney,  Phyllis  A.  Willow  Hill.  New 
York:  Reynal  &  Hitchcock,  1947.  243  p. 
Government  housing  project  brings  popula- 
tion to  Willow  Hill,  where  opposing  people 
come  together  and  help  town  understand 
new  code  of  ethics. 

Wilder,  Robert.  Bright  Feather.  New  York  : 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Son,  1948.  408  p.  Old  Clay 
invades  early  Florida  with  few  head  of  live- 
stock, couple  of  wagons,  half-dozen  slaves ; 
batters  country  and  Indians  into  submission. 
Young  Clay  flames  up  over  treatment  of 
Indians. 

Wilson,  John  W.  High  John  the  Con- 
queror. New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1948. 
165  p.  Negro  in  Brazos  country  of  Texas 
reluctantly  works  for  white  man,  exposing 
hopeless  plight  of  uneducated  southern 
Negro. 

Wilson,  William  E.  Crescent  City.  New 
York:  Simon  &  Schuster,  1947.  369  p. 
Growing  Middle  Western  town  from  1912 
to  present ;  corrosion  by  time  and  influence 
of  several  men ;  story  of  three  Negroes  in- 
terwoven. 

Wood,  Morrison.  The  Devil  is  a  Lonely 
Man.  New  York:  Thomas  Y.  Crowell  Co., 
1946.  497  p.  Desire  for  power  in  America. 
Set  in  California  of  last  80  years.  One  main 
character  is  "a  blonde  vixen  with  a  strain 
of  Negro  blood." 

*Yerby,  Frank.  Floodtide.  New  York :  Dial 
Press,  1950.  342  p.  Passions  and  conflicts 
against  panorama  of  old  slaveholding  South 
in  lush  decade  of  1850's. 

*Yerby,  Frank.  The  Golden  Hawk.  New 
York:  Dial  Press,  1948.  346  p.  Historical 
novel.  White  adventurers  of  France  and 
England  clash  with  imperial  Spain,  the 
Golden  Hawk,  a  looter  from  Cadiz,  and 
Rouge,  an  English  noblewoman,  are  locked 
in  combat  and  love  in  Caribbean  of  17th 
century. 

*Yerby,  Frank.  Pride's  Castle.  New  York : 
Dial  Press,  1949.  383  p.  Man's  ambition  and 
woman's  love — the  battle  to  see  which  was 
stronger. 

*Yerby,  Frank.  The  Vixens.  New  York : 
Dial  Press,  1947.  347  p.  South  in  bitter  days 
after  Civil  War,  when  New  Orleans  aristo- 
crat returns  after  fighting  on  Union  Side. 

*Yerby,  Frank.  A  Woman  Called  Fancy. 
New  York:  Dial  Press,  1951.  340  p.  After- 
Civil-War  setting.  White  girl  born  of  South 
Carolina  sharecroppers  flees  from  poverty 
and  prospect  of  loveless  marriage  to  Augusta, 
Ga.,  becomes  business  and  social  success. 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


395 


Young,  I.  S.  Jadie  Greenway.  New  York : 
Crown  Publishers,  1947.  250  p.  Modes  and 
customs  of  child  delinquents  in  overcrowded 
sections  of  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn. 

Folklore 

Ballowe,  Hewitt  L.  The  Lawd  Sayin'  the 
Same.  Negro  Folk  of  the  Creole  Country. 
Baton  Rouge,  La. :  Louisiana  St.  Univ.  Press, 
1947.  254  p.  Piquant  tales  of  sugar-cane 
country ;  amazing  insight  into  mind  of 
Negro. 

Botkin,  B.  A.  A  Treasury  of  Southern 
Folklore.  Stories,  Ballads,  Traditions,  and 
Folkways  of  the  People  of  the  South.  New 
York:  Crown  Publishers,  1949.  776  p. 
Drama,  color,  tradition  of  ante-bellum 
aristocracy  of  South  ;  music  of  Negro  ;  fun, 
gaiety,  simple  wisdom  of  rural  folk. 

Bradford,  Roark.  The  Green  Roller.  New 
York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1949.  118  p.  Cadence 
and  meaning  of  folk  speech  in  swamp  lands 
of  La. 

*Brookes,  Stella  B.  Joel  Chandler  Harris, 
Folklorist.  Athens,  Ga. :  Univ.  of  Ga.  Press, 
1950.  182  p.  Analysis  of  folklore  in  Uncle 
Remus  stories. 

Felton,  Harold  W.  John  Henry  and  His 
Hammer.  Illustrations  by  Aldren  A.  Watson. 
New  York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1950.  85  p. 
Picture  story  of  American  folklore  hero  who 
hammered  railroads  into  being,  tunneled 
through  mountains,  thrust  himself  into  fame. 

Lomax,  John  A.  Adventures  of  a  Ballad 
Hunter.  New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1947. 
302  p.  Racy  flavor  of  American  speech ; 
color  and  feeling  of  various  regions  of 
America ;  independence  and  strength  of 
people;  story  after  story  of  their  lives  and 
their  music. 

Health 

*De  Knight,  Freda.  A  Date  with  a  Dish. 
A  Cook  Book  of  American  Negro  Recipes. 
New  York:  Hermitage  Press,  1948.  426  p. 
Non-regional  cook  book ;  embraces  recipes, 
cooking  hints,  menus  from  all  over  U.S.  and 
near  neighbors. 

Dublin,  Louis  I.  Health  Progress  1936  to 
1945.  A  Supplement  to  Twenty-Five  Years 
of  Health  Progress.  New  York :  Metropolitan 
Life  Ins.  Co.,  1948.  147  p.  Index  of  what  has 
transpired  in  general  population  of  U.S. 

Ewing,  Oscar  R.  The  Nation's  Health,  A 
Ten-Year  Program.  A  Report  to  the  Presi- 
dent. Washington,  D.C. :  U.S.  Govt.  Print. 
Off.,  1948.  186  p.  Our  national  health  today 
and  way  to  greater  progress. 

Hazen,  H.  H.  Syphillis  in  the  Negro. 
Handbook  for  the  General  Practitioner. 
Supplement  No.  15  to  Venereal  Disease  In- 
formation. Washington,  D.C. :  U.S.  Govt. 
Print.  Off.,  1942.  96  p.  Analysis  of  syphillis 
problem  among  Negroes. 

The  Health  Status  and  Health  Education 
of  Negroes  in  the  United  States,  The  Journal 
of  Negro  Education,  The  Yearbook  Number, 
XVIII,  Summer  1949.  Part  1.  General  In- 
troductory Statement.  Part  2.  Health  Status 
of  Negroes.  Part  3.  Health  Facilities  Avail- 
able to  Negroes.  Part  4.  Health  Education 
of  Negroes.  Part  5.  Some  General  Implica- 
tions and  Suggestions. 


*Jiggetts,  J.  Ida.  Religion,  Diet,  and 
Health  of  Jews.  New  York :  Bloch  Publish- 
ing Co.,  1949.  125  p.  Study  of  Judaism,  show- 
ing how  Orthodox  Jewish  diet  has  salubrious 
effect. 

Report  On  a  Survey  of  Eighty-five  Gen- 
eral Hospitals  in  New  Jersey.  Conducted  by 
State  of  N.J.  Dept.  of  Educ.,  Div.  against 
Discrimination,  Newark,  N.J.  Prepared  by 
Isham  B.  Jones,  Field  Representative,  1949. 
25  p.  Availability  of  facilities  for  treatment 
of  minority  group  patients ;  employment  and 
professional  training  opportunities  for  mi- 
nority group  members,  with  greater  emphasis 
placed  on  status  of  Negroes  in  general  hos- 
pital picture  in  N.J.  than  on  any  other 
minority  group. 

*Tate,  Edith  B.,  and  Lifquist,  Rosaline  C. 
Planning  Food  for  Institutions.  U.S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.,  Washington,  D.C.,  1951.  95  p.  Nu- 
trients needed  for  adequate  diets. 

History  and  Travel 

Aptheker,  Herbert.  To  Be  Free.  Studies 
in  American  Negro  History.  New  York :  In- 
ternational Publishers,  1948.  256  p.  Slave 
guerrilla  warfare,  buying  freedom,  militant 
abolitionism,  Negro  casualties  in  Civil  War, 
Negroes  in  Union  Navy,  organizational  ac- 
tivities, Mississippi  Reconstruction. 

Bakeless,  John.  Lewis  and  Clark.  New 
York:  William  Morrow  &  Co.,  1947.  498 
p.  Biography  of  two  great  explorers. 

*Bontemps,  Arna.  Story  of  the  Negro. 
New  York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1948.  239  p. 
History  of  Negro  people  from  "as  far  back 
as  it  goes"  to  present. 

Butterfield,  Roger.  The  American  Past. 
History  of  U.S.  from  Concord  to  Hiroshima, 
1775-1945.  New  York:  Simon  &  Schuster, 
1947.  476  p.  Told  with  pictures,  paintings, 
cartoons,  lithographs,  engravings,  drawings 
illustrating  politics,  personalities,  wars, 
peaceful  progress  of  America  and  people. 

Coulter,  E.  Merton.  Georgia,  A  Short  His- 
tory. Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C.  Press, 
1947.  510  p.  Events  of  four  centuries  in 
Peach  State. 

Craven,  Avery,  and  Johnson,  Walter.  The 
United  States.  Boston:  Ginn  &  Co.,  1947. 
886  p.  Historical  account  of  American  gov- 
ernment as  experiment  in  democracy. 

Crenshaw,  Ollinger.  The  Slave  States  in 
the  Presidential  Election  of  1860.  Vol. 
LXIII,  No.  3.  Baltimore,  Md. :  Johns  Hop- 
kins Press,  1945.  332  p.  Study  of  shades  of 
political  opinion  in  southern  areas,  inter- 
action of  southern  ideas,  reaction  in  South 
to  northern  events. 

Day,  Donald.  Big  Country :  Texas.  New 
York:  Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce,  1947.  326  p. 
Historical  panorama  of  Texas  as  meeting 
point  of  alien  people  and  diverse  heritages, 
representing  focal  point  of  many  conflicting 
cultures  for  over  four  centuries. 

Eaton,  Clement.  A  History  of  the  Old 
South.  New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1949. 
636  p.  Emphasis  given  those  characteristics 
peculiarly  "Southern"  and  historic  processes 
which  produced  them. 

Fletcher,  John  G.  Arkansas.  Chapel  Hill, 
N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C.  Press,  1947.  421  p.  From 
De  Soto's  phantom  gold  to  present-day 


396 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


wealth  of  cotton,  rice,  oil,  bauxite,  power, 
people. 

*Franklin,  John  H.  From  Slavery  to 
Freedom.  History  of  American  Negroes. 
New  York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1947.  622  p. 
Essential  facts  from  African  beginnings  to 
present  time. 

Gates,  R.  Ruggles.  Pedigrees  of  Negro 
Families.  Philadelphia  &  Toronto :  Blakiston 
Co.,  1949.  267  p.  Over  100  pedigrees,  mainly 
from  this  country,  also  from  Canada,  parts 
of  West  Indies,  British  Guiana. 

Guia  de  instituciones  que  cultivan  la  his- 
toria  de  America.  Al  Cuidado  de  Bosch 
Garcia.  Mexico,  D.F.,  1949.  231  p. 

Hacker,  Louis  M.,  and  Zahler,  Helene  S. 
The  Shaping  of  the  American  Tradition.  2 
Vols.  New  York :  Columbia  Univ.  Press, 
1947.  How  American  ideas  and  institutions 
have  developed. 

*Hershaw,  Fay  McK.  Some  Aspects  of 
Post-War  Travel.  Boston :  Christopher  Pub- 
lishing House,  1950.  81  p.  Social  and  eco- 
nomic conditions  in  post-war  period. 

Johnson,  F.  Ernest.  Wellsprings  of  the 
American  Spirit.  New  York  &  London :  Har- 
per &  Bros.,  published  by  Inst.  for  Religious 
and  Social  Studies,  1948.  241  p.  Addresses 
interpret  various  traditions  blended  in 
growth  of  American  spirit  and  shaping  of  its 
ideals,  characterize  genius  expressed  in 
some  major  cultural  pursuits,  reveal  inten- 
sity of  struggle  for  freedom. 

Johnson,  Kathryn  M.  The  Dark  Race  in 
the  Dawn.  New  York :  William-Frederick 
Press,  1948.  16  p.  Aims  to  prove  Africans 
had  civilization  in  Americas  before  Colum- 
bus. 

Kane,  Harnett  T.  Deep  Delta  Country. 
New  York :  Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce,  1944.  283 
p.  The  land  from  New  Orleans  to  Gulf  of 
Mexico  which  has  been  paradise  and  battle 
ground,  where  many  nations  have  fought  to 
take  or  save  heart  of  continent. 

Kimball,  Marie.  Jefferson:  War  and  Peace, 
1776  to  1784.  New  York:  Coward-McCann, 
1947.  398  p.  Epoch  of  Jefferson's  life  after 
Declaration  of  Independence  and  during 
Revolution. 

*Logan,  Rayford  W.  Memoirs  pf  a  Monti- 
cello  Slave.  As  dictated  to  Charles  Campbell 
in  1840's  by  Isaac,  one  of  Thomas  Jefferson's 
slaves.  Charlottesville,  Va. :  Univ.  of  Va. 
Press,  1951.  45  p.  Intimate  recollections  of 
Thomas  Jefferson  present  unique  portrait  of 
great  man. 

Mearns,  David  C.  The  Lincoln  Papers. 
Story  of  the  Collection  with  Selections  to 
July  4,  1861.  2  Vols.  New  York:  Doubleday 
&  Co.,  1948.  681  p.  Colorful  sampling  of 
Lincoln's  daily  mail,  etc. 

Monaghan,  Frank.  Heritage  of  Freedom. 
History  and  Significance  of  Basic  Docu- 
ments of  American  Liberty.  Princeton,  NJ. : 
Princeton  Univ.  Press,  1948.  150  p.  More 
than  120  documents  exhibited  on  Freedom 
Train. 

O'Neill,  Charles,  Morning  Time.  New  York  : 
Simon  &  Schuster,  1949.  392  p.  Making  and 
ratifying  of  Constitution. 

*Ottley,  Roi.  Black  Odyssey.  New  York: 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1948.  340  p.  Events 
from  day  in  1664  when  Md.  became  first  colony 


to  legalize  slavery,  through  dark  days  of  servi- 
tude^ to  Emancipation  Proclamation  and  be- 
ginning of  Negro's  modern  history  as  free  but 
segregated  citizen. 

Quillen,  I.  James,  and  Krug,  Edward.  Living 
in  Our  America.  History  for  Young  Citizens. 
Chicago,  Atlanta,  Dallas,  New  York :  Scott, 
Foresman  &  Co.,  1951.  752  p.  American  history 
from  European  background  through  Recon- 
struction, industrialization,  public  welfare,  in- 
ternational diplomacy,  Pan-Americanism. 

*  Redding,  J.  Saunders.  They  Came  in  Chains 
— Americans^  from  Africa.  The  Peoples  of 
America  Series,  edited  by  Louis  Adamic.  Phila- 
delphia &  New  York :  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co., 
1950.  320  p.  Emergence  of  Negro  as  American 
citizen. 

Simkins,  Francis  B.  The  South  Old  and 
New.  A  History  1820-1947.  New  York :  Alfred 
A.  Knopf,  1947.  527  p.  Race,  religion,  political 
practices,  social  customs,  agriculture,  com- 
merce, industry,  literature,  architecture,  fine 
arts. 

*Tate,  Merze.  The  United  States  and  Arma- 
ments. Cambridge,  Mass. :  Harvard  Univ. 
Press,  1948.  312  p.  Investigation  of  armament 
limitation. 

Waugh,  Evelyn.  When  the  Going  was  Good. 
Boston:  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  1947.  314  p. 
Observations  on  conflicting  cultures. 

Wharton,  Vernon  L.  The  Negro  in  Missis- 
sippi, 1865-1890.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of 
N.C.  Press,  1947.  298  p.  Interactions  of  social 
forces  which  have  determined  character  of 
important  bi-racial  relationships  in  State. 

Housing 

Deutsch,  Morton,  and  Collins,  Mary  E.  In- 
terracial Housing.  Psychological  Evaluation  of 
a  Social  Experiment.  Minneapolis :  Univ.  of 
Minn.  Press,  1951.  173  p.  Compares  segregated 
and  non-segregated  public  housing. 

Housing  and  Home  Finance  Agency,  Hous- 
ing of  the  Nonwhite  Population,  1940  to  1947. 
Washington,  D.C. :  U.S.  Govt.  Print.  Off., 
1948.  13  p.  Analysis  of  housing  situation  based 
on  findings  of  Bureau  of  Census. 

Larsen,  William  F.  New  Homes  for  Old. 
Publicly  Owned  Housing  in  Tennessee.  Vol. 
24,  No.  7,  Extension  Series,  Univ.  of  Term. 
Record,  published  by  Div.  of  Univ.  Extension 
for  Bureau  of  Public  Admin.,  Univ.  of  Term., 
Knoxville,  Nov.  1948.  83  p.  Traces  historical 
development  of  local  authorities  and  discusses 
powers,  legal  status,  organization,  policy  frame- 
work, administrative  operations,  problems,  ac- 
complishments. 

*Long,  Herman  H.,  and  *Johnson,  Charles  S. 
People  vs.  Property.  Race  Restrictive  Cove- 
nants in  Housing.  Nashville,  Tenn. :  Fisk  Univ. 
'Press,  1947.  107  p.  Particularly  concerned  with 
inequalities  in  housing  opportunity  due  to 
racial  discrimination  and  segregation. 

Selected  References  on  Housing  and  Minori- 
ties. Washington,  D.C. :  Housing  and  Home 
Finance  Agency,  Office  of  Admin.,  Racial  Re- 
lations Service,  April  1950.  46  p.  Bibliography 
on  housing  conditions  of  minority  groups. 

*Weaver,  Robert  C.  The  Negro  Ghetto.  New 
York:  Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co.,  1948.  404  p. 
How  the  Negro,  coming  North  for  freer  and 
better  living,  has  been  restricted  to  some  of 
worst  slums  in  country. 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


397 


Labor  and  Employment 

*Allen,  James  S.,  and  *Wilkerson,  Doxey. 
The  Economic  Crisis  and  the  Cold  War.  New 
York:  International  Publishers,  1949.  Burden 
of  economic  crisis  through  wage  cuts,  speedup, 
unemployment,  war,  fascism  upon  the  national 
scene. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Fair 
Employment  Practice  Commission.  Public 
Document  No.  163.  Commonwealth  of  Mass., 
Exec.  Dept.,  41  Tremont  St.,  Boston,  Mass., 
Nov.  30,  1948  to  Nov.  30,  1949.  7  p. 

Archibald  Katherine.  Wartime  Shipyard. 
Study  in  Social  Disunity.  Berkeley  &  Los 
Angeles :  Univ.  of  Calif.  Press,  1947.  237  p. 
Spontaneous  outbursts  of  white  male  elite 
against  women  welders,  women  welders  against 
Okies,  Okies  against  Negroes,  everybody 
against  Japanese. 

Berger,  Morroe.  The  New  York  State  Law 
Against  Discrimination :  Operations  and  Ad- 
ministration. Reprinted  from  "Cornell  Law 
Quarterly,"  Vol.  35,  No.  4,  Summer  1950.  pp. 
747-796. 

Foner,  Philip  S.  History  of  the  Labor  Move- 
ment in  the  United  States,  From  Colonial 
Times  to  Founding  of  AFL.  New  York  :  Inter- 
national Publishers,  1947.  576  p.  ^Study  of 
struggles  of  working  class  to  win  higher 
standard  of  living,  improved  status  in  society. 
Important  from  point  of  Negro  worker. 

International  Labour  Conference,  32nd  Ses- 
sion. Application  of  the  Principles  of  the 
Right  to  Organise  and  to  Bargain  Collectively. 
Report  IV  (1),  Fourth  Item  on  the  Agenda. 
Geneva :  International  Labour  Office,  1948.  18 
p.  Purpose  is  to  transmit  these  texts  to  govern- 
ments so  they  may  forward  amendments  and 
comments.  Report  IV  (2),  Fourth  Item  on  the 
Agenda.  Geneva :  International  Labour  Office, 
1949.  43  p.  Text  of  replies  of  governments 
and  analysis  thereof. 

Kesselman,  Louis  C.  The  Social  Politics  of 
FEPC.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C.  Press, 

1948.  253  p.  Analyzes  physiology  and  anatomy 
of    a    reform    pressure    movement,    evaluates 
pressure  techniques,  tells  inside  story  of  con- 
troversial legislation. 

Rackow,  Felix.  Combating  Discrimination  in 
Employment  in  New  York  State.  Research 
Bulletin  No.  5.  Ithaca,  N.Y. :  N.Y.  St.  Sch.  of 
Ind.  and  Labor  Relations,  Cornell  Univ.,  Nov. 

1949.  52   p.   Work  of   N.Y.    St.   Commission 
against     Discrimination     from     inception    to 
March  31,  1949. 

Report  on  a  Survey  of  Employment  Policies 
and  Practices  Involving  Minority  Groups  in 
Hudson  County,  New  Jersey.  State  of  N.J., 
Dept.  of  Educ.,  Div.  against  Discrimination, 
1060  Broad  St.,  Newark,  N.J.,  July  1951. 
14  p.  Pattern  of  employment  policies  and  prac- 
tices involving  minority  groups ;  periods  and 
influences  related  to  changing  employment  re- 
lationships with  minority  groups  within  past 
11  years,  techniques  by  which  better  intergroup 
relationships  have  been  fostered ;  significance 
of  State's  Anti-Discrimination  Laws  for  se- 
lected group  of  employers  contacted. 

Ross,  Malcolm.  All  Manner  of  Men.  New 
York  :  Reynal  &  Hitchcock,  1948.  314  p.  States 
that  American  creed  of  equal  opportunity  for 
all  stumbles  over  economic  factor,  large  part  of 


study  devoted  to  government's  wartime  experi- 
ment with  FEPC. 

Seidenberg,  Jacob.  Negroes  in  the  Work 
Group.  Research  Bulletin  No.  6.  Ithaca,  N.Y. : 
N.Y.  St.  Sch.  of  Ind.  and  Labor  Relations, 
Cornell  Univ.,  Feb.  1950.  48  p.  Integration  of 
Negro  in  business  and  industry  in  New  York 
State. 

Southall,  Sara  E.  Industry's  Unfinished  Busi- 
ness. New  York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1950.  173  p. 
Step-by-step  methods  successfully  employed  in 
numerous  companies  to  make  possible  inclusion 
of  Negro  employees  on  industrial  staffs. 

Toward  a  Fair  Employment  Practice  Con- 
science through  Education.  Report  on  the  edu- 
cational program  of  Philadelphia  FEPC,  Sept. 
1950.  31  p.  Description  of  activities  carried  on 
since  passage  of  Ordinance. 

Vance,  Rupert  B.,  and  Others.  Exploring 
the  South.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C. 
Press,  1949.  404  p.  Study  of  resources  for 
better  living. 

Literature 

Bennett,  Elaine  C.  Calendar  of  Negro-Re- 
lated Documents  in  the  Records  of  the  Com- 
mittee for  Congested  Production  Areas  in  the 
National  Archives.  Washington,  D.C. :  Ameri- 
can Council  of  Learned  Societies,  1219  16th 
St.,  N.W.,  Oct.  1949.  100  p. 

*Dreer,  Herman.  American  Literature  by 
Negro  Authors.  New  York :  Macmillan  Co., 
1950.  334  p.  Presents  various  Negroes'  contri- 
butions to  American  literature ;  supplies  bibli- 
ography for  further  study. 

