Nernst glower its development, characteristics and application to illumination practice

THE NERNST GLOWER

BY
ALFRED L. EUSTICE

ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
1910

621, 32
Eu 79

iLinois Institute
of Technology
UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

AT 181
ES Ce (|S «Bustice, Alfred L.
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THE NERNST GLOWER
ITS DEVELOPMENT, CHARACTERISTICS
AND APPLICATION TO ILLUMINATION PRACTICE

A THESIS
presented by

PRESIDENT and FACULTY

of
ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOIOGY

for the DEGREE of

ELECTRICAL ENGINEER
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PAUL V. GALV N LIBRARY

35 WEST 33RD STREET
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THE NERNST GIOWER? ITS DEVELOPMENT, CHARACTERISTICS,
AND APPLICATION TO ILLUMINATION PRACTICE.

Sed ~000——=—

The electrical interests heave, within
the period of the past 10 years, made unusual progress
in the direction of higher efficiency of generating,
transmitting, distributing and current consuming machines
and devices but, within the recent period of only 5 years,
greater,by fer, has been the advemce in the means of
converting electrical energy into light and also the effic-
iencyof application of the same to the requirements of
modern illumination practice.

The birth of the carbon filament incan-
descent lemp, the discovery of the are lamp, and the advent
of the Nernst lamp mey be regarded as the three great
epochs in the ennals of commercial electric lighting. To
the letter end most recent of this trio must be given tn-
divided credit for thecontinued generel use of electric
current for artificial lighting through that period when
important discoveries were made in Welsbach gas mantles which
seemed to indicate that gas would be the populer and univer-
sal illuminant for future service. These apparent conditions

were furthered in thet the electric consumer had a choice
22130

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of only the low efficiency, low candle power, carbon
incandescent lamp on the one hand and the high efficiency,
high cendle power arc lamp on the other hand until the
advent of the Nernst lemp. By reason of the fact that
the Nernst lamp was the only electrical illuminamt of
high efficienoy snd was obtainable in any desired candle
power, a timely weapon was placed at the disposal of
Central Station interests which would cover the entire
field amd successfully fill the existing gap between the
electric are and the carbon filament incandescent lamp.
Inasmuch as the incandescent electric
lamp, under which the Nernst lamp is properly classified
as a special design, has become such a common necessity
abd useful factor in every civilized community, it is to
be expected that the problem of its development to a high
state of perfection is one of wide-spread interest.
Relatively speaking, but little publicity has been given
to the Nernst lamp in comparison tothat given by the army
of individuels financially interested in the development
and exploitation of vacuum lemps end, in the opinion of
the writer, the embodied principles of the Nernst glower
offer greater possibilities for development into an ideal
illuminant than any other type of lamp Inow at the present
time, end, were the vast amount of energy and capitel which
has already been expended in the development of vacuum lamps,
directed to the scientific investigation and commercial

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(3)

exploitation of the principle of the Nernst glower,
the Nernst lamp would undoubtedly be made the most
ideal and populer illuminant of the future.

Considerable scientific investi-
gation of the basic principle of the Nernst glower
has already been carried to apparent perfection, and
considering that discovery in illuminants today may be
regerded es history tomorrow; so fast is the general
progress, that the subject matter following will be
centered about one type of Nernst glower which is now
practically standardized and reference will be made to
this unit for comparison with later developments.

The fundamental principle of the
Nernst lamp, that certain of the rare earths or refrac-
tory pxides, when combined in correct proportions, will
conduct electric current end give forth a brilliant white
light after being heated to redness, was discovered by
Dr. Yalter Nernst, a German physicist, in 1897.

The original invention of Dr. Nernst
is embodied only in the light giving element, or glower,
so nemed in order to distinguish it from the filament,
or light giving element of all other types of incandes-
cent lemps, ani is characterized by two peculiarities;
namely,

First:- It is ea non-conductor of electric current
when cold, becoming, however, a good conductor at temper-

etures above a red heat.

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Second:-- The passage of electric cuwrent through
the glower maintains it in a high state of incendescence
in the OPEN AIR.

The Nernst lemp in embro was first
brought to America at the request of Mr. George Westing-
house in 1898 and consisted of a crude body supporting
a glower and a fine pletinum wire resistance connected
in series therewith, but without means for rendering the
glower automatically conducting. Foreseeing its great
possibilities, Mr. Westinghouse promptly umiertook the
commercial development of the ideas prsented with the re-
sult that the Nernat Lemp Compsny was orgenized in the Fall
of 1901 and wes prepared to market a practical and effic-
ient lamp.

The Nernst Lamp, as a unit, consists
of the following essential parts:--

1. The glower, or light giving elanente

2. The Ballast, or steadying resistance in series
with the glowere

3. The Electric Heater, to render the glower con-
ducting.

4. The cutout, to interrupt the heater circuit after
the glower once becomes conductive.

5. The Lemp Body, which combines the sbove elements
in s commercial form.

The glower is the distinguishing
feature of the lemp, deserving special treatment and con-
sideration and, during the various manufacturing processes,

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the following desirable and essential characteristics
must be sought end are given herewith in the order of
their commercial importance:

| 1. LIFE. A glower must heve a long individual
life(that is, early failures must be very infrequent)
and also a long sverage life.

2. LIFE-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS. It is desirable
that the curve between volts and life be a straight line,
although under certain comitions it might be a great ad-
vantage if the glower could be so made that the voltage
would decrease slightly with life, in order to mke up for
decrease in surface emission of light. While it is an
innate property of the glower meterials to rise in voltage
with life, the rise can be controlled to a lerge extent by
@ combination of glower mixture, form and physics] con-
ditions,

3- JZENGTH OF LIGHTING PERIOD. The time required
to bring a glower up to conducting temperature must be a
minimum and is effected by mixture, form,. terminals, and
capacity of heater employed.

a. TR STABILITY. Stability, with reference
to the performance of the glower, indicates the position
of the crest of the voltage-current characteristic or the
point where a further increase in current is accompenied by
@ decrease of glower voltage; i.e., the efficiency, heyond
which the negative temperature coefficient will predominate.

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(6)
It is expressed in terms of Watts per Camile Power,
which correspond to definite values of current.

The stability point shifts slightly
with life, but not to any material extent due to the fact
that a iene in Camile power because of surface deter-
ioration opposes the inherent tendency of the glower
materials towards higher stability with life.

5. EFRICIENCY OF EMISSION OF LIGHT AND INHERENT
DECREASE IN CANDLE POWER. Characteristic of all illumin-
ants to have a depreciation in eandle power with service,
there is a decrease in the efficiency of light emission in
the glower, caused by the volatilization of any impurities
in the glower mixture as well as by erystallisation and
contraction of section of the glower. Careful chemical
inspection and attention to the physical properties are the
chief. means of reducing this decrease of candle power to
& minimum.

6. EFFICIENCY AT WHICH THE GIOWER CAY BE OPERASED.

The chief limiting féature of commercial efficiency is the
form of leading-in wire or terminal, although #1,2 and 4
above named elso have important bearing on this quelity. |

7. MECHANICAL STABILITY. |

A glower must be capable of wi thstanding
mechanical injury while in the various processes of manufac-
ture, in shipmat, and during service.

8. SPECIFIC RESISTANCE. In glowers of certain capac~
ities, this is of vital importance. As an illustration
it would be a decided advantage in a low voltage, hich current

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(7)
glower, if it were possible to gain a greater length

between the terminals for a given voltege. This would
also attenuate the glower, and the terminals would be
materially reduced in size.
GLOWER MANUFACTURE

The glower has been made from a
large number of different combimations of oxides md
the composition has not always been confined to the rare
earths, nor have all glowers been non-conductors when cold.
On the contrary, some have been composed of more common
elements and some have not required preliminary heating
in order to render them conductors, end, therefore, known
as self-starting glowers. Commercial glowers, however,
may be said to consist: of one or more metallic oxides cap-
able of withstanding very high temperatures and also are
conduetors of electric current only at these temperatures.

Tt has been found that the oxides best
suited for glower purposes when taken singly, are much
inferior conductors at the temperatures at which glowers
are required to operate than when taken in combination with
each other. In this respect such conductors differ from
metallic conductors where the purest metal possesses the
best conductivity. |

The determine tion of the best materials and
the proportions in which to combine them in order td produce
commercial glowers, have been the subjects of a vast amount

of investigation which is even now pursued in the search of

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(8)

spmething better than hes, so far, been devised. It igs
evident from the large number of oxides which are avail-
able, thet an infinite number of combinations may be
made. The majority of the rare earths which have been
found suitable for the manufacture of g lowers are
members of the two &roups; es follows:
GROUP #1 p04 Group of rare earths.

Titanium --- Ti,

Zirconium --. Zr.

Thorium --- The
SSeS
0, Group of rare earths.
3

Scandium --- Sc.

Yttrium --- Y,

Lanthanum --- Ia.

Ytterbium --. Yb.

Erbium --~ Ere

Not only may members of the same group, such as Zir-
conia and Thoria be used together with more or less
satisfaction, but members of different €roups, such as
Zirconia and Yttria may be used with even more suécess.
In fact, the latter combination forms the basic part of
the commercial Nernst glower.

The source of the Minerals from which
the rate elements are obtained is a mine owned and
operated by the Nernst Lamp Compsny, known as "Barringer
Hill", in Llano Co., Texas, which is a highly granitic

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(8)

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otéinery yidetd s at dokdw ,eexel .«09 omefZ ak ,"L[IiH

(9)

region. This property is exceedingly rich in deposits
of minerals containing Yttrium, Cerium, Thorium, and
Uranium Oxides, which deposits occur in the ferm of
pockets from a few ounces to one hundred and fifty pounds
capacity, embedded in great masses of quartz and ortho-
clase-felspar, in gigantic pegmatite.

These deposits appear to be the focal
point of rigid lines radiating from every possible direc-
tion to distances of seYeral feet and in some cases up
to five and eight feet. It is also noticeable that these
radial lines are fissures end bear no relation to the
natural cleavage or crystalline form of the high rock
masses in which they exist.

Easy perting takes place along these
radial lines, thus making the ore quickly available to
the miner. Since these lines converge into ore rich in
Uranium snd Thorium, end are & common phenomenon at this
mine, it is probable that their existence may be ascribed
to an electric or other order of activity, wich thus
evidences the presence of Radium, or some allied element
or elements.

The various minerals found so far in the
development of this property are named herewith, the
most abundant being Gadolinite and the remainder in the

order nemed as to quantity.

(@)

avisoqeh mi doiy yignibeeoxe ef yiteqotg ardT -M0 fuer
bos ,muticd? ,aotxeD ,awinttY aniatstroo alerexia to
to mret edt mf uwo00 atteoqeh ottw ,aebkxO mutase:
abeasog ytlit base betbrard oro ot aeomso wet 3 mort et ef oog
-odtro fxs adisyp to asses tserg mit bebbedme ,ytiosgso
eotitemmor oltnsais at ,rsqelet-saalo

[soot off ed ot tseqqs etisocef arent
-serie efdiaaog yreve wort anttetbax aenif{ blatzx to tatodg
qv geaso omco2 af hon teet [atefee to aeonstelh of moftt
eageid tats e{[dseotton oale af tI steot tdgto baa evit ot
eit ot mottsfet on tgcd bas gersagit era gont{ fetbet
soot doft edt te oxsot amtifstayxo to egeveelo [sister
etatxe yout doitw at gesesn
essent grcf{s goalq eoxet antiteq yest '
ot sldeltsvs Uldoinp ero edt grits avit ,semift Istbat
af dots eto ofmai eprevmcos aontl egett sonia etontu sxtt
eitt ts somemonediqg mommoo s sta fre ,mptiodT foe oviast
bedttoes od ym eonetatme tftedt tatt aldsdotg at TE ,omim
astt deicw ,ytivites to tebro refto ro ofrtoele na oft
toewefe betifs emoa ro ,Methsi to soresetq eit seomebive
eattomele xo

eft mt reat of brvot elarentm esofarv eriT
ect ,itdiwered bemsn ers ydreqorq atat to tmemcofevel
eat of tebaieaer eft ons etiatichs? gxied tnehasds taom
eqitasnp of as Semen tefhro

(10)
1. Gadolinite

2. Cyrtolite
3. Fergusonite
4. Allanite
5. Yttrialite
6. Thorogummite
7. Nivenite
8. Molybdenite
9. Mackintoshite
Some of these minerals show a strong
activity when tested photometricallye
Gadolinite is an ore rich in the ceria
end yttria groups, md is the principal source of sup-
ply of the yttria which enters into the composition of
the glower. A long series of operations is necessary
to reduce the crude minerals to glower materials and
requires a continuous laboratory process for a period
of approximately ninety days, the details-of which would
be a subject so broad that a clear understanding would
only be gained by a separate treatise on chemical
separation, which space will not permit.
In general the materials entering into the
composition of the glower must be absolutely pure and a
uniform quality is of equel importance since the physical
characteristics of the materials detemine several char-
acteristics of the commercial glowr. Critical

attention to concentration and temperatures of solutions

etintfofso .f

edfifodryo 8

etincasgret .f

etinsifA eb

etifatassiY .2

oviommgorosT 23

etigeviyT .f

eligoidylot 43

otidvotnivdes »@

gnoite # wode eLersnia eeedt te enc® |
eytisointemotodg beteet note givitos
aitso oft mf dott eto «a at etigakfohad .

~qv3 to somos Leqteniug edt at Ses yaquwotg efttty bas
to moftiacquos eff otet evctae dotdw strtty oft to ylq
visaaese: af anotisteqe to asiaues agol A .tewola oft

Sas eilaixetan tewolg ot afenzenta einio ett eoubex of
bottoq s 10% agene1g grofasodal avesatinos « aetispe:
[sow doitw to-alteteh odt ,gayes ylemtn yietamtxorqge to

Biyow get ber dante Sees saclo g tad? Geord of Soopdwe 2 od
Lsotmedo aco galtesst eteteges «= yd benteg ed yfro
etinzeg ton [itw sosqe dotdw ,golt azeqgea

ssid otxt gaitetme eleletan edt fesexney al ;

8 bas ersq yfedsforde ed tavm sowolg oft to mo ttisogmos
fcoleyiq oct eomts eonetxoqgnt femspe to af Qilasp arotian
-tsio [sxevee extmetoh aleMotem ent to esettalretostado

Isofvixd «tools Istoremnoo eft to soltteiretos

anoitufo2 to eexuteteqmet pas mottettasonoo of motinetts

(11)

during the chemical operations give a uniformity of
characteristics which can be duplicated from time time.

The materisl are tested physicelly for
specific gravity, fineness and plasticity, md a few
glowers are made from one new element in combination with
a standardized material and tested mechanically for
strength on ea specially designed testing mchine and elec-
trisally by noting the voltage, wattage and efficiency
performance with life under overload coniitions. When all
the test fall within the prescribed limits the material
is approved for use, or in case any characteristic is
below the fixed limit, perhapa because of some physical
reason, the meterial is rejected and again subjected to
the final chemical processes.

Oxides of the cesired quality having
been obtsined as above outlinedh a commercial glower having
a definite performance will result by mixing these oxides
in definite proportions with e suitable binding material
and then following the various processes of glower menufac-
ture, es hereinafter reviewed, through each step with exact-
ness and precisiones

With the desired glower characteristics in
mind, the proper proportions of the before mentioned oxides
are mixed with water and ea suitable binding mterial in a
special design of high speed ‘tmeading machine which is
meinteined at a low temperature during operetion, until the

to tmretins s ovig erotsaneqo [sokmede sft gatitsb
eeomtt @ emit mort botsotiqub od mzo detdw acottelretosisio

cot ULfsoteyta bataet ets Lafiretan off
wet s bm ,@tottesiq Sas ssementt .yiivars oft leeqe
itiw soittvestdmoo at tmemefe wor ero mort ebem e1s axewo fg
tot ylfsotnedoom beteetd Sms [elsetam bealitsiaste s
-oefe ins emtdoax gritaed Sergteed yl fehooqes s ao dignette
Yoretelite ins egetiaw ,sgediov edt yatton yd yflsotst
ile sodv .anottitros baolsevo tebaw et2f dtiw eonamsotreq
[atvotem ed? atimkf tediteaerq ont atddtw [ist teed afd
ai oftetwetostsio ure eago at to ,onw tot bevotere at
Iseteyiq emoa to omseed Be aireq ,tiatl bexit eft wofed
ot beteetdua wtegs ine betootet ef Ieitetan ett .mozset
-eve@nenotg Lsotmerlo Lent? ent

guived ytifesp Betiszes oft to vebix0
grived tewols I[storesmoe = vibemtitvo evods «2 bSextetdo reed
aebkxo event axtxim yd tfveet [Ibw eoranrctveq edinited s
[stvotan gctiatd efdettss s A8t~ enoitsogetg etiettet at
-ostunem tewols to geamesotq avottav edt omiwofiot med bas
-tosxe dtiw qeta dose dgvordt ,Sewetver vettembeted as ,e1ut
stolatectq bas eaen

xt goitetretosis fo towolg Bberieot odd ati
aebixo Semoltmem otcted edt te amoitaeqosy teqerq odd ,batm
a at Istvetan gntinid efdstive s ins totew dtiw bextm ets
at dotdw emffoan gutisem! beeqe daid to mpieeb Istoeqs
eit Lites ,cottsreqo gnizwh emtseteqmet wol 3 te bontsidnitsm

(12)

materiels form into a doughy mass of exact consistency,
so thet ea définite pressure will be required to force the
dough through a die.