Hodgson,  George  M.  The  Beaten  Paths.  New 
York:  Exposition  Press,  1950.  103  p.  Essays 
and  aphorisms  attacking  fundamental  problems 
of  modern  living. 

*Gloster,  Hugh  M.  Negro  Voices  in  Ameri- 
can Fiction.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C. 
Press,  1948.  295  p.  Published  novels  and  short 
stories  by  Negroes,  from  beginnings  to  1940 ; 
social  backgrounds  from  which  writings  arose. 

Lavrin,  Janko.  Pushkin  and  Russian  Liter- 
ature. New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1948.  226  p. 
Portrait  of  great  writer,  cardinal  figure  in 
Russian  literature,  dominating  influence  in  its 
development. 

Martin,  John  B.  Indiana,  an  Interpretation. 
New  York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1947.  300  p. 
Regional  story  of  state  often  considered  most 
typical  of  U.S. ;  Civil- War  and  changes  caused 
by  it  are  important. 

Mathews,  M.  M.  Some  Sources  of  Southern- 
isms.  University,  Ala. :  Univ.  of  Ala.  Press, 
1948.  154  p.  Story  of  three  types  of  words  added 
to  American  vocabulary  in  South,  including 
African  languages. 

The  Negro.  A  Selected  Bibliography.  New 
York :  New  York  Public  Library,  135th  Street 
Branch,  1950.  Sixth  edition.  17  p. 

Paine,  Gregory.  Southern  Prose  Writers. 
Representative  Selections,  with  Introduction, 
Bibliography,  and  Notes.  New  York,  Cincin- 
nati, Chicago,  Boston,  Atlanta,  Dallas,  San 
Francisco:  American  Book  Co.,  1947.  392  p. 
Cultural  history  of  southern  region  as  depicted 
by  various  authors. 

Selected  Bibliography  on  the  Negro.  Fourth 
ed.,  compiled  by  Nat'l  Urban  League,  Dept. 
of  Research,  1133  Broadway,  New  York  10, 
N.Y.,  June  1951.  124  p.  To  assist  those  who 


398 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


wish  to  acquaint  themselves  with  life  and  work 
of  the  Negro. 

Tate,  Allen.  A  Southern  Vanguard.  John 
Peale  Bishop  Memorial  Vol.  New  York : 
Prentice-Hall,  1947.  331  p.  Critical  essays, 
stories,  poems. 

*  Turner,  Lorenzo  D.  Africanisms  in  the 
Gullah  Dialect.  Chicago :  Univ.  of  Chicago 
Press,  1949.  317  p.  First  scientific  and  com- 
prehensive analysis  of  Gullah  dialect,  its 
African  origins  and  present  use  among  Negroes 
of  coastal  region  of  S.C.  and  Ga.,  known  as 
the  Rice  Islands. 

Music 

Arnold,  Byron.  Folksongs  of  Alabama.  Uni- 
versity, Ala. :  Univ.  of  Ala.  Press,  1950.  193  p. 
Songs  from  fishing  wharves,  mountain  cabins, 
ante-bellum  plantation  homes,  Negro  churches, 
sweaty  jobs  on  railroad  and  games  on  shady 
Mobile  streets. 

Blesh,  Rudi.  Shining  Trumpets.  New  York : 
Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1946.  365  p.  History  of  jazz, 
including  African  background,  with  sociologi- 
cal implications. 

Blesh,  Rudi,  and  Janis,  Harriet.  They  All 
Played  Ragtime.  New  York :  Alfred  A.  Knopf, 
1950.  338  p.  Great  ragtime  piano  players  from 
Scott  Joplin  and  "The  Maple  Leaf  Rag"  to 
present. 

*Crite,  Allan  H.  Three  Spirituals  from 
Earth  to  Heaven.  Cambridge,  Mass. :  Harvard 
Univ.  Press,  1948.  Pictorial  interpretation  of 
"Nobody  Knows  the  Trouble  I  See,"  "Swing 
Low,  Sweet  Chariot,"  and  "Heaven." 

Dexter,  Dave,  Jr.  Jazz  Cavalcade.  New 
York:  Criterion,  1946.  258  p.  Story  of  Ameri- 
can jazz. 

*Handy,  W.  C.  A  Treasury  of  the  Blues. 
Complete  Words  and  Music  of  67  great  Songs 
from  Memphis  Blues  to  the  Present  Day.  New 
York :  Simon  &  Schuster,  published  by  Charles 
Boni,  1949.  258  p.  From  1912  blues  to  recent 
boogie-woogie,  all  arranged  to  be  played  on 
piano. 

*Hayes,  Roland.  My  Songs.  Afro-American 
Religious  Folksongs  Arranged  and  Interpreted 
by  Roland  Hayes.  Boston  :  Little,  Brown  &  Co., 
1948.  128  p.  Thirty  religious  folksongs  of  his 
people. 

McBrier,  Vivian-  F.,  and  Johns,  Altona  T. 
Finger  Fun  with  Songs  to  be  Sung.  Songs  and 
Dances  for  Young  Pianists,  Singers  and  Danc- 
ers. New  York:  Handy  Bros.  Music  Co.,  1949. 
47  p.  Purpose:  "To  provide  fun  and  pleasure" 
with  songs  from  child's  every-day  experiences 
and  those  appealing  to  his  imagination. 

Reis,  Claire  R.  Composers  in  America.  Bio- 
graphical Sketches  of  Contemporary  Composers 
with  a  Record  of  Their  Works.  New  York : 
Macmillan  Co.,  1947.  399  p.  Important  works 
written  and  performed  in  America  are  listed, 
regardless  of  nationality,  race  or  citizenship 
of  composer,  including  William  Levi  Dawson, 
Nathaniel  Dett,  William  Grant  Still. 

Spaeth,  Sigmund.  A  History  of  Popular 
Music  in  America.  New  York  :  Random  House, 
1948.  729  p.  How  our  popular  songs  reflect 
the  sentiments,  the  customs,  and  the  manners 
of  their  times. 

"Thurman,  Howard.  The  Negro  Spiritual 
Speaks  of  Life  and  Death.  Ingersoll  Lecture  on 
Immortality  of  Man,  1947.  New  York  &  Lon- 


don :  Harper  &  Bros.,  1947.  56  p.  Author  has 
"found  philosophic  meaning  and  insight  in 
Negro  spirituals  to  equal  the  rich  elemental 
beauty  of  their  music." 

Poetry 

*Adams,  Daisie  H.  Merchant  of  Dreams. 
New  York:  Exposition  Press,  1947.  32  p.  28 
poems  on  various  subjects. 

*Aheart,  Andrew  N.  Figures  of  Fantasy. 
New  York  :  Exposition  Press,  1949.  54  p.  Col- 
lection by  28-year-old  mathematician,  composed 
while  in  armed  forces  in  England,  Scotland, 
France. 

*Astwood,  Alexander  C.  Beauty  and  the 
Universe.  Boston :  Bruce  Humphries,  1950.  72 
p.  Vigorous  and  musical  poems. 

*Braithwaite,  William  S.  Selected  Poems. 
New  York :  Coward-McCann,  1948.  96  p.  Ex- 
pressing imagination  on  many  topics. 

*  Brooks,    Gwendolyn.    Annie    Allen.    New 
York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1949.  60  p.  Themes  on 
people,  especially  city  people. 

*  Clarke,     John    H.    Rebellion    in    Rhyme. 
Prairie  City,  111.:  Decker  Press,  1948.  105  p. 
Showing  awareness   of   suffering  and   malad- 
justment of  Negro  youth. 

*Cullen,  Countee.  On  These  I  Stand.  New 
York  &  London :  Harper  &  Bros.,  1947.  197  p. 
Anthology  of  his  best  poems,  on  religion,  death, 
burdens,  love,  and  brilliant  epitaphs. 

*Cuthbert,  Marion.  Song  of  Creation.  New 
York  :  Woman's  Press,  1949.  46  p.  Five  poems 
about  meaning  of  life,  prefaced  by  poem  on 
"I  and  He." 

*Dodson,  Owen.  Powerful  Long  Ladder. 
New  York :  Farrar,  Straus  &  Co.,  1946.  103  p. 
Revealing  deep  understanding  of  history  and 
present  situation  of  Negro  people. 

*Fisher,  Randolph.  The  Treasury  of  Life. 
New  York :  Exposition  Press,  1947.  92  p. 
Ranging  from  blank  verse  to  rhyming  couplet, 
dealing  with  racial  and  religious  themes,  love, 
war,  humanity. 

*Hayden,  Robert,  and  *O'Higgins,  Myron. 
The  Lion  and  the  Archer:  Poems.  No.  1  of 
Counterpoise  Series.  Nashville,  Tenn. :  Mills 
Bookstore,  408  Union  St.,  April  1948.  13  p. 
By  two  who  "believe  experimentation  to  be  an 
absolute  necessity  in  keeping  the  arts  vital  and 
significant  in  contemporary  life." 

*Huff,  William  H.  From  Deep  Within. 
Chicago:  Dierkes  Press,  1951.  40  p.  41  poems. 

*Huff,  William  H.  Sowing  and  Reaping  and 
Other  Poems.  Avon,  111.:  Hamlet  Press,  1950. 
77  p.  Love  lyrics,  virile  narrative  poetry  of 
adventure  and  achievement,  poems  of  encour- 
agement, laughter,  sympathy. 

*Hughes,  Langston.  Fields  of  Wonder.  New 
York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1947.  114  p.  Ranging 
from  love  to  oppression,  from  big  city  to  cot- 
ton field. 

*Hughes,  Langston.  Montage  of  A  Dream 
Deferred.  New  York  :  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1951. 
75  p.  Portrait  of  Harlem,  community  and 
people  in  transition. 

*Hughes,  Langston.  One-Way  Ticket.  111. 
by  Jacob  Lawrence.  New  York :  Alfred  A. 
Knopf,  1949.  136  p.  Happy  lyrics,  dirges,  dra- 
matic soliloquies,  love  songs,  resounding  with 
exultant  throb  of  Negro  pain  and  gladness. 

*Hughes,  Langston,  and  *Bontemps,  Arna. 
The  Poetry  of  the  Negro,  1746-1949.  Garden 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


399 


City,  N.Y.:  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1949.  429  p. 
Works  by  147  poets  from  pre-Revolutionary 
times  until  today. 

Jacobson,  Harriet  P.  Song  in  the  Night.  New 
York:  Exposition  Press,  1947.  63  p.  Diversity 
of  themes,  from  "Worldly  Honors"  to  "Cas- 
ualty List." 

*Johnson,  Homer  P.;  * Jackson,  John  R. ; 
and  *Baker,  Robert  M.  Twilight  Dreams.  New 
York  :  Exposition  Press,  1950.  63  p.  Free  verse, 
ranging  from  love,  life,  concern  over  future, 
to  problems  of  Negro  and  racial  discrimination. 
Kramer,  Aaron.  The  Thunder  of  the  Grass. 
New  York:  International  Publishers,  1948. 
40  p.  Title  poem  tells  story  of  plight  of  Jews 
in  Warsaw  through  the  93  virgins  who  pre- 
ferred death  to  enemy's  embrace.  Seventh  poem 
is  about  Isaac  Woodard,  Negro  soldier  blinded 
by  a  police  officer. 

Lawrence,  Ruth.  Talent,  Songwriters  and 
Poets  of  1947.  New  York :  Haven  Press,  1948. 
643  p.  Second  of  series  that  aims  to  give  little- 
known  writers  opportunity  to  gain  hearing  and 
share  laurels  with  better-known  contemporaries. 
Included  are  Negro  writers. 

*McCorkle,  G.  W.  Rhymes  from  the  Delta. 
Second  ed.  High  Point,  N.C. :  G.  W.  Mc- 
Corkle,  Box  761,  1948.  159  p.  Poems  dedicated 
to  memory  of  men  and  women  of  both  races 
who  have  touched  author's  life  with  encourage- 
ment in  struggle  to  express  himself  in  verse. 

*Merritt,  Alice  H.  Whence  Waters  Flow. 
Poems  for  All  Ages  from  Old  Virginia.  Rich- 
mond, Va. :  Dietz  Press,  1948.  69  p.  Wide 
range  of  themes,  from  "Virginia"  to  "My 
Country." 

*Murphy,  Beatrice  M.  Ebony  Rhythm.  New 
York:  Exposition  Press,  1948.  162  p.  100  con- 
temporary Negro  poets,  on  justice,  nature, 
God,  children. 

*Ragland,  J.  Farley.  Rhymes  of  the  Times. 
New  York:  Mallett  &  Co.  Better  interracial 
relations. 

Simpkins,  Thomas  V.  Rhyme  and  Reason. 
Boston:  Christopher  Publishing  House,  1949. 
95  p.  Surprising  vistas  of  sentiment,  wit, 
romance,  adventure. 

Swift,  Hildegarde  H.  North  Star  Shining. 
Pictorial  History  of  the  American  Negro.  111. 
by  Lynd  Ward.  New  York:  William  Morrow 
&  Co.,  1945.  44  p.  Includes  in  verse  contribu- 
tions of  Negro  slave  and  those  made  by  Negro 
today. 

*Thornton,  George  B.  Best  Poems.  Second 
ed.  Wilberforce,  Ohio:  George  B.  Thornton, 
Box  289,  1949.  86  p.  Containing  all  his  poems ; 
embracing  a  wide  range  of  themes. 

Thornton,  George  B.  Great  Poems.  Second 
ed.  Wilberforce,  Ohio :  George  B.  Thornton, 
Box  289,  1948.  59  p.  "Literary  gems  handled 
with  grace  and  ease." 

Wassail,  Irma.  Loonshadow.  Poets  of  the 
West.  Series  II.  Golden,  Col.:  Sage  Books, 
1949.  48  p.  One  group  of  lyrics  entitled  "Poems 
of  Africa"  interpret  in  viyid  imagery  the 
culture  and  life  of  native  African. 

*  Winston,  Bessie  B.  Alabaster  Boxes.  Wash- 
ington, D.C. :  Review  and  Herald  Publishing 
Ass.,  1947.  160  p.  Songs  of  hope  and  cheer; 
melodies  in  tune  with  brave  and  courageous 
things  of  human  spirit. 

*Winston,  Bessie  B.  Life's  Red  Sea  and 
Other  Poems.  Washington,  D.C. :  Review  and 


Herald  Publishing  Assn.,  1950.  32  p.  Lyrics  of 
encouragement  which  touch  heart  of  sorrowing 
humanity. 

*Yeiser,  Idabelle.  Lyric  and  Legend.  Boston  : 
Christopher  Publishing  House,  1947.  77  p.  In- 
cludes poem  "To  Marian  Anderson,"  *o  whom 
book  is  dedicated. 

Politics  and  Suffrage 

Acts  of  the  Legislature  of  Alabama  of  Local 
and  Special  Character  Passed  at  the  Regular 
Session  of  1947.  Birmingham,  Ala. :  Birming- 
ham Printing  Co.,  State  Printers  and  Binders, 
1948.  474  p. 

Arnall,  Ellis  G.  What  the  People  Want. 
New  York  &  Philadelphia :  J.  B.  Lippincott 
Co.,  1947,  1948.  286  p.  Report  on  state  of 
nation,  showing  all  Americans  want  funda- 
mentally same  freedoms  and  expect  Govern- 
ment to  lead  the  way  to  make  possible  attain- 
ment of  them. 

Cole,  Taylor,  and  Hallowell,  John  H.  The 
Southern  Political  Scene,  1938-1948.  Gaines- 
ville, Fla. :  The  Journal  of  Politics,  Univ.  of 
Fla.,  distributed  by  Kallman  Publishing  Co., 
187p  W-  University  Ave.,  1948.  567  p.  Col- 
lection of  articles  on  major  political  trends  in 
South  during  past  decade. 

Collins,  Charles  W.  Whither  the  Solid 
South  ?  Study  in  Politics  and  Race  Relations. 
New  Orleans :  Pelican  Publishing  Co.,  1947. 
334  p.  Analysis  of  present  dilemma  of  South 
which  offers  choice  of  racial  and_  regional 
solidarity  or  social  erosion  and  political  dis- 
integration. 

De  Tocqueville,  Alexis.  Democracy  in 
America.  Ed.,  with  intro.,  by  Henry  Steele 
Commager.  Translated  by  Henry  Reeve.  New 
York  &  London:  Oxford  Univ.  Press,  1947. 
513  p.  Early  observations  on  fundamentals  of 
democracy,  having  direct  bearing  on  urgent 
problems  today. 

*Edmonds,  Helen  G.  The  Negro  and  Fusion 
Politics  in  North  Carolina,  1894-1901.  Chapel 
Hill,  N.C.:  Univ.  of  N.C.  Press,  1951.  260  p. 
Political  careers  of  prominent  N.C.  Negroes 
who  held  Federal,  state,  county,  and  municipal 
offices ;  account  of  Wilmington  race  riot  which 
followed  election  of  1898. 

Flynn,  John  T.  The  Road  Ahead.  America's 
Creeping  Revolution.  New  York :  Devin- 
Adair  Co.,  distributed  by  Comm.  for  Consti- 
tutional Gov't.,  205  E.  42  St.,  New  York  17, 
N.Y.,  1949.  207  p.  The  unannounced  plan  to 
drive  America  into  collectivism. 

Foster,  William  Z.  The  New  Europe.  New 
York:  International  Publishers,  1947.  128  p. 
Based  on  author's  three-month  trip  to  Europe 
in  winter  and  early  spring  of  1947. 

General  Laws  (and  Joint  Resolutions)  of  the 
Legislature  of  Alabama  Passed  at  the  Organi- 
zational Sessions  of  1947.  Birmingham,  Ala. : 
Birmingham  Printing  Co.,  State  Printers  and 
Binders,  1948.  611  p. 

Gunther,  John.  Inside  U.S.A.  New  York  & 
London :  Harper  &  Bros.,  1947.  979  p.  Domi- 
nant trends,  problems,  political,  economic, 
social  power  in  U.S.  as  viewed  by  a  veteran 
roving  observer. 

Harrington,  Fred  H.  Fighting  Politician. 
Major  General  N.  P.  Banks.  Philadelphia : 
Univ.  of  Penna.  Press,  1948.  301  p.  Career  of 
brilliant  man  who  rose  to  political  fame  but 


400 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


missed  greatness  because  he  too  often  preferred 
expediency  to  principle. 

Howell,  Charles  G.  It  Could  Happen  Here. 
Menace  of  Native  Fascism  in  America  after 
World  War  II.  New  York :  William-Frederick 
Press,  1945.  59  p.  Discussion  of  antagonistic 
groups  at  home  and  abroad. 

Isely,  Jeter  A.  Horace  -  Greeley  and  the  Re- 
publican Party,  1853-1861.  Study  of  the  New 
York  Tribune.  Princeton,  NJ. :  Princeton 
Univ.  Press,  1947.  368  p.  Analysis  of  Tribune's 
contribution  to  the  party's  formation,  success, 
and  influence ;  a  study  in  relations  between 
politics  and  the  press. 

Jones,  Walter  B.  Citizenship  and  Voting  in 
Alabama.  Study  of  Laws  of  Alabama  Relating 
to  Citizenship  and  Voting,  with  Explanation 
of  Constitution  of  United  States.  Montgomery, 
Ala. :  A.  Nachman's  Book  Store,  US.  Perry 
St.,  1947.  164  p.  Laws  and  rules  which  govern 
citizenship  in  Alabama  and  all  matters  relating 
to  ballot. 

Key,  V.  O.,  Jr.  Southern  Politics  in  State 
and  Nation.  New  York  :  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1949. 
675  p.  Examines,  state  by  state,  phenomenon  of 
Dixiecrats,  conduct  of  elections,  restrictions  on 
voting,  influence  of  "Solid  South"  in  Congress. 

*Logan,  Rayford  W.  The  African  Mandates 
in  World  Politics.  Washington,  D.C. :  Public 
Affairs  Press,  1948.  220  p.  Traces  vicissitudes 
of  diplomatic  negotiations  and  ramifications  of 
public  discussions. 

*Moon,  Henry  L.  Balance  of  Power:  the 
Negro  Vote.  Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  & 
Co.,  1948.  256  p.  How  use  and  non-use  of 
ballot  by  Negro  population  has  affected  national 
life. 

Nolan,  William  A.  Communism  versus  the 
Negro.  Chicago:  Henry  Regnery  Co.,  1951. 
276  p.  Describes  attempt  of  Communist  Party 
to  exploit  the  miseries  and  misfortunes  of  the 
Negro  for  its  own  ends. 

Oneal,  James,  and  Werner,  G.  A.  American 
Communism.  New  York :  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co., 
1947.  416  p.  Information  about  Communist 
Party  in  America ;  analysis  of  social  and  labor 
history  in  last  quarter  of  century. 

Record,  Wilson.  The  Negro  and  the  Com- 
munist Party.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of 
N.C.  Press,  1951.  340  p.  What  happens  when 
exploited  group  is  proselytized  by  revolutionary 
party. 

Report  on  the  Communist  "Peace"  Offensive. 
Washington,  D.C. :  House  Un-American  Activ- 
ities Comm.,  April  5,  1951.  166  p.  Contains 
also  alleged  Communist-front  affiliations  of  Dr. 
W.E.B.  DuBpis. 

Sayers,  Michael,  and  Kahn,  Albert  E.  The 
Great  Conspiracy  against  Russia.  New  York : 
Boni  &  Gaer,  1946.  154  p.  Seeing  ourselves  as 
Russians  see  us ;  policies  of  anti-Soviet  in- 
trigue. 

Spitz,  David.  Patterns  of  Anti-Democratic 
Thought.  New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1949. 
304  p.  Qualities  and  characteristics  of  democ- 
racy. 

Race  Problem 

Adams,  Julius  J.  The  Challenge.  Study  in 
Negro  Leadership.  New  York :  Wendell  Mal- 
liet  Publishers,  1950.  154  p.  Attributes  colored 
man's  plight  and  low  status  largely  to  inef- 
fective leadership. 


Allen,  Marilyn  R.  Alien  Minorities  and 
Mongrelization.  Boston :  Meador  Publishing 
Co.,  1949.  474  p.  Challenges  white  Christian 
Americans  to  protect,  defend,  preserve  their 
racial  heritage,  their  fast-dwindling  freedoms, 
their  constitutional  rights. 

An  American  Challenge.  New  York :  Ameri- 
can Nurses  Assn.,  2  Park  Ave.,  1951.  20  p. 
How  nursing  profession  attacks  Jim  Crow. 

Bettelheim,  Bruno,  and  Morris,  Janowitz. 
Dynamics  of  Prejudice.  New  York :  Harper  & 
Bros.,  1950.  227  p.  Cross-section  of  veterans 
in  large  American  city,  examining  relationship 
between  anxieties  of  these  men  and  attitudes 
towards  members  of  minority  groups. 

Bilbo,  Theodore  G.  Take  Your  Choice — 
Separation  or  Mongrelization.  Poplarville, 
Miss. :  Dream  House  Publishing  Co.,  1947. 
330  p.  Discussion  of  Negro  problem. 

Bonner,  Harry  G.  The  Corundum  People. 
New  York:  William- Frederick  Press,  1948. 
16  p.  Miscegenation,  psychic  slavery,  isolation, 
political  and  conventional  problems  in  America. 

Brownlee,  Fred  L.  New  Day  Ascending. 
Boston:  Pilgrim  Press,  1946.  310  p.  Author 
sees  coming  of  abolition  of  segregation  and 
unjust  discriminations. 