The dough is then removed to squirting
guns and held at a low temperature by refrigeration until
the size of die has been selected, through which the
entire lot will be squirted, for a definite efficiency at
normal rated current; efter which the squirting operetion
is performed in the least possible time in hydraulic or
power presses under a fixed and uniform pressure, the mag-
nitude of the pressure depending upon the efficiency and
current capacity of the glowér desired, send also the form
of glower string; i.e., rod, tube or special fom.

After passing the die, the glower string
in a continuous plastic form, is caught én gauze trays,
dryed for a long period in the air, after which it is
further dryed in steam ovens. It is then cut into lengths
from which two finished glowers will be made, packed in
platinum tubes and subjecéted to a very high temperature in
furnaces for several hours in order t fix the properties
and roast out the last traces of the binding material.

The ems of the roasted string are then
passed through an electric are and a small bead or terminal
projection of "sintered" glower is formed. The next ope r-
ation is what is termed as "flashing" in which operation
the glower string is held in « machine, under tension, by

i sr}

.yoretefesoo vesxe to sean udguos s otat arol eisitetsm
edt esrot of Bextypet od [f[fw ewegeotq of taites s tadd oe
20fd s dymond? rau 0b

anivaisos of bevomex medé ai dawob edi
litas gottetesixies yd eumsiateqme? wok 2 ta fied bas amr
edt doldw dgcord? ,beteslee sped aad @£8 to este ont
ts yYouretotite etintteh « sek yhetuiwpa ed fitw toL extiae
coitsrege gaidiispe edt doitiy setts gteoemwe betes Sauron
to ofiuetigd af emit ofdieaoq tesel od? at bearotreq at
-3s0 edi ,ewesetq aetioew ose Sextt s tebay geeaetq Towo7
ons Yeretektts edt moqu getineqeh eumgsetq oft to ebstin
wrot edt oafe hms ,benteeh tewolg oft to Yrosqeo Pretiv0
eitthot Ietoege to edad ,bot get ggniata towolg to

arixtea tewols oft ,otb ett atiecaq retta
.syert saves mb tigveo at ,arot obtasiq aveumitmoo s at
at ti defdw vette ,ths oft at Solveq smof s aot Boyx
aitgael ott two sed af d1 sgmevo agete af Seysb reddit
ni 5ectesq ,ebam ed [Liw excwols hedatalt ow? doidw mort
at erstereqmed daid grev « ot Seveeidse Ses eedat avabtele
eaetitesoxg odd ait of sefto at awod [exusvee tot seocmit
eLehtetom guiiaid od to eooart teal edt two dasor Sas

cedd ews gaitvte be¢esou edt to sino od?
Isntarset to Seed Lieme = bes ons eiudeele as devout hecageq
-rego txex efT .feuwrct «t towels “Bexotata” to aoitectotq
sottetego doidw at “gaidesii" es bemwev at tedw st molts
Yd ,wotaaet webaw ,emidoam s at Bled af griute tewols edt

(13)

electrical contacts om the beads previously fdbrmed and
greduelly increasing currents are passed through the
string until a definite overload is forced upon it. This
operetion not only makes the string of uniform line, but
also removes all traces of mechanical shrinkage.

At this stage the pletinum terminals
of various forms best suited to the capacity of the
glower are applied and covered with a paste, made from
finished glower string finely divided snd held by a
binder, efter which the glowers are roasted at a high
temperature. This operation completes the manufacturing
process of the glower.

The glowers are next rated for dom-
merciel service by mounting them on a large rotating
device through which a constant current, the nomal
for which the glower is designed, is maintained and the
glower voltage is determined by means of sensitive
laboratory instruments which indicate the direct drops
in voltage over the finished glower. The free glower
voltage obtained in this mamer is then equated to lemp
voltage and the glowers are packed and ready for commer-
cial service.

BALLAST
The electrical conductivity of the
Slower becomes greater as the temperature increases and,

therefore, it becomes necessary to provide a steadying

fee
Lal }

Sas Bemsck yLlavotverq ebeed eit go atostnoo Isotxtocle
edd igquordtd Beaaeq ots etmermwe gatscseromt yl arbets
ali? .¢f aoqa beotot ef baolttevo etinited s Litany getrte
tud ,emtl muotins to gnivte ed? setiem yimo tox aottsteqo
eogetniuite [eoinsdoenm to secent [is esvomet oels

aisainvet asnitafg edt esate abit da
edt to ydlesqen oat of betioe teed goracl euolyey to
aott ebsa ,etaaa s abv bevevoo bxs bekiqgs exs tewols
Ss YC Sfed Sas bebtvES Ylonmtt gmiute tewo fo seodeta!t
digit s ts Setesot ere evew fs off doldw setts yeobrtd
aniisostwaem eft estefqmos gotterers «id? .eavtereqmet
etewolg aft W sseoot

-m0o 10% Setar txen ers avewols aff
arttater egref # to mextd gritawom é eotvres I stot]em
Iseron of} .tnevtws tustemeo # Motdw tgeondt eoiveb
oft ine bentsintss et ,bergtasd af sewolg oft dobdy rot
eviitetea to ances yi bemtarveted et esetiov tewolg
agoxS teents edt et.oliai dokdy atmeamutest protetodal
towofg eett edi .xrewels bedeteft si} towo ogatfiov nf
quel of betespe modt ef temrem elat wk-Semkeddo oyedf ov
-remmoe tot Wset Sas Setosq ors etewolg oft bes egediov
eeotviea Lalo
Ea

edt to ytivitombmoo feoketesie of?
.5u3 eeesetont ews toqaet cdt ee tedaeng eenoosd tewolg
aniybeete efiveta of qisaseoem eemooed fi ,etctetedt

(14)

resistance or "Ballast" operated in series therewith
for commercial operation. Inasmuch as iron possesses
the property of increasing its resistance to the pas-
sage of electric current in proportion to its rise in
temperature, this metal has been adopted for the commer-
cial ballast in the form of a very fine wire enclosed
in a glass bulb containing an atmosphere of hydrdégen.

The design of a ballast which will
give the desired corrective action is extremely important
and very difficult, while the manufacturing problem is
comparatively simple. The iron wire is rigidly supported
on &@ "mount" end etteched to platinum "leading in wires"
which pass through the"seal", and the finished mount is
fused to a tubulated glass bulb end exhausted in exactly
the same mamer as in Incandescent lamp practice. At
this point, just before "sealing-off", hydrogen is intro-
duced at atmospheric pressure, the bilb is sealed and
provided with a base after which the ballast is "seasoned"
and tested. The customary"air test" should show the
absence of air and if the normal current, when normal
voltege is impressed, falls within tl prescribed limits,
the ballest is approved for service in a lamp.

HEATER

Since the gléwer reaches a point of
conductivity nd becomes incandescent set mproximetely
950 degrees: C., it is readily apperent that to acquire
such 2 temperature quickly end without rapid destruction

miwetoeit eeitea at betetego "Sesllshi" 10 senstetser
eeasegaog moil as dovmesml emottesieqo [atotemmoo xot
-3sq oft of eomstetae: ati guiasetoat to ytregotq edt
ai eatr ati of mottrocotq af taerwo olitoefe to esse
-temmco edd tot betqohs seed eat Latem sidtd ,oxuteneqmet
beaofone o1lw exit yas 6 to artot odv at @aalied eto
-xegothbyd to etoivaomts ae goiagiataoo diud aesfg 2 at

iliw dott dealfed e to ateob off
inst roqmi yLlemertxe af goites evitgettos bexteebh edt ev ig
al moldotg guiiutostumem oft ofidw ,Sfsotthts quev one
Sstroggue YLbigit at extw mort eff .efquie pleviterequoo
"“gexiw xk guftiael" auattel¢ of Sedostta Sas “davon” 2 ao
at sarom Sedetatt edt bas ,"f{aee"o? dgua dt aseq doidw
Vitesxe si Dotavaize Sas diud sesig beteaiudut a of feast
tA .eoiteasuq qmal tmeoeebaeonl af as temtem empe o dt
-ostai af megotiyd _."tbhe-gaiiaes" erokted tac) yiateg eit
brs befges at di d aft ,exweaenq oltedqeomts ts beowb
"Seroasea” ak taallisd edt dotdw setts saad e ddtw tebivot
edt wode oivode "teet tis"yremotewo od «beteet bas
fsatoxr sedw ,tastise Lavuon edd ti Sus aka to eoxeads
.avimil bedisogexq ait midtinw af (et ,boeaorqui at egsti ov
equal @ at esivrse rot bevorqggs ef texlisd odt
a

to tatog « aedoset t6w6ly oct sonte
(istaatxoigys ts tuepeeinsont semooed bos: yitivitesbmos
ettiupos ot ted? tmotagy7s yliieweou af SE ..9 seeerges O8C
cottoyrteeb Stqet teodtiw ine yUltotup erstereqmet : dove

(15)
of the heating element, renders the selection of
materials for the heater a very serious problem,

The standard heater is made up by simply winding

a thin porcelain tube with fine platinum wire and later
embedding the wire with a coating of refractory cement

in order to protect the platinum wire from the intense

heat of the glowerse

THE CUT-OUL.

The development of a satisfactory
electro magnetic cut-out for the heater circuit, which
would fulfill the duty imposed upon it by practice,
was not as simple as it vould appear to be on first
thought. The type finally perfected is a combination
of gravity and magnetic action, in which gravity acts
at right angles to the magnetic force. The cutout
armature forms a part of the heater circuit and closes
the heater circuit by the action of gravity through
graphite contacts when the glowers are below the point
of conductivity. When the glowers once take current, it
passes through the winding ad, when magnetic pull
exceeds the action of gravity, the armature is suddenly
drawn and held in & neutral position by means of an
air gap of constantly diminishing width.

Having briefly reviewed the
features sought in the design of the elements of the
lamp and also outlined the important phases of their
menufacture, e more intimate study of the character-

istics and interesting phenomena presented in the

a |

to sottoclesa sit arshaex ,tmaemefo gnitsed odd to
etoidorq esottea yrev s tetaod edd tot elsiretsm
gatiniw yfqmie yd qe o5am et tetsed tiainsta edT
total Sus evtw genktels enti dtiw edw atsloorog nidt es
doemes qrotesrie: to gaiteoo # dtiw exiw edt gutisedme
earetat edt sort eriw auetieiq ait toetorq o¢ soSto at
sB@tewolg ent to ted
200-200 ZED
yrotostaiiae # to taemgofeved orlT

fotdw ,#ivorto zreteged edt tot dwo~tu0 oltorgan otteeLe
e20itoa1g yd ti mogs Sesoqat yub odt L£Piiwt {sow
tatit ao ed ot seegqe biso tf es efqmte ac ton aaw
nolttsenidmoo s at hotostseq ylisatt eqyt od? etdguods
atos Wivarg doidw at ,moitos oivemgem iae givers To
tuotue ef? .eonet oltemgem odt of aofgns tigtx te
eesoto Sas divorto tabeod ef t to tueqg s amrot eredtserne
dgsoidt yivess to aoitos odd yd Phwesto teteed edd
tatoq eft wofed os avewoly odd aedw etostace etidgerg
th ,taerise eset somo etowols eit medi .ydiwiderbmo to
fisq obtengsm sodw ,be geitmtw edt dgwortt aeseeq
Yinebbse et ewteurs aft ,ytiverg to soites ed? eboooxe
1s to emgon Yd soitieeq femteen 2 at Sfed ins swarb
Aitiiw gotdeinaiat’ yitast arce to qag ue

eit Beweivet ylieiad give .
edt to atmemele edt to mgteeS oct af tiaues eeustesk
tied? to seasdq taatroqmi edit bentitwo o2la bas gual
-tevosisiio eit to yoote otamiint siom s ,eustos tonsa
. edt al betnssetq snemonmedq aniteoretat bas eofttat

(16)

operation of the elements will be in order.

GLOWER TERMINALS.

In the Nernst glower one of the éiffi-
cult problems emcountered is the production of a suitable
electrode or terminsl, which fact will be appreciated when
it is borne in mind thet the light giving portion of the
glower operates at a temperature of approximately 2100 deg.
Ce

The glower material is often supposed to
be a solid electrolyte which is probably not true, since
it doss not conduct like a true electrolyte; thet is, with
a fixed decomposition et the electrode for each coulomb of
electricity that flows. Neither does the elowr conduct
like a metal because its specifie conductivity varies eas
@ complex function of the tempereture. Somewhat of e com
perison may he made with carbon, but even a great difference
in the two is present in the conductivity of the cold glower
and cold carbone

Since electrolytic decomposition of a
glower is comparatively slight, especially in the alternating
current type, it is probable that terminel complications ere
due to thermo-electric causes and also to a large extent in
the chemical and physicel properties of the highly heated
materials which form the terminals.

The properties for consideration in this
regard may be classed roughly as follows:-

1. Electrolytic decomposition.

{3L)

etebto nit ed (ftw etmemefe edt to mottereqo
oBLALLMGET GEWOLD

-!tir5 aff to exe sewolg seme” edd al
efdetive s te mettewsbexrqg edt at beretasoome emeldosq ¢iso
so¢w betstoerqas of {fiw test doidw ,femiaset 10 ehoutoele
eft to aotttoq grivig tigif oft tedt Soka at extod ai tt
396 OOLS yLlotsutxorqags to eumereqnet « ta aetareqo tewols
Pe]

ot Sseoqque settbe ef iskhretam towels off
sorte ,estd ton yldadow at doidw etygfiorteeie biioe « od
Atiw at tad? getyfoutoete eset « oftf tombmoe tom eeob 3t
to dmofseo dose 10t ehoxteete odd te mot ieoqmooed Sextt s
sosoroo towofa ec? goob tedtiol .awoft ted? yiteirtecle
28 eetusy etivitousmoo ofttesqa ett sasssed Latem s out
-109 s to tedwemot .ermbereqmet eft to mottomvt gefquoo s
sonerettié teetg @ deve tad ,sodaae diivy sham ed ysm moeiisq
yowolg Boo edt to griviveuiece afd at teoeetq at ont edt at
esodaeo foo 5x5

s to motttaoqmoosh oktyloxtoete eomte
setisevetie edt mi yiletooqgae yiigife ylevidversqmos ef tewols
ots arottsetigquos [sataret tedt eldedoxq at tf ,eqgyt dnenawo
ak tuetxse egisl @ of cala oma aeaveo otateote-ommesid oF ob
botsed qldatd edt to aetdueqorg Seoteyiq Sas Laokmedo adt
»eientaet ed mxct dotdw alsines sa

atid ok gotterebilenes sot actixeqerg edt
-:awoffot es ypliigvor beneslo od yam Sraeget

etoitieoqmooes oltyfLorfveeli .f

(17)

2. Chemical affinity of heated glower oxides
and metal employed in the terminal.
3. Impurities in glower material or metal.
4. The physical properties of the oxides and
terminal metal, such as
(a) Mechanical strength.
(b) Fusibility.

(c) Conductivity for heat end
electricity.

(a) Difference in expansion.

(e) Vapor pressure.

(f) Adhesion

(g) Cohesion

(h) Porosity of Oxides

(i) Gaseous Occlusion

(j) Liberation or absorption of
heat due to an apparent contact potential difference
between the heated glower oxides and the metal of the
terminal.