Burns,  Sir  Alan.  Color  Prejudice.  With 
Particular  Reference  to  Relationship  between 
Whites  and  Negroes.  London :  George  Allen  & 
Unwin  Ltd.,  1948.  164  p.  Analyzes  history  and 
alleged  causes  of  color  prejudice. 

*  Burroughs,  Nannie  H.  What  Do  You 
Think  f  Washington,  D.C. :  Lincoln  Heights, 
published  by  author,  1950.  141  p.  Essays  deal- 
ing with  Negro  character,  church,  home, 
school. 

Carter,  Hodding.  Southern  Legacy.  Baton 
Rouge,  La. :  La.  St.  Univ.  Press,  1950.  186  p. 
Explains  South  to  "outsiders"  and  Southerners 
to  selves. 

Chalmers,  Allan  K.  They  Shall  Be  Free. 
Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1951. 
255  p.  Story  of  Scottsboro  Case  told  by  chair- 
man of  Scottsboro  Defense  Comm. 

Cohn,  David  L.  Where  I  Was  Born  and 
Raised.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1948. 
365  p.  Discussion  of  segregation  in  South. 

Compilation  of  Laws  against  Discrimination 
Because  of  Race,  Creed,  Color  or  National 
Origin.  A  reference  manual.  New  York  :  State 
of  N.Y.,-  Exec.  Dept.,  State  Commission 
against  Discrimination,  1948.  172  p.  Covers  all 
Federal  and  state  constitutional  and  statutory 
enactments  throughout  U.S.,  as  well  as  excerpts 
from  other  lands,  relating  to  discrimination. 

Conrad,  Earl.  Jim  Crow  America.  New 
York:  Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce,  1947.  237  p. 
Report  on  real  life  of  Negro  American. 

*Cooper,  Alyin  C.  Stroke  of  Midnight.  No.  2 
of  Counterpoise  Series.  Nashville,  Tenn. : 
Hemphill  Press,  distributed  by  Mills  Book- 
store, 408  Union  St.,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Spring 
1949.  18  p.  Awareness  of  continuing  spiritual 
dilemmas  of  man. 

*Cox,  Oliver  C.  Caste,  Class  and  Race. 
Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1948. 
624  p.  Examination  of  problems  springing 
from  caste,  class,  race.  Received  1948  George 
Washington  Carver  award  by  Doubleday  & 
Co.  for  outstanding  book  by  or  about  Negroes 
jn  U.S. 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


401 


Debnam,  W.  E.  Weep  No  More,  My  Lady. 
Southerner  Answers  Mrs.  Roosevelt's  Report 
on  the  "Poor  and  Unhappy"  South.  Raleigh, 
N.C. :  Graphic  Press,  1950.  60  p.  Enlargement 
of  two  broadcasts  over  Smith-Douglass  net- 
work in  answer  to  comments  on  South  by  Mrs. 
Eleanor  Roosevelt  in  her  column,  "My  Day." 

Dingwall,  Eric  J.  Racial  Pride  and  "Preju- 
dice. London :  Watts  &  Co.,  S  &  6  Johnson's 
Court,  Fleet  St.,  E.G.  4,  1946.  246  p.  Study  of 
races  from  anthropological  and  psychological 
point  of  view. 

Dollard,  John.  Caste  and  Class  in  a  Southern 
Town.  New  York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1949. 
502  p.  Social-psychological  study  of  conditions 
of  Negro  in  South. 

Embree,  Edwin  R.  Peoples  of  the  Earth. 
New  York  &  Philadelphia :  Hinds,  Hayden  & 
Eldredge,  1948.  73  p.  How  men,  starting  as 
one  family,  slowly  wandered  to  all  parts  of 
earth,  lived  as  separate  tribes  and  races  for 
thousands  of  years,  building  many  civilizations  ; 
how  all  men  are  now  pressed  back  together 
again  in  one  closely  dependent  family  in  one 
closely  connected  world. 

Fairchild,  Henry  P.  Race  and  Nationality  as 
Factors  in  American  Life.  New  York  :  Ronald 
Press  Co.,  1947.  216  p.  Fundamentals  of  race 
problem,  with  world  origins  as  background 
and  particular  emphasis  on  effects  on  American 
way  of  life. 

Fineberg,  S.  Andhil.  Punishment  without 
Crime.  Garden  City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co., 
1949.  337  p.  Problems  of  racial  and  religious 
intolerance  in  America,  with  graphic  examples 
of  most  effective  ways  to  deal  with  them. 

Fprster,  Arnold.  A  Measure  of  Freedom. 
Anti-Defamation  League  Report.  Garden  City, 
N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  256  p.  Documented 
report  of  discrimination  in  U.S.  today. 

Frank,  John  P.  Mr.  Justice  Black.  The  Man 
and  His  Opinions.  New  York :  Alfred  A. 
Knopf,  1949.  357  p.  How  affiliation  with  Ku 
Klux  Klan  nearly  ruined  distinguished  career. 

*Gholson,  Edward.  The  Negro  Looks  into 
the  South.  Boston :  Chapman  &  Grimes,  1947. 
115  p.  Life  of  Negro  in  South,  his  handicaps, 
opportunities,  possibilities,  his  attitude  toward 
them. 

Goldstein,  Naomi  F.  The  Roots  of  Prejudice 
against  the  Negro  in  the  United  States.  Boston  : 
Boston  Univ.  Press,  1948.  213  p.  Important 
contribution  to  literature  on  race  prejudice 
from  psychological,  historical,  sociological 
viewpoints. 

*Hill,  Arthur  C,  and  *Miller,  J.  W.  From 
Yesterday  thru  Tomorrow.  New  York :  Van- 
tage Press,  1951.  143  p.  From  beginnings  of 
African  slave  trade  to  discriminatory  practices 
against  Negroes  today. 

*  Hughes,  Langston.  Simple  Speaks  His 
Mind.  New  York:  Simon  &  Schuster,  1950. 
231  p.  Stories  derived  largely  from  actual 
conversations  heard  in  bars  and  on  corners  of 
largest  urban  Negro  community  in  world,  re- 
flecting not  Harlem  of  intellectual  and  pro- 
fessional, but  of  ordinary  man  in  street. 

Jacobson,  David  J.  The  Affairs  of  Dame 
Rumor.  New  York,  Toronto :  Rinehart  &  Co., 
1948.  492  p.  Why  rumors  are  barometer  of 
human  hopes,  fears,  frustrations ;  why  they 
are  more  indicative  of  public  opinion  than  polls 
and  surveys. 


Kardiner,  Abram,  and  Oversey,  Lionel.  The 
Mark  of  Oppression.  New  York :  W.  W.  Nor- 
ton &  Co.,  1951.  396  p.  How  pressures  of  caste 
have  left  psychological  imprint  on  Negro. 

Kennedy,  Stetson.  Southern  Exposure.  Gar- 
den City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1946.  372  p. 
Problem  of  South  and  historical  roots  of  its 
evils ;  southern-style  fascist  elements  subvert- 
ing democracy ;  reveals  region  ripe  for  democ- 
racy and  total  equality  between  races  can  be 
achieved. 

Kilpatrick,  William  H.,  and  Van  Til,  Wil- 
liam. Intercultural  Attitudes  in  the  Making. 
Parents,  Youth  Leaders  and  Teachers  at  Work. 
New  York  &  London :  Harper  &  Bros.,  1947. 
246  p.  Sources  of  antagonism  and  how  they 
have  been  successfully  dealt  with  in  scores  of 
typical  cases. 

Klineberg,  Otto.  Race  and  Psychology. 
Unesco  Publication  892.  New  York :  Columbia 
Univ.  Press,  1951.  40  p.  Showing  how  psycho- 
logical tests  cannot  be  relied  on  to  settle  ques- 
tion of  superior  and  inferior  races  because 
these  instruments  are  not  perfect  for  measure- 
ment of  native  or  innate  differences  in  ability 
or  intelligence. 

LaFarge,  John  S.  J.  No  Postponement.  U.S. 
Moral  Leadership  the  Problem  of  Racial 
Minorities.  New  York  &  Toronto :  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  1950.  246  p.  Nature  and  history 
of  our  minority  problems ;  offers  religion  as 
solution. 

Lewis,  Helen  M.  The  Woman  Movement 
and  the  Negro  Movement — Parallel  Struggles 
for  Rights.  Publications  of  Univ.  of  Va., 
Phelps-Stokes  Fellowship  Papers,  No.  XIX, 
1949.  89  p.  Similarities  and  interrelations  in 
status  and  history  of  Negro  problem  and 
women's  problem. 

Link,  Henry  C.  The  Rediscovery  of  Morals. 
With  Special  Reference  to  Race  and  Class 
Conflict.  New  York  :  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1947. 
223  p.  How  parents,  public  schools,  religious 
schools,  public  officials,  plain  men  and  women 
everywhere  can  accomplish  task  of  duplicating 
in  morals  what  we  have  done  in  physical 
science. 

Lohman,  Joseph  D.  The  Police  and  Minority 
Groups.  Manual  Prepared  for  Use  in  Chicago 
Park  District  Police  Training  School.  Chi- 
cago :  Chicago  Park  District,  Admin.  Bldg., 
Burnham  Park,  425  E.  Fourteenth  Blvd.,  1947. 
133  p.  Program  of  study  and  conference  in 
field  of  human  relations  by  supervisory  police 
personnel  of  Chicago  Park  District. 

Lumpkin,  Katharine  Du  Pre.  The  Making 
of  a  Southerner.  New  York :  Alfred  A.  Knopf, 
1947.  247  p.  One  person's  growth  in  midst  of 
conflicting  social  forces ;  document  on  prob- 
lems of  life  in  South. 

Maclver,  R.  M.  Discrimination  and  National 
Welfare.  Addresses  and  Discussions.  Published 
by  Inst.  for  Religious  &  Social  Studies.  New 
York  &  London  :  Harper  &  Bros.,  1949.  135  p. 
Segregated  areas,  housing  restrictions ;  dis- 
crimination in  education,  in  courts,  in  labor 
unions,  in  churches. 

Maloy,  Bernard  S.  A  Negro  Nation.  Boston  : 
Chapman  &  Grimes,  1947.  31  p.  Solution  to 
dangerously  strained  relations  between  Negro 
and  white  races. 

Mayer,  Edith  H.  Our  Negro  Brother.  New 
York  :  Shady  Hill  Press,  1948.  39  n. 


402 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


Miller,  Alexander  F.,  and  *Hill,  Mozell. 
Safety,  Security  and  the  South.  Atlanta,  Ga. : 
Southern  Regional  Council,  63  Auburn  Ave., 
N.W.,  1950.  28  p.  Facts  obtained  from  Negroes 
with  respect  to  safety  and  security  in  South 
today. 

Montagu,  Ashley.  Statement  on  Race.  Ex- 
tended Discussion  in  Plain  Language  of  the 
UNESCO  Statement  by  Experts  on  Race 
Problems.  New  York:  Henry  Schuman,  1951. 
172  p.  Myths  and  misconceptions  of  race  which 
have  bred  intolerance  and  caused  misery. 

Montgomery,  Leroy  J.  The  Negro  Problem. 
New  York :  Island  Press,  1950.  37  p.  Analysis 
of  causes  contributing  to  lack  of  integration. 

Moon,  Bucklin.  The  High  Cost  of  Prejudice. 
New  York :  Julian  Messner,  1947.  168  p. 
Fields  in  which  consequences  of  prejudice  make 
selves  felt. 

*Murray,  Florence.  The  Negro  Handbook, 
1946-1947.  New  York:  A.  A.  Wyn,  1947. 
392  p.  Manual  of  facts,  statistics,  general  in- 
formation concerning  Negroes  in  U.S.  The 
Negro  Handbook,  1949.  New  York:  Macmil- 
lan  Co.,  1949.  368  p. 

*Murray,  Pauli.  States'  Laws  on  Race  and 
Color.  Appendices  Containing  International 
Documents,  Federal  Laws  and  Regulations, 
Local  Ordinances  and  Charts.  Cincinnati, 
Ohio :  Woman's  Div.  of  Christian  Service, 
Board  of  Missions,  420  Plum  St.,  1951.  746  p. 
Guide  for  laymen  and  lawyers  interested  in 
laws  of  race  and  color  in  U.S. 

Murray,  William  H.  The  Negro's  Place  in 
the  Call  of  Race,  Tishomingo,  Okla. :  William 
H.  Murray,  1948.  107  p.  Social  mixture  and 
intermarriage  of  races. 

Neff,  Lawrence  W.  What  Next  for  the 
Negro  f  Emory  Univ.,  Ga. :  Banner  Press,  1948. 
69  p.  Analysis  of  racial  situation  in  U.S. 

O'Hanlon,  Mary  E.  The  Heresy  of  Race. 
River  Forest,  111.:  Rosary  College,  1950.  51  p. 
Race,  reason,  religion. 

*Ojike,  Mbonu.  /  Have  Two  Countries.  New 
York:  John  Day  Co.,  1947.  208  p.  Experiences 
of  native  African  who  studied  in  U.S. 

*Ottley,  Roi.  No  Green  Pastures.  New  York  : 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1951.  234  p.  Describes 
how  principal  European  nations  treat  Negro 
populations  and  colonial  possessions,  discusses 
attitude  and  prejudices  of  whites  and  lack  of 
opportunities  for  Negro  in  these  countries  to 
advance  himself. 

Park,  Robert  E.  Race  and  Culture.  Glencoe, 
111.:  Free  Press,  1950.  403  p.  Contributions  of 
late  Prof.  Park  to  sociological  study  of  race 
and  culture. 

Reynolds,  Quentin.  Courtroom.  Story  of 
Samuel  S.  Leibowitz.  New  York :  Farrar, 
Straus  &  Co.,  1950.  419  p.  America's  renowned 
criminal  lawyer,  trials  of  men  and  women  for 
whose  lives  he  battled,  including  Scottsboro 
Case. 

Rose,  Arnold  M.  The  Negro  in  America. 
New  York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1948.  325  p. 
Focuses  many  central  issues  revolving  around 
color  problem. 

Rose,  Arnold  M.  The  Negro  in  Postwar 
America.  Freedom  Pamphlet  Series.  New 
York  :  Anti-Defamation  League  of  B'nai  B'rith, 
212  Fifth  Avenue,  1950.  34  p.  Background  of 
problem,  recent  developments  in  Negro's  posi- 


tion, reactions  among  Negroes,  new  problems. 

Rose,  Arnold  M.  The  Negro's  Morale. 
Group  Identification  and  Protest.  Minneapolis  : 
Univ.  of  Minn.  Press ;  London :  Oxford  Univ. 
Press,  1949.  153  p.  How  Negroes  react  to 
discrimination,  how  reactions  affect  relations 
with  whites ;  how  they  feel  toward  other  Ne- 
groes and  toward  selves. 

Rose,  Arnold  M.  Race  Prejudice  and  Dis- 
crimination. Readings  in  Intergroup  Relations 
in  U.S.  ^Tew  York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1951. 
605  p.  Race  relations  in  U.S.  discussed ;  valu- 
able for  courses  on  Negro,  immigration,  social 
problems. 

Rose,  Arnold  M.  The  Roots  of  Prejudice. 
Unesco  Publication  865.  New  York  :  Columbia 
Univ.  Press,  1951.  44  p.  Consideration  of 
varied  sources  of  prejudice,  moving  from  more 
obvious  and  rational  causes  to  less  apparent 
and  unconscious  ones. 

Rose,  Arnold  M.,  and  Rose,  Caroline. 
America  Divided.  New  York :  Alfred  A. 
Knopf,  1948.  342  p.  Racial,  religious,  ethnic 
antagonisms  in  U.S.  today. 

Schermerhorn,  R.  A.  These  Our  People. 
Minorities  in  American  Culture.  Boston  :  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.,  1949.  635  p.  Social  and  cultural 
backgrounds  of  various  minorities  so  adjust- 
ment problems  can  be  understood  in  terms  of 
unique  historical  experiences  shared  by  mem- 
bers of  group. 

Smith,  Lillian.  Killers  of  the  Dream.  New 
York:  W.  W.  Norton  &  Co.,  1949.  256  p. 
Tangled  complex  of  sin,  sex,  segregation 
stifling  dream  of  freedom  on  which  western 
civilization  is  based. 

Soper,  Edmund  D.  Racism,  a  World  Issue. 
New  York  &  Nashville  :  Abingdon-Cokesbury 
Press,  1947.  304  p.  How  racism  has  developed 
and  extended  to  various  parts  of  world,  how  it 
has  affected  and  is  affecting  all  phases  of  life 
today. 

Sprigle,  Ray.  In  the  Land  of  Jim  Crow.  New 
York :  Simon  &  Schuster,  1949.  215  p.  Experi- 
ences of  newspaperman  who  lived  as  Negro  in 
South  and  didn't  like  it. 

Stewart,  Maxwell  S.  Prejudice  in  Text- 
books. Public  Affairs  Pamphlet  No.  160.  New 
York :  National  Conference  of  Christians  and 
Jews,  1950.  31  p.  Methods  and  techniques  in 
intergroup  education. 

Tannenbaum,  Frank.  Slave  and  Citizen.  New 
York  :  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1947.  128  p.  Examina- 
tion of  attitudes  toward  Negro  in  Americas. 

Tenenbaum,  Samuel.  Why  Men  Hate.  Jewish 
Book  Guild  of  America.  New  York :  Beech- 
hurst  Press,  1947.  368  p.  Mechanisms  and 
processes  by  which  hate  and  prejudice  are  en- 
gendered. 

Thompson,  Edgar  T.,  and  Thompson,  Alma 
M.  Race  and  Region.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ. 
of  N.C.  Press,  1949.  194  p.  Approximately 
2,000  book  and  periodical  titles  on  race  gen- 
erally and  white-Negro  relations  in  America  in 
particular. 

UNESCO  :  The  Race  Question.  New  York  : 
Columbia  Univ.  Press,  1951.  10  p.  One  of 
series  on  race  question.  Written  by  leading 
scientists,  each  brochure  attacks  problem  from 
different  point  of  view,  the  whole  making 
comprehensive  study  of  situation  as  it  exists  at 
present  and  what  can  and  should  be  done. 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


403 


Race  Relations 

Aptheker,  Herbert.  The  Negro  People  in 
America.  Critique  of  Gunnar  Myrdal's  "An 
American  Dilemma."  New  York :  Interna- 
tional Publishers,  1946.  80  p.  Critical  evalua- 
tion of  Negro  question  :  "Why  is  it  that  now,  so 
soon  after  the  victory  over  world  fascism,  the 
traditional  oppression  of  Negro  Americans 
takes  on  a  pattern  of  terror  so  characteristic  of 
Nazi  barbarism  ?" 

Atwood  J.  Howell.  The  Racial  Factor  in 
Y.M.C.A.'s.  Report  on  Negro- White  Relation- 
ships in  24  Cities,  Prepared  from  249  Original 
Interviews.  Published  under  auspices  of  Bureau 
of  Records,  Studies  and  Trends,  Nat'l  Board 
of  Y.M.C.A.'s,  New  York,  N.Y.  New  York: 
Association  Press,  1946.  194  p..  Individual 
status  of  local  experiments. 

Baruch,  Dorothy  W.  Glass  House  of  Preju- 
dice. New  York  :  William  Morrow  &  Co.,  1947. 
205  p.  Origins,  patterns,  results. 

Berry,  Brewton.  Race  Relations.  Interaction 
of  Ethnic  and  Racial  Groups.  Boston : 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1951.  487  p.  Author  has 
tried  to  avoid  assumption  that  race  problem  is 
essentially  one  of  Negro-white  relations  pecul- 
iar to  U.S.  With  free  use  of  certain  sociological 
concepts,  book  is  especially  designed  for  college 
students. 

Breuer,  Bessie.  The  Bracelet  of  Wavia  Lea 
and  Other  Short  Stories.  New  York :  William 
Sloane  Associates,  1947.  309  p.  Realities  of 
race  relations  revealed  in  series  of  short  stories. 

Brown,  Ina.  Race  Relations  in  a  Democ- 
racy. New  York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1949.  205 
p.  Problem  of  Negro-white  relations  in  U.S. ; 
history  of  Negro  origins  ;  race  relations  in  Cen- 
tral and  South  America ;  development  of  color 
antipathy  in  western  world. 

Bryson,  Lyman ;  Finkelstein,  Louis ;  and 
Maclyer,  R.  M.  Approaches  to  Group  Under- 
standing. Sixth  Symposium.  New  York :  Con- 
ference on  Science,  Philosophy  and  Religion  in 
Their  Relation  to  Democratic  Way  of  Life, 
distributed  by  Harper  &  Bros.,  New  York  & 
London,  1947.  858  p.  Analysis  of  group  under- 
standing for  solution  of  national  and  global 
conflict. 

*Coleman,  C.  C.  Patterns  of  Race  Relations 
in  the  South.  New  York :  Exposition  Press, 

1949.  44  p.  Captures  moral  and  emotional  tone 
of   interracial    attitudes    and   reveals    what   it 
feels  like  to  live  in  South  on  either  side  of 
color  line. 

Commission  for  Defense  of  Democracy 
through  Education.  True  Faith  and  Allegiance. 
Inquiry  into  Education  for  Human  Brother- 
hood and  Understanding.  Washington,  D.C. : 
Nat'l  Education  Ass.,  1201  Sixteenth  St., 
N.W.,  1950.  101  p. 

Count,  Earl  W.  This  is  Race.  Anthology 
Selected  from  International  Literature  on  the 
Races  of  Man.  New  York :  Henry  Schuman, 

1950.  747   p.   Representative   selections    from 
thinkers    who    in   last   200    years   have   made 
scientific  studies  of  race. 

Directory  of  Agencies  in  Intergroup  Rela- 
tions. National,  Regional,  State  and  Local, 
1948-1949.  Chicago :  American  Council  on 
Race  Relations,  4901  Ellis  Ave.,  1948.  205  p. 
Designed  as  means  whereby  policymakers,  ad- 
ministrators, technicians,  research  workers, 


students,  other  participants  may  obtain  better 
understanding  of  their  associates  and  what  they 
are  attempting  to  do. 

Gallagher,  Buell  G.  Portrait  of  a  Pilgrim. 
Search  for  the  Christian  Way  in  Race  Rela- 
tions. New  York:  Friendship  Press,  1946.  184 
p.  O'Hara's  courage  and  pilgrimage  of  discov- 
ery, and  his  family. 

Gillard,  John  T.  The  Negro  American.  Cin- 
cinnati :  Catholic  Students'  Mission  Crusade, 
1948.  95  p.  Investigation  of  progress  of  Ameri- 
can Negro  by  Catholic  study  group. 

*Haywood,  Harry.  Negro  Liberation.  New 
York:  International  Publishers,  1948.  245  p. 
Includes  critical  review  of  fundamental  trends 
in  Negro  liberation  movement  in  U.S.  during 
past  half-century. 

*  Johnson, '  Charles  S.,  and  Associates.  Into 
the  Main  Stream.  Survey  of  Best  Practices 
in  Race  Relations  in  the  South.  Chapel  Hill, 
N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C.  Press,  1947.  355  p.  Re- 
ports of  actual  cases  of  improved  conditions  in 
citizenship,  health,  education,  politics,  employ- 
ment, recreation,  housing,  public  relations. 

Maclver,  R.  M.  Unity  and  Differences  in 
American  Life.  Published  by  Institute  for  Re-  , 
ligious  and  Social  Studies.  New  York  &  Lon- 
don :  Harper  &  Bros.,  1947.  168  p.  American 
leaders  outline  their  approaches  to  problem  of 
co-operation  and  fellowship  in  America  as 
unique,  democratic,  multi-group  society. 