Pure platinum has been found to be
the only metal suited, and then only by special applica-
tion, for terminal purposes. Platinum has for its chief
impurity the metal Iridium. Since the alloys of iridium
and platinum have higher melting points than pletinm
alone, it would at first appear that such alloys would
meke a good terminal, or that to use even iridium for a
terminal would be an advantage. The difficulty with
such alloys md iridium is that it has e very much higher
vapor pressure than pure platinum and conseqwntly rapidly

eshtxo tewofs betsed to ytiaitts fsofmedd .&
eLlanisarret sdt at Beyotqme Istom Sas
efatem xo {[gitustem tewols nt aettiuvqml .8
Sas ee btxo edt to seltieqoiq [setegiq efT .d
38 dose ,fstem L[sntorret
-dtacette Laetnadoe’ (se)
-@ifidiawa id)
bus teed tot ytivitemsbrod (0)

-sotansqzxe at eometettia (5)
-omaeerg toqeY (a)
moteeiba (tr)

moteedod ig)

aebix0 io Waoted (st)
wolasloa0 asoeas® {f)

to soltqroads to motiaredht ({)
ee ERY

od ot Savot weed aed amatialq orsed
-solfiqgs Istocqe yd yimo sodt im ,botiwe Ietom yimo ont
tetdo ati sot ead awmtvell saesoqusgq L[artaret tot .mold
mstiiut to eyotis edt eomt®? .mmtGicl Istem edt ytiruqmt
maid sig asit etakeq guitien taisti eved ayetieiq 5as
SIsow eyoifis dowe tarlt teeqqs tertt ts Sivow tf ,emols
8 tot mmibiaxt aeve eas of tatt w ,fanterret toog 3 ovem
dtiw ytfvoltit5 eft .egetrevis ms od bLsow Lantorres

todatd dovma yrev s asd df tedt at mytbixt S08 eyolls doves
ULlhtas: yiteaspeenoo fxs menttsiq emg redt eweeerq 1oqsv

= ta 4

(18)

vaporizes away. In the case of an alloy the iridium
will vaporize out from the platinum end leave the letter
very brittle, unless thetwo are in a molten state. It
is, therefore, the best practice to use only pure
platinum for 211 glower terminals.

"HANKS" TERMINAL (Pig. 1)

Some extremely interesting
phenomena produced by the forces of adhesion, cohesion, |
and surface tension exist at the temperature of molta@m
glower material and molten platinum and when platinum
and glower material are brought together in the electric |
are, a bead of oxide forms and a small pellet of pletinum
is sucked and embedded in the glower material; the |
latter almost totally surrounding the platinum. In |
cooling, the shrinkage of the platinum is slightly |
greater thar thet of the glower oxides, as is evident frou
the fact thet, & little depression is formed in the
platinum at the end of the bead. The adhesion of the
platinum for the glower meterial is sufficimt to give |
@ good contact between the platinum end the oxides. thereal

appears to be little or no chemical affinity of the ox-

ides for the platinum under operating conditions in 4
the alternating current glower. The temperature of the

terminal when in service is near to the fusing point

when the glower is in operation if tension be applied
to the glower. Slight differences in the expansion and

;
;
of platinum for a lead wire my be pulled out of e bead
7
contraction of the two materials show no bad effects. |

{af}

aythttt edt yofis xsto saeo edt nl .Yyews seatroqsv
xoftteal eit eveel 5ns ammiteiq edt mort two ogtrogav [{[iw
$I .etete setiom « at ors owtedt aseaclan ,eltitad prev
ewq yimo eas ot eoltoaiq daod edt ,etotetedd tft

«sient wre? towols [fs toi munitelg

(T sgt) Lame: "22a

gutvgexvetat yLometdze omoe
emotsedoo ,motsedis to asouct ed? yd beombo tq smemomedq
ro tlom to ewmtenequet edt to tatxe gotenes sostise bas
myaitseiq medw ins aumbtal¢ metiom bas Letretan towolg
otrtosle edt at tedtegot idguond sae Ic trotan tewolgs ins
muctisiq to teLfeq [fem 2 6a8 eardl ebixo to ised 2 ,ot
edt ;[ettetea sewolg oft at Sebdedue Sue bextowe sf
al .mmuottelg oft geibavoume yYlietot tacmis vetisl
Uisdgife at auatisic edt to egeinixia off ggmifooo
mort taebtve at ec ~eebixo sowolg ort to tatt nedt t08etse1g
edt of Bemxot et soteaenge’ sltdti s ytadt tost edt
edt to motaedés ef? .bsed of f to fro ont te guettelq
evis of twmiottise at Letretam 1ewfs od? 10t avaitelq
ated! .eehtxo edt ne muntdala od? moowted Sostmoo boog 2
-xo edt to ytiattte f[eotmedo on to ofttil od of exrs]qqs
at amottibnoe griteveqo rebar munttelq odd tot aebt
ott to exstereqmed off .towola taetxwo gritarretis edt
tatog satevt oft o¢ t@aax ait eoltvres al aedy Lent wxet
beed s to tuo SeLIsq od yan exhy beef s tot apmttsiq to
betiqgs ed sotaset tf moitereqc aft et tewolg ext aoriw
bag cotameqxe add ot aeonerettib tdgtic .sewols odd of

.atoetts bed om wone alstretsm owt edt to sottsarinoo

(19)

There is comparatively little trouble arising

from loss through vaporization because the platinum

is almost entirely enclosed, but in case vaporization
should form a cavity in the bead, it would be serious

and show in the form of excessive voltage rise which would,
no doubt, be erroneously @ascribed to the properties of
the oxides.

The conductivity of the glower meter-
ial in the terminal bead varies widely on account of the
different temperetures of various portions of the bead.
The greater part of the current appears to pass to the
glower string from the nearest portions of the embedded
platinum, while the glower material surrounding the sides
of the bead seems to act merely as a protection to the plat-
inum. In view of this action, further protection of the
terminal by the application of paste is unnecessary.

The Hanks terminal is om of the best
terminels ever produced for elterneting current service,
but, by reason of its limitation to string of the rod form
end low current capacities, and also the appearance of
glowers in tube form, employed in lamps of improved
mechanical design, this terminal is now obsolete.

NERUST TERUIMAL = (Fig. 2)

The "Nernst" terminal consists of a
bundle or cable of fine pletinum wires wound around the
glower, the ends of the cable being twisted firmly together.

(er)

atisiue s{dvert oftiitl yfev itsisqmoo af sredT
ascttsfq odt saysosd goltsaiirogsv davordt geol mort
cxofttsaiiecgsvy eago ai dud ,Bbevofome yLeorlttxs teom{s at
evotres ed bf{uow ti ghaod ont at yYlivso 3 mrot bIyode
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to gettuweqotq of of Sed inoacp gfavosmorie od ,tdrob on
eeobixo ot

-totaa tewols oft to ytiviveubro off
eit to tnxvosos so YLebiw eoltsv Saed Isatwret oft at Lat
-Bsef ent to amoitwoq evotrevy to asumtexegmetd ¢menett ts
eds ot aaaq @& assoqcs torerims et to Prag tedserg odt
bebbedmm off to anotttoq teenser ort aoxt gaiate sewols
sebta eft gatinworrse I[stveten tewofg edd eLidw ,aeattsiq
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eit to sotteetorq teddast ,wetfes at # to wetv al smuat
eYrsaseoomns at etear to moftieeliqrs oft yd Lentaniet

taed edt to ero ef featuret winch off
,ooltvies tmetxsz cnitenretrs rot jeowbowg 1tove efemt met
mrot Bor odd to arixte ot gobtetiot£ ett to moasor ge .tud
to eonsiseq@ odt oafs tas ,gettiosgss tmetwo wl om
hevorgmt to aqmef at beyotqme yrret odut at atewols
estefoadc wox ei Iamitervet atdt ,mgtaeh [eotnadoom
(s ott) «=a

8 to atetenos famtmared “terre!” eT
edt bavors Sasow sottw mumttsiq antt to e{dae 1o eLbasd
erettegot ylairti Sotetwt anted efdse edd to ehae edt ,tewols

al Ad

( 20)

The entire connection is then pasted with a cement of finely
powdered glower string, which prolonmgsthe life of the
terminal by preventing the air from coming in contact with
the highly heated platinum end elso aids in holding e firm
contact between the cable of small wires and the glower
strings When the wires are exposed to the air, a volatil-
ization of the platinum hearest the heated portion of the
glower string, gradually goes on and results in an increased
length of the glower between the terminals with a correspond-
ing voltage rise. The terminal, no dowbt, runs at e higher
temperature since the strands of wire in contsct with the
glower material have only line contact with adjoining wires.

The Nernst terminsl is applicable
for direct current glowers and it is here that electriysis,
if present, shows in electrode effects, being chiefly at the
negative terminel. A blackening occurs in the glower string
which starts at the negative terminal and increases in dis.
tance end magnitude with service. The cause of this phenon-
enon may be ascribed to an electrical progection of part-
icles of pletinum from the negative electrode into the glower,
amd is the esse of a shorter life for direct current glowers.

This effect produces a weakness at two
places; the one being very close to the junction of the
darkened glower with the metal terminal while the other is
at the limitation of the darkened portion of the glower
string. The weakness is probably due, either to vaporiza-
tion of platinum from the glower, leaving the string ina

(Og )

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sedgtd s ts axut ,Odvob om ,fantaret sd? .eatt oxatiov ant
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efdeotfaqa sf Ionltonet Parte” edT
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eit ta Yftetds anted ,etosetts siorfoetes ai ewode ,troseag If
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-aonedq eifft to easso of? ,ootvroa dtiw efstingem irs sonst
-trseq to mottoego1q Ieotttoote as of bediroms od yr more
etowols oft ott ebortoefe evitegen edd mort apmttiaiq to sefot
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owt ts esentsew s eoouborg fostte std?
eit to moftonmt ect of seefo qrev acted emo oft gacostq
at redte edt efidw Lanimset [atom oft ctiv tewolg bemex:sb
tewols edt to moltxoq bemevtxss od to motistiak£ edt ts
-sstrogsv o¢ tadtie enh ydsderg et asemisew edT -gaiita
e xk gaicte edt grivasel ,tewols oft mort mumttefq to mott

tt

(21)

more or less disintegrated form, or to a reduction of
strong glower oxides to weaker sub-oxides. The diffusion
of platinum occurs more rapidly when ea glower is operated
below its normel temperature.

There is furthe more an apparent

contact potential difference between the platinum and
the glower oxides, such that the current in passing from
the platinum to the glower liberates heat and in passing
from the glower to the platinum absorbs heat. It is
because of this heat liberation end absorption that the
positive and negative teminals operate at widely differ-
ent temperatues; the latter operating at approximtely
1100 deg. Ce, whilé the former operates at approximately
2100 deg. C. When this terminel is used on alternating
current glowers, the rapid reversals of current tend to
equalize the heating effects and the total thermal effect
is such as to keep the terminal cool.
BAND TERMINAL (Fig. 3.)

The band terminal employs a stirrup

EE

of platinum which fits over the glower string so that it can
be fused down into « solid bend. There is no tendency for |
this band to slip off from the glower, as the adhesion of
this fused pletinum to the glower string is very great. |
This type of terminal has all the characteristics of the
Nernst teminal in improved form and has many superior
points over the other types from the manufacturing view-
point.

{rs)

to moitesber g ot to ,mmot Betvsrsetnialb aesef to eto
motestiis ed? .eebixo-dsa tevsew of aeiixo tewols gmo1te
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serstereqmet L[arron att woled

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at tl steed efvonds mimitse£¢ of? of tewole odd mort
edt tadt mettqrosds ios gottaredtf teal etdt to eamood
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vletamtzxorags te getetweqo temrot eft aitdw .20 »sgeb COIL
gritsnvet{s ac bom ef [entavet attt mof”! 09 «905 coors
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soette Lamrert [etot edt Sas atoette aniteel oft extissne
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(.8 .9tt) aM ugD sas

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to molaefiibs edd as geewols oft mort Tho qife of basd aint
-teots ywov at gainte tools ont of aumttela beast at it
ait lo goltelwtosiedo ot [fe ead Lantaret to eqyt atdT
soiieque yoam asd bre arsot fev oxget at fentore? ¢ artel!
-woly gnixitostunsa eds mort esecys tedto eid revo etaiog

etctodr

(22)

Although several hundred forms of
terminal have been developed, only the last two men-
tioned are employed in the manufacture of glowers at

the present time.

STUDY OF GLOWER.

A close study of the heat conditions
which are present in the glower terminals will no doubt
be of interest, and it is certainly evident to an
observer that thermo-electric principles apply to the
phenomena taking place in the glower. The ordinary
equation for thermo-electro motive force is:

B= sa t+ +2
Which gives upon differentiation

@Exzsadct+pbdt

Q is taken as the rate of rise or the
ratio of increase in E.M.F. to increase in temperature,

a at #bt at
and thusQ = ~~ ye + #&3= a + bt.

Associated with thermo-electric
principles is the so-called "Peltier Effect", which is
simply the inverse of the formr. Thus if a current
flow from copper to platinum, "there will be libereted
at the junction of the two metals, 9 x 107* calories
per coulomb.

If Py is equal to the heat liberated
at the cold junction, and Ty is equal to the temperature

of the cold juntion, ana PB equals the heat absorbed at

to amrot Serboid ([<teves dasodt iA
-sem owt tasf eft yfmo ,Seqolevet need eved Isntarret
ts axrewols to etutostuasm edt at beyolqs exe bemoltt
e@ritt txoagetq oft
«BEL OTS FO YOUTS

Bae tsi aoe tact odt to yinde esofo A
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sai eorck evitoaw ortesfe-omredd rot sottanpe

Sy er s = @
moitskinexettift moqy sevig dofdy
tbd+tbheshb .

oft to eaix to stat offf as mewdat ai 2
emwitsisqmet mi egsetomt of .%.4%.0 af easeront to oftst

ointoole-ouarredt dtiw Setabooges
ef dotcdw ,"tost®h «ettlei" helisaeos oft et gelaqlontag
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getaofes "or x @ ,alatem ow ont to moitonst att te
edmofs0o t98g

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siiisreqmec. oft of Isups al a fas ,foktony{, Bloo aft ts
ta bedtoads tsed eft alsaspe fe bas ,gmottnnst Bloo eit to

(23)

the hot junction and Tp equals the temperature at the
hot junction, then, if W equals the work done per unit
flow of current
v” 1. = eS CUD
Sa

but, since work is equal to EC and C is “a W,
therefors, is equivalent to E and E equals ( 1 =) "7.
An inspection of these equations will show that they
are similar to those deduced for the work done during 6
reversible hest process involving adiabatic and isother-
mal expansi one

It will be noted in the equation for
E thet while E must equal Zero when Tp =Ty; it does
not follow that P; and Pp, must equal Zero for Pj and
Po must equal the Zero for Py and Pp vary with the
current. When current flows through the junctions end
Tt and Tp have an eppreciable differenve between then,
EB becomes real and effects a subtration of heat at the
negative and sn addition of heat at the positive, be-
cause the E.M.F. must result from the absorption and
liberation of heat at the terminals.

When the negative electron theory
is considered, some interesting results can be deduced.
According to the electron theory, electricity through-

out the circuit is conducted by means of smell negative
electrons which are projeeted through the materials
bd

/

edt ts exutsiteqaet oct efavpe gf base moitonnt tod ont
¢inu isq emob trow edt afsaspe W it qmedt ,mottonst tod
taetmo to wolt

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effoltaxeqxe Lam

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evitsgem [fseme io exsen yd betoubcoo at tiwrto ont tuo
afatretem edt dassordt betesjorq ots dottw enortoste

im

a_i |) ie

(24)

of the circuit. Where the platinum joins the glower
material, the platinum electrons will tend to go into
the glower and travel far enough to meet a glower
electron and repel the latter on its way, tle energy
of the former being given upe At the positive end,

it would seem that glower electrons would attempt to

enter the platinum of the terminal, but since pletinum
is much more dense than glower material, electrons would
not have to trav6l very far before they would mest a
platinum electron and send it on the wey.

Physically, we have direct evidence
that platinum enters the glower at the negative termin- |
el, but it is not known if glower materiel enters the
platinum at the positive. It is thus reasonable to
conelude that glower materiel is electrically permeable,
while platinum is quite dense. It may also be thought
that platinum is very rigid and when the glower
electrons strike it, the tendency is to volatilize
portions of platinum lying to the side of the point of
contact of the electron.

If blackening is a feature of the |
Peltier effect, then, since P, end Pp vary as the
current flowing and the heat varies as the watts ex-
pended in the glower, then es watts equal EC and E
diminishes when C decreases, the ratio tz 4 Pe

Wette Watts
is greater and more blackening can occur.

tawels edt arfoj munttalg edt ox aril! eSigoxrto sat to
oft og ot Boot [iItw anovtoeles munitafq of .I[siretan
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8 teem Sfs0w yoadt erected t2% yrev févexd of evad tom
eysw ett so tf Snes See goxtocle menktal,

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= Sra 9 &@ Iespo attaw ea sed? ,r6ewols oft aft bebmog
a nee an ett ,aeasetoes 9 nodw eedatnimts

atisW 8

etso900 sso gainexosfd exom ins tretsexa st

“ (25)

There may also be a curve of glower

permeability to negative electrons, which gives the

permeability for any temperature et which the glower

may operate.

The foregoing principlesmay be
epplied to explain some of the peculiar actions
which occur in the use of the glower.

When the glower is operated on
a circuit of twenty-five cycles, the life of the

glower is somewhat shorter than on greater frequencies

end the failure of the glower alvays occurs et the
junction of the terminal and glowere The cause
of this can possibly be assigned to the blackening
and the subsequent reversal does not completely
Change the glower terminal back to the original
comition, so that strains sre introduced and fail-
ure results. It is not difficult to imagine that
such a terminal could consist of an amalgamation
of glower and platinum electrons, the platinum
becoming more in evidence the farther one gets
toward the platinum lead.

In contrast to the above, it has

been found that the Slower fails at a point just out-

side the platinum terminal on high frequency. This
mey be ea partial result from high temperature but

the junction effect scems more probable, in view of

the absence of the effect under some conditions when

the terminal is equally hot. It car be assumed

(a3 )

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oft egevig dotdw ,amortoels evitazen ot ytritdseme,
<awefa ost dotdw ts ewtereqmet yas sot ytilidsemreq
-otsteyo yer

ed ymeelgtontag gniogerot edt
anottes tatisesq edt to emtoe atafrxs ot betiqgs
etewols oft to eae oft af 500 fof tw

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e2ns0 oHT etowoto tre Lactavet fd to ro td ones &
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yletefqmoo tom aeob Isevcever tmospeedse oft Se
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_[teat oere heosbovtar ore ettierte dedd oF gtott fr00
tect extgaut of tfuoittks som at $2 sativeot ous
notisusslems ms to getanoce Stoo Lemtaxet 8s dove
mattefq oft emortoole mrcttefa See tewols to
ates sto tediirst sd eonebtve ai srom artmooed
eheol aunttelq ed? bxswot

get tt ,ovods edt of tasztro0o ot
_tso teut tatoq s te alist tewolg edt tett Sect coed
ata? .yorespett daftd mo Lentovet munitelq oid obra
tud exstetoqmed dati mott tivect Istiteq 3 od Wr
to wetv at ,eldsdotg oro 1 aires > tostte mottomt ot
nedw esottibmce emoe tehav toetts oft to eomeads odd

bemsaas ed reo Jl tod yifsspe at Lantarret oft

(26)

that when first the glower electrons encounter

platinum electrons, the latter are ina zone of heat

and will be more or less movable am respond by

changing their position sideways, but at other places
the temperature of the platinum may be such thet the
metal is rigid and the impact will find no elasticity,
so that the platinum will be exuded from the surface

in the form of a mass of fine particles of ea spongy tex-
ture.

On direct current the positive
terminal gradually accumulates this spongy mass and
according to this theory, it is done in the following
me mers~

At the negative terminal the platin-
um electrons flow into the glower proper, absorbing

heat nd liberating electricity. At the positive

end the glower electrons attempt to enter the platinum,

but at that point upon the platinum terminal where the
heat is sufficiently small for the platinum to be
comparatively rigid, a platinum sponge will be forced
oute

SOME UNUS P.

When é€ direct durrent glower begins
to take current, a sharp division line between a bright
er and a darker portion of the glower moves from the
negative terminal towards the positive. Ata position

ebout midway between terminals it disappears, being

A

totavoone exortoole rewols oft taxtt sedw tadt
sed to emos s ai ets rottsl edt ,amoxrtools mattaldq
Ww Snoqaéx is eldevom ssel to exrom od [ftw Snes
gsosiq tedto ts tud ,syswebie motitaoq yiedt qwignato
aft tsit deve ed yom mumiveiqg odt to emtareqmet edt
.¥foitasle ox fAmtil [fiw tvosqmat odd bas Bhatt at [ctom
sostive odd mort bobyxe od [Liw auntielq od? toadt oe
-xev ygnoqge sto eelottisg entt to eaan 2 to mxot ont at
souut

evittsoqg sit treriso toexks 0
Exe eeam Ygnoge elit gevelumoos YU Isuhety [salonet
gaiwolfot edt mi omob af ti ,gxoedt ald? o¢ an thxooos
$6 I OST! BM

aca ot lantaves evitegen ont te
geidioads ,asqorr towofa edt otnt wolt anorteels am
evitieoy eff tA .gttotuto: fe giteredt{£ be taed
euvaitelq oft retme of Squetie anouvoele tewolg adt Se
edt ousdw fanimtet wuatislq edd moqn tmitog stadt te tud
ed of aumitealq odd sot [fauna ylimetofiiwe ai taecd
Heorot ed [fiw eggoqs auatisiq 3s ,btakt yflevitataquos
| at 0
AERO TABU, oie

anized tewolg ¢meniu5 soeris 3 aed”
-idgixd s meewied eail moteivih queda a gtaewmso glat of
ant mort gevom tewols sft to molixveg talus) s bas ve
nottitacg eg tA ,evitisod odd ebiswot Lantarret evitegen
acted ,erseqgseih tif afsainret seowled yswbim isods

(27)

lost in the flood of light emitted by the rapidly
lighting glower. By operating the glower at a much
lower temperature than normal, the dividing line moves
more slowly and for a greater distance.
PECULIAR DIALECTRIC PHENOMENA:~

The highly heated air in the ime diate

neighborhood of e glower when in operation is conducting
in e peculier mmner and is properly classed as a "Neg-
ative electrode phenomena". At the anode there is a
libera*ion of heat and at the cathode there is an absorp-
tion of heat, md so great are these thermal effects
thet an anode of pletinum which melts at 1760 deg. C.

mey be melted while a cathode of silver, which melts eat
960 deg. Ce will remain solid.

The metal of the cathode is absorbed
by, or possibly projected into the glower toward the
annode, for the presence of silver, platinum and other
metals has been detected by chemical analysis of mter- |
ial taken from e point at considerable distances from
cathodes consisting of those metals.

This peculiar effect may best be
illustrated by the simple experiment of exploring the
air with an electrostatic voltmeter, and by this me thod,
&@ distribution of conductivity approximating that shom
in Plate #2, Fig. 4, in which the shaded lines perpendic-
ular to the axis of the glower represent the magnitude.
With @ 200 volt glower in operation and 2 voltmeter

ylblqsx odd yd betdioe tdgtf to boot eft wi taol
foum s ts tewols ont garitstreqo yi etowola anttdsti
gevom emif gerthivib edd ,fsmron nmsct sistereqnet rewol
eoonsteih tetseta s tot Sms yYfwoles eros
- \ oa

sisitbemi ed? af tta@ betsed yldstd edt
anttouiaoo af moitareqo ai medw towols 2 to bocdroddgton
-3e%" s as becaslo ylreqowmr sf bos tenmm retiveeg < at
83 2c exvedt ohome oft TA 8 «"amemonediq ebottoefe evita
-rroads ts et eredt eforteo od? te ins teed to molt grodil
atoette L[sarrei? evetd e:@ SseTg of Se .teon to mott
2D .206 OSNE ta atfiom dotdw mpattef¢ to efons me tadt
: etfem dotdw ,xeviie to sbodtse es elidw Bbetfem sd ym
ebtfoc miswar ftw oD .geb 02e

Sedroads at ebortse edt to [stom od?
¢ + Baawot tewolfn edt otmt betostorg yfdteaor 10 ,yd
gedto 5x3 suntiaiaq ,tevife to eomezotq of rot ,9 bonnes
-rstan to ateyfams [sotmerlo yd botoeteb mood asd elaiom
mort a@eonstets efdevebtanos te treteoq s mott melet Ist
eaistom saott to anttatantoo eebottso

ed tesd yan tostte rsifweeq eis? .

edt gntrolqxe to taemtreqxs ofqmie oft yd Setertan(lt
sodtom etdt yd bus ,wetemdlov oftetaortesfe ae Atiw tts
nmode: Stadt gattemtxowgs yviviteshbros to moftudiaterh 3
-olbneqreq aentl bebate edt dotiw at ,h sgki ,S% etsiT at
-shutingsm eft taeeerqex towels oft to eixs oft ot usin

setemfov s Sms motd:1eqo mi sewolg tfov 008 s mit

=e er TV . . -
een ail (ze)

rigidily connected at the positive end end a freely
moving "exploring wire" at the negative, a deflection of
50 volts is easily obtained et e distance of 3/32" from
the negative electrode. The effect is more pronounced
as the temperature is increased. If the voltmeter wires
are inverted, that is, with the positive wire free to
explore, no deflection is observable, notwithstanding
the fact that the terminal temperature is greater in thé
combination, and hence, it is apparent that it is not
beceuse of high temperatures that the air is conducting.
Alternating current shows the
effect in a more forceful way than the case previously
reviewed. Electrostatic instruments show leakage from
both terminals, but thet from the negative is always
the greater in magnitude. It is possible to sedéure
indicated deflections higher in value then the effective
voltage as, for example, from s 200 volt glower it is
possible to -et a value up to 250 volts through the
surrounding air. This is no doubt due to a unidirection-
al charge, for the static charge is received during the
helf-cycle when the exploring wire is near the momentary
negative electrode of the glower, and a charge received
from the "peak" of an alternating wave cannot leak off
rapidly. These particular conditions for high deflec-

tions are similar to those present in unsymmetrical alun-
inum electrolytic condensers.

yloort s Sas boo evittaog oft ta botoomnco yfrbiets
to mofsoofteh s ,evitsyer oct te "etkr gatrolqree" arivom
wort "S8\6 to eorstats s ts bextatdo y[tasse eat atLew 02
Ssorgyomorg etom af tostts edT .ehortoesle evitader oft
astiw totemdiov oft tl .beaseront af erutatequet eft as
ot eoxt erty evitieeq ont dtiv ,at tett ,betievat oxs
aclinstedtiwton ,efdavireade af sottoefteh on ,etolqxs
idt «cf tetsera of ertarequed L[antomet eft tats sost edt
yon af tf tedt teeiagss af tk ,oomed bas ,sotsantdauoo
exaitousbroo ef tia oft tadt eewtereqmet daid to sensoed
eft awodts tnetivo antventedf{A
ylavofverq saso acdt asdt ysw Lwteorot srom 2a at toetio
mort egoisef wocs etoacmauteant ottatecitosfl .hewel ver
aysvis ak evitosen edd moxt tad trd geksmtarret stod
ewso2 ot sidtaseqg at tt .ebstirasm af acteerg edt ©
en oette odd xedt estsv at wedatd anoftosfteb fisteotiat
ai ti rswofm dfov 6038 ¢ mov? ,elqmexe 16k ,a9 egedfov
edt davotdd etfow O88 ot au essay cs tex ot efdi aaog
-ncttoertitas e@ ot sit tdvoS om at ath? sats on Phavorises
ood anivu6 bevreosy af egrsto oftata eft sel ,eyratio Is
yisinomom oid geen ak eziw gaivolqze oct redw efoyo-tied
bovisse: egtato = bas ,sewoly off to efortoofe evitsszen
Yio Asef tonnso svaw qritarretf£s as te "Ageq" edd mort
-ositeb gdaid tot amottisxoe rsfvottueq esedT »Gidiast
-mis [seixtemmyanu ct tmowouy ogolt of tafimie ere amolt
estcamobxroo oftyfortoele aunt

: , ae
i = , (29)

GLOWER FORM:--

Glowers, in the solid or rod
form, sre limited to use for comparatively smell
currents, due to the fact that the center of the
string is operated at such @ high temperature as to
melt the material. For higher currents, therefore,
other forms, such as tubesy are used in order to
secure » thin wall of material which has a nearly
uniform temperature. Special forms which may be
compact and yet do not have all the material in active
contact, may also be operated on high current.

In the latter form, it will be
noted (Plate 2 ~ Fig. 5) that the path for current
through the central portions of the glower (A) is
much longer then the path (B) along the surface.

These conditions of current distribution are self.
compensating, for, while the path at B is short, the
resistance of the glower material is higher because of
the cool surface. Since the glower materials are
subject to appreciable chenge after a definite temper-
ature is reached, it is desirable to operate the
Slowers as close to the limit between temperature and
vaporization &S possible. Otherwise, the hottest
part of the glower would be just below thet limit ena
the relatively cooler portions must, therefore, be

operating at a temperature which igs below maximum
available efficienoy.

Gor tc brIoe oft mi .arewold
{Lome yLevitsteqmos rot say of botimkl ere arrot
odt to setmeo edt tet tost edt ot evb ,atnerrso
of ac ets sxeqmed deft 8 dove te hetsteqo at gairte
,2t0tetedd ,atmetuio vedgii 10f 8 .«L[aeisvetsm edt tf om
ot teft0e sf boas ors yaedst es toma ,amirot redto
yiusex 8 asd dofdw Iefretsm to ffaw mtdt s emooe
ed yeu doidw amtot [etosq2 .enutsreqmet mrotins
eviteos at [stretam edd {fs eved tom ob tey ns Posgqno0o
strotive Said ao betaereqo ed cals yam ,tostx0o

ed [ftw tt gapsot rettsf oft al
trevrwme tot disq oft tadd (@ sgtl - & eteLf) betom
at (A) tewofs edt to amoitaog f[sitseo odd dguoudt
-oostise odt emofs (@) dtsq odt asdt tegmof doom ©
-tfse ot2 gottudtateth trerwo to emotstinoo eaed?
eit ,troda at & te dteqg odd ofidw .tot ,gattsanequos
%) eavsoed todsid et {etrotan tewol3 edd to eonstaiaet
ers alstretesm tewols eft sort? .eastive Loco edt
-reqmet etinties e rotte egnsdo efdstosxgqs of toebdse
eit etsteqo of efdextaed af it ,fedesex af exsds
brs surtsveqwet seewted thatf edt of eaclo as. atoewols
teettond odt ,eatwredsO .eldiagog as moftesgiiogsy
ine timt( tedt woled tau, od blyow sewolg edt to txsq
ed ,eroteteds .saum anotixog sefooo yLevitafer ott
mumixest woLed at doidw ewterequet s ts gaitssege
ewrotottts efdafisvs

a Se ee .
aoa | (30)

STANDARD GLOWER CHARACTERISTICS
Effect of Glower Length and

The active length of glowr string
has @ very marked effect on efficiency of short glowers
and but little effect on long glowers as shown by the
curves on Plete #3. To illustrate, the normal lencth
of a 100 Volt glower is 1.0 om., so that a little
varia ition would be a high percentage of total length
end hence affect efficiency. The normal length of
the 220 Volt type glower is 2.4 em., which is the
standard length of string for die tests, for- as will
be noted on the curves, at these lengths, efficiency is
affected comparatively little.