*Nelson,  WiHiam  S.  The  Christian  Way  in 
Race  Relation.  New  York  &  London  :  Harper 
&  Bros.,  1948.  256  p.  13  views  of  how  Chris- 
tian practice  may  be  applied  to  race  relations. 

Race  Relations  in  Minnesota.  The  Negro 
Worker,  the  Negro  and  His  Home,  the  In- 
dian, the  Mexican.  Saint  Paul :  Governor's  In- 
terracial Commission,  1948.  278  p.  Report  of 
Governor  on  various  racial  and  religious  situ- 
ations which  may  affect  public  peace  in  Minne- 
sota during  postwar  years. 

Rutledge,  Archibald.  God's  Children.  111. 
with  photographs  by  Noble  Bretzman.  New 
York:  Bobbs-Merril  Co.,  1947.  159  p.  Tribute 
to  natural  ingenuity  of  Negroes. 

Sabiston,  Dorothy,  and  Hiller,  Margaret. 
Toward  Better  Race  Relations.  Dept.  of  Data 
and  Trends,  Nat'l  Board  of  YWCA.  New 
York  :  Woman's  Press,  1949.  190  p.  Interracial 
practices  in  community  YWCA's  and  what 
they  ought  to  be. 

Smith,  Edward  S.  Selected  Segregation. 
Boston :  Christopher  Publishing  House,  1950. 
178  p.  Suggestions  for  combating  racial  hate 
and  prejudice. 

Stokes,  Anson  P.,  and  Others.  Negro  Status 
and  Race  Relations  in  the  United  States  1911- 
1946.  The  Thirty-Five  Year  Report  of  the 
Phelps- Stokes  Fund.  New  York :  1948.  219  p. 
History  of  Fund's  work  during  past  35  years 
with  special  emphasis  on  its  work  during  the 
last  15  years. 

Van  Til,  William,  and  Others.  Democracy 
Demands  It.  A  Resource  Unit  for  Intercul- 
tural  Education  in  the  High  School.  New  York  : 
Harper  &  Bros.,  1950.  117  p.  Type  of  approach, 
getting  intercultural  units  started,  topics  for 
study,  evaluating  students'  attitudes  and  pro- 
gress, development  of  basic  learning  expe- 
riences. 

Watson,  Goodwin.  Action  for  Unity.  New 
York  &  London :  Harper  &  Bros.,  1947.  165  p. 


404 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


What  America  is  doing  to  push  back  racial  and 
religious  barriers. 

Wilkerson,  Yolanda  B.  Interracial  Programs 
of  Student  YWCA's.  New  York:  Woman's 
Press,  1948.  159  p.  Interracial  programs  of 
student  Christian  Associations. 

Reconstruction 

De  Forest,  John  W.  A  Union  Officer  in  the 
Reconstruction.  New  Haven,  Conn. :  Yale 
Univ.  Press,  1948.  211  p.  Historical  account 
of  experiences  during  Reconstruction. 

Jarrell,  Hampton  M.  Wade  Hampton  and 
the  Negro.  Columbia,  S.C. :  Univ.  of  S.C. 
Press,  1950.  209  p.  Revolution  and  counter- 
revolution in  S.C. ;  revolution  lifted  Negro  to 
political  supremacy  in  state  for  almost  decade ; 
counter-revolution  first  curbed  his  powers,  then 
eliminated  him  from  politics ;  cycle  began 
1865,  ended  1895. 

Woodward,  C.  Vann.  Reunion  and  Reaction, 
the  Compromise  of  1877  and  the  End  of  Re- 
construction. Boston :  Little,  Brown  &  Co., 
1951.  263  p.  Political  aftermath  of  Civil  War. 

Religion  and  the  Church 

Barclay,  Wade  C.  Early  American  Method- 
ism 1769-1844.  2  Vols.  Vol.  One :  Missionary 
Motivation  and  Expansion.  New  York :  Board 
of  Missions  and  Church  Extension  of  Meth- 
odist Church,  1949.  449  p.  Exploration  of  rec- 
ords of  past,  journals,  autobiographies,  re- 
gional histories,  unpublished  memoirs. 

Crum,  Mason.  The  Negro  in  the  Methodist 
Church.  New  York :  Div.  of  Education  &  Cul- 
tivation, Bd.  of  Missions  &  Church  Extension, 
the  Methodist  Church,  1951.  125  p.  Includes 
account  of  Negro  in  Methodist  Church  and  his 
contribution  to  American  culture. 

Harte,  Thomas  J.  Catholic  Organizations 
Promoting  Negro-White  Race  Relations  in  the 
United  States.  Washington,  D.C. :  Catholic 
Univ.  of  America  Press,  1947.  173  p.  Efforts 
of  some  voluntary  Catholic  organizations  to 
win  religious,  political,  economic,  social  rights 
to  which  Negro  is  entitled. 

Ketcham,  George  F.  Yearbook  of  American 
Churches.  Twentieth  Issue.  Biennial.  1951  ed. 
New  York :  Dept.  of  Publication  &  Distribu- 
tion of  Nat'l  Council  of  Churches  of  Christ  in 
U.S.A.,  1951.  272  p.  Directories;  statistics  on 
membership,  finances,  etc. ;  including  Negro 
denominations  in  U.S. 

Loescher,  Frank  S.  The  Protestant  Church 
and  the  Negro.  A  Pattern  of  Segregation.  New 
York:  Association  Press,  1948.  159  p.  Interra- 
cial principles,  practices,  policies  of  Protestant 
churches  in  America. 

*Mays,  Benjamin  E.  A  Gospel  for  the  So- 
cial Awakening.  New  York :  Association 
Press,  1950.  187  p.  Relevance  of  Rauschen- 
bushch  writings  for  today ;  includes  selected 
passages  from  his  books. 

*Nichols,  Kay  B.  Know  Your  Church.  Nash- 
ville, Tenn. :  A.M.E.  Sunday  School  Union, 
414  Eighth  Ave.,  1951.  237  p.  Place  of  African 
Methodism  in  history  of  Christian  Church ; 
how  born  in  response  to  need  for  spiritual 
leadership  and  racial  solidarity  of  Negro. 

*Pipes,  William  H.  Say  Amen,  Brother! 
Old-Time  Negro  Preaching :  A  Study  in  Amer- 
ican Frustration.  New  York :  William-Freder- 
ick Press,  1951.  210  p.  Analysis  of  religious 


practices  and  beliefs  among  southern  Negroes 
as  indication  of  a  weakness  of  American  de- 
mocracy. 

*Polk,  Alma  A.  Helping  Children  and  Young 
People  Understand  the  Bible.  Nashville,  Tenn. : 
A.M.E.  Sunday  School  Union,  414  Eighth  Ave., 
1951.  29  p.  Methods  making  Bible  interesting 
to  boys  and  girls  during  the  important  forma- 
tive years. 

*Polk,  Alma  A.  Let's  Sing.  Pittsburgh,  Pa. : 
Young  People's  Dept.,  Book-Nook,  3103 
Centre  Ave.,  1951.  99  p.  Pocket-size  song  book 
useful  in  gatherings  small  and  large.  Local 
churches,  districts,  conferences  will  find  it  use- 
ful, expressing  highest  aspirations  of  Christian 
faith. 

*Polk,  Alma  A.  Twelve  Pioneer  Women  in 
the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Vol. 
II.  Nashville,  Tenn.:  A.M.E.  Suitday  School 
Union,  414  Eighth  Ave.,  1951.  40  p.  Glimpse 
into  lives  of  pioneers  in  A.M.E.  Church,  espe- 
cially Women's  Missionary  Soc. 

*Polk,  Alma  A.  Young  Adults  and  the 
Church.  Nashville,  Tenn. :  A.M.E.  Sunday 
School  Union,  414  Eighth  Ave.,  1951.  28  p. 
Includes  survey  of  needs  of  young  adults  and 
how  Church  can  co-operate  in  administering 
to  them. 

*Powell,  A.  Clayton,  Sr.  Upon  This  Rock. 
New  York :  Abyssinian  Baptist  Church, 
printed  by  Theo.  Gaus'  Sons,  1949.  132  p.  His- 
tory of  Abyssinian  Baptist  Church  in  New 
York. 

Reynolds,  Edward  D.  Jesuits  for  the  Negro. 
New  York :  American  Press,  1949.  232  p.  Part 
this  Catholic  Order  has  played  in  religious 
care  and  education  of  Negroes  in  Africa,  Ja- 
maica, U.S. 

*Richardson,  Harry  V.  Dark  Glory.  The 
Church  Among  Negroes  in  the  Rural  South. 
Published  for  Home  Missions  Council  of  North 
America  and  Phelps- Stokes  Fund.  New  York : 
Friendship  Press,  1947.  209  p.  Shows  what 
American  Protestantism  is  and  is  not  doing, 
what  it  needs  to  do. 

*Thurman,  Howard.  Deep  is  the  Hunger. 
New  York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1951.  212  p. 
Aspects  of  thought,  life,  religious  experience, 
as  encountered  in  daily  living. 

*Thurman,  Howard.  Jesus  and  the  Disin- 
herited. New  York  &  Nashville:  Abingdon- 
Cokesbury  Press,  1949.  112  p.  What  teachings 
of  Jesus  have  to  do  with  problems  of  racial 
discrimination. 

Wentzel,  Fred  D.  Epistle  to  White  Chris- 
tians. Philadelphia  &  St.  Louis  :  Christian  Edu- 
cation Press,  1948.  96  p.  Proposes  simple  fun- 
damental remedy  for  "race  problem." 

*Wright,  Bishop  R.  R.,  Jr.,  and  Others.  The 
Encyclopaedia  of  the  African  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.  Second  ed.  Philadelphia:  Book 
Concern  of  the  A.M.E.  Church,  1947.  688  p. 
Biographies  of  ministers  and  laymen  whose 
labors  during  160  years  helped  make  A.M.E. 
Church  what  it  is ;  historical  sketches  of  an- 
nual conferences,  educational  institutions,  gen- 
eral departments,  missionary  societies  ;  general 
information. 

Slavery 

Brink,  Carol.  Harps  in  the  Wind.  Story  of 
the  Singing  Hutchinsons.  New  York :  Mac- 
millan  Co.,  1947.  312  p.  Hutchinsons  sang  for 


RELATING  TO  THE  U.S. 


405 


abolition,   woman  suffrage,  temperance,   free- 
soil  settlement  during  19th  century. 

Butler,  Pierce.  The  Unhurried  Years. 
Memories  of  the  Old  Natchez  Region.  Baton 
Rouge,  La.:  State  Univ.  Press,  1948.  198  p. 
Records  reveal  complex,  almost  self-sufficient, 
economy  of  typical  Deep  South  plantation.  Let- 
ters and  diaries  picture  gracious  living  planter 
families  once  knew. 

Dick,  Everett.  The  Dixie  Frontier.  New 
York :  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1948.  374  p.  Pioneer 
life  of  southern  frontier  down  to  Civil  War. 

Drake,  Thomas  E.  Quakers  and  Slavery  in 
America.  New  Haven,  Conn. :  Yale  Univ. 
Press,  1950.  245  p.  Steps  taken  by  Quakers  to 
abolish  slavery  in  U.S.  in  19th  century. 

Gaston-Martin.  L' Abolition  de  I'esclavage 
(27  avril  1848).  Paris,  France:  Presses  Uni- 
versitaires  de  France,  108,  Boulevard  Saint- 
Germain,  1948.  64  p. 

Gysin,  Brion.  To  Master — A  Long  Good- 
night. New  York:  Creative  Age  Press,  1947. 
276  p.  Relationship  between  slave  and  master. 

Hogan,  William  R.,  and  Davis,  Edwin  A. 
William  Johnson's  Natchez.  Ante-Bellum 
Diary  of  a  Free  Negro.  Baton  Rouge,  La. : 
State  Univ.  Press,  1951.  812  p.  Begins  fall 
1835,  ends  1851 ;  every  phase  of  life  in  Natchez 
from  own  modest  business  transactions  to  so- 
ciety wedding. 

Hopkins,  Vincent  C.  Dred  Scott's  Case.  New 
York :  Fordham  Univ.,  Declan  X.  McMullen 
Co.,  1951.  204  p.  Objective  presentation,  with 
characterization  of  personalities  involved,  from 
first  transfer  of  Dred  Scott  as  slave  to  Lincoln- 
Douglas  Debates. 

Jordan,  Weymouth  T.  Hugh  Davis  and  His 
Alabama  Plantation.  University,  Ala. :  Univ. 
of  Ala.  Press,  1948.  177  p.  Relationships  of 
master,  overseer,  slaves ;  development  of  plan- 
tation ;  method  of  farming ;  whole  economic 
and  social  system  of  area. 

*Kennedy,  Melvin  D.  Lafayette  and  Slavery. 
From  His  Letters  to  Thomas  Clarkson  and 
Granville  Sharp.  Publication  No.  4.  Easton, 
Pa. :  American  Friends  of  Lafayette,  1950.  44 
p.  Lafayette's  attitude  toward  slave  trade  and 
slavery  and  potentialities  of  Negroes  in  free- 
dom. 

Nichols,  Roy  F.  The  Disruption  of  American 
Democracy.  New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1948. 
612  p.  History  of  political  crisis  that  led  to 
Civil  War. 

Nye,  Russell  B.  Fettered  Freedom,  Civil  Lib- 
erties and  the  Slavery  Controversy,  1830-1860. 
East  Lansing,  Mich. :  Mich.  St.  Col.  Press, 
1949.  273  p.  Analyzes  abolition  argument. 

Owsley,  Frank  L.  Plain  Folk  of  the  Old 
South.  Baton  Rouge,  La. :  La.  St.  Univ.  Press, 
1949.  235  p.  Social  structure  of  ante-bellum 
southern  life. 

Smith,  Abbot  E.  Colonists  in  Bondage: 
White  Servitude  and  Convict  Labor  in  Amer- 
ica, 1607-1776.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of 
N.C.  Press,  1947.  435  p.  Account  of  migration 
of  thousands  of  unfortunates  from  England 
and  continent  to  English  colonies. 

Sydnor,  Charles  S.  The  Development  of 
Southern  Sectionalism  1819-48.  Baton  Rouge, 
La. :  La.  St.  Univ.  Press,  1948.  400  rj.  Extreme 
self-consciousness  of  its  people,  their  sense  of 
being  part  of  U.S.  and  yet  separate  group 
within  it. 


Social  Conditions 

Bacmeister,  Rhoda  W.  Growing  Together. 
New  York :  Appletpn-Century-Crofts,  1947. 
Helping  growing  children  learn  about  selves 
and  world  in  which  they  live. 

Buck,  Pearl  S.  American  Argument,  with 
*Eslanda  Goode  Robeson.  New  York :  John 
Day  Co.,  1949.  206  p.  Discussion  of  marriage, 
education,  organization  of  home  and  career, 
woman's  place  in  local  and  national  com- 
munity, politics,  government,  hopes  of  world. 

Caldwell,  Robert  G.  Red  Hannah,  Delaware's 
Whipping  Post.  Philadelphia  :  Univ.  of  Penna. 
Press ;  London :  Oxford  Univ.  Press,  1947. 
144  p.  Delaware's  continued  use  of  whipping 
post  told  against  background  of  historical  in- 
cident and  sociological  fact. 

Chittick,  V.  L.  O.,  and  Others.  Northwest 
Harvest.  New  York :  Macmillan  Co.,  1948. 
226  p.  Regional  study  of  social  and  economic 
conditions  with  implications  of  importance  and 
significance  for  all  parts  of  country. 

Davie,  Maurice  R.  Negroes  in  American  So- 
ciety. New  York,  Toronto,  London :  Whittle- 
sey  House,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  1949.  542 
p.  The  Negro  from  Africa,  through  slavery,  to 
present  position  in  American  society. 

*Davis,  W.  Allison,  and  Havighurst,  Robert 
J.  Father  of  the  Man.  How  Your  Child  Gets 
His  Personality.  Boston  :  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
1947.  245  p.  Traces  winding  paths  by  which 
children  grow  into  human  beings. 

Dublin,  Louis  I.  The  American  Population 
Profile.  "New  York  Herald  Tribune"  Forum, 
1950.  10  p.  Address  by  second  vice-president 
and  statistician  of  Metropolitan  Life  Ins.  Co. 

Ernst,  Morris  L.  So  Far  So  Good.  New 
York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1948.  271  p.  Tolerance, 
civil  liberties,  planned  parenthood,  taxes, 
"escrow  plan"  for  promoting  industrial  peace, 
etc. 

*Frazier,  E.  Franklin.  The  Negro  Family  in 
the  United  States.  Revised  and  abridged  edi- 
tion. New  York:  Dryden  Press,  1948.  374  p. 
Evolution  of  the  Negro  family  in  its  American 
setting. 

*Frazier,  E.  Franklin.  The  Negro  in  the 
United  States.  New  York :  Macmillan  Co., 
1949.  767  p.  Documented  account  of  Negro's 
record  in  America. 

Freedman,  Ronald.  Recent  Migration  to  Chi- 
cago. Chicago:  Univ.  of  Chicago  Press,  1950. 
222  p.  Analyzes  population,  differences  and 
characteristics  which  migrants  have  in  com- 
mon. 

Frost,  Olivia  P.;  Hart,  Rosalie  D. ;  and 
Magidoff,  Alexander.  Aspects  of  Negro  Life  in 
the  Borough  of  Queens,  New  York  City. 
Analysis  of  Population  Trends,  Employment 
Patterns  and  Opportunities,  Housing,  Health 
and  Recreation  for  the  Negro  Population.  New 
York :  Urban  League  of  Greater  New  York, 
204  W.  136  St.,  and  Jamaica  2,  Long  Island, 
Queensboro  Tuberculosis  and  Health  Ass., 
90-04  161  St.,  1947.  106  p. 

Hodges,  Margaret  B.  Social  Work  Year 
Book  1949.  Description  of  Organized  Activities 
in  Social  Work  and  in  Related  Fields.  Tenth 
issue.  New  York :  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 
1949.  714  p. 

Ivey,  John  E. ;  Demerath,  Nicholas  J. ;  and 
Breland,  Woodrow  W.  Building  Atlanta's 


406 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


Future.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C.  Press, 

1948.  305  p.  Constructive  study  of  Atlanta  as 
growing  city ;  information  of  past  to  be  inter- 
preted in  terms  of  current  affairs  and  probable 
action. 

Kinsey,  Alfred  C. ;  Pomeroy,  Wardell  B. ; 
and  Martin,  Clyde  E.  Sexual  Behavior  in  the 
Human  Male.  Philadelphia  &  London :  W.  B. 
Saunders  Co.,  1948.  804  p.  Social  implications 
of  sexual  habits  gathered  from  some  12,000 
confidential  and  scientifically  conducted  inter- 
views with  individuals  in  many  different  sta- 
tions of  life. 

Lait,  Jack,  and  Mortimer,  Lee.  Washington 
Confidential.  New  York :  Crown  Publishers, 
1951.  310  p.  Account  of  hidden  side  of  nation's 
capital  city ;  night  life,  sex,  sin,  crime. 

Larkins,  John  R.  A  Study  of  the  Adjustment 
of  Negro  Boys  Discharged  from  Morrison 
Training  School,  July  1,  1940— June  30,  1945. 
Info.  Bulletin  No.  8.  Raleigh,  N.C. :  N.C.  State 
Bd.  of  Public  Welfare,  Sept.  1947.  95  p. 
Adjustment  of  272  boys  exposed  to  training 
experiences  and  returned  to  society. 

Lee,  Alfred  McC.,  and  Lee,  Elizabeth  B. 
Social  Problems  in  America.  Source  Book. 
New  York:  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1949.  741  p. 
Includes  summaries  and  excerpts  from  ob- 
jective scientific  studies. 

Lewis,  Oscar.  On  the  Edge  of  the  Black 
Waxy.  Cultural  Survey  of  Bell  County,  Texas. 
Washington  Univ.  Studies,  New  Series,  Social 
and  Philosophical  Sciences,  No.  7.  St.  Louis, 
1948. "110  p.  Statistical  and  case  studies  that 
indicate  representativeness  of  area  and  show  its 
place  in  rural  America. 

Linton,  Ralph.  Most  of  the  World.  The 
Peoples  of  Africa,  Latin  America,  and  the  East 
Today.  New  York :  Columbia  Uniy.  Press, 

1949.  917  p.  History,  topography,  climate  of 
ten  general  areas  ;  describing  current  economic, 
social,  political,  cultural  conditions  in  the  less 
developed  countries  of  the  world. 

Maclver,  R.  M.  The  More  Perfect  Union. 
Program  for  the  Control  of  Inter-group  Dis- 
crimination in  the  United  States.  New  York: 
Macmillan  Co.,  1948.  311  p.  Probes  discrimina- 
tion between  groups  of  people  of  different 
origin,  color,  nationality. 

The  Negro  Child  and  Youth  in  the  American 
Social  Order.  The  Journal  of  Negro  Education. 
The  Yearbook  Number,  XIX,  Summer  1950. 
Part  1.  Status  of  the  Negro  Minority  in  the 
American  Social  Order.  Part  2.  Some  General 
Problems  and  Needs  of  Negro  Children  and 
Youth.  Part  3.  Improvement  of  the  Life  of 
Negro  Children  and  Youth  in  the  American 
Social  Order. 

Odum,  Howard  W.  The  Way  of  the  South. 
New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1947.  350  p.  How 
history  and  nature  have  combined  to  evolve 
special  regional  culture  and  special  frame  of 
mind  in  South. 

Roheim,  Geza,  and  Others.  Psychoanalysis 
and  the  Social  Sciences.  An  Annual.  Vol.  I. 
New  York :  International  Universities  Press, 
1947.  427  p.  Psychoanalytic  view  on  subjects 
ranging  from  anthropology  to  sociology. 

Sanders,  Wiley  B.  Juvenile  Courts  in  North 
Carolina.  Chapel  Hill,  N.C. :  Univ.  of  N.C. 
Press,  1948.  210  p.  Social  analysis  of  all 
children's  cases  officially  handled  by  juvenile 
courts  in  N.C.  during  two  consecutive  5-year 


periods ;  description  of  organization  and  pro- 
cedure of  State's  107  juvenile  courts. 

Social  Work  in  the  Current  Scene.  Selected 
papers,  76th  Annual  Meeting,  Nat'l  Conference 
of  Social  Work,  1949.  Published  for  Nat'l 
Conference  of  Social  Work.  New  York :  Co- 
lumbia Univ.  Press,  1950.  392  p. 

Social  Work  in  the  Current  Scene,  1950. 
Selected  papers,  77th  Annual  Meeting,  Nat'l 
Conference  of  Social  Work,  1950.  Published 
for  Nat'l  Conference  of  Social  Work.  New 
York:  Columbia  Univ.  Press,  1950.  389  p. 

Tallant,  Robert.  The  Romantic  New  Orlean- 
ians.  New  York:  E.  P.  Button  &  Co.,  1950. 
384  p.  New  Orleans  society,  local  customs, 
picturesque  personalities. 

*Wellington,  Joseph.  The  Glory  of  Woman- 
hood. New  York:  Exposition  Press,  1951. 
40  p.  Analysis  of  womanhood. 

Sports 

Durant,  John.  The  Dodgers.  New  York : 
Hastings  House,  1948.  154  p.  Baseball  in 
Brooklyn  from  Excelsiors  of  1854  to  present 
Dodgers.  Illustrated. 

*Henderson,  Edwin  B.  The  Negro  in  Sports. 
Washington,  D.C. :  Associated  Publishers, 
1949.  507  p.  Negroes,  professional  and  amateur, 
who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  all  man- 
ner of  sports. 