In the operation of selection of dies
referred to in the review of the manufacturing process,
a set of curves is obtained as show by Plate #4 with
glowers whose length is 2.4 cm. The die to be selec-
ted, for instance, for squirting a stock lot of .5 ampe
flowers, whose initial efficiency is to be 1.5 watts
per Mean horizontal candle power (of the bere glower;)
would be Die #82, since on the meterisis used, no
die gives the exact figure desired and the one selected
is the nearest approach on the increasing side. In
the curves shown, it is evident thst Die #83 is worn,

for the efficiency of string made through it is not in

| i

bas dtgmel sowelS ‘o tostti
YoroeLofitsy co to tomeld

lel eel Prt Olle Olle OCD

arixte revwofa to Astanef evites odT
arewol[s trode to yorstoltte mo tostte Bolt -m yrev 8 aad
eit yd ~wode as axewols gaof mo toette sfttil tad bra
iteacef Larron ott ,otertasflt oT .8% otefI mo aeviso
eftiifl a tadt oa ,.etto O.F af rewofs tfo¥ OOF s to
dtarel Ietot to egetncorsq datd s ef Bivow mot# stisv
Sc dtamef Ianten ofl eyoretottte toctte esred bas
odt at dotdw ,.e© 5.8 et rewefs ocyt sfo¥ OSS oft
{ftw as -vot ,ateet efB tot antxte to dtanel Ste imetea
at youetottte ,adtanel eaedt ¢s ,aevayo eit mo Seton od
soLisil yfevitereqmoo botoetts

asisb to moitecfes to mottsreqo ext al
~2sso0%g griustostsmen oft to wetvet oft at ot Bexre tot
dittw Dk etefI yw mrode as bertetdo ef aevivo To tea s
-sofes eck of eff oT emo 2.3 af dtarel oaotw erevoltg
-qus @. to tol Yoota s gerifrtupe sot ,eotstant rot ,bet
attsw 3.5 ed ot at wretottte Ieftint eso Ww ,etowols
(growols ersd edt to) tewoq efbrso Eetrosttod meet 168g
on ,5eus efsitedan edt mo somte 488% ef@ od bLuow
betosfeea ero oct bas bertaeh exuealt togme oft eovitgs of b
ol eebks antasetonk edt so dosorgys tasreem edt af
swrow af 86% eit tent daohtwe ef Ji ,mwoles aeviws ols

mk tom at ti dquordt sham aniata to yorotoeltto edt sot

(31)

ratio with increased diameter.

For a given current density in the
glower, there is a definite relation existing between
tempe rature and in turn a definite relation to effic-
iency and intrinsic brilliancy (that is, Candle power
per unit surface.) as will be noted by analysis of
Plate #5. In general, it will be noted that as tempera-
ture increases by a rise in current density, the brill-
iancy and effic iency,et a point where the current approach-

es normal operating value, increase ad a rapid rate.

SHAPE OF CHARACTERISTICS.

The generals hepe of the glower
characteristic changes with the proportion of oxides
employed in its composition, so that the various combin-
ations of glower mix will reach the crest of the
characteristic at various efficiencies. ‘Such relations
will be apperent by a glance at Plate #6, where propor-
tions of 19, 11, 9, and 4 of Z oxide are combined with one
of Y. The predominant features are strikingly shown and
the curves indicate that for commercial starting time and
efficiency, it is desirable to use a ratio of somewheres
near 9 to 1, and it will also be noted that the glower
made from such e mix has electrics] stability since the
crest of the curve is approached gradually «md no marked
chenge occurs immediately thereafter. Points of equal

efficiency are indicated by the small circle on each
curve.

etotonst®S heasetonr dAtiw oftaer

eft af yttenss trexrrse xnevig s t0¥
nteewied gniitatxe moitcfer etinttseS 3 at eredt .gowols
~-oitts ot moftsler eviniteb s atst rt Eas owtereqmet
sewog ofbasd ,at tatt) yomsklfiad otantttnt Sas yomet
to atayfsens yd Setom ed [ftw as (.eostiwe tiny req
-ateqiet as tsa? betor od Efiw st Isiomeg ml 8% etali
-ffind edt ,Ysteneh snontso af oeiy 3 yd seasetont ext
-‘oso%qqs Inerxw9 edd oiecdwtateq s ts,yoretoitie bas youst
-otax Srqst a ts ezgeront ,owlev gnttereqo I[serrom as
. a CARS

towe's om to sasd eLarsmeg edT
eeftxo to moftroqgorg oft dtiw aeansdo oftetwtostado
-xiduoo apotxev ent taft o2 ,mottiaeqmoe att af beyolqne
eft to testo off doser [ftw xku tewolfg to amofts
anotisfex dou? .astometottts avefiev ‘3a oftefretogirado
Sstoqgoig oisdw ,d% stalT ts sorsfe 2a yd tuersaqs of Iliw
sro dtiw Sentdmoo ers efixe § to S jaa ,@ ff ,ef to anokt
sue mwote yfeettinta ers getmtset tmamimosenq eT «Y to
bre emit gatixuste [steremmos tot tedt etsokiat setwo ont
aotedwemos to cites s sas ot s{darteeth af tr ,yometoitte
towolys oft tadt bBetom od oafe [ifw tk Brns gf od © 1808
edd eovta @iltdate Csol:toefe eat aim 3 dowe mott ebem
berizsam on Gae yYlIsuberg berdesoraqs et ewmo edt t teerto
Issps to atntol ,tetisgereds yleotzibeommi a1tsos0 eg melo
dogs mo efotto [lame oft yd botestthat ers yoretofite
PI) ac dfs)

(32)

Not only does the glower mix hee
affedt the voltage-life performancem ss shown by Plate
#7, but elso the physical properties such as coarseness
of the materials, and the presence of other impurities.
If the glower starts at a lower specific resistance than
normal and heé © rapid voltage rise, it indicates the
presence of some easily volatile metal so thet as the
impurity is volatilized away, new the voltage becomes
gradually that of the pure glower combination. As
an illustration, alkali will be present for only a few
minutes, causing very rapid voltage rise for the duration
of its presence, md then a glower will show only its
inherent rise of voltage thereafter, while impurities
like Silica and alumina create a great rise for a
long period of life.

GLOWERS IN VARIOUS GASES

A great emount of investigation has

been carried on to determine the influence of various
gases on the performance of the glower, and it hes all
demonstrated that the air is beneficial to the operation
of a commercisl glower.

The characteristic of the Nernst glower
when operating in the open air is given in Plate #8, ana
@lso when operating in vacuum under like conditions with
the corresponding point of normel watt efficiency es noted
by the circle. Aside from the fact thet the vacuum hes
shifted the point of normal watt efficiency to a much
lower voltage and higher current density, it will he

(Ss)
eete xim rawolu sit ach ylmo tou

etsf. wd mwode a2 meonmemrotre, stif[-exsaticvy sdt tbetts
2aemearso0o as clove askiueqorgq [seleydq odt oals tud ,T%
-aottinuamt sedto to sonegetq odd tes .efsirotam oft To
aneit eonstataor oftiesqs tewcl a ¢s attrsete rewolg sft tI
edt astsoftiat *f ,eett egstfor fiqar 3 Bac bes Lemxron
eft as tant oa fetem efitefcov yliase exoa to somezets
aenooed osstloe oft Sus .ysws bosil(ittisfov af ytixsqat
i EP sMfotignidmos tewolg ewg of? to tart yf [evbaxg
wat s yfmo rot tnesotq od Iftw hiatis ,oftaxztev({!l as

yof-sish oft tot eaeti egetfov Siqei yrov artavso ,petuatu

atk yao wore [fiw tewoly s aett 5m ,eomeaerq att to
aoitiauqmt elitdy ,sottsetedt egsticov to cate tmei aint
& ict oat+ teerg s etsets smimvts bus sortie exit:
eetit to botrsq gool

esi moivenitesm? to tevoms Fsexg A
asoizay to eoneusftat edt enticasetob of go betris0o noed
ffs esd tf fas ,1owols oft to eomenrxctreq eft mo eeesg
noitevero odt of [eiottemed at tis ocd? tealt betextaromed
etewols Istoxanmoc 3; to

row’ f3 tarte™ off to oftakretesuado odT
acs ,O% otofT ut mevia at utes asqo oft ai gettexeqo corfw
dtiw amcitibroo efikf toby muyosv ak gxiteteqo cenw oats
beton as yometoitte tigw [omtox to tniog gatinoqesettoo ect
acd muvosy oft tandt toast oft mort oSfar ~6fotio edt yd
doum 8 of yoxetottte ttsw [anton to tartogq oft betttia
ed ([[tw ti ,ytaneh Inerrss teneafd bas ogstiov tewol

7 or,

(33)

observed that all the points now lie on one side of the
crest so that a decreasing difference of potential re-
sults in an increasing current. ‘Such a condition involves
the use of a very large percentage of steadying resis-
tance and has thereby lowered the available efficiency of
the glower.

Plete #9 shows the nitrogen curve with
corresponding air curve, and it will be observed that
this gas mkes the glower behave similar to the vacuum,
but the effect is less noticeeble.

Plate #10 shows the corresponding attion
of a glower in hydrogen and oxygen as compared with the
curve in open aire It is here very interesting to note
that the oxygen and air performance are very much the
samé, while the hydrogen curve shows a character very
similar to that of the vacuum and, like the vacuum,
requires e relatively lerge steadying resistance.

Plate #11 shows a very interes ting
phenomenon connected with glowers operating in e medium
free from oxygen and which is the most pronounced when
opersting ina vacuum. Where oxygen is excluded, the
glower becomes sluggish and responds very slowly to sny
change in line voltage. The upper curve shows the
change in current value with time, while the lower curve
shows the corresponding change in voltage during the
same interval of time. It must be borne in mind, in

this connection, that the glower will respond almost

efy to effa sto no eff won etdntog odt [fs tadt bovisado
-ct Istinetog to someretTtrs anteseroeb s tant oa teoexo
gevfover moftithaco 2 dou? .tnerrvs antaserent os at ative
-siser gntyhsete Ico ssatresteq egral yrev s to ear ent
to yonstoettte efdslisve oft borewol yderedt eal tn: sonat
etewofs eft

diiw evure megoitin oft awode @% et sfT
ted? Bevreado ed [fiw tf bes ,ewurs tis grt baoqsertroo
musosvy ett ot tsifmts evatfed tewols off esolan eeg at dt
eefdseetton 2eef 2f toette oft tud

scttds zgrtbroqeerrce oft awode O£* etefT

7

|

edt déiw Boisamoo 2° menygo bine moyorhyl af tewolys s to
eton ot anitasxetat yrev ered af I stis seqo at svmo
eit dos yrev ets eonsmrot sed tis Soe feagro odt tant
Yiov retesrtsde « ewodea evrwo megotiyd ond effdw ,emes
emyosv odd efil .in: muwoev edt to tedté ot rsftmte
eoorstateer aniybeete oaral yfevittelfeor s aeriuoes
anttaerotnt yeev s eavodea Ir% ot sf
wether 3s at gniftsreqo grewols diiw bstoenmtos momemoneriz
aedw boomuonotg toom oft eat dotdw fas meaygxo mort sert
oft ,Feby[oxe at mosyxo orediT .mumosv s ct gntv=1 ego
yrn ot yYlwols yrev abxoqaet Ses dateagrie eomoosd tewo fs
eft awota evevo ieqry ef” -segetiov enk£ mt ogcscto
eviro tewol oft efidw ,omit diiw evsfsv trerivo at epascto
ect antas6 easdiov at esxedo artbnoqeettoo eft aworda
mt ,Srta mt omod ed tesm SI .omtt to fevaetnt omse
teomfs Broqeer [fiw 1ewols edt tact ,mebtoonnoo at dt

(34)

imme diately in air to similar changes in line voltage
and remain constant. The slight change in the vacuum

curve after the first minute is possibly due in part

| fo the temperature correction of the resistance in
series with the glower.

The relation of the ballast to the
glower is very intimate, and before considering the
various elements which influence its design, it will per-
heps be well to consider the following remaining pheses
of the combination since the action of the glower is the
determining feature.

INFLUENCE OF FREQUENCY ON VOLTAGE

It has been considered at times thet
frequency effedted a change in voltage over 2 glower
but results, es follows, show conclusively thet the
voltage of a glower is not dependant upon the frequency
of the circuit.e

Glower Fi

Volts
72000 Alt. 3000 Alt.

1 192 65 192.5
2 192.5 193.0
3 190.5 190.5
4 191.3 191.2

LOCATION OF P.D. CHANGE

By exploring voltmeter wires attached
to various portions ofe .4 ampere D.C.glower, en idea
can be obtained of the numerical megnitude of the losses

due to ell causes before outlined. The readings given

easticv emit aft aegnsfe rafimte ot ats ai yfetsti amt
musosy edd mf sameado tdatfea of? etagtenos atsmer Ss
drsq af ovb yldiseog at etuaia tar edt teits savauo
mi eoneteiaeot od} to nefteeti09 stuterermet oct oF
erewols of dtiw eettee

eid otf tesfiad sdt to mofttaloa edt
edt axvtvebiarce ercted bane ,etamttat yuev at xowols
—-teq (fiw ti ,mptach ati eonewfint dot dw etmemete euoltray
ase3cq anintaner anfwolfot ent tebtenoo ot flew ed aqad

sit af xawols odt to mottes eft eonts mo ant droo sdt to

eetsiset gnfiaintroteb

it gomttd ts Dexveh faxos ased asd t1
rowols s tevo egatfov ani egnaio s betbeTte yoreppett
aft isit ¢Llevierloxoo wods gawolfLot as ,eatiuees fui
Yousivpert sdt mogs tasimeqes ton ai tewolg s to egatfov

atigoifto edt to

~tfA 0008 FLA
‘ze 3er ae ser L
O.5er @.SeL g
a.oer 4.0er &
a.rer 8 LOL $

bedostie earty tetemi{ov anivel[gze yi
gedit ms ,towolg.0.¢ swams db sto arottsog asotuev of
aeceol edd to ebutingsa LIsofiemun odd to Dentatdo od aso

mevia agribsest oft .bsmifiiuo e1roted eeasso [fs of surf

(35)

are over portions of a glower as indicxted by Fig. 6
in Plate #2.
Volts

p Ve Vn

<
©
—

eee

10 Min.: 203 -- 29 -- 154 -- 20

lhr : 197 -- 28 -- 149.5 - 19.5
25 " : 189 -— 27.5- 141.5 - 19.5
50 " : 188.5 -- 29 -- 139 - 20.8
100 " : 188.5 -- 29 -- 140 - 19.6
200 " > 190.5 -- 31.5- 140 - 19.0
300 " : 192.0 -- S32.5- 147.5 - 12

TERMINAL LOSSES ON VARIOUS FREQUENCIES
The watts lost in the terminsls of a

glower will be proportionel to the difference in voltage
between the glower and the external side of the terminal
(or Vg - Vg in Figs 6 - Plate 2) and in an A.C.glower
these readings are carefully obtained on verious
frequencies with ea constant watt input with en averege
result of 5%. Volts on 25 cycles up to 57.4 Volts on
133 Cycles. This indicates that the losses are approx-
imately ecuel on 811 frequencies; with a tendency toward
slightly greater losses at the higher frequenciess
VOLTAGE OF GLOWERS IN AIR AND LAMP

When glowers are used in large lamps
there is an accumulative effect which reduces the voltege
required to pass normal current through the lemp, the
emount depending upon the inter-heating effect of several
glowers when operating in proximity with each other, amd
therefore, the voltage of the glower, as determified in the
free air, is greater as the size of lamp is increased,

3 eati yd Betsoftint as revolg 3 To amoitiog te9voO 978

St ets{[I at

eee eee
av ov rad av : emit

os ww B3L -4 CF «- SOS s.mtM OL
3.eL = a, CAL o~ 8S “= ver : af
SCL - GeLBL -3.TS on esi s " 3s

eS - CSI -- @S «-- G,83L ¢ " O32
CC = OSE «~.- @R «- 3.98f : " oof
OL - waelS ~- G00 3 * O08

SI -~ GTSI -3.88 -- 0. SOL : *" 905

gs to efaxinuret edt af teof attew oT

eastioy mt eorerettis oft of L[smoftrogotq od Ifitw rowolg
{sntuaret sft to efie Igarotxe eft bok rewols eff? soowted
rowolg.2.A me mi bre (8 etal + 8 egih at g¥ ~ gV 10)
esvotisy oo fontstdo yfidterse ers ganibset oaeds
9a2%eve m3 dtiw tuqnt ttaw tastanoo s dttw aetorempett
ro adfoV eV of qw aefoyo 48 mo etloV 688 to siveeor
-xorqqe ers eseaeol ont teit astaotimt aftdT ,aefeyo sei
vrawot wuoebmaet s itiw g2etomampert [fs mo farce Yfedant
eactemenpett woigid edt te eoaeol retgerg yt dgife
ual Oa BLA WT @a/0.L9 10 Boantoy

aqisf egisi nt bears exes atewols medi
egsiiov sit aeouber dotty toette ovttafemroos ms af otorft
eit ,qarel odd dgvoutt ¢aermo femxom eacq of Bettuper
fareves to toette anitesed-totat ont moqu griibcoqed tnvoms
bass ,tedto deao dtiv wimtxotq at gritereso cedw erewols
oat ot Boxturetoh a6 yrowols oft to egatLov edt ,etoteradt

boasetort 32f qmaf to esta eft as tetsctg af ,1is eaxt

— — t—“‘i‘z:S (36)

as follows: - 6 glower, 18 Volts; 3 glower, 16 volts;
2 glower, 13 volts; Single glower 3 Volts, and ere
applied to lamp voltages as indicated herewith:

Bumber of glowers 6 3 2 1
Lamp Voltage 220 220 220 220
Ballest 20 20 20 20
Cutout “& 3 3 Ss

Glower voltage in Lamp 196 197 197 196

Difference between Glower

Voltage in Air and Iemp 18 16 13 3
Air Voltage of Glower
required 214 213 210 199

GLOWER VOLTAGE ON A.C. OR D.C.