Hirshberg,  Al,  and  McKenney,  Joe.  Famous 
American  Athletes  of  Today.  Boston:  L.  C. 
Page  &  Co.,  1947.  382  p.  Careers  of  famous 
athletes. 

Lardner,  John.  White  Hopes  and  Other 
Tigers.  Philadelphia  &  New  York :  J.  B.  Lip- 
pincott  Co.,  1951.  190  p.  Heavyweight  boxing, 
1910  to  1930. 

Louis,  Joe.  How  to  Box.  Ed.  by  Edward  J. 
Mallory.  Philadelphia :  David  McKay  Co., 
1948.  64  p.  The  champion  sums  up  for  young 
America  what  he  learned  in  the  ring. 

Rice,  Harold.  Within  the  Ropes,  Champions 
in  Action.  New  York :  Stephen- Paul,  1946. 
194  p.  Blow-by-blow  account  of  heavyweight 
championship  bouts  from  18th  century  to  the 
present  time. 

BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 
RELATING  TO  AFRICA 

Art 

Griaule,  Marcel.  Folk  Art  of  Black  Africa. 
Translated  from  French  by  Michael  Heron. 
Paris  :  Edition  du  Chene ;  New  York :  Tudor 
Publishing  Co.,  1950.  126  p.  Arts  of  African 
Native. 

Hambly,  Wilfrid  D.  Clever  Hands  of  the 
African  Negro.  Washington,  D.C. :  Associated 
Publishers,  1945.  192  p.  What  author  saw  of 
African  handicraft  on  various  expeditions. 

Lem,  F.  H.  Sudanese  Sculpture.  Paris :  Arts 
et  Metiers  Graphiques,  1949.  110  p.  Collection 
and  study  of  African  Negro  art. 

Kjersmeier,  Carl.  African  Negro  Sculptures. 
New  York  :  Wittenborn,  Schultz.  87  p.  Includes 
most  typical  specimens  from  40  tribes. 

Underwood,  Leon.  Figures  in  Wood  and 
West  Africa.  London:  John  Tiranti  Ltd.,  72 
Charlotte  St.,  1947.  50  p.  West  African  art, 
background  of  ritual  and  ceremony  and  of 
abstract  art  of  today. 


RELATING  TO  AFRICA 


407 


Underwood,  Leon.  Masks  of  West  Africa. 
London  :  Alec  Tiranti  Ltd. ;  New  York  :  Trans- 
Atlantic  Arts,  1948.  49  p.  West  African  art, 
background  of  ritual  and  ceremony  and  of 
abstract  art  of  today. 

Warner,  Esther.  New  Song  in  a  Strange 
Land.  111.  by  Jo  Dendel.  Boston :  Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.,  1948.  302  p.  Adventures  of  artist 
on  west  coast  of  Africa. 

Wingert,  Paul  S.  The  Sculpture  of  Negro 
Africa.  New  York :  Columbia  Univ.  Press, 
1950.  96  p.  Forms,  meanings,  purposes,  espe- 
cially relationships  between  these  sculptures 
•and  institutions,  beliefs,  ideas  of  people  who 
created  them. 

Economic  Conditions 

Allan,  W.,  and  Others.  Land  Holding  and 
Land  Usage  among  the  Plateau  Tonga  of 
Mazabuka  District.  Rhodes-Livingstone  Papers 
No.  14.  Capetown,  London,  New  York:  Oxford 
Univ.  Press,  1948.  192  p.  Analysis  of  Tonga 
situation,  how  to  deal  with  15,000  subsistence 
cultivators  cropping  out  land  at  pace  which  will 
not  allow  slow  measures  of  reform. 

Allan,  William.  Studies  in  African  Land 
Usage  in  Northern  Rhodesia.  Capetown,  Lon- 
don, New  York :  Oxford  Univ.  Press,  1949. 
85  p.  Four  papers  estimating  land  carrying 
capacities  for  human  populations  under  African 
conditions  and  systems  of  land  usage ;  applica- 
tion of  method  to  study  of  practical  problems. 

Batten,  T.  R.  Problems  of  African  Develop- 
ment. Part  1  :  Land  and  Labour.  London : 
Oxford  Univ.  Press,  1947.  178  p.  Survey  of 
problems  of  British  colonial  policy. 

Brelsford,  W.  V.  Fishermen  of  the  Bang- 
weulu  Swamps.  Study  of  the  Fishing  Activities 
of  the  Unga  Tribe.  Livingstone,  Northern 
Rhodesia :  Rhodes-Livingstone  Inst.,  1946. 
169  p. 

Mare,  W.  S.  African  Trade  Unions.  London, 
Capetown,  New  York :  Longmans,  Green  & 
Co.,  1949.  84  p.  Description  of  trade  unions 
throughout  Africa,  with  definitions  and  sug- 
gested objectives. 

Meek,  C.  K.  Land  Law  and  Custom  in  the 
Colonies.  London,  New  York,  Toronto  :  Oxford 
Univ.  Press,  1946.  337  p.  Tenure  of  agricul- 
tural lands  in  certain  selected  colonies  of  the 
British  Empire. 

Public  Relations  Dept.  of  Southern  Rhodesia. 
Southern  Rhodesia,  A  Field  for  Investment. 
New  York :  British  Info.  Services,  30  Rocke- 
feller Plaza,  1950.  59  p.  Opportunities  for 
investor  with  initiative  and  confidence  in  future 
of  Southern  Rhodesia. 

Talbot,  W.  J.  Swartland  and  Sandveld.  Sur- 
vey of  Land  Utilization  and  Soil  Erosion  in 
Western  Lowlands  of  the  Capetown  Area. 
Capetown,  London,  New  York :  Oxford  Univ. 
Press,  1947.  79  p.  Regional  surveys  of  re- 
sources, industries,  transport  facilities,  labor, 
etc. 

Fiction 

*Abrahams,  Peter.  The  Path  of  Thunder, 
New  York  &  London  :  Harper  and  Bros.,  1948. 
278  p.  Romance  of  Lanny,  colored,  and  Sarie, 
white,  who  live  in  South  Africa. 

*Abrahams,  Peter.  Wild  Conquest.  New 
York :  Harper  &  Bros.,  1950.  309  p.  Evocation 
of  pioneers  and  Natives  in  South  Africa  of 


century  ago.   Historical  novel  that  brings  to 
life   an   epic   that   parallels  the   conquest  of  . 
American  West. 

Courlander,  Harold,  and  Herzog,  George. 
The  Cow-Tail  Switch,  and  Other  West  African 
Stories.  New  York :  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1947. 
143  p.  Stories  revealing  many  customs  and 
ways  of  thought  of  West  African  people. 

Courlander,  Harold,  and  Leslau,  Wolf.  The 
Fire  on  the  Mountain,  and  Other  Ethiopian 
Stories.  New  York :  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1950. 
141  p.  Folk  literature  of  Ethiopia,  representing 
cross-current  of  cultures  ot  Middle  East, 
Africa,  and  West. 

Dryer,  Bernard  V.  Port  Afrique.  New  York : 
Harper  &  Bros.,  1949.  237  p.  Adventure,  love, 
terror,  violence  with  African  setting. 

Forester,  C.  S.  The  Sky  and  the  Forest. 
Boston:  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  1948.  313  p. 
Story  of  African  chieftain,  and  how  a  man 
who  was  a  god  exchanged  heavenly  omnipo- 
tence for  earthly  power,  accompanied  by  first 
intimations  of  human  love. 

Hambly,  Wilfrid  D.  Jamba.  Chicago :  Pelle- 
grini &  Cudahy,  1947.  246  p.  Ovimbundu's  life 
as  member  of  tribe  might  have  lived  it. 

Hertslet,  Jessie.  Bantu  Folk  Tales.  South 
Pasadena,  Calif. :  Messers  P.  D.  &  lone  Per- 
kins, 1948. 

Knight,  Brigid.  Southern  Cross.  Garden 
City,  N.Y.:  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1949.  305  p. 
South  African  family  from  Boer  War  to 
present. 

Lestrade,  G.  P.  Some  Kgatla  Animal  Sto- 
ries. Lovedale,  South  Africa :  Lovedale  Press, 
1948.  68  p.  Displays  written  Kgatla  in  all  its 
heterogeneity  and  diversity. 

Millin,  Sarah  G.  King  of  the  Bastards.  New 
York :  Harper  &  Bros.,  1949.  304  p.  Re-crea- 
tion of  almost  forgotten  figure  of  history  and 
legend,  Coenread  de  Buys,  lonely  rebel  all  his 
days  and  outcast  by  own  choice.  Through  union 
with  Hottentot  woman,  he  founded  whole  tribe 
and  witnessed  last  bloody  days  of  South  Afri- 
can Negro  civilization. 

Paton,  Alan.  Cry,  the  Beloved  Country.  New 
York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1948.  278  p. 
Zulu  parson's  search  for  only  son,  who  sets  out 
for  Johannesburg,  "the  city  of  evil." 

Prokosch,  Frederic.  Storm  and  Echo.  Garden 
City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1948.  274  p. 
Journey  into  Africa  and  strange  group  of  men 
who  pursued  phantoms  of  love,  power,  destiny 
into  forbidden  depths  of  continent. 

Rooke,  Daphne.  A  Grove  of  Fever  Trees. 
Boston :  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Cambridge, 
1950.  246  p.  Danny's  love  for  neighbor's  daugh- 
ter in  weird  English  settlement  on  African 
Thornveld. 

Rouch,  Jean  ;  Ponty,  Pierre ;  and  _  Sauvy, 
Jean.  Le  Petit  Dan,  Conte  African.  Paris :  Arts 
et  Metiers  Graphiques,  1948. 

Sachs,  Wulf.  Black  Anger.  Boston:  Little, 
Brown  &  Co.,  1947.  324  p.  African  medicine 
man  whose  experiences  and  inner  conflicts  are 
etched  against  background  of  two  worlds, 
white  and  black,  in  collision. 

Solem,  Elizabeth  K.,  and  Press,  E.  B.  Kana, 
Prince  of  Darkest  Africa.  From  film,  "A  Giant 
People — The  Watussi,"  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica  Films.  Chicago  &  New  York  :  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica  Press,  1947.  40  p.  Pictorial 
story  of  prince  in  his  native  environment. 


408 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


Stinetorf,  Louise  A.  White  Witch  Doctor. 
Philadelphia  :_  Westminister  Press,  1950.  276  p. 
Medical  missionary's  25  years  in  Congo. 

Williams,  Charles.  Shadows  of  Ecstasy. 
New  York :  Pellegrini  &  Cudahy,  1950.  260  p. 
Tells  of  mysterious  invasion  that  threatens 
Europe  from  Africa. 

Government 

Davidson,  J.  W.  The  Northern  Rhodesian 
Legislative  Council.  Vol.  3,  Studies  in  Colonial 
Legislatures.  Ed.  by  Margery  Perham.  Lon- 
don:  Faber  &  Faber,  24  Russell  Sq.,  1947. 
150  p.  Picture  of  settler  community  ambitious 
for  political  dominance. 

Drumbrell,  H.  J.  E.,  and  Hooper,  K.  E.  L. 
African  Participation  in  Government.  London, 
New  York,  Toronto :  Longmans,  Green  &  Co., 
1949.  139  p.  Analysis  of  government  in  Africa. 

Hadfield,  P.  Traits  of  Divine  Kingship  in 
Africa.  London :  Watts  &  Co.,  5  &  6  Johnson's 
Court,  Fleet  St.,  E.G.  4,  1949,  134  p.  Account 
of  ideas,  customs,  ceremonies  associated  with 
divine  kingship  in  Egypt  and  among  widely 
scattered  African  people. 

Lewin,  Julius.  Studies  in  African  Native 
Law.  Philadelphia :  Univ.  of  Penna.  Press, 
1947.  174  p.  Collection  of  essays  on  problems 
of  Native  law. 

Perham,  Margery.  The  Government  of 
Ethiopia.  London :  Faber  &  Faber,  24  Russell 
Sq.,  1948.  481  p.  Important  aspects  of  Eth- 
iopian state,  imperial  power,  justice,  church, 
army  finance,  provincial  administration,  etc.' 

Towards  Self -Government  in  the  British 
Colonies.  New  York :  British  Info.  Service,  30 
Rockefeller  Plaza,  1950.  59  p.  Nature  and 
extent  of  progress  by  dependent  territories  of 
British  Commonwealth. 

Wight,  Martin.  The  Development  of  the 
Legislative  Council  1606-1945.  Vol.  I :  Studies 
in  Colonial  Legislature.  Ed.  by  Margery  Per- 
ham. London :  Faber  &  Faber,  24  Russell  Sq., 
1946.  187  p.  Constitutional  development  and 
machinery  by  which  achieved  in  the  numerous 
and  diverse  units  of  the  colonial  empire, 

Liberia 

Buell,  Raymond  L.  Liberia:  A  Century  of 
Survival  1847-1947.  African  Handbooks:  7. 
Philadelphia:  Univ.  of  Penna.  Press,  1947. 
140  p.  Suggestions  for  improving  political 
conditions  in  Liberia. 

Harley,  George  W.  Notes  on  the  Poro  in 
Liberia.  Papers  of  Peabody  Museum  of  Ameri- 
can Archaeology  and  Ethnology,  Harvard 
Univ.  Vol.  XIX,  No.  2,  Cambridge,  Mass.  Pub- 
lished by  the  Museum,  1941.  XIV  Plates,  39  p. 
Description  of  tribal  initiation. 

Wilson,  Charles  M.  Liberia.  New  York : 
William  Sloane  Associates,  1947.  226  p.  How 
there  happens  to  be  a  Liberia  and  why  Liberia 
happens  to  cultivate  rubber. 

Nigeria 

*Awolowo,  Obafemi.  Path  to  Nigerian 
Freedom.  London  :  Faber  &  Faber,  1946.  137  p. 
Problems  of  Native  administrations,  Native 
courts,  local  councils,  appointment  and  removal 
of  Chiefs. 

*Chukwuemeka,  Nwankwo.  African  De- 
pendencies: a  Challenge  to  Western  Democ- 
racy. New  York:  William-Frederick  Press, 


1950.  207  p.  Nigerian  natural  resources,  indus- 
trial potentialities,  cultural  possibilities. 

Forde,  Prof.  Daryll,  and  Scott,  Dr.  Richenda. 
The  Native  Economies  of  Nigeria.  First  Vol- 
ume of  a  Study  of  the  Economies  of  a  Tropical 
Dependency.  Ed.  by  Margery  Perham.  London : 
Faber  &  Faber,  24  Russell  Sq.,  1946.  312  p. 

Miller,  Walter  R.  For  African  Only.  Lon- 
don :  Lutterworth  Press,  United  Soc.  for 
Christian  Literature,  1950.  80  p.  Letters  on 
present  position,  race  prejudice,  leadership, 
friendship,  sex,  graft,  bribery,  corruption, 
other  issues  in  Nigeria  today. 

Niven,  C.  R.  Nigeria,  Outline  of  a  Colony. 
Toronto  &  New  York :  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons, 

1945.  162  p.  Modern  life  and  conditions  against 
background  of  author's  experiences. 

Phillipson,  S.,  and  Holt,  W.  E.  Grants  in 
Aid  of  Education  in  Nigeria.  Lagos,  Nigeria : 
Government  Printer,  1949.  159  p.  Investiga- 
tion of  educational  grants-in-aid  policy. 

Race  Problem 

Farson,  Negley.  Last  Chance  in  Africa, 
New  York:  Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co.,  1950. 
381  p.  Illustrations  of  problems  which  every 
colony  in  Africa  must  now  try  to  solve. 

Flavin,  Martin.  Black  and  White.  From  the 
Cape  to  the  Congo.  111.  by  Paul  Whitman. 
New  York:  Harper  &  Bros.,  1950.  332  p. 
About  black  and  white  people  scattered  thinly 
across  Africa,  where  author's  imagination  was 
caught  by  spectacle  of  last  great  nation  being 
born. 

Kuper,  Hilda.  The  Uniform  of  Colour.  A 
Study  of  White-Black  Relationships  in  Swazi- 
land. Johannesburg,  Transvaal :  Witwatersrand 
Univ.  Press,  1947.  150  p.  Influence  of  western 
civilization  on  Swazi  of  Protectorate. 

Reeve,  Alan.  Africa,  I  Presume?  New  York  : 
Macmillan  Co.,  1948.  232  p.  19-week  flying 
trip  touching  many  of  continent's  problems, 
especially  relation  between  races. 

Shepherd,  H.  W.,  and  Paver,  B.  G.  African 
Contrasts.  New  York :  Oxford  Univ.  Press, 

1948.  266  p.  Bantu  study,  tribal  past,  mines, 
industry,  wage-earner,  law,  health,  education, 
hopes,    frustrations,   and   suppressed   political 
standing. 

Social  Conditions 

African  Challenge.  Story  of  the  British  in 
Tropical  Africa.  New  York :  British  Info. 
Services,  30  Rockefeller  Plaza,  revised  Oct. 

1946.  64  p.  Exploration  and  colonial  welfare 
of  tropical  Africa. 

African  Education  in  Kenya.  Report  of 
Committee  to  Inquire  into  Scope,  Content,  and 
Methods  of  African  Education,  its  Administra- 
tion and  Finance,  and  to  Make  Recommenda- 
tions. Nairobi,  Kenya :  Government  Printer, 

1949.  166  p. 

Annual   Report   on    Uganda  for   the    Year 

1947.  Colonial  Annual  Reports,   Colonial  Of- 
fice. London :  His  Majesty's  Stationery  Office, 
1949.   103  p.  Report  on  all  phases  of  life  in 
Uganda. 

Carrington,  J.  F.  Talking  Drums  of  Africa. 
London :  Carey  Kingsgate  Press,  6  Southamp- 
ton Row,  1949.  96  p.  Account  of  investigators 
of  drum  languages  of  Africa  and  author's  ex- 
perience of  drum  talking  in  Stanleyville  area 
of  Belgian  Congo. 


RELATING  TO  AFRICA 


409 


Coupland,  Sir  Reginald.  Livingstone's  Last 
Journey.  New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1947. 
271  p.  Last  journey  of  David  Livingstone, 
missionary,  explorer,  from  start  to  ending  in 
darkest  Africa. 

*DuBois,  W.  E.  Burghardt.  The  World  and 
Africa.  New  York :  Viking  Press,  1947.  275  p. 
Part  Africa  has  played  in  human  history,  past 
and  present ;  how  impossible  to  forget  this  and 
rightly  explain  present  plight  of  mankind. 

Griaule,  Marcel.  Dieu  d'eau,  entretiens  avec 
Ogotemmeli.  Photographies  prises  par  1'auteur. 
Paris  :  Editions  du  Chene,  1947.  263  p. 

Hagedorn,  Hermann.  Prophet  in  the  Wilder- 
ness. Story  of  Albert  Schweitzer.  New  York: 
Macmillan  Co.,  1947.  221  p.  His  growth  in 
Europe,  his  struggles  to  lift  burden  of  disease 
from  Natives  of  French  Equatorial  Africa. 

Hellmann,  Ellen.  Rooiyard.  Sociological 
Survey  of  an  Urban  Slum  Yard.  Rhodes-Liv- 
ingstone Papers,  No.  13.  Capetown:  Oxford 
Univ.  Press,  1948.  125  p.  Study  of  life  of 
Urban  Africans. 

Howells,  William.  The  Heathens.  Garden 
City,  N.Y. :  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1948.  306  p. 
Religion  in  primitive  societies  today,  including 
Ashanti. 

Introducing  the  Colonies.  London :  His 
Majesty's  Stationery  Office,  distributed  by 
British  Info.  Services,  30  Rockefeller  Plaza, 
New  York  20,  N.Y.,  1949.  87  p.  General  pic- 
ture of  British  colonies  and  problems  faced 
in  improving  life  of  their  people  and  helping 
them  toward  responsible  government. 

*Kambalame,  John ;  *Chidzalo,  E.  P. ;  and 
*Chadangalara,  J.  W.  M.  Our  African  Way  of 
Life.  Essays  Presented  Under  Prize  Scheme 
of  Internat'l  African  Inst.,  1943-44.  London  & 
Redhill :  United  Soc.  for  Christian  Literature, 
Lutterworth  Press,  1946.  152  p.  Matrilineal 
social  structure,  customs,  ceremonies. 

*Kayamba,  H.  Martin.  An  African  in  Eur- 
ope. London  &  Redhill :  United  Soc.  for 
Christian  Literature,  Lutterworth  Press,  1948. 
80  p.  Experiences  of  Native  abroad. 

Kuper,  Hilda.  An  African  Aristocracy.  Lon- 
don, New  York,  Toronto :  Oxford  Univ.  Press, 
published  for  Internat'l^  African  Inst.,  1947. 
251  p.  Social  organization  of  Swazi ;  special 
reference  to  aristocratic  structure  of  their 
society  _  and  way  in  which  birth  and  rank 
determine  social  relationship  and  activities. 

McCord,  James  B.,  with  Douglas,  John  S. 
My  Patients  Were  Zulus.  New  York,  Toronto  : 
Rinehart  &  Co.,  1951.  308  p.  Exciting  events 
of  author's  professional  life,  how  he  fought 
malaria,  scrofula,  tuberculosis,  and  on  oc- 
casion Natives. 

Northcott,  Cecil,  and  Reason,  Joyce.  Living 
Names :  Six  Missionaries  in  Africa.  London : 
Oxford  Univ.  Press,  1947.  69  p.  Robert  Mof- 
fat,  David  Livingstone,  James  Stewart,  Alex- 
ander MacKay,  Mary  Slessor,  Albert  Cook. 

*Onabamiro,  Sany  Dojo.  Why  Our  Children 
Die.  The  Causes,  and  Suggestions  for  Pre- 
vention of  Infant  Mortality  in  West  Africa. 
London :  Methuen  &  Co.,  36  Essex  St.,  Strand, 
W.C.  2,  1949.  196  p.  Traditional  African 
methods  of  treating  expectant  mothers ;  how 
conditions  of  ignorance  and  poverty  cause 
disease. 

Reyher,  Rebecca  H.  Zulu  Woman.  New 
York:  Columbia  Univ.  Press,  1948.  282  p. 


Story  of  Christina,  first  wife  of  Solomon,  King 
of  Zulus,  who  had  65  wives,  only  Zulu  to  de- 
mand and  receive  a  divorce. 

Schweitzer,  Albert.  On  the  Edge  of  the 
Primeval  Forest,  and  More  from  the  Primeval 
Forest.  New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1948. 
222  p.  Religious  and  medical  missionary  in 
French  Equatorial  Africa,  working  among 
Natives. 

Trowell,  Margaret.  Towards  the  New  Africa. 
Published  by  Uganda  Society,  private  bag, 
Kampala,  Uganda.  Lecture  Series  1946-47. 
46  p.  Objects,  achievements,  potentialities  of 
Uganda  Society. 

Vivian,  S.  Africa  Attacks  Poverty.  London, 
New  York,  Toronto :  Longmans,  Green  &  Co., 
1947.  85  p.  Four  Freedoms,  disease,  ignorance, 
economics,  industry,  soil,  better  government, 
personal  responsibility. 

Westermann,  Diedrich.  The  African  Today 
and  Tomorrow.  Third  ed.  London,  New  York, 
Toronto :  Internat'l  African  Inst.,  Oxford 
Univ.  Press,  1949.  174  p.  Surveys  African 
civilization,  considers  problems  rising  from 
impact  of  European  civilization  upon  African 
life. 

Wieschhoff,  H.  A.  Anthropological  Bibliog- 
raphy of  Negro  Africa.  American  Oriental 
Series,  Volume  23.  New  Haven,  Conn. :  Amer- 
ican Oriental  Soc.,  1948.  461  p.  Entries  under 
names  of  tribes  and  geographic  areas. 