When & glower is opersted on direct
current the required Voltage is less than on Alternating
current, and the difference is always at the negative

terminal, there being little or no difference at the
positive end. A difference as great as 6 volts is
sometimes observed, not only over the negative terminal,
but also apparent over the external terminals, amd
Since life tests are operated on sample glowers from
eech lot manufactured, the difference is accurately
determined for each lot and subtratted from the nominal
rating, which is performed on Alternating current only.

BALIAST

The advantage t be gained by the use of
a steadying resistance Which would enable th
be operated efficiently

e glower to

at a point on or beyond the cret

satiov o£ ,tewola & :adfoV 8f ,tewolg 9 =~ :awoffot as
ere bas ,etloV & xrewolg efgnta getiov OL ,.xewoly &

:ddiweved 5etsolint es eogstlov qucf of bailage

£ g $ 3 arowols to + sdanm
OSS s egetioV qesi
C&S OS os OS daallod
i & g > oe ot wD

eer Fel vel aei gqmsI at esstfov rev ld

sowol® meswisd sorerettrc

& oa of SL igaeT fas «aba af egetiov
towol® to egatfoV «fA

eer of8 &f3 AIS bes ty pet
oDed TO gDoA NO ZOAPIOV AAVOIO
Soetth co Setsxeqe st tewolgs s sedW
actismretfa so agit seef ef egetioV hborivcet edt taex wo
oviteyen oft ts eyewls at eonevet i’ eft ine gtmerso
oft $3 oomerettth om to afdtil anted exedt gLemtarzed
et atloy 3 es teerg es eomexe®RES A »hme evitieog
~fantimet evitagen eit sevo yfao sor ,devresdo aem ft onroa
bes ,elarinvet Lamtelxe odd 16vo drowsqas oale dud
mor: g@rewols elomse xo beteteqo sts ateet dif eonta
yleiswess ef soretettis od ,»bowstostumsa tof fov9
fextmox att sort se¢éesttdya Sas dof doas aot Soniuseteb
equine tnetrso gritentet£s mo powpotreg at dotde yaatiet
mere
% eas edt yd Bbomtsg od aegsinsyés ed?
ot tewolg ect ofdsme Sfvow dof dr sanstateex gaiypsete s
smro et broyed 10 mo tatog 8 ts Utmetottie Serstoge ed

ai wr . (37)

in the characteristic air curve will be recognized

by careful analysis of Pletes 8, 9 and 10. In order
accomplish this under 211 conditions of commercial use
and with as little loss as possible under normal con-
ditions, the s teadying resistance should have as large

a positive temperature correction as possible, and,
furthermore, the correction should always be inmedictely
aveilable. To illustrate, if a glower were operated on
or beyond the crest of the curve, th current could
obviously be controlled by «= large steadying resistame
having no temperature coprection, but such resistance
would very mterially decrease the net efficiency oftlk
glowere On the other hand, if the resistance hes a high
tempereture coefficient, the necessary steaiying resist-
ance under normal conditions may be very much less than
when no correction is present, in which case, should thee
be en increase in voltage above normal, tle corrective
power of the resistance would be brought into play to
check the t endency of the glower to take abnormal current,
or, in other words, it would take up the sdditional volt-
ege.e. As already stated, however, the temperature cor-
rection must be immediately available, for if it were
not, the glower would "shoot over its crest", when light-
ed at a pressure above normal; that is, take more current
at the start than it would « little leter after the temp-
erature correction of the resistence head asserted itself,
end if this over-shoot were too great, would probably
flash out. This would also apply to any sudden increase

LTS
bostmgooot od fiiw ewuro tis sttettetosrado ont ot

aw xebto al .Of See @ .8 estalIt to ateyfens [stterso yd
eas L[sforemoo to anoitiinos [fs teotme atat detfqmooos
-709 Insartor tehbeuy ef[dieeog as esol eftit{ as dtiv tas
sgisi as evad bLvode eonstetaer antybeet oe edt ,axoitib
eons ,eofditeacq as moitoerroe ertsreqmet evitiaog s
yieststhemt ed aysals f{vode mottos:1oo edt ,ercmredtiut
co betsteqo etew towolg se tf getertapifft oT .eldsitevs
Sisco tneruss aft yevrso oct to teeto eft haoved to
eaetataer actyisete ogisf s wi beffortanoo od yLesotvdo
sorstalaet dove tud ,motteemgoo orsteteqaet om at tved

ali to yoretottts ten edt sagoxrc]eh eifetretam yrev biyow
deid c¢ asd eomstetzer edt tf ,fnsd redto eft «0 .tewols
-tetaer gmiy sete yrsapeoon ont gtmetoliteco ewitstequet
redid egef dosm yiov od yam amoltiScoo Lomzor tebas eons
enecdt SIlsoda ,eeso doltiw at ,#meeo%g ai moitoerios om godw
evitoersos aft gfemion evods egstfov at ease cont ms od
ot yelq otmt taqvond od Biluow sonmstatest ed? to rewoq
eexetivo [emtonds odat ot towolg edt to youeime ¢ aft deedo
-ti.uv Isnottdiobs odt qu efst Biluow tf yabiow zedte mt .10
-i55 eptewaque sit ,tevewod ,boveta yoas.ls 2A 864938
etew ti ti rol ,eldslists yies at Seugt ed taum mottoot
-Ji atl nedw ."teoro ati revo toode” bluow rewols oft ,don
tretiso siom fat ,at ted? yfearom evods omagetq 2 ts be
~qmet eit tetts tetsf ofttift ». bieow tt nedt txste od? ts
etlgati botieess bad eonstateor edt to mottoetr0oe sxutsie
yidedox gq SIvow ,tse1g oot etow toodaetevo aifv tf bas

sssetort mebbua yos ot Ylaqe oals alyow aid? etsro cdaslt

—— oie

(38)

in voltare applicd to the glower, unless the corrective
power of the resistance were immediately available to
check the flow of current.

The resistance employed in the Nernst
lamp, termed the "Bellast", is unique in construction and
meets the peculicr requirememts of the glower in e very
effective manner. Iron wire is tised on account of iis
high temperature correction and by properly mounting this
wire in @ small tube filled with hydrogen, a ballest with
high corrective power can be wrked at hich temperatures
without danger of destruction and with a loss of only 10%.
As iron varies in resistance with increase in temperature
in e variable ratio and hydrogen seems to steepen the curve,
the resulting typical bellast characteristic appears as
shown in Plete #12, and applies to bellests of any capacity.

The portion of the ballest curve vhich is
utilized has the greatest bearing on the stability of the
lamp, the percentage of ballast resistence required, md
the life of the bellast. If the working normel is high on
the curve, © large variation in voltage means only 2 smell
change in current and the glower will be almost unsffected
by 2 large rise in voltage. In this event, the ballast is
operating et a high temperature and e high rise in voltage
makes an uncertain life.

The design of & bellest is rather a aif.
ficult metter and no exact formula has, as yet, been devised

which will hold true. An approximation upon which to base

evisoatioo oft easels ,rewols ott of 3 °fiqaqs exsiLov ar
ot efdaftevs yflot ut Seommt orew eonstatect ett to it9wo7
etaertso to wolt edd Yoosfo

darrell odt xt beyolque sonedaizer ed”
ans cottourteroce at espiau et ,"teslioi" ett bearet ,qust
qxev 2 mt wewols edt to atmenetiuoet aeif{seeq edt etoon
a t to dnsoocs mo beak ef oriw morl .temram ovitostte
ei ft artinvom ylteqomg ys bas moftoerico ewtareqred Bid
ddiw tesfled e ,megorbyd dtiw bell ft edst Ifsma 8 mi etiy
eercisreqmet duyid ts bedtor sd aso Bewog evi toerioo did
eQ0L yixo to aeol s ithy Sms sottowrtee6 to regasb dso 3 By
emtsroquet at eagsetont Atiw eorsteteer at gefrav mort af
OTIS ont cegeeta ot amecs segoriyd bas cite: efdsiasv 3 mE
g ayseogs oitetretostado tasl lsd Ieotayd gattiveet oft
sWiiosqso wis to atasf{fsd of esilggs Sns ~8L% ets{T mk mwodte

at dokdy oviwe tagiied ent to mottrog ed?
eft to ytilidata edt ao gutreed teetserts ety acd Bbeatitty

Bas ,bortuper eon.teteet tasi fed to enstresteg oft qual

so datd at Lsaron gebtiow od tT etesfifad odd to etil st
[fame = yfao ansen egstiov mri sottstyev egiel 3 ,evimo 9‘
satostiens teaonmfs of [ftw rewolg oft bes trevwmo at ogrsdo
at tesliad oft ,tneve atdt ml 8 .egstiov ck eatt ogisfl 3 WwW
exgtioy nit cat dutd o bus erutereqmet dtd s ts gcrttars qo
»etil atstreons as aefen

-titb 8 tenter et tes{Iad 3 to ngteeb ediT
peatveb need ,fsy a2 .2ad sismrot tosxe om ims sotism Ffuvort

saad of dotdw moqy moitcmizotqis m4 sours bLod [ftw dofiw

es

design may be made as @ beginning and is thet, the diam-

(39)

eter of the wire in millimeters will be epproximately one
tenth of the desired current in amperes, and that the
total active length of wire shell nearly equal the volts
drop and yet not exceed two watts per square inch of
superficial area, since the specific resistance of the wire

is governed by the watts absorbede
The requirements of Bellast design are:

1. Consumption of rated voltage at rated amperes.
2. Stability end long life.

3. Non-sluggishe

4. Size and shape of bulbe

5. Mechanicel strength.

Sluggishness is the property of a bellest
which necessitates a time element before the current
assumes a notmal operating condition and to minimize it
is the most difficult feature of bellest design. A
ballast when operating et air temperature will reouire
only a low percentage of voltage required when hot and
when current begins to flow through the glower, the ballast
correction can only be made.

The iron wire is mounted in the ballast
in the form of coils by stretching from the top of the
mount to the leading in wires and by ranging the pitch
between the turns, we are enabled to raise or lower the
temperature end thus adjust not only the current, but also
the percentsge characteristic. After exhaustion of the

bulb, the ballast is treated with hydrogen, carefully

(es)

~usib eit ,tidt at bas gatnntzed s as eham od yen mateeh
exo yfeteatxorrys ef [f[fw aretemtif{tm at exrtw edt to rete
edt dadt bas ,eereqms mi teers bettee’s eit to dinet
eifiov edt Isype ylursen ([{sta ettw to digref ovites [etot
to dont emuupea t9¢ eattew owt Beeoxe ton toy fas qorb
eriw edd to eonmstatee: ofttoora off eomta ,gots [sloltxequea
ebodioads sittew oft yd Bemrsevog at
2018 myteoh tas{isi to etnemetit pax oAT

eaoteqis Ssts1 ts ssatiov beter to motiqmvamodD .f

eet grof fxs ythitdst2 .g

efaiasute-n0l .é

e@ind to egedta tna est? ob

etanetia [sotmatoet .2
vasifsd s to yredotq eft at esendefaast?
trerius eft stoted trenefe omit s astatiageoon dof-w
ti esimtaim ot Bae mottticoo anttayeqo Iemtonm 8 aonreces
A .sgteeh tasliad to exrctsst tfwelt Eth taon oft at
etiuner [ftw erststoqmet «ts to gritacedo meotw tasfisd
bac ton codw Sertuper egatiov to egetmeore, wot s yfno
tesifsd oft ,towolg edt dgvor@ woft of amfged tnertye me tiv
eohsam ed yfro aso wnoftoorros

testied edt at Setasom ak ertw most off

edt to qot oft mort gatdoterte yd aftoo to mrt oft at
dotie off grigmet yd bue eettw mt anthsel oft of tusom
adt sewol to estar ot befdsxe ors ow ,amss aft noowted
oais tsd ,tmercsro oft yimo tom tauibs audt ba: suststoquet
ext to mottassrize tottiA .ottetretoeisfo exstneoted ont

ylinterso ,megorbyd Aviw betsext at tesfisd edt ,disd

(40)

purified, and while normal voltage is impressed upon its
terminals, it is sealed off. in this manner of sealing
off, the pressure of the hydrogen is equal to that of the
atmosphere only when in operation; this being desirable
since the glass will then not have a tendency to dis-
figure its contour, should it become soft from exces-
sive heat while on an overload. The quglity of the hy-
drogen mst be very high in order to insure uniformity
of performance, and mst be absolutely free from the
Slightest trace of moisture.

The characteristic of the ballas+ is quite unaf-
fected by small variations in pressure of the hydrogen
and is an admirable quality from the manufacturing stand-
point.

important factors entering into the temperature
and hence characteristic of the ballast are:-

1. Absorption of heat due to specific heat of
the materials in and adjacent to the ballast.

&. iLron wire

B. Hydrogen

C. Glass and adjacent parts.

2. Heat Dissipation.

A. Conwfection

B. Conduction
Cc. Radiation.

fos)

att moqu Seraetqmt at eastiov L[arrmon offav ban , bs ti trsg
antfse2 to tennan atdt ml «tto befsee 2t tt ,alentarot
eit to tadt ot [asco 2f megothigd od? to exrsenstq edt ,tto
olderteeh sated std? ;aotteteqo mt mesiw yiao otedqeonts
-atbh of Youolmet oved tom med? [ftw enafy od? conte
-290x9 mort ties esooed #f Sfsode gtwotaos att ormyft
-jai ed? to gttfeep ef? .heoltevo ms ao eftdy taed evita
ytterrot ine avwentt ot tebe at dotd quev od tam megotb
odt mort sett yletmfionds od tags fins ,oommrrotie, to
-orutetom to sestt teetdgt fs

-tsens ettup et *aniied aft to ottetsetestade ed?
nejothed edt To evaamoty at amottstzey {fama yt betost
-bists oattutesionan edt mort qtifenwp efdertobe me at bas
-tatoq

stuvtersqmed alt otmt nattetme avetos tapi roqms
-:otg tasiisd edt to obtettetostage sened bas

to teed stttoeq2 o¢ en6 teed te mottqrondA .f£
-teefiad edt ot tmeontte fee af eLatrotam edt

erty aotl «hf

megot ty .8

-23"eq tnoos,be fos eagf? .9

-cottagtertt tee .3

.fottst taf Px)

These factors have particular reference to the
sluggishness, and in the case of the latter factor, the
rate of heat dissipation is greater for a certain tempe-
erature at the start because of the lower temperature of
& lamp body. Siluggishness may be reduced in several ways.
By constructing a naturally ventilated lamp body so that
the temperature of the lamp body is always relatively low,
the main cause for sluggishness will be in the specific
heat of the iron wire. The amount of heat required to
heat the iron wire from atmospheric temperature to that
of normal operation can be readily seen by an example:

In an .8 ampere 110 volt Ballast, the cold re-
sistance is 3.5 ohms and at normal temperature is 12.5
ohms with .00873 grams of wire. Assuming a specific
heat of 1.3 and a temperature rise from air as 400 dege
C, then the energy absorbed, because of the specific heat
of the wire, will be .00873 X 1.3 X 400 equals .454 germ.
cal. But the current, in a non air cooled ballast, is
approximately 40% over normal for an instant, so that
watts expended at gue ses

(.4X 1.4) X 3.5 (C R) equals 1.1 watt., and
since 1 watt represents .254 grw. cal., at this rate of
dissipation, the ballast wire will be brought up to nor-
mal temperature in_. or 1.62 seconds. Hence this phase
of the subject, after all, is not as important as would

be at first supposed.

eat ot sonmeteter talsolttisq ovad arotost eaedT
ett ,totest tettel odt to ongo odd at bar ,avomiatggnte
~eivot mat roo s tot tetsetg af mottaqtasth teed to star
to ovststequet rowol oft to oamood trate edt te enmtete
.7tsy fartover at Sooubet ed yan waemfietggnl® .ghod quel «
tait o2 yhod qmal betalttaev yllewten » gattorrtane ya
vol tlevttsalet ayeavLe et hod qmsf od? to ots*eteqied od?
otttooqs edt mt ed [Ltw eaenmfetganfe cot eameo alam oft
ot hetispet teed to tavome od? .ortw mott edt to taed
tad? ot ettateqmet obtedqeonts wort ettw mort od? taed
:ofqmaxe ns yd seen yithset af age ao tteveqo Lamron to

-ot bloo ed? ,tasfind tlov OL[ eteqie 6%, as al
1.Sf at ersheroqnet Lenvon te bre amo @.6 ef comstate
otttesq? # aniaweeA .etty to aemerg 81800, ditt amo
w39b OO ae tiz mort etit outarequet « tas &.I to taod
‘sod oftteeqe adt to samseed ,fedroxis ygrene edt medt ,5
-imr3 S33, aiawpe OOb 2 .f X SYG0O, od [ftv ,etty od? To
at ,tasiled Beloos «tte son s at ,tmereme edt to 8 .iso
tadt on ,tastent ap tot Lartom vovo 20) ylotantxoraqs
od {Liv te hebneqae attaw

brs ,.ttaw £,f Lempe ta) pees ee xa)
to etet 3tdt ta ,.fe0 .79p SOS, ataeaetqex dtaw I eonte
-tox ot qu tiaword od [ftw erty tasifed of? ,mottaqtasth
easiq ald? sonst .2hnogee 83.I ae otutetagned Lan
bisovy 28 tnetvoqmt as tom 3t .fis tetts ,tootdea edt to
| -bsrogqua terttt tea od

( 42)

An absolute view of the subject is hard to ob-
tain, for as specific resistance rises,the rate of ex-
penditure of energy in the ballast also increases. At
the same time the specific heat of the wire increases,
and a great portion of the heat will be dissipated by
conduction and confection until the ballast comes al-
most up to normal temperature.

That the ballast makes a small change in the wave
form of an alternating current is of interest. It is due
to the rise in specifie resistance of the iron vith rise
in temperature so that the maximum voltage has to overcome
a slightly larger resistance than does the lower values of
voltage.

For instance, an .& ampere, 110 volt ballast which
consumes 8 watts and a normal resistance of 12.5 ohms. If
the resistance were conéfant, the maximum current vould be

C max equals 1.414 X .8 equals 1.131 ampere,
or energy Wiuld be put into the ballast at this stare at
the rate = (1.131) x 12.5 equals 16. wattse as arainst
the effective value of 8 watts.

But specific resistance may be assumed to vary as
r equals r, ( 1 plus -01t)

or fr equals 2.08 { 1 plus .01t) #f 500 der C is the ten-
perature corresponding to 12.5 ohms.

The energy will be expended in dissipation and
stored up as specific heat in the iron vire, for the perio-
dicity is too high to have an effect from the specific heat

(Sh)

-do ot Sread e#t toeldue edt to wetv stufonds mA
-xo to etat edt, sent< sonetztaer ofttoeeq? en tor ,ataet
+) .geRgetTomt offs teelisd od? at qatene to etutthneq
, 208Ke TOME ext ad? to teed ofttooqe ont emt? ompe odt
yd betsqteath ed [ftv tsed eft To motttor taets 8 bts
-{s semeo tasiisd ent [itus mottectaoo ine moktesimeo
-stmtetopet Larrron of qu +20m

ovew od? af enmado ifane @ tectem desifed ed? tad?
osb at #2 .trevetet to ef tnertwo gattenvedie «2 to mot
onty dtty mort eft to oomePetest oftteeqa at eatt ed? of
emoovrevo of asd eqaetiov seminar eft tad? oa emitareqmet at
‘o gestay tewol edt 805 malt commtetees tegtal yitwigti2 es

fotd tesiled tfov OLE ,ereqie 6, mm ,oonatent tot
tl .amdo &.8f to sonstetest Lanron 2 bite aidav 6 aemsanoo
of biuo7 trowtse mimtxen oft ,SmSRHNOO ovew Sonstetaer edt

goteqits L6f,f sferpe @ KR OES.f afawpe maw 9
+s enste sid? de *enflad ed? ofat ed BisGw ¢oters to
tanters es vattew .3f serps @,cn x (52.8) + otat ot
-atter 8 to soulev evivostts odt

2s [1sv ot bemuees od ten somstetesr otttesqa tat
(#00, este f > alsspe 1%
-ret oft 2f 5 306 008 Be (¢f0. awfq I ) 66,8 @iewpe + to
acento 4.84 of gatbmoqaetroo etutateq

bas sotteqiesth mt bebmeqxe od iffy yaveme off
-ofreq of? trot ,ert’ sort odt at *+eed oftteeqs 28 qx Sereda
teed ot‘ teeqe eft? mort tostte as evad of datd oot af yttots

(43)

of the walls and mount, etc., as the temperature rises,
conduction will vary as the rise and confection whll do
so approximately, while radiation will vary as the fourth
power of the temperature. Confection and conduction are
Sluggish and hence act to insulate against an immediation
discharge of heat.

in ons there will be expended f or a _watt
second or .0333 joule or .0082 gram Cal. With specific
heat of .2, this means that .00873 (weight) X.2 equals
.0001746 gram. Cal. is required per defree cent. rise in
temperature, so that in case all the heat, expended in one
quarter cycle were given up to the wire, its temperature
would be raised .0082 divided by .000175 or 46.8 : Cc.
However, only a very small portion of this rise is pos-
sible because of the heat being continually dissipated.

In connection with a glower, assuming the slower
of constant resistance during a cycle, there would bé a
total of 12.5 ohms ballast plus 125 ohms in flower or
137.5 ohms. in case the ballast would use 30° U, the
resistance would be

2.08 (1 plus 5.3) equals 13.1 ohms.

Hence . max. must overcome a resiatance of 125 plus 13.1
or 138.1 ohms, thus reducing C max by approximately .4 of

1%.

As a matter of fact, the vallast wire does not

{S3)

,202ty etutateqmet eit ak ,.ote ,tmuom has allew oft to
ob Lftw mottestxos brs e@tr odt as erav [Liw sotdoubmoo
itrset sd+ 38 yrav {ftw mottatbar eid ,ylotantxoiwrys of
ste mottesbaon bra mottootnod -orotetsqmet aft to tewoq
cottatbormt me tentage etelwamt of toe eomed tea detagufe
-tset to ogtadoath

+t an_£,70 oo od {fie owed? vheroose tft
ottteeqe dthW .589 sexe 8800. to efmof S880. to brooes
alenps SK {titstew) S600, Patt aneom atid .8. te saod
nt oat .taso sorgsh teq fevkapet @f .Led .crety aDL600,
ono vt hobreqre ,teed edt Ife saeo af tait of ,eanteveqmet
ovroterocist att ,etiw ede ot qr tevin etew efego tettano
0” 8.38 <0 @NL000, Bo Hehivt S800, Senter ef Biaow
-soq 3t eaty atad to settrog ifane yrev « yim ,tevsvoll
.SotaqicetS tileumtines gated teed oft Ye exnaced eidta

te tof aft ostayeas ,vewels o attw mottesmneo af
s 6 bisow sredt ,eleye s whieh sometateat taetanoo To
+o t9%0L3 st amio 484 auiq teallied emo 4.82 to fatot
od? ,0 OF eau binew tmatisd om eam mk amito 4, VEL
ed Silver sometataet

-amio [.8f 2fdmps (863 enig 1) Ge

f.*f asfq @Sl to sonsteteot « sttemreve taun —_* eared
to &, Ylotemtxetqra yd men 5 antfonSer aadt emo L.8€L to

et
ton 2905 ettw teslleu oft ,tost to +etta » BA

(44)
vary more than & C on 60 cycles as determined by operatine
a dise with an aperture in synchronisn, in whichcase only
a faint change in color is noted, and since luminosity of
the hot body varies as the 16th power of its absolute tem-
perature, a very small change could be thus detected.
Again specific heat tends to prevent a rise im temperature
by the ereater amount of heat to be stored.

The ballast, although primarily an element of the
Nernst lamp, promises to become a more widely used piece
of apparatus in all cases where a constant current is de-
sired for varying voltages. It could be applied in el-
ectro-chemical work, railway work and the sensitive re-
gulation of circuit breakers and generating machinery.

Having stidied the characteristics of the two
elements, ie., glower and ballast, separately, it is of
perhaps equal interest to watch their performance vhen
combined, as is necessary to operate a lamp, and a re-
view of lamp performance is in order.

Plate #13 shows the typic&él performance of the
lamp as a unit and is self explanatory. The ballast
characteristic, it will be noted, affectivély determines
the nature of the lamp curve for all values of current
above normal. slate #14 shows the typical voltage wat-
tage performance of the lamp- it must be borne in mind
that the wattage of a Nernst Lamp is voltage at vhich the
lamp is normally operated times the rated current. To il-

lustrate the application of this characteristic curve, in

faa

nitetsyo ud fentrreteb 25 aseloyo 0a mo 2 - fads stom yrsv
yino esacdotd: at ,maitnordeny? at stutteqs ne dttw oath s
to yttsontmsl sont2 bas .hstonm 2! tofoo at esnaede tatet a
-ist otsloads wt to twevoq Atal oft a2 sebtav Ybhod tod edt
-betoateh and* od b{soo samedo [fame yisv 2 ,etataneq
siutaroqmet af entt g *mevenq of ehmet teed ofttoere afepA
-botote ef ot teed to tawome tedsorn oat yd

odt to taamefe ne qlixesteq dgsodtie ,tasfied af?
soeiq bean Ylebta stem 8 emooed ot aectmor: .qwal tantell
-ob at tnettuo tanfanoo 6 etegiv eomeo Ife at auteneqqs to
-f9 st betiqas of timeoe tL ,segmtLov gakyrev sot bette
-ot ovittesen oft San drow yorltet ,atow Seolmede-orsoe
-Tretidosa sattevemes bas etesizetd tigerte te mottal ss

ovt oft to sottatreteateds edt bethete gnivell

to at tt ,yleteveaqes .tealied tae tewnds ,..o! ,atnemele
ced: eonamrotved ttedt aster o¢ festetat Lagos aqadreq
-et s ins ,gmel 2s stereqo of Yreseooom at ae , benkdnwo
«tsixo af at comsmrotieq quaf to vetv

ait to somamrotteq L#etqy? edt awore 82 etalt
tnalfed ed? .qtotemefque tien of tae dias « ea quel
sentrretebh ghevitestts , befor of iftw tf ,of?ettetostado
trowrse to eem.ew [is te? evewo ome ent to etetan ont
-tev enatiov faotqyt aft ewode M4 etef. .Zemron evode
bata xt omrod of tam #1 -quel ot to comarrotreq eget
ott dofdy te egetiov st quad tantell e to enettaw edt stadt
-lt of .tretrso hetar oft semtrt betereco yllamron at quel
ci ,.Jw1no oftarretostado std? to mottsotiqgs edt etettanl

(45)
& 3-gl. lamp 1.4 ampere per glower) the normal wattage on
Say 225 volts normal, would be 270, but when this lamp is
Subjected to 236 volts, the voltage is 105% and from the
curve, 113.4% wattage, or 306.5 watts.

Plate #15 shows the relation between voltage and
efficiency and rlate #16 that between voltage and Candle
Power. These curves are self-explanatory, except, per-
haps, to emphasize the remarkable steadiness in candle
power in the Nernst lamp when operated above or on vary-
ing voltage and is due to the great connective power of
the iron ballast. Circuits of 25 cycles alternating
current, or thons which the voltage fluctuates very
rapidly give no appreciable variation in candle power.
The former condition due to the fact that the specific
heat of the glower, being large in sectional area, tides
over on low frequencies, and is not found, to such an ex-
tent, in any other lamp.

¥late #17 gives a diagram of connections of a mil-
tiple glower type of lamp, from which the arranrenent of
elements will be hoted,

rlate #1@ shows a typical performance of platinum
heaters of the tube form - and rlate #19 shows the time
element of a lamp from the starting point for an old 6-
Slower lamp - while Plate #20, gives a comparison of the
time element and total performance for the latest desipn

fany

mo onstiaw [amrom odt (tewols teq steqms 4.) qmaf .{[3-@ &
et gmel att menw ted .,OYS sd Sisov ,.famron atfLov 388 yae
ont movt Sme RAOL at enstfov oft ,etlow ac of betoetdua
ati aw 2,308 ro ,ogattaw ®3.ELL ,ewtuo

brs oqetfov meowted nottalor edt awode 3f¢ ots Le-
offiaedD bes ewatLor meerted ted? O€% ofale tre yYouotoftte
-toq ,?qsexs ,tritensiaxe-tier ere seven® eeed? .tevoT
elixso nt anenkigote effaiverct ed? ostasdqme of ,eqed
-{TiIsy fo ro svode Seteteqo sendy qnel tentell eft mt tet0q
to tewoq evitesmmon test edt of enh at Same enetiov gat
anttanmroetis aeloyo G8 to attwortD ,.tasiled sort edt
crev notautontt ogedior eit dotdusseod? x0 .tnovzse
-tovoq efiase ot moltstrey efdstestqqes on evtg ylbiqet
orttosqa oat teat test ed? of onb mot? times vomrot eT
zobtt ,sews [emotiees mt egtel anted ytewoils oft te teed
-xo ts dom ot ,Snuot tom ef tins ,eptonempert wol mo tovo
-qusl tedto ys at ,tnet

-fum 8 to anottesnmos to merasth « sevta TE} eteda
to treme gmetts edt dot’ aott .qaef to eqyt tewls efq'?
-botom od ifta atmprwle

aunttela to semarvotteq Ixotqyt se ewode 824 ot ala
omit oft awork: CL2 etaix Sie - aot edu? ed? to atedsed
-3 Bfo se tot #eteq onttaste off mett quel @ to tnomelo
eft to soe*aqros s aevte , 08% otels eft - qmal tewols
xqtreh traetsl eft tot somerrrotteq stot bas taemete emtt

(a6)
of equal candle power.

A very late type of heater has been perfected
which embodies a carbon core coated, by special processes,
with carborundum, and provides a heater with long life
and high efficiency at a creat reduction in cost, in view
of its substitution for platinum. This heater has the ad-
vantage over all other types in that it pives light at an
efficiency of approximately 7 watts per candle in the open
air at normal temperature, and therefore, rives semi-in-
stantaneous light. A remarkable feature of such a heater
is its uniformity of lighting time when on a circuit having
commercial regulation, ss shown by Plate 21le

Referring to Plate #20, it msy be interesting
to trace through the action of the lemp from the moment
current is turned on. During the first 30 seconds, the
current is that of the heater only, end the glowers then
start to take current. At the end of 36 seconds the cut-
out acts, throwing the heseter out of service. Two seconds
leter the second glower has teken approximately normal cur-
rent and third glower is rapidly increasing from the heat
of the other two. The glower reaches its maximum current
after approximately 50 seconds, and a very slight drép is
noticed after the expiration of considerable time, when
the lamp body and ballasts have reached their normal

operating temperature.