South  Africa 

Aiyar,  P.  S.  Conflict  of  Races  in  South 
Africa.  Durban,  Natal:  African  Chronicle 
Printing  Works,  45  Agnes  Road.  251  p.  Cov- 
ers slavery,  government,  general  welfare  of 
races  in  South  Africa. 

Dundas,  Sir  Charles.  South  West  Africa. 
Capetown :  South  African  Inst.  of  Internat'l 
Affairs,  N.Y.  Publications  Office,  542  Fifth 
Ave.,  New  York  19,  N.Y.,  1946.  52  p.  Report 
of  historical,  political,  constitutional,  financial, 
economic  conditions. 

Eck,  H.  J.  Van.  Some  Aspects  of  the 
South  African  Industrial  Revolution.  Johan- 
nesburg, S.A. :  Inst.  of  Race  Relations,  P.O. 
Box  97,  1951.  27  p.  Industrial  development 
of  the  country. 

Franklin,  N.  N.  Economics  in  South  Africa. 
Capetown :  Oxford  Univ.  Press,  distributed 
by  Oxford  Univ.  Press,  114  Fifth  Ave.,  New 
York  11,  N.Y.,  1948.  253  p.  Present  economic 
situation,  problems  in  agriculture,  mining,  in- 
dustry, regional  planning,  skilled  and  unskilled 
labor. 

Genn,  M.  S.  The  Making  of  the  Union  of 
South  Africa.  Brief  History,  1487-1939.  Lon- 
don, New  York,  Toronto :  Longmans,  Green  & 
Co.,  1947.  Traces  uneven  development  from 
first  settlements  to  complex  civilization  of 
today. 

Gibbs,  Henry.  Twilight  in  South  Africa. 
New  York :  Philosophical  Library,  1950.  288 
p.  Discusses  Native  tuberculosis  death-rate, 
venereal  disease,  influence  of  Indian  traders, 
appalling  conditions  under  which  Natives  live, 
examines  the  Broederbond. 

Hoernle,  R.  F.  Alfred.  Race  and  Reason. 
Selection  of  Contributions  to  Race  Problem  in 
South  Africa.  Johannesburg,  Transvaal :  Wit- 
watersrand  Univ.  Press,  1945.  182  p.  Analysis 
of  problem  of  satisfactory  adjustment  of  re- 


410 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


latiqns  between  white  and  black  in  South 
Africa. 

Hoernle,  R.  F.  Alfred.  South  African  Na- 
tive Policy  and  the  Liberal  Spirit.  Phelps- 
Stokes  Lectures,  1939.  Johannesburg,  Trans- 
vaal: Witwatersrand  Univ.  Press,  1945.  190 
p.  A  point  of  view  toward  and  interpretation 
of  interracial  situation  in  South  Africa. 

Hopkin-Jenkin,  K.  Basic  Bantu.  Pieter- 
maritzburg,  Natal :  Shuter  &  Shooter,  1947. 
95  p.  Describes  basic  Bantu  as  product  of  in- 
teraction of  English  and  Afrikaans  with 
Nguni  languages. 

Lee,  A.  W.  Once  Dark  Country.  Recollec- 
tions and  Reflections  of  a  South  African 
Bishop.  London :  Soc.  for  Promoting  Chris- 
tian Knowledge,  1949.  202  p.  Discusses  prob- 
lems of  education  and  industrialism  aggra- 
vated by  conflict  of  color ;  incidents  and  char- 
acters of  his  early  days. 

MacCrone,  I.  D.  Group  Conflicts  and  Race 
Prejudice.  Johannesburg,  Transvaal :  South 
Africa  Inst.  of  Race  Relations,  1947.  31  p. 
Origin  and  meaning  of  race  prejudice. 

Official  Year  Book  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  and,  of  Basutoland,  Bechuanaland  Pro- 
tectorate and  Swaziland.  No.  24.  Union  Office 
of  Census  and  Statistics,  Union  of  South 
Africa.  Pretoria,  Transvaal :  Government 
Printer,  1948.  1358  p.  Statistical  information 
on  all  phases  of  life  in  South  Africa. 

Peattie,  Roderick.  Struggle  on  the  Veld. 
New  York :  Vanguard  Press,  1947.  264  p. 
Political,  social,  racial,  economic  problems  of 
South  Africa,  where  author  was  head  of  Of- 
fice of  War  Info,  activities. 

South  West  Africa  and  the  Union  of  South 
Africa.  History  of  a  Mandate.  New  York : 
Union  of  South  Africa  Govt.  Info.  Office,  500 
Fifth  Ave.,  1948(?).  108  p.  Former  German 
colony  of  South  West  Africa  whose  adminis- 
tration and  well-being  have  been  responsibil- 
ity of  the  Union  Government  for  the  past  31 
years. 

Tromp,  J.  Van.  Xhosa  Law  of  Persons. 
Treatise  on  the  Legal  Principles  of  Family 
Relations  among  the  Amaxhosa.  Capetown  and 
Johannesburg:  Juta  &  Co.  Mode  of  life,  so- 
cial institutions. 

Welsh,  A.  S.  The  Law  Relating  to  the  Na- 
tives in  Urban  Areas.  Second  edition.  Johan- 
nesburg, Transvaal :  City  of  Johannesburg, 
Non- European  Affairs  Dept.,  1946.  272  p. 
Consolidation  of  acts. 

Wetherell,  Violet.  The  Indian  Question  in 
South  Africa.  Capetown :  Unie-Volkspers 
Bpk.,  March  1946.  71  p.  How  the  Indians,  the 
Union's  smallest  racial  unit,  constitute  its 
thorniest  racial  problem. 

Wolton,  Douglass  G.  Whither  South 
Africa?  London :  Lawrence  &  Wishart,  1947. 
155  p.  Discusses  future  of  ten  million  colonial 
people  in  South  Africa. 

West  Africa 

African  Achievement.  New  York :  British 
Info.  Services,  30  Rockefeller  Plaza,  June 
1946.  20  p.  Achievement  of  Africans  in  Gam- 
bia, Sierra  Leone,  Gold  Coast,  Nigeria. 

Gary,  Joyce.  Britain  and  West  Africa.  Lon- 
don, New  York,  Toronto :  Longmans,  Green 
&  Co.,  1947.  79  p.  Analysis  of  British  colonial 
system  in  West  Africa. 


Gorer,  Geoffrey.  Africa  Dances.  Book 
About  West  African  Negroes.  London :  John 
Lehmann,  1949.  254  p.  Magic,  ballet,  colonial 
administration,  anthropology,  general  adven- 
ture. 

Introducing  West  Africa.  London :  His 
Majesty's  Stationery  Office,  1948.  85  p.  In- 
formation about  the  four  British  colonies  in 
West  Africa. 

Marvel,  Tom.  The  New  Congo.  New  York : 
Duell,  Sloan  &  Pearce,-1948.  395  p.  History, 
development,  modern  achievements,  plans  for 
future. 

Wight,  Martin.  The  Gold  Coast  Legislative 
Council.  Vol.  II :  Studies  in  Colonial  Legisla- 
tures. Edited  by  Margery  Perham.  London : 
Faber  &  Faber,  24  Russell  Sq.,  1947.  285  p. 
Views  on  Legislative  Council  in  British  colo- 
nial government. 

Wrong,  Margaret.  West  African  Journey. 
In  the  Interests  of  Literacy  and  Christian 
Literature,  1944-45.  London:  Edinburgh 
House  Press,  2  Eaton  Gate,  S.W.  1,  1946.  79 
p.  Travels  and  observations  in  study  of  rural 
education  needs. 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 

RELATING  TO  THE 

WEST  INDIES 


Art 

Rodman,  Selden.  Renaissance  in  Haiti.  New 
York :  Pellegrini  &  Cudahy,  1948.  43  plates, 
134  p.  Part  snapshpp  album,  part  contempo- 
rary history  of  Haitian  graphic  arts. 

Economic  Conditions 

Caribbean  Land  Tenure  Symposium.  Carib- 
bean Commission,  Comm.  on  Agriculture,  Nu- 
trition, Fisheries  &  Forestry  of  the  Carib- 
bean Research  Council,  Washington,  D.C., 
1946.  377  p.  Analysis  and  summary  of  Sym- 
posium. 

Havana  Charter  for  an  International  Trade 
Organization,  March  24,  1948.  Including  a 
Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  Charter.  Publica- 
tion 3206,  Commercial  Policy  Series  114. 
Washington,  D.C. :  U.  S.  Govt.  Print.  Off., 
1948.  155  p.  A  code  under  which  countries 
that  become  members  of  the  organization  will 
conduct  their  mutual,  commercial  relations. 

Mills,  C.  Wright ;  Senior,  Clarence ;  and 
Goldsen,  Rose  K.  The  Puerto  Rican  Journey. 
New  York's  Newest  Migrants.  New  York : 
Harper  &  Bros.,  1950.  238  p.  Study  of  as- 
similation of  Puerto  Ricans  in  U.S. 

Mission  to  Haiti.  Report  of  UN  Mission  of 
Technical  Assistance  to  Republic  of  Haiti. 
Lake  Success,  N.Y.,  distributed  by  .Columbia 
Univ.  Press,  2960  Broadway,  New  York  27, 
N.Y.,  July  1949.  327  p.  Haiti's  economic 
conditions  and  relevant  problems. 

Ortiz,  Fernando.  Cuban  Counterpoint.  To- 
bacco and  Sugar.  New  York :  Alfred  A. 
Knopf,  1947.  312  p.  Economic  aspects  of  two 
important  crops,  their  effects  on  folklore,  art, 
science,  industry,  daily  living. 

Perloff,  Harvey  S.  Puerto  Rico's  Economic 
Future.  Study  in  Planned  Development.  Chi- 
cago:  Univ.  of  Chicago  Press,  1950.  435  p. 


RELATING  TO  THE  WEST  INDIES 


411 


Analysis  of  economic  and  developmental  prob- 
lems. 

Report  of  the  Director-General,  Fourth  Con- 
ference of  American  States  Members  of  the 
International  Labour  Organisation,  Montevi- 
deo, April  1949.  Geneva:  International  La- 
bour Office,  1949.  143  p.  Principal  events 
which  occurred  on  continent  in  social  mat- 
ters and  labor  legislation. 

Rotkin,  Charles  E.,  and  Richardson,  Lewis 
C.  Puerto  Rico,  Caribbean  Crossroads.  Pro- 
duced under  sponsorship  of  Bd.  of  Publica- 
tions, Univ.  of  Puerto  Rico.  New  York :  U.S. 
Camera  Publishing  Corp.,  1947.  144  p.  Its 
place  in  western  world  and  mileage  to  lead- 
ing cities. 

Senior,  Clarence.  The  Puerto  Rican  Mi- 
grant in  St.  Croix.  Rio  Piedras,  Puerto  Rico : 
Univ.  of  Puerto  Rico,  Social  Science  Research 
Center,  May  1947.  41  p.  Process  of  Puerto 
Rican  migration  and  problems  arising  from  it. 

Tugwell,  Rexford  G.  The  Stricken  Land. 
Story  of  Puerto  Rico.  Garden  City,  N.Y. : 
Doubleday  &  Co.,  1947.  704  p.  Summing  up  of 
administration  and  liberal  forces  struggling 
for  more  equitable  life  against  familiar  pat- 
tern of  reaction. 

Fiction 

Bottome,  Phyllis.  Under  the  Skin.  New 
York:  Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co.,  1950.  311  p. 
Violence  and  love  in  West  Indies. 

Bourne,  Peter.  Drums  of  Destiny.  New 
York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1947.  570  p. 
Two  men  and  women  who  shaped  and  shared 
their  lives  during  rise  and  fall  of  Negro  em- 
pire of  Haiti. 

Brown,  Wenzell.  Dark  Drums.  New  York : 
Appleton-Century-Crofts,  1950.  371  p.  Vio- 
lence, intrigue,  strange  cults  of  colonial  Ja- 
maica. 

*Marcelin,  Philippe  T.  and  Pierre.  The 
Beast  of  the  Haitian  Hills.  Tr.  from  the 
French,  "La  bete  du  Mnsseau"  by  Peter  C. 
Rhodes.  New  York  &  Toronto :  Rinehart  & 
Co.,  1946.  210  p.  City  man  who  went  to 
country  to  live,  did  not  believe  old  legends  and 
superstitions,  to  prove  point  cut  down  tree  at 
whose  foot  sacrifices  to  local  gods  had  always 
been  left. 

*Marcelin,  Philippe  T.  and  Pierre.  The 
Pencil  of  God.  Boston :  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
1951.  204  p.  How  and  why  Haitians  practice 
voodoo. 

Mason,  Richard.  The  Shadow  and  the  Peak. 
New  York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1950.  298  p.  Un- 
happily married  young  man  flees  from  Lon- 
don to  become  teacher  in  Jamaica,  where  ro- 
mance, jealousy,  petty  feuds  of  staff  add  to 
his  suffering  but  strengthen  his  character. 

Murray,  Max.  The  Neat  Little  Corpse.  New 
York:  Farrar,  Straus  &  Co.,  1950.  240  p. 
High-jinks  in  Jamaica. 

*Reid,  V.  S.  New  Day.  New  York :  Alfred 
A.  Knopf,  1949.  374  p.  Jamaica's  struggle  for 
independence. 

Richer,  Clement.  Ti-Coyo  and  His  Shark. 
Tr.  by  Gerard  Hopkins.  New  York :  Alfred 
A.  Knopf,  1951.  235  p.  Allegory  in  St. 
Pierre,  city  on  slope  of  Mount  Pel6e,  just  be- 
fore volcano's  last  disastrous  eruption. 

*Roumain,  Jacques.  Masters  of  the  Dew. 
Tr.  by  Langston  Hughes  and  Mercer  Cook. 


New  York:  Reynal  &  Hitchcock,  1947.  176  p. 
Elemental  urges  among  elemental  people  of 
Haiti. 

Saher,  Lilia  Van.  Macamba.  New  York :  E. 
P.  Button  &  Co.,  1949.  264  p.  Native  of  Cu- 
racao, where  only  Macambas  (native  term  for 
white  men)  counted ;  where  primitive  and 
civilized  blend  in  bizarre  pattern  of  love  and 
hate. 

Standish,  Robert.  Mr.  On  Loong.  New 
York:  Macmillan  Co.,  1947.  326  p.  Chinese 
laundryman  in  West  Indies ;  unique  eco- 
nomic conditions  ;  interplay  between  races  from 
widely  separated  parts  of  the  world. 

Williamson,  Scott.  The  Fiesta  at  Ander- 
son's House.  New  York :  Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
1947.  339  p.  Conflicting  elements  among 
guests  at  fiesta  in  Puerto  Rico,  inflamed  by 
rum,  touched  off  by  hurricane. 

Government  and  Politics 

Blanshard,  Paul.  Democracy  and  Empire 
in  the  Caribbean.  New  York :  Macmillan  Co., 
1947.  379  p.  Blend  of  racy  description  with 
political  analysis  of  life  in  Caribbean. 

Colonial  Office  Annual  Report  on  Jamaica 
for  the  Year  1947.  London:  His  Majesty's 
Stationery  Office,  1949.  163  p.  Account  of 
principal  events. 

De  Madariaga,  Salvador.  The  Fall  of  the 
Spanish  American  Empire.  New  York :  Mac- 
millan Co.,  1948.  443  p.  Story  of  Spanish 
Empire  in  Latin  America. 

Lovett,  Robert  M.  All  Our  Years.  New 
York:  Viking  Press,  1948.  373  p.  Autobiogra- 
phy. Important  for  data  on  Puerto  Rico  and 
Virgin  Islands. 

MacDonald,  Austin  F.  Latin  American 
Politics  and  Government.  New  York :  Thomas 
Y.  Crowell  Co.,  1949.  642  p.  How  forms  of 
government  are  subordinated  to  personalities 
in  Latin  America. 

*Maloney,  A.  H.  After  England — We.  Bos- 
ton:  Meador  Publishing  Co.,  1949.  183  p. 
How  Caribbean  colonies  have  well  learned 
self-government  the  hard  way  and  earned 
right  of  national  self-expression. 

History 

Klingberg,  Frank  J.  Codrington  Chronicle. 
Experiment  in  Anglican  Altruism  on  a  Bar- 
bados Plantation,  1710-1834.  Berkeley  and 
Los  Angeles:  Univ.  of  Calif.  Press,  1949.  175 
p.  Study  of  attempt  to  carry  out  a  mission- 
ary ideal  within  regime  of  slavery. 

Larsen,  Jens.  Virgin  Island  Story.  History 
of  the  Lutheran  State  Church,  Other 
Churches,  Slavery,  Education,  and  Culture  in 
the  Danish  West  Indies,  now  the  Virgin  Is- 
lands. Philadelphia:  Muhlenberg  Press,  1950. 
250  p. 

Manach,  Jorge.  Marti,  Apostle  of  Freedom. 
Tr.  from  Spanish  by  Coley  Taylor.  New 
York:  Devin-Adair  Co.,  1950.  363  p.  Career 
of  Jose  Marti,  father  of  Cuban  independence 
and  freedom. 

Plenn,  Abel.  The  Southern  Americas,  a 
New  Chronicle.  New  York :  Creative  Age 
Press,  1948.  455  p.  Development  _  of  those 
lands,  with  events  involving  personalities  from 
every  social  and  ethnic  group,  recounted  by 
actual  participants  in  or  immediate  observers 
of  those  events. 


412 


BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS 


Poetry 

*Casimir,  J.  R.  Ralph.  Poesy.  Anthology  of 
Dominica  Verse,  Book  Four.  Roseau,  Domi- 
nica, B.W.I.,  1948.  64  p. 

Social  Conditions 

Achong,  Alderman  Tito  P.  The  Mayor's 
Annual  Report.  Review  of  the  Activities  of 
the  Port-of-Spain  City  Council,  with  Dis- 
courses on  Social  Problems  Affecting  the 
Trinidad  Community,  for  the  Municipal  Year 
1942-43.  Boston:  Meador  Publishing  Co., 
343  p. 

Bunn,  Harriet,  and  Gut,  Ellen.  Higher  Edu- 
cation in  Latin  America.  Universities  of 
Cuba,  the  Dominican  Republic,  Haiti,  Vol.  4. 
Washington,  D.C. :  Pan  American  Union, 
Div.  of  Intellectual  Co-op.,  1946.  102  p.  Cul- 
tural development  of  these  three  island  re- 
publics. 

*Dunham,  Katherine.  Journey  to  Accom- 
pong.  111.  by  Ted  Cook.  New  York :  Henry 
Holt  &  Co.,  1946.  162  p.  Day-to-day  expe- 
riences in  Accompong,  Jamaica,  visited  dur- 
ing anthropological  field  trip  to  Haiti. 

Fergusson,  Erna.  Cuba.  New  York :  Alfred 
A.  Knopf,  1946.  308  p.  More  serious  and 
sometimes  desperate  sides  of  Cuban  life  and 
culture ;  an  island  of  sugar  and  tobacco,  of 
sophisticated  city  folk  and  primitive  Negroes 
who  retain  many  African  rites  and  customs. 

Fox,  Annette  B.  Freedom  and  Welfare  in 
the  Caribbean.  Colonial  Dilemma.  New  York : 
Harcourt,  Brace  &  Co.,  1949.  272  p.  Discus- 
sion of  social,  economic,  political  problems 
that  face  Caribbean  dependencies  today. 


Harding,  Bertita.  The  Land  Columbus 
Loved.  The  Dominican  Republic.  New  York : 
Coward-McCann,  1949.  256  p.  Debt-free, 
comparatively  high  standard  of  living,  end  of 
political  warfare,  soil-conservation  projects, 
hospitals,  schools,  hotels,  low-cost  housing, 
piers  and  roads. 

Herskovits,  Melville  J.,  and  Herskovits, 
Frances  S.  Trinidad  Village.  New  York:  Al- 
fred A.  Knopf,  1947.  351  p.  Anthropological 
study  of  Protestant  Negro  culture  in  English- 
speaking  Caribbean. 

Josephs,  Ray.  Latin  America:  Continent  in 
Crisis.  New  York:  Random  House,  1948.  503 
p.  From  price  tags  on  illicit  pleasures  to  pres- 
ent patterns  of  Latin-American  economy,  cul- 
ture, politics. 

MacPherson,  Sir  John.  Development  and 
Welfare  in  the  West  Indies,  1945-1946.  Colo- 
nial No.  212.  London :  His  Majesty's  Sta- 
tionery Office,  1947.  162  p.  General  survey. 

Petrullo,  Vincenzo.  Puerto  Rican  Paradox. 
Philadelphia :  Univ.  of  Penna.  Press ;  Lon- 
don:  Oxford  Univ.  Press,  1947.  181  p.  Puerto 
Rico  today,  with  suggest'ions  for  improving 
relationship  with  U.S. 

Simey,  T.  S.  Welfare  and  Planning  in  the 
West  Indies.  Oxford,  England :  Clarendon 
Press,  1946.  267  p.  Personal  experience  of 
social  problems  and  administration  acquired 
during  three  years'  work  in  West  Indies. 

Whitson,  Agnes  M.,  and  Horsfall,  Lucy  F. 
Britain  and  the  West  Indies.  London,  New 
York,  Toronto:  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1948. 
87  p.  Description  of  colonies,  slavery,  eman- 
cipation, government,  economics,  social  stand- 
ards, present  status. 


Index 


Abbott,  Jessie  F.,  Plate  XXVI,  following  p. 

200 
Africa,  346 

books  and  pamphlets  relating  to,  406-410 
Agencies 

agriculture,  104-110 
concerned  with  race  relations,  327-328 
education,  248-252 
see  also  Foundations 
Agriculture,  101-113 
agencies,  104-110 

Extension  Service,  104-109 

Farm  Credit  Administration,  109-110 

Farmers  Home  Administration,  110 

insured  mortgage  loans,  110 
other  agencies,  110 
books  and  pamphlets,  384 
employment,  101-104 
farm  operators,  101-103 
farm  ownership,  103-104 
farm  tenancy,  104 
individual  farmers,  113 

Brown,   Raymond,   Plate   XV,   following 

p.  72 

Lee,  Mary,  Plate  XIV,  following  p.  72 
Lewis,   Ambrose   B.,   Plate   XL,   following 

p.  328 
Lusk,  Mrs.  Lea  E.,  Plate  XIV,  following 

p.  72 

McCorvey,  S.  J.,  Plate  XL,  following  p.  328 
mechanization,  Plate  XIV,  following  p.  72 
occupational  classification,  102 
O'Neal,  Otis,  Plate  XV,  following  p.  72 
shift  from,  101 
tenure,  102-104 

vocational  agriculture,  111-113 
4-H  Clubs,  112-113,  Plate  XVI,  following 

p.  72 

New  Farmers  of  America,  111-112 
Williams,  Dorothy,  Plate  XX,  following  p. 

200 

Air  Force,  see  Armed  Forces 
AFL,  122 

Anderson,  Marian,  52,  Plate  XLVIII,  follow- 
ing p.  328 
Anger     at     Innocence      (William     Gardner 

Smith) ,  81 

Armed  Forces,  146-157 
Air  Force,  151 
Hill,  Capt.  C.  A.,  Jr.,  151 


Armed  Forces  (Cont.) 
Army 

Fahy  Committee  Report,  148 

Gillem  Report,  147 

implementation  of  policy,  148 

Korean  War,  148 

Martin,  Lt.  Laurene,  Plate  XXII,  follow- 
ing p.  200 

National  Guard,  150 

Negroes  at  West  Point,  151 

nurses,  150 

ROTC,  150 

Sutton,  Lt.  H.  E.,  149 

24th  Infantry  Regiment,  149 

Wiggins,  Capt.  Rosalie,  Plate  XXII,  fol- 
lowing p.  200 

Winstead  Amendment,  150 

WAGS,  150 

books  and  pamphlets,  384 
decorations  and  citations,  155-157 
elimination  of  segregation,  146 

Executive  Order  9981,  146 

Secretary  of  Defense  directive,  147 
Marine  Corps,  154 
Merchant  Marine,  154 
Navy,  152 

Brown,  Jesse  L.,  Plate  XXI,  following  p. 
200 

Fahy  Committee  Report,  152 

Hudner,  Lt.  T.  J.,  Plate  XXIII,  following 
p.  200 

Naval  ROTC  program,  153 

Negroes  at  Naval  Academy,  153 

number  of  Negroes  in  Navy,  152 

nurses,  154 

Army,  see  Armed  Forces 
Art,  66-78 

African  heritage,  66-68 

ancient,  66 

contemporary,  66-67 

East  Africa,  67 

metal  work,  67 

West  Africa,  66 
American  Negro  artists,  68-78 

early  artists,  68 

1850-1880,  68-70 

1880-1910,  70-72 

1910-1925,  72-75 

1925-1951,  75-78 

see  also  Artists,  American  Negro 
at  Negro  colleges,  78 


413 


414 


INDEX 


Art  (Cont.) 
books  and  pamphlets 

Africa,  406 

United  States,  384 

West  Indies,  410 
Locke,  Alain  L.,  68 
Artists,  American  Negro,  68-78 
Bannister,  Edward  M.,  69 
Barthe,  Richmond,  75-76 
Campbell,  E.  Simms,  76 
Carver,  George  Washington,  71 
Dawson,  Charles  C.,  72-73 
Duncanson,  Robert  S.,  69 
Johnston,  Joshua,  68 
Lewis,  Edmonia,  69 
Tanner,  Henry  Ossawa,  70 
Scott,  William  Edward,  72 
Artists,  concert,  52-58 

Anderson,  Marian,  52 

Brice,  Carol,  53 

Maynor,  Dorothy,  55 

Robeson,  Paul,  57 

Scott,  Hazel,  57 

Warfield,  William,  57 
Autobiography,    82-84,    see    also    Literature 

(Negro) 
Awards,  honors,  and  other  distinctions,  359- 

374 

Doctors  of  Philosophy,  360-362 
educational  honors,  370-371 
general,  362-370 
heroic  deeds  and  exploits,  374 
medical  honors,  371-372 
Negroes  listed  in  Who's  Who,  359-360 
to  Negro  press  and  journalists,  48-51 
U.S.  Government  awards,  373-374 


B 


Bailey,  Pearl,  90 
Banks,  135 
Baseball,  18-22 

integration,  18 

Campanella,  Roy,  19 

Easter,  Luke,  20 

Irvin,  Monte,  19 

Jethroe,  Sam,  20 

Mays,  Willy,  19,  Plate  I,  following  p.  72 

Minoso,  Orestes,  19 

Negroes  in  minor  leagues,  20-22 

Negroes  on  major  league  teams,  18 

Newcombe,  Don,  20 

Robinson,  Jackie,  18 
Basketball,  27-28 

College,  27 
fix  scandal,  27 
tournament  play,  27 


Basketball  (Cont.) 

Kellogg,  Junius,  Plate  V,  following  p.  72 
professional,  28 

admission  of  Negroes,  28 
Harlem  Globe-Trotters,  28 
Belgian  colonial  policy,  344 
Belgian  territories,  355 
Bell,  Bishop  W.  Y.,  Plate  XXXVI,  following 

p.  328 

Bell,  Ed,  Plate  V,  following  p.  72 
Beta  Kappa  Chi,  100 
Bethune,  Mrs.  Mary  McLeod,  Plates  XXXVI 

&  XLVII,  following  p.  328 
Biography,  84-85,  see  Literature  (Negro) 
Booker,  Bishop  J.  R.,  Plate  XXXVI,  following 

p.  328 

Books  and  pamphlets,  by  or  relating  to  Ne- 
groes, 384-411 
Africa,  relating  to,  406-410 

art,  406 

economic  conditions,  406-407 

fiction,  407 

government,  407 

Liberia,  407-408 

Nigeria,  408 

race  problem,  408 

social  conditions,  408-409 

South  Africa,  409 

West  Africa,  409-410 
United  States,  relating  to,  384-406 

agriculture,  384 

Armed  Forces,  384 

art,  384 

autobiography,  384-385 

biography,  385-386 

business,  386-387 

children's  literature,  387 

civil  rights,  387-388 

Civil  War,  388 

drama,  388-389 

education,  389-390 

fiction,  390-394 

folklore,  394-395 

health,  395 

history  and  travel,  395-396 

labor  and  employment,  396-397 

literature,  397 

music,  397-398 

poetry,  398-399 

politics  and  suffrage,  399 

race  problem,  400 

race  relations,  402 

reconstruction,  403 

religion  and  the  church,  403 

slavery,  404 

social  conditions,  405 

sports,  406 


INDEX 


415 


Books  and  pamphlets  (Cont.) 
West  Indies,  relating  to,  410-411 
art,  410 

economic  conditions,  410 
fiction,  410-411 
government  and  politics,  411 
history,  411 
poetry,  411 
social  conditions,  411 

Bousfield,  Dr.  Midian  0.,  Plate  XXIV,  follow- 
ing p.  200 
Bowman,  Lemuel  A.,  Plate  XIX,  following  p. 

200 
Boxing,  25-27 

Benny  Leonard  Award,  26 
Edward  J.  Neil  Award,  26 
"Fighter  of  the  Year,"  26 
Golden  Gloves,  27 
1951  major  matches 
Charles-Walcott,  25 
Louis-Marciano,  25 
Robinson-LaMotta,  25 
Robinson-Turpin,  25,  Plate  IV,  following 

p.  72 

Williams-Carter,  26 
titleholders,  25 
Jimmy  Carter,  25,  Plate  HI,  following  p. 

72 

Ezzard  Charles,  25 
Kid  Gavilan,  25 
Ray  Robinson,  25,  Plate  IV,  following  p. 

72 

Sandy  Saddler,  25 

Joe  Walcott,  25,  Plate  III,  following  p.  72 
Boy  at  the  Window  (Owen  Dodson),  81 
Boyd,  Edward  P.,  Plate  XVIII,  following  p. 

200 

Brice,  Carol,  53 
British  East  Africa,  342 
British  territories,  356 
British  West  Indies,  338 

Brooks,  Gwendolyn,  Plate  VI,  following  p.  72 
Brown,  Jesse  L.,  Plate  XXI,  following  p.  200 
Brown,  Mrs.  Jesse  L.,  Plate  XXIII,  following 

p.  200 
Bunche,  Dr.  Ralph  J.,  333,  Plates  XLVI  & 

XLVIII,  following  p.  328 
Business,  see  Income  and  business 

books  and  pamphlets,  386 
Butler,   Mrs.   Ethel,   Plate  XXXI,  following 
p.  200 


Caldwell,  Helen  (Color  Ebony),  84 
Campanella,  Roy,  19 

Candidates,  Negro,  see  Politics  and  govern- 
ment 


Caribbean,  education  and  political  status  of, 

347 
Carnegie,  Amos  H.  (Faith  Moves  Mountains), 

84 

Carter,  Jimmy,  25,  Plate  III,  following  p.  72 
Carver,  George  Washington,  as  artist,  71 
Carver  Foundation,  99,  Plate  XIII,  following 

p.  72 
Certified  public  accountants,  140 

Washington,  Mrs.  Mary  T.,  Plate  XIX,  fol- 
lowing p.  200 
Chaplains,  Negro,  266-267 
Charles,  Ezzard,  25 
Chenault,  Dr.  John  W.,  Plate  XXIV,  following 

p.  200 

Child  Welfare  Service,  189 
Church  and  religious  work,  253-268 
books  and  pamphlets,  403 
integration,  267 
statistics,  253-266 

denominations,  Negro,  254-259 
denominations,  Negro-white,  259-263 
Negro  auxiliary  organizations,  263-266 
Civil  Liberties  Union,  291 
Civil  rights 

books  and  pamphlets,  387 
Civil  Liberties  Union  and,  291 
Civil  Rights  Congress  and,  291 
Montclair  survey  on,  292 
NAACP  lobby  for,  296-297 
NAACP  program  for,  290 
National  Citizens  Committee  on,  292 
Negro  lawyers  and,  292 
Negro  press  and,  36-37 
President  Truman  meets  with  Negro  lead- 
ers, Plate  XXXVI,  following  p.  328 
Presidential  messages  and,  280-281 
President's  Committee  on,  280,  312 
Race  Relations  Department,  Federal  Coun- 
cil of  Churches,  and,  292 
race  tags  in  the  news,  40-42 
safety  of  person  in  South,  318-322 
Southern  Regional  Council  and,  281 
To  Secure  These  Rights,  280-282 
Virginia  Organization  on,  291-292 
Civil  Rights  Legislation,  282-290 
laws  enacted,  282-283 
laws  proposed,  282 

principal  judiciary  decisions,  283-290 
education,  283-286 
forced  confession  of  guilt,  289 
housing,  286 
intermarriage,  286-287 
jury  service,  289-290 
labor  unions,  287 
public  service,  287 
registration  and  voting,  289 
travel,  288 


416 


INDEX 


Clark,  Harvey,  Jr.,  and  family,  Plate  XXXIII, 

following  p.  328 

Coachman,  Alice,  Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 
Colleges,  Negro 

art  at,  78 

Carver  Foundation,  99,  Plate  XIII,  follow- 
ing p.  72 

natural  sciences  at,  98-99 

see  also  Education 
Colleges  and  universities,  see  Education  and 

Organizations,  national  Negro 
Collins,  Janet,  Plate  XI,  following  p.  72 
Color  Ebony  (Helen  Caldwell) ,  84 
Commission  on  Human  Rights,  330-331 
Composers,  see  Music 
Concert  artists,  see  Artists,  concert 
CIO,  121 
Congressional   press    galleries,    admission   of 

Negro  reporters,  46-48 
Consumer,  Negro  as,  37-39 

survey  of,  35-37 
Credit  unions,  137-140 
Crime  and  violence,  269-279 

arrests,  269-271 

execution  for  capital  offenses,  271 

lynching,  275 

Negro  policemen,  275 

Negroes  against  Negroes,  271 

Negroes  against  whites,  272 

police  brutality  and  killing  of  Negro  pris- 
oners, 274 

prison  sentences,  271 

D 

Dance,  the,  93 

Collins,  Janet,  Plate  XI,  following  p.  72 

Baker,  Josephine,  93 

Dunham,  Katherine,  93 

Primus,  Pearl,  93,  Plate  X,  following  p.  72 
Dandridge,  Dorothy,  Plate  XII,  following  p.  72 
Davis,  Dowdal,  Plate  XXXVI,  following  p.  328 
Davis,  Dr.  Frank  G.,  Plate  XVIII,  following 

p.  200 

Dawson,  Charles  C.,  72-73 
Dawson,  W.  L.,  Plate  XLI,  following  p.  328 
Dean,  Dr.  W.  H.,  Plate  XL,  following  p.  328 
Dean,  Mrs.  Mary  T.,  Plate  XVIII,  following 

p.  200 

Deaths:  1947-51,  378 
Declaration  of  Human  Rights,  329 
Decorations  and  citations  (military),  155-157 
Dentists,  Negro,  164-165 
DeVane,  Dr.  W.  P.,  Plate  XLI,  following  p. 

328 

Discrimination  complaints  and  UN,  336 
Distinctions,  see  Awards,  honors,  and  other 

distinctions 
Doctors  of  Philosophy,  360 


Dodson,  Owen  (Boy  at  the  Window),  81 

Downbeat  magazine  poll  winners,  64 

Doyle,  Bishop  B.  W.,  Plate  XXXII,  following 

p.  200 
Drama 

by  or  concerning  Negroes,  388 

see  also  Theatre 
Drewry,  Mrs.  Elizabeth,  Plate  XLI,  following 

p.  328 

Duncan,  Todd,  90 
Dutch  colonial  policy,  345 


Education,  201-252 

agencies  and  foundations,  248-252 
attainment,  comparative,  of  whites  and  Ne- 
groes, 203-207 
books  and  pamphlets,  389 
elementary,  201-208 

Jeanes  Teachers,  208 

Negro  enrollment  in  South,  202 

segregation  in,  201-207 
high  school,  208-217 

approved  secondary  schools,  208-213 

graduates,  215 

Negro  enrollment  in  South,  202 

private,  213-215 

Washington  high  school,  Shreveport,  La., 

Plate  XXX,  following  p.  200 
honors,  370-371 
illiteracy  and  retardation,  207 
integration,  237-248 

and  public  schools,  216-217 

see  also  Integration  in  education 
judiciary  decisions  on  civil  rights,  283-286 
Negro  colleges  and  universities,  217-230 

degrees  conferred,  218-219 

endowments,  222 

enrollment,  218,  224-227 

faculty,  219-220 

finances  and  physical  property,  220-221 

land  grant  colleges,  221 

professional  schools,  228 

Southern    Association    of    Colleges    and 
Secondary  Schools,  228-230 

theological  schools,  229 
organizations,  national  Negro,  375 
regional,  230-237,  see  also  Regional  educa- 
tion 

school  lunch  program,  208 
state    agents    and    supervisors    for    Negro 

schools,  215-216 
Educational  honors,  370 
Elementary  schools,  see  Education 
Employment  and  labor,  114-124 
books  and  pamphlets,  396 
employment,  114-120 

by  age  and  sex,  114 


INDEX 


417 


Employment  and  labor  (Cont.) 
employment  (Cont.) 
by  industry,  115 
by  occupations,  119 
New  York  City  study,  118 
of  women,  116 
post-war  trends,  115-120 
San  Francisco  area,  118-19 
Social  Security,  120 
unemployment,  115 
fair  employment  practices,  120-121,  see  also 

Fair  employment  practices 
labor  force,  114 
National  Urban  League,  124 
Negro  labor  leaders,  124 
organized  labor,  121-124 
AFL  policy,  122 
CIO  policy,  121 
expulsion  of  unions,  CIO,  123 
new  labor  group,  123 
union  policy  in  San  Francisco  area,  122 
Williams,  Dr.  Raymond  M.,  Plate  XVII,  fol- 
lowing p.  200 

Evans,  Bob,  Plate  V,  following  p.  72 
Exchange  students,  373 
Extension  Service,  101-109 


Fair  employment  practices,  120-121 
Executive  Order  9908,  120 
labor  union  acceptance,  121 
legislation,  120-121 

effect  on  employers,  120-121 
effect  on  organized  labor,  121 
states  where  enacted,  120 
New  York  State  Commission  on,  121 
Truman  Committee  on,  120 
Fairbanks,  Mabel,  Plate  IX,  following  p.  72 
Faith  Moves  Mountains  (Amos  H.  Carnegie), 

84 

Farm  Credit  Administration,  109-110 
Farmers  Home  Administration,  110 
Farms  and  farming,  see  Agriculture 
Federal  Housing  Administration,  185-186 
Fellowship  of  the  Concerned,  325-326 
Ferebee,  Dr.  Dorothy  B.,  Plate  XLVII,  follow- 
ing p.  328 
Fiction,  80-82 
bibliography 
Africa,  407 

United  States,  387,  390 
West  Indies,  410 
Floodtide  (Frank  Yerby),  80 
Football,  23-25 
college,  22 

honors  (list)  for  1951,24 
Johnny  Bright  case,  22 


Football  (Cont  J 

Negro  All-Americans,  22 

Bell,  Ed,  Plate  V,  following  p.  72 

Negro  colleges,  record  of,  23 

professional,  24-25 

outstanding  performers,  25 
Foreign  correspondents  (Negro) ,  45-46 
Foundations 

Carver,  99,  Plate  XIII,  following  p.  72 

education,  248-252 
4-H  Clubs,  112-113 
French  colonial  policy,  342,  344 
French  territories,  353,  357 


Gambia,  342 
Gavilan,  Kid,  25 

Gibson,  Althea,  30-31,  Plate  II,  following  p.  72 
Gold  Coast,  340 

Government,  see  Politics  and  government 
Granger,  L.  B.,  Plate  XXXVI,  following  p.  328 
Graves,  Lemuel  E.,  Plate  XX,  following  p.  200 
Greene,  Bishop  S.  L.,  Plate  XXXII,  following 
p.  200 

H 

Handy,  W.  C.,  64 

Harper,  Harry,  Plate  XXVIII,  following  p.  200 
Health  and  medical  facilities,  158-169,  see  also 
Health  and  medicine 

Bousfield,  Dr.  Midian  0.,  Plate  XXIV,  fol- 
lowing p.  200 

Chenault,  Dr.  John  W.,  Plate  XXIV,  follow- 
ing p.  200 

Lawless,  Dr.  T.  K.,  Plate  XXIV,  following 

p.  200 
Health  and  medicine 

books  and  pamphlets,  395 

conditions  in  South,  317-318 

hospitals,  166-168 

National  Negro  Health  Movement,  168-169 

Negro  dentists,  164-165 

Negro  nurses,  165-166 

Negro  pharmacists,  165 

Negro  physicians,  163-165 

public  health,  168-169 

see  also  Vital  statistics 
Henderson,  Elmer,   Plate  XXXVI,  following 

p.  328 

Heroic  deeds  and  exploits,  374 
High  schools,  see  Education 
Hill,  Capt.  C.  A.,  Jr.,  151 
Hill,  W.  B.,  Plate  XV,  following  p.  72 
His  Eye  is  on  the  Sparrow  (Ethel  Waters),  83 
Honors,  see  Awards,  honors,  and  other  dis- 
tinctions 

Home,  Lena  (In  Person:  Lena  Home),  83 
Hospitals,  166-168 


418 


INDEX 


Housing,  170-187 
books  and  pamphlets,  396 
condition  of  property,  174 
Federal  aid  to,  174-182 
Housing  and  Home  Finance  Agency,  174- 

180 

slum  clearance,  180-182 
Federal  Housing  Administration,  185-186 
Federal  policy,  182-186 

integration  in  public  housing,  184 
low-rent  housing,  182-185 
in  South,  316-317 
judiciary  decisions  affecting,  286 
minority  problems,  170-171 
Negro  home  ownership,  171 
Negro  home  value,  171 
overcrowding,  174 

public  projects  for  Negroes,  186-187 
renting  by  Negroes,  171-174 
Housing  and  Home  Finance  Agency,  174-180 
Tuskegee  Institute  research  project,  Plate 

XXV,  following  p.  200 
Hudner,  Thomas  J.,  Plate  XXIII,  following 

p.  200 

Hughes,  Langston  (Montage  of  a  Dream  De- 
ferred), 82 
Human  rights 

and  United  Nations,  329-337 
Committee  on,  331 

I 

Illegitimacy,  16 

Illiteracy,  207 

Impellitteri,  Mayor  Vincent,  Plates  XXXVII 

&  XXXVIII,  following  p.  328 
In  Person:  Lena  Home,  83 
Income  and  business,  125-145 
banks,  135 

books  and  pamphlets,  386 
Bowman,  Lemuel  A.,  Plate  XIX,  following 

p.  200 
Boyd,  Edward  P.,  Plate  XVIII,  following 

p.  200 

certified  public  accountants,  140 
credit  unions,  137-140 
Dean,  Mrs.  Mary  T.,  Plate  XVIII,  following 

p.  200 

income  statistics,  125-130 
insurance,  130-135 
National    Negro    Insurance    Association, 

130 

integration  or  segregation,  144-145 
National  Negro  Business  League,  144 
Negro  business  associations,  145 
outstanding    businesses    and    businessmen, 
141-143 


Income  and  business  (Cont.) 

savings  and  loan  associations,  136 

American  Savings  and  Loan  League,  136 
FHLB  system  members,  136 
Spaulding,  C.  C.,  Plate  XIX,  following  p. 

200 

Washington,  Mrs.  Mary  T.,  Plate  XIX,  fol- 
lowing p.  200 
Industry 

Negro  natural  scientists  in,  99-100 

see  also  Population 

Insurance,  130-135,  see  also  Social  welfare 
Integration 

and  business,  144-145 
and  religion,  267 
and  the  church,  267 
in  baseball,  18 
in  education,  237-248 

Negro  teachers  in  white  institutions,  242 
New  York  Times  survey,  237 
opposition  from  educators,  238 
student  opinion,  237 

white  institutions  in  South  admitting  Ne- 
groes, 238-242 
table,  239-242 
private  institutions,  238 
public  institutions,  238 
in  industry,  Plate  XVI,  following  p.  72 
in  labor  unions,  121-124 
in  professional  basketball,  28 
in  public  housing,  184 
in  scientific  organizations,  100 
Intermarriage,  judiciary  decisions  on,  286-287 
Irvin,  Monte,  19 
Italian  Somaliland,  355 


Jackson,  F.  L.,  Plate  XV,  following  p.  72 

Jackson,  Nell,  Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 

Jeanes  Teachers,  208 

Johnson,  Dr.  C.  S.,  Plate  XXXVI,  following 
p.  328 

Julian,  Dr.  Percy  L.,  100,  Plate  XIII,  follow- 
ing p.  72 

Juvenile  delinquency,  190 

K 

Kalibala,  Dr.  E.  B.,  Plate  XL,  following  p.  328 

Kaye,  Philip  B.  (Taffy),  81 

Kellogg,  Junius,  Plate  V,  following  p.  72 

King,  John,  Plate  XXXVIII,  following  p.  328 

Korean  War,  148 

Ku  Klux  Klan,  321-322 

L 

Labor,  see  Employment 
Labor  leaders,  Negro,  124 
Labor-management    integration,    Plate    XVI, 
following  p.  72 


INDEX 


419 


Labor  unions 
FEP,  120-121 
in  South,  326-327 
integration    and    segregation    in,    121-124, 

326-327 

judiciary  decisions  on  civil  rights,  287 
Law  enforcement 
brutality  in,  319-320 
discriminatory  penalties,  321 
Negro  policemen,  320-321 
police  training,  320 
Lawless,  Dr.  T.  K.,  Plate  XXIV,  following  p. 

200 

Lawyers,  Negro,  and  civil  rights,  292 
Lee,  Mary,  Plate  XIV,  following  p.  72 
Lewis,  Ambrose  B.,  Plate  XL,  following  p.  328 
Liberia,  books  and  pamphlets  relating  to,  407 
Literature  (Negro) ,  79-88 
autobiography,  82-84 
bibliography,  384 
Caldwell,  Helen,  84 
Carnegie,  Amos  H.,  84 
Home,  Lena,  83 
Patterson,  Heywood,  83 
popularity  of,  82-83 
Robinson,  James  H.,  84 
Waters,  Ethel,  83 
bibliography 
Africa,  407 
United  States,  384-385,  387,  388-394,  397, 

398 

West  Indies,  410,  411 
biography,  84-85 

bibliography,  385 
fiction,  80-82 

bibliography,  390,  407,  410 
Dodson,  Owen,  81 
Kaye,  Philip  B.  (pseud.) ,  81 
short  stories,  81-82 
Smith,  William  Gardner,  81 
Yerby,  Frank,  80-81 
miscellaneous  works,  85-87 
children's  books,  85-86,  387 
devotional  works,  86 
historical  works,  85,  86-87 
poetry,  82 

bibliography,  398,  411 

Brooks,  Gwendolyn,  Plate  VI,  following 

p.  72 

Hughes,  Langston,  82 
trends  in,  79-80 

avoidance  of  race  problem,  79-80 
emphasis  on  criticism,  80 
Locke,  Alain  L.,  68 
Logan,  Dr.  R.  W.,  Plate  XLIII,  following  p. 

328 

Looby,  Z.  A.,  Plate  XLI,  following  p.  328 
Louis,  Joe,  Plate  XXXVII,  following  p.  328 


Lusk,  Mrs.  Lea  E.,  Plate  XIV,  following  p.  72 
Lynching,  275-279 

difficulty  of  definition,  275 

prevented,  278 

punishment  of  lynchers,  279 

record  of,  276-278 

M 

Magazines,  see  Negro  press 

Magazines  (white)  employing  Negroes,  42-44 

Manuel,  Theresa,  Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 

Marines,  see  Armed  Forces 

Marital  statistics,  15-16,  17 

Marshall,  Thurgood,  Plate  XXII,  following  p. 

200,  Plate  XLIII,  following  p.  328 
Martin,  Lt.  Laurene,  Plate  XXII,  following 

p.  200  ... 

Maynor,  Dorothy,  55 
Mays,  Dr.  B.  E.,  Plate  XXXVI,  following  p. 

328 

Mays,  Willy,  19,  Plate  I,  following  p.  72 
McCorvey,  S.  J.,  Plate  XL,  following  p.  328 
McDaniel,  Hattie,  Plate  VII,  following  p.  72 
McNabb,  Mary,  Plate  II,  following  p.  72 
Medical  honors,  371-373 

Provident  Medical  Associates  Fellowships, 

372-373 

Medicine,  see  Health  and  medical  facilities 
Merchant  Marine,  see  Armed  Forces 
Metropolitan  Opera,  52 

Collins,  Janet,  Plate  XI,  following  p.  72 
Thomas,  Fred,  Plate  VI,  following  p.  72 
Migration,  see  Population 
Minority,  UN  definition  of,  332 
Montage   of   a   Dream    Deferred    (Langston 

Hughes),  82 
Morgan,  Thomas,  Plate  XXIX,  following  p. 

200 
Motion  pictures,  91-93 

Fairbanks,  Mabel,  Plate  IX,  following  p.  72 
Norman,  Maidie,  Plate  XI,  following  p.  72 
Music,  52-65 

arrangers,  see  under  Educators 
artists,  see  under  Concert  artists  and  Edu- 
cators 

books  and  pamphlets,  397 
composers,  see  under  Educators 
concert  artists,  52-58 
educators,  artists,  arrangers,  composers,  58- 

64 

Dawson,  William  Levi,  59 
Kay,  Ulysses,  61 
Schuyler,  Philippa  Duke,  62 
Still,  William  Grant,  62 
Suthern,  Orrin  Clayton,  II,  62 
Work,  John  W.,  64 
Metropolitan  Opera,  52 
Negroes  in  opera,  64 


420 


INDEX 


Music  (Cont.) 
popular,  64-65 
band  leaders,  64 
Handy,  W.  C.,  64 
White,  Josh,  64 

N 

National  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 

Colored  People 
appeal  to  UN,  336-337 
civil  rights  lobby,  296 
civil  rights  program,  290 
National  Citizens  Committee  on  Civil  Rights, 

292 

National  Guard,  150 
National  Institute  of  Science,  100 
National  Negro  Business  League,  144 
National  Negro  Health  Movement,  168-169 
National  Negro  Insurance  Association,  130 
National  Newspaper  Publishers  Association, 

35-37 
National  Scholarship  Service  and  Fund  for 

Negro  Students,  248 
National  Technical  Association,  100 
National  Urban  League,  124 
Natural  Science 

at  colleges  and  universities,  98-99 
Negro  scientists  in  industry,  99-100 
Naval  Academy,  Negroes  at,  153 
Navy,  see  Armed  Forces 
Neal,  Ernest  E.,  Plate  XXV,  following  p.  200 
Negro,  definition,  1 
Negro  lawyers  and  civil  rights,  292 
Negro  literature,  see  Literature  (Negro) 
Negro  Newspaper  Publishers  Association,  see 
National  Newspaper  Publishers  Asso- 
ciation 
Negro  press,  32-51 

admission  to  White  House  conferences,  47-48 

and  civil  rights,  36-37 

appeal  to  Negro  market,  37-39 

Ebony  survey,  39 
awards  and  prizes,  48-51 

Thomas,  J.  A.,  Plate  XLIII,  following  p. 

328 

circulation  of  magazines,  35 
circulation  of  newspapers,  32-35 
congressional  press  galleries,  46-48 
foreign  correspondents,  45-46 
National  Newspaper  Publishers  Association. 

35-37 
Negroes  employed  by  general  publications, 

42-44 
Pittsburgh  Courier,  Plate  XII,  following  p. 

72 

press  clubs,  39-40 
race  tags  in  the  news,  40-42 
white  workers  on  Negro  papers,  44-45 


New  Farmers  of  America,  111-112 
New  Guinea,  355,  357 
Newspapers 

and  race,  322-324 
"black  star"  editions,  323-324 
see  also  Negro  press 
Newspapers   (white)   employing  Negroes,  42- 

44 
Nigeria,  341 

books  and  pamphlets  relating  to,  408 
Non-Self-Governing  Territories 
and  UN,  346 

economic   development,   labor,   social   wel- 
fare, 349 
labor  unions,  350 
UN  economic  organizations,  351 
wages,  349 

education  and  literacy,  346 
Africa,  346 
Caribbean,  347 
Pacific  colonies,  347 
policy  and  programs,  348 

UNESCO,  348 
political  developments,  338 
Belgian  policy,  344 
British  East  Africa,  342 
British  West  Indies,  338 
Dutch  policy,  345 
French  colonial  organization,  342 
French  policy,  343 
Gold  Coast,  340 

local  government  in  French  areas,  344 
Nigeria,  341 

policy  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  345 
policy  of  United  States,  345 
problems  of  Gold  Coast  and  Nigeria,  341 
Sierra  Leone  and  Gambia,  342 
Southern  Rhodesia,  342 
table,  338-339 

Novels,  80-82,  see  Literature  (Negro) 
Nurses,  165-166 
in  Army,  150 
in  Navy,  154 

Staupers,  Mrs.  M.  K.,  Plate  XLIII,  follow- 
ing p.  328 


Olympic  team  visits  President,  Plate  IV,  fol- 
lowing p.  72 

O'Neal,  Otis,  Plate  XV,  following  p.  72 

Opera,  Negroes  in,  64 

Organizations,  national  Negro 
college  fraternities,  377 
college  sororities,  377 
educational,  375 
for  economic  advancement,  376 
for  general  advancement,  375-376 
for  professional  advancement,  376 


INDEX 


421 


Organizations,  national  Negro  (Cont.) 
for  women,  377 
scientific,  100 
secret  fraternal  orders,  377 


Pacific  colonies,  347 
Pamphlets,  see  Books  and  pamphlets 
Patterson,  Audrey,  Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 
Patterson,  Dr.  F.  D.,  Plate  XXIX,  following 

p.  200 

Patterson,  Heywood  (Scottsboro  Boy),  83-84 
Pharmacists,  Negro,  165 
Phi  Beta  Kappa,  persons  elected  to,  362 
Physicians,  Negro,  163-165 
Poetry,  82 
bibliography 

United  States,  398 
West  Indies,  411 
Police  brutality,  274 
Policemen,  Negro,  275 
Politics  and  government 
books  and  pamphlets 
Africa,  407 
United  States,  399 
West  Indies,  411 
elections  of  1950,  301-303 
elections  of  1951,  303-304 
legislation  desired  by  Negroes,  294-296 
Negro  and  public  office  in  South,  314-315 
Negro  as  southern  issue,  305 
Negro  "bloc"  vote,  293-294 
Negro  candidates  in  South,  307-308 
Negro  vote,  effect  in  South,  308 
Negro  voter  and  1948  election,  297-298 
Negroes  and  un-American  activities,  304 
Negroes  holding  office 

Dawson,  W.  L.,  Plate  XLI,  following  p. 

328 
DeVane,  Dr.  W.  P.,  Plate  XLI,  following 

p.  328 

Drewry,  Mrs.  Elizabeth,  Plate  XLI,  fol- 
lowing p.  328 
King,   John,   Plate   XXXVIII,   following 

p.  328 

Looby,  Z.  A.,  Plate  XLI,  following  p.  328 
Powell,  Adam  C.,  Plate  XXXIX,  follow- 
ing p.  328 
Rowe,  W.  L.,  Plate  XXXVII,  following  p. 

328 

Sampson,  Mrs.  Edith,  Plate  XXXIX,  fol- 
lowing p.  328 

Shepard,  Marshall,  Plate  XXXIX,  follow- 
ing p.  328 
Stevens,   Judge    Harold,    Plate    XXXIX, 

following  p.  328 

Tobias,  Dr.  C.  H.,  Plate  XXXIX,  follow- 
ing p.  328 


Politics  and  government  (Cont.) 

Negroes  holding  office  (Cont.) 

Weaver,  Frederick,  Plate  XXXVIII,  fol- 
lowing p.  328 

Whaley,  Ruth  W.,  Plate  XXXVIII,  fol- 
lowing p.  328 

party  platforms  in  1948,  298-301 

poll  tax,  305-306 

public  services  in  South,  316 

see  also  Registration  and  voting 
Poll  tax,  305-306 
Popular  music,  Negro  and,  64-65 
Population,  1-17 

age  composition,  12, 13 

cities  of  50,000,  4,  7-10 

definition  of  Negro,  1 

illegitimacy,  16 

increase  in,  1-10 

marital  status,  15-16, 17 

metropolitan  areas  by  color,  2,  4-7 

migration,  2,  11,  12 
from  agriculture,  101 

occupation  and  industry,  12, 14 

of  voting  age,  16 

ratio  of  males  to  females,  11-12 
.  regions,  divisions,  and  states,  2,  3 

urban  and  rural,  2 
Portugese  colonial  policy,  345 
Powell,  Adam  C.,  Plate  XXXIX,  following  p. 

328 

Powell,  Dr.  C.  B.,  Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 
Press,  Negro,  see  Negro  press 
Press  clubs  (Negro) ,  39-40 
Primus,  Pearl,  Plate  X,  following  p.  72 
Professions  and  employment,  12,  14 
Public  office  and  Negroes  in  South,  314-315 
Public  services,  Negroes  and,  in  South,  316 


Race  relations 

agencies  concerned  with,  327-328 
books  and  pamphlets 
Africa,  408 

United  States,  400-403 
Clark  family  incident,  Plate  XXXIII,  fol- 
lowing p.  328 

Federal  Council  of  Churches,  292 
Fellowship  of  the  Concerned,  325-326 
HHFA,  175-176 

race  tags  and  newspapers,  40-42 
Radio,  93-95 

McDaniel,  Hattie,  Plate  VII,  following  p.  72 
programs  on  which  Negroes  appeared,  94-95 
Randolph,  Lillian,  Plate  VII,  following  p. 

72 

WERD,  Plate  X,  following  p.  72 
Randolph,  A.  P.,  Plate  XXXVI,  following  p. 
328 


422 


INDEX 


Randolph,  Lillian,  Plate  VII,  following  p.  72 
Red  Cross  workers 

Abbott,  Jessie  F.,  Plate  XXVI,  following  p. 

200 
Thomas,  Jesse  0.,  Plate  XXVI,  following  p. 

200 
Walton,  Shirley  M.,  Plate  XXVI,  following 

p.  200 
White,  Gynell,  Plate  XXVI,  following  p. 

200 

Reed,  Emma,  Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 
Regional  education,  230-237 
out-of-state  scholarships,  230 
Presidential  Commission  on  Higher  Educa- 
tion, 235-237 

arbitrary  discriminations,  236 
discriminations  in  admissions,  235 
economic  barriers,  235 
religious  barriers,  236 
restricted  curriculum,  236 
southern  educators'  opposition,  236 
southern  members  dissent,  236 
regional  education  survey,  231 

chronological  review,  231-235 
Registration  and  voting 

in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Plate  XXXIV,  following  p. 

328 
in  Columbia,  S.C.,  Plate  XXXV,  following 

p.  328  / 

in  South,  304-305,  312-329 
judiciary  decisions  on,  289 
laws  governing,  306-307 
Negroes  of  voting  age,  16 
Negro's  right  to  vote,  293 
poll  tax,  305-306 
Religion 

and  Ku  Klux  Klan,  324 
and  segregation,  324-325 
books  and  pamphlets,  403 
church  and  religious  work,  253-268 
denominations,  Negro,  254-259 
denominations,  Negro-white,  259-263 
Doyle,  Bishop  B.  W.,  Plate  XXXII,  follow- 
ing p.  200 

Greene,  Bishop  S.  L.,  Plate  XXXII,  follow- 
ing p.  200 
in  South,  324-326 
integration,  267 
Negro  chaplains,  266-267 
Walls,  Bishop  W.  J.,  Plate  XXXII,  follow- 
ing p.  200 

Report  on  civil  rights  by  President's  Commit- 
tee, 280,  282 
ROTC 
Army,  150 
Navy,  153 

Road  Without  Turning  (James  H.  Robinson), 
84 


Robeson,  Paul,  57 

Robinson,  Jackie,  18 

The  Jackie  Robinson  Story,  91 

Robinson,  James  H.  (Road  Without  Turning), 
84 

Robinson,  Ray,  25,  Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 

Rockefeller,  John  D.,  Jr.,  Plate  XXIX,  follow- 
ing p.  200 

Rogers,  John,  Plate  XXXIlIjollowing  p.  328 

Rowe,  W.  L.,  and  family,  Plate  XXXVII,  fol- 
lowing p.  328 

Rural  population,  2 


Saddler,  Sandy,  25 

Sampson,  Mrs.  Edith,  335,  Plate  XXXIX,  fol- 
lowing p.  328 

Savings  and  Loan  Associations,  136 
Schools,  see  Education 
Science,  96-100 
American  Men  of  Science,  Negroes  listed, 

96-98 

Carver  Foundation,  99 
colleges  and  universities,  natural  sciences 

at,  98-99 

historical  survey,  96 
Scientific  organizations,  Negro,  100 
Beta  Kappa  Chi  fraternity,  100 
National  Institute  of  Science,  100 
National  Technical  Association,  100 
Scott,  Hazel,  57 

Scottsboro  Boy  (Heywood  Patterson),  83-84 
Segregation 

and  religion,  324-325 
elimination  in  Armed  Forces,  146 
in  education,  201-207 
in  labor  unions,  326-327 
Selassie,  Haile,  Plate  XLII,  following  p.  328 
Shepard,  Marshall,  Plate  XXXIX,  following 

p.  328 

Sierra  Leone,  342 

Smith,    William    Gardner    (Anger    at    Inno- 
cence), 81 
Social  Security 

extended  benefits,  120 
legislation,  188-189 
Social  welfare,  188-200 
books  and  pamphlets 
Africa,  408 
United  States,  405 
West  Indies,  411 
in  South,  318 
public  health,  190 
social  security  legislation,  188-189 

maternal  and  child  health;  child  welfare 

services,  189 

old-age  and  survivors  insurance,  188 
public  assistance,  188 


INDEX 


423 


Social  welfare  (Cont.) 
social  work  among  Negroes,  191 
housing,  198 

National  Urban  League,  195 
Negro  social  workers,  198-200 
professional  workers,  191 
YMCAs  (list),  193 
YWCAs  (list),  192 
welfare  of  children,  189-190 
child  labor,  189 
juvenile  delinquency,  190 
White  House  conference,  190 
South  West  Africa,  355 

Southern   Association   of   Colleges   and   Sec- 
ondary Schools,  228-230 
Southern  Regional  Council,  281,  322-323 
Southern  Rhodesia,  342 
Spanish  colonial  policy,  345 
Spaulding,  C.  C.,  Plate  XIX,  following  p.  200 
Sports,  18-31 

baseball,  18-22,  see  also  Baseball 

basketball,  27-28 

books  and  pamphlets,  406 

bowling,  31 

boxing,  25-27,  see  also  Boxing 

fencing,  31 

football,  23-25,  see  also  Football 

golf,  31 

Negro  jockey,  31 

tennis,  30-31 

track  and  field,  28-30,  see  also  Track  and 

field 

weight-lifting,  31 
Statistics,  see  Vital  statistics 
Staupers,  Mrs.  M.  K.,  Plate  XLIII,  following 

p.  328 

Stevens,  Judge  Harold,  Plate  XXXIX,  follow- 
ing p.  328 

Still,  William  Grant,  62 
Students,  exchange,  373 
Sub-commissions  on  Minorities,  332-333 
Sutton,  Lt.  H.  E.,  149 


Taffy  (Philip  B.  Kaye) ,  81 

Taft,  Robert  A.,  and  Negro  vote,  301-302 

Teachers,  Negro,  in  white  institutions,  242 

Television,  93-94 

Tennis,  30-31 

Althea  Gibson,  30-31,  Plate  II,  following  p. 

72 
Theatre,  89-91 

Bailey,  Pearl,  90 

dance,  93,  see  also  Dance 

Duncan,  Todd,  90 

Hall,  Juanita,  89 

Hernandez,  Juano,  93 


Theatre  (Cont.) 
productions 

Anna  Lucasta,  90 
Arms  and  the  Girl,  90 
Call  Me  Mister,  89 
Kiss  Me  Kate,  89-90 
Lost  in  the  Stars,  90 
Member  of  the  Wedding,  90 
South  Pacific,  89 
Street  Scene,  89 
Sojourner  Truth  award,  90 
television,  93-94 

Waters,  Ethel,  90,  Plates  VIII  &  IX,  Allow- 
ing p.  72 

Theological  schools,  229 
Thomas,  Fred,  Plate  VI,  following  p.  72 
Thomas,  Jesse  0.,  Plate  XXVI,  following  p. 

200 
Thomas,  Julius  A.,  Plate  XLIII,  following  p. 

328 

To  Secure  These  Rights,  280-282 
Tobias,  Dr.  Channing  H.,  280,  304,  336,  Plates 

XXXVI  &  XXXIX,  following  p.  328 
Townsend,    Willard    S.,    Plates    XXXIII    & 

XXXVI,  following  p.  328 
Track  and  field,  28-30 

championships,  summary — 1951,  30 
men,  28-29 
McKenley,  Herb,  29 
Metcalfe,  Ralph,  29 
Morgan  State,  29 
Thigpen,  Phil,  29 

1948   Olympic  team  members   visit   Presi- 
dent, Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 
Whitfield,  Mai,  Plate  I,  following  p.  72 
women,  30 

McNabb,  Mary,  30,  Plate  II,  following 

p.  72 

Pan-American  games,  30 
Tuskegee  Institute,  30 
Trends  in  Negro  literature,  79-80 
Truman,  Mrs.  Harry  S.,  receives  Girl  Scout 
cookies,  Plate  XXVII,  following  p.  200 
Truman,  President  Harry  S. 
and  Negro  voter,  297-298 
awards  Medal  of  Honor,  Plate  XXIII,  fol- 
lowing p.  200 
meets  with  Negro  leaders  on  civil  rights, 

Plate  XXXVI,  following  p.  328  ' 
welcomes    1948    Olympic    team    members, 

Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 
Trust  Territories 
education,  356 

British  territories,  356 
French  territories,  357 
New  Guinea,  357 

industry,  labor,  social  welfare,  357 
mandate  and  trusteeship  systems,  351 


424 


INDEX 


Trust  Territories  (Cont.) 
political  developments,  353 

Belgian,  355 

British,  354 

French,  353 

Italian  Somaliland,  355 

New  Guinea,  355 

South  West  Africa,  355 
24th  Infantry  Regiment,  149 


United  Nations 

as  international  forum,  329,  see  also  Non- 

self-governing  territories  and  Trust  ter- 

ritories 

Dean,  Dr.  W.  H.,  Plate  XL,  following  p.  328 
Kalibala,  Dr.  E.  B.,  Plate  XL,  following  p. 

328 

United  Nations  and  human  rights,  329-337 
Cameroons  chief  reads  petition,  Plate  XLII, 

following  p.  328 
Cameroons  secondary  school,  Plate  XLIV, 

following  p.  328 

Commission  on  Human  Rights,  330-331 
Declaration  of  Human  Rights,  329-330 
discrimination  complaints,  336-337 
Human  Rights  Committee,  331-332 
Liberian  miners,  Plate  XLII,  following  p. 

328 
Marbial  Valley,  Haiti,  project,  Plate  XLIV, 

following  p.  328 
minority,  definition  of,  332 
NAACP  appeal  to,  336-337 
reading  taught  Liberians,  Plate  XLV,  fol- 

lowing p.  328 
student   nurses   trained   in   Liberia,    Plate 

XLV,  following  p.  328 
Sub-commissions  on  Minorities,  332-333 
United  Negro  College  Fund,  249 

Morgan,  Thomas,  Plate  XXIX,  following  p. 

200 
Patterson,  Dr.  F.  D.,  Plate  XXIX,  following 

p.  200 
Rockefeller,  John  D.,  Jr.,  Plate  XXIX,  fol- 

lowing p.  200 
United   States   policy   for   non-self-governing 

territories,  345 
Universities,  see  Education 
Urban  population,  2 


Vital  statistics  (Cont.) 

life  expectancy,  161-163 
Voting,  see  Registration  and  voting 

W 

Walcott,  Joe,  25,  Plate  III,  following  p.  72 
Walker,  Nell,  Plate  IV,  following  p.  72 
Walls,  Bishop  W.  J.,  Plate  XXXII,  following 

p.  200 
Walton,   Shirley  M.,  Plate  XXVI,  following 

p.  200 

Warfield,  William,  57 

Washington,  Mrs.  Mary  T.,  Plate  XIX,  fol- 
lowing p.  200 
Waters,  Ethel,  90,  Plates  VIII  &  IX  following 

p.  72 

His  Eye  is  on  the  Sparrow,  83 
Weaver,  Frederick,  Plate  XXXVIII,  following 

p.  328 
West  Indies 

books  and  pamphlets  relating  to,  410-411 
see  also  Caribbean 
West  Point,  Negroes  at,  151 
Whaley,  Ruth  W.,  Plate  XXXVIII,  following 

p.  328 

Wherry-Hayden  Compromise,  295-296 
White,  Gynell,  Plate  XXVI,  following  p.  200 
White,  Josh,  64 

White,  Walter,  Plate  XXXVI,  following  p.  328 
Whitfield,  Mai,  Plate  I,  following  p.  72 
Who's  Who,  Negroes  listed  in,  359-360 
Wiggins,  Capt.  Rosalie,  Plate  XXII,  following 

p.  200 

Williams,  Dr.  Raymond  M.,  Plate  XVII,  fol- 
lowing p.  200 
Williams,  George,  Plate   XXV,  following  p. 

200 
Williams,  Gloria,  Plate  XXVII,  following  p. 

200 
Williams,  Miss  Dorothy,  Plate  XX,  following 

p.  72 
Willis,  Nelson  M.,  Plate  XXXIII,  following 

p.  328 
Wilson,  J.  Finley,  Plate  XLVII,  following  p. 

328 

Woman  Called  Fancy,  A  (Frank  Yerby) ,  80 
WAGS,  150 
Wright  family  at  White  House,  Plate  XXXII, 

following  p.  200 


Vital  statistics,  158-163 
birth  rate,  158 
causes  of  death,  160-161 
death  rate,  158-161 


Yerby,  Frank   (Floodtide,  A   Woman  Called 

Fancy),  80-81 
YMCAs,  (list),  193 
YWCAs,  (list),  192 


HILL 

REFERENCE 

LIBRARY 
ST.  PAUL