DISTRIBUTION OF LIGHT ABOUT A GLOWER.
From the limited area of the glower section, it

(3B)

etorvoq ofhinaso faupe to

hetostrtoq meod aad testes to sqyt etal pvtov A
.2oresoo0Tg Istoeqe td , Setsoo stoo aodteo s aethodas dokiv
stil enol dttw vsteed # esbivorg ins ,mebrurtodtse d?iw
wety mt ,treoo mt motterber taots 2 te youetortte dard ins
-5s oft aad tetsed 2hf? .ewettele tot sottutitvedun att to
ne ts tigtl aevis #f tadt of seqyd tedto Fin tevo osstasv
coqo oft mt ofSae0 req after VY yfotentxorrs to youotoltte
-tt-imen aevtc ,srdtered? im ,otmsteqmet Lemon ts the
totast s dosn te emtest oidedrenst A stink anoonstaate
grtved.tisotte 8 so mettw eit antdistf to ghterretiay otf et
ofS ofall yd mrodfe es ,mottsfugox [a toremoo

grttaetetint od ym tt gOS% etefT ot aatrreted
tooemom edt wort qasf edt to sottos off Tqvotis soars - ot
odd ,ebrooes OS tarit edt arfuwl .mo berms ef tmetwo
neat arewofa eft Ses ,yfno retsed edt to tett at trerrso
-tuo oft abmooeg 38 to bao oft tA sPmertwo ost of tate
abroose owl .egotvtse to two reteed edd gxiword? ,etes tuo
-159 lawronr yfotantzotqes tetst asf fevols fmooee sit retsi
dso ett mort gutasetont yfiiqe: at towofg Batit fxs aor
trexwo muatxent et! eoroset 19wolg oft owt tedte edt to
at qorh ddatle yrev 8 5ms ,ehroese 08 yletsutzogrss rotts
cofw ,emtt efdstetitasce to mottartqzs ont sedte Seotton
Ienrron ttodd beroset eved atasified Bins yLod qual ot
eowtsreqret axtisireqo

ti ymottooe tewolg odt to sets botimt&£ edt mort

ee = |
(47)

is obvious that the distribution of light about a
bere glower, in a plene through its length, is
irregular, es shown in Plate 22, because of the in-
terference of the terminals from light emanating
from the surface between terminals. When the
glowers areepplied to the lamp, therefore, the
distribution curve in the horizontal plane is very
Similar to Plate 22, but at all positions below a few
degrees from the horizontal, the distribution of
light is nearly equal for «11 positions in any given
plane.

The Natural downward cistribution
of light from the lamp, es shown in the curves
(Plates 23-24-25) is one of its most valuable assets
and herein lies one reason for the high efficiency
of commercial installation. With this statement is
opened a brief review of distribution curves in
order to give the strongest possible emphasis to the
remarkable fact that in no other incandescent lemp is
such a natural condition to be found.

The ¢istribution of a vacuum lamp
Can be more or less correctéa by reflectors; but the
nearer the desired distribution obtained by natural
means, the less light will be reflected ana hence,
the less will be the totel loss in the process of
reflection. (It is to be noted that advocates of vac-

uum lemps recommend their use for lighting interiors

(Ti)

s tuods ¢tdgtf{ to mofttsdixtait edt tedd avoivdo af
af ftgmel att davorld ensIg s af ,tewols susd
-at oft to oaugoed ,.S& etalt aft mwone 23 ,usligemti
yottacswe tigtfl mort aLentwiet ont To eoxeretiet
ent cecil’ «@fentuzet soowled gostuse odt moxt
edt ,ereteredt ,qael oft ot betlagmois atawols
yrov at emalq Leinosixod edt at evwo mottudintath
wet s woled amottieoq if@ ts tud ,88 etsLt of tallate
to mottudiztalis edt fetnosiiod eff mort aeerged
neviz yns mi emottiaog [fe sot Leupe ylrse0en af taigtl
sorely

sottudtrtats Brawawob fawtell ed?
aevaro oft ai mwoig as ,quel edt mort tdgtf to
Ease efdaylev teow att to exo at (88-88-88 sete lt)
yoretottte dein oft sot moegot cao eetf ateored Saxe
ai trometsta atdi dtiw ,.molisif{stant [storemmoo To
mi geveso moltudiutath to wetvex telad e beteqo
odt ot etastiqne efLidtabog teoyrotts oft ovis of tebto
at quel teoosebmsont rerio om at tadt test ofdalismer
ebourot od of mottthroo ‘sister s dove

qual musosv s to nofindiatats edl
aft tud garoteeftex yd betoetioo saat ro etom ed 180
fsrstan yd bentatdo csoktwdictets berteeh eft tetacn
~oored Sms Hetooftet od [ftw trgti saef odd ,amson
to gea0onrg odt xt eaofl Lfatot oft ed Iftw aael exit
-o2y to eotgoovbs sedt Beton od ot at t1) .mortoelter

avotretni anttdatl£ tot eas afedt bmemooot agmsl muy

(48)

only in connection with their auxiliary reflecting
devices, so that a commercial consideration of vacuum
lemps should be based only on © combination of the lamp
end reflecting device as a unit.)

In the present lamp, marketed since
the Summer of 1908, under the name of Westinghouse
Nernst, an advence in commercial efficiency was made
through a combination of agencies discussed in the
previous subjects, and also by e slightly different
glower mix which would permit an increase in the
current at which the glower operates, and the standard
consumption was increased to .6 and .6 ampere. The
efficiency at which the glowers are squirted was
raised from the previous standard of 2 watts per
Horizontal Candle Power of the naked glower to 1.5
We per Cepe, which results in an increased lamp
efficiency in some sizes of approximately 40%, The
advence is apparent in Plate #22. Plates#23 and 24
give the standard distribution of all types of the
present lamps - end brings out clearly the downward
distribution anda similérity of any and all sizes of
lemp. These results, as noted below, are on the
basis of clear glassware, which represents moder

practice in the rating of illuminentss;

anivootter yirsiltinos atedd ddiw motfoomnroo at yfsmo
muyosy to motterebtanos [storemmoo s tsdt oa ,asotveb
qasf oct to sottartdsoo s mo y[oo beasd od bilsoda agqmal
(ation 3 ae eotveh atttosftex bas

eonie betedtian ,qusl tmosetq odd nl
eavotarites! to emm edd tebay ,80@L to tom? odd
ean esv yomelotite fstoremmoe at eonsvis as ydgoe7
edt af Seeavoerh asefonegsa to molttartdmoo sa davon?
tmerettiéb yfideitfa s yd osls Sasa ,atosidsa asotverq
adt xt eessroat as tloteg *ivow dotdw xiw tewols
brsinste oft bre ,setsteqc tewoly edt dotiw ts tmetwo
efT .eteqne 6 Sas & ot Seagexront sew moltqmmanoo
gew bedtisoa ets arewols of? doitdw ts waotottte
toq attsw S to bigimets evotverq edd mort Seatsr .
G.f£ ot tewols boder edt to towel elias) Betaoagkrok
aqmsi beagetomt og mt elliveer doltiw .eqe9 teq «VW
od -20S YLetenixorq¢s to aeate emon mt yomotottte
h2 Ses S8¢teetsl[i .S8) e cll at treisax- at eorsvis
oft to seqyt [fs to mottudiatarh bisgbaste oft sviz
brewawoh edt ¢elreslo Ivo ageind tx: ~- agiusf{ troesetg
to gesie [fs hoe yrs to wiralinte bas mottudiataib
aed} no ots ,wofed Beton ae ,atfvcer esedT equct
mrehon atveaetqger doltw ,ersweesly i@efo to staed

satasatmm( it to artis: of? af ent toarg

7's

Size

Lamp Glassware

1 g1.66 W.

" 88 We

" 110 We

" 132 We
2 g1.(264 w)
3 gl1.(396 W)
4 g1.(528 W)

4"
ae
B"
ge
ar
a"
e

745

Mean Mean
Hemisph. Hem.
C.B. Efficiency
50 1.38
77 1.20
96 1.2
114 1.2
231 1.2
359 1.15
504 1.09

(49)

Exheustive tests on the absorption

of light by the use of various kinds of glassware indi-

cate that the standard glessware, known as alabaster,

is but very slightly diffusing and does not mterially
change the character of the distribution curve.

The

loss of light due to absorptioh in "Alabaster" glassware

is approximately 15% over thet of clear glassware, and

therefore, can be readily obtained, from the sbove

curves and table on the basis of clear, by arplying the

absorption factore

The normel limits for operation of

standard glowers sre from 200 to 260 volts in the 220 volt

class, and 100 to 130 volts on 110 volt service.

These

lamps, as now marketed, consist of six units for use on

both alternating and direct current of 220 volt, and

three units for both alternating and direct current of

the 110 volt class ( for indoor and outdoor service),

which are populerly termed 66-88-110-132 watt single

slower, 2-glower, 3-glower and 4-glower lemps.

Within a

nee il nso. “e.ghf axl
»MeH .rigatsoh 21.0 erswe2slo aetat
Yorefortta -€.0
88.L 03 DT mh -# 88.f£39
OS8.f ry gol wh oW 88 te
Sel de féL{ "@ ew OLf& "
Sef it aar "@ oW Ser "
Sef fs Gas "eg (W dd8).I3 8
SLL eds ssa "g (W ae8).fg &
Owl bOR aay "g (W 88a).[9 b

|
no ttqroads exid no atsed evitavsdxd
-fiei exswaasl3 to efatint avotusv to saw aft yd tdatl to
etotasdsia as mwort ,etsweasia bSisinate end tat otso
ylfstretan fom asob bas gritavttrb yftdetie grev tud at
ont. eovwso sottudiutet&6 edt to rotosted> odd sgrsro
etaweaals "vetesdgLa" mt dottqroads of ovb tdgil to aaol
See ,erswaasl3 wsefo to tadt teve Rel yfetamtxorqgs at
svods edt moxt ,bonistdo Ufiise:r od aso ,etotered?
eit axiylavs yd ,.tsefo to ataad odt mo oldest ins sevio
| etotest sottqroads

to softtsreqo sot atimti Lemon odT

lov OSS edt at etfov OdS oF OOS mort ote atrewols bisiasta

>
fa &

eaot! .eorvree tLov OLL mo atiov O8L ot OOL bas ,aeslo
mo say tot ating xte to tatanoo ,betexiem won as ,aqmst
Ara ,tLov O88 to deerme tootth bas anttemretis dtod

to taoriso ¢oetth bags gettanretis dtod rot etinn seidt
~(eotvies toobtso Bae troohat rot ) agato #fov OLLI ont
efeaxte ttaw Séf[-Off-88-d9 hemret ylisluqog ors doidw

ga mtdtiy .eqmsl tewola-b bas tewolg-& ,tewolg-S ,towols

(50)

short time, a five-glower lamp will be added, the
largest incandescent unit ever offered for practical
illumination. The 110 volt lemps at the present time
are offered only in three sizes of single glower units-
66, 110 and 132 watts. See Table No. l.
aaa

Lamp Voltage Current Service

meneame msnestmntetee sneer

l-glower (66 watt) 110 06 A.C.& D.C.
n (88 watt) 220 4 A.C.& D.C.
® (110 watt) 1120 & 2201.0 & .5 A.C.& D.C.

" (264 watt) 220 202 (BK AeO.& D.C. |

1
1
1 m (132 watt) 110 & 2201.2 & .6 A.C.& D.C. |
2
3

“ (396 watt) 220 1.8 Ag@ 8°D.CG3 |

4 (528 watt) 220 2.8 A.C.& DD.

(X) All multiple-glower, 220 volt type A.C. lamps can
be operated on 110-volt service by use of a small

converter coil. able 1.

The Westinghouse-Nernst lamps mey be claseified un-
der three heads, multiple glower units, single glower
units and chandelier unitse

The mechani éal construction of the multiple glower

lamps represents a design which combines simplicity and
compactness. The unsightky exposed teminals and
supporting hook, commonly used, have been replaced
either by a fixture nipple or small hook through which
the service wires enter the top of the lamp housing and

terminate in two binding posts in the body of the lamp.

eit ,bebbs od Ifiw quel tewolgeovtt s ,emtt trodes
fsottesiq tot peretto reve tiay tressefasont tasgyal
omit taeaetq edt ts eqmef Sfov OLL sd? .gottsntmulit
-atios sowols3 ofarttea to gente eetdt n& yiao Batetto ots

ef .of olds! foee eotiew Séf bas OL .3d

esivred torerss0 egetlov gust
e0.d $.9.A de OLL (stow 38) tewolg-L
sD.E BeD.A De oss (ttew 88) ee
29,7 B.0.A 3. & Oof O88 2 OLL (ttew OLL) eT |
Cae Fay a 8 &.£ O88 8 OLL (ttew SSE) * f
05.0 3.0.4 (KX) Sof oss ({ttew 239) ae
ode Ba0eA 8.0 oss (ttew aed) » 8

nao equal .0.4 eqyd tfov OSS ,sewolfg~-efqitinum (fh (XK)
[ism s to 2au yd eotviee SLov-OLf mo betaereqo od

£ oldet efilos tet<evr0o

-m bottieeslio od ysm aquest tamtell-oaongattasW sAT
rewols ofgnita ,etinw tewolg efqitinvm ,abaod sent 10d
estinns totlebmato tas atfas

; <owole efcitinm edt to sot tosstanoo feétasdoon-odT
aus yliotignte sentdmos dotdw agtash gs atroserqer aguwelt
bas elentmes Begoqxe Yvdtdgtanw oft -eacentosgmoo
beosiqgot need evad ,beay ylroumoo stood anttioqqua
fotdw dgvordt food [fsme 10 elqgtn ettxlt s yd sediéte

bere ankewod qusl edt to qot ont tetas aertw eotvrea ont

eqmel odd to ybod edd amt ataog gmfbatd owt mt et an Carret

(51)

Immediately below the terminal porcelain
is the section of the lamp in which the ballasts and
ballast coolers are placed. The ballast coolers are
built of flexible phosphor bronze and are securely fixed
to the upper part of the lamp housing in such a way that
a firm contact is made on the surface of the ballast
and a metallic contact is secured with the housing,
presenting e greater radiating surface.

The housing is so constructed that a move-
ment of the locking lever will permit its separation
to a convenient distance, exposing the ballasts to view,
thus making replacement an easy matter. Contrasting
this simple method with the old lemp, it will be
remembered that the bellests in the latter were arrange a
in a semi-circle about the eutout, and in order to gain
access to them, it was necessary to remove the suspension
hook and the top of the lamp housings

Below the ballast porcelain is the sleeve
porcelain on the upper side of which is the cutout, and
igto which the holder is inserted from below. The cutout
armature (being the only movable element in the operating
system) is enclosed in a dust-proof compartment, allow-
ing the lamp to operate successfully without regard to
Climatic conditions.

The lamp bodies are interchangeable for
either D.C. or A.C, ser¥ice, and it is probable that

the glower, at present the only non-interchangeable

er
3]

xtefeoroq fantaret odd woled yletetbomd
bos avasifad edt doi‘woat qmusf oft to mottosa edt et
ets etefooo tagiised sav eSeoals ots arelooo tzrellad
sexil Ylemoee sis ons esaord torgeodq efdixelt to titsd
vats Ysw 3 dove mf gaieuod qrst oft to trsaq teqas edt ot
vasIisd edt to essttrea ott no ebsm et tostmoo arstt 2
egrteuod sit Mtiw bersoee af tostnoo offfatom 2 bre
soostica sritelbat vetconn 3 geitxogerq

-evon + Jadt Satomtaroe og at antaged exT
noftaxeqes ati tinreg [ftw gevel gaicviool eft to trom
.wetv of atas{{ail odt anteoqxe ,eouste]e!s tmetnevroo s ot
atttesttxo) .tetism yase aa trsmeosiger gaftan axit
ed [fiw tf gqmel ble edt¢ dibw bodtem efquta aldt
hegiatis eiew tattel edt at ateal'sd eft tedt botodmomer
cfag ot reizo at bas ,dwotoo adt tuods eLorfe-Emea 3 ai
sofameqava edt evorier of yrsemeoor asw Fi gmertt of aneoos
eamieawsor quaf edt to got edit bas door

evoeta oft at mtaleoreg tea liod oft wofed
bee ,tewotwo ond at dottwto ebfe teeqs odd mo misleotog
¢sotso off .wofed movt Setieest si toblod oft dokdw obgt
enitsreqo ont «xt taemefe efdevem yfac eft gried) e:uteorre
-vofis ,teemtreqsco toongeteuh s mt beactome at (metaye
ot Bresex tuoddiw eUlirteseoore stereqo of qmsf ort gat
eanottiimos oftsatio

tot efdsegnsdovetnt ete aeithod qmsf od?
teit efdedoxg at tt Sas geottree 63.4 10 29.0 sodtto

e{dseqgn:totetnt-con ylao eft treaetq ts ,rewolgs ont

(52)

element, will soon be made for universal application.
The holder of these multiple units
represents a radical change in design. The old two-

piece porcelain is replaced by a one-piece holder base,
to which are attached the characteristic terminel
prongs, and instead of the old method of mounting
glowers with plugs, the holder is provided with a
spring on one end and a fixed contact on the other,
provided with slotted ends, which grip the glower by
a fead in the lead wire and hold it under tension.
Two prongs are brought through the holder base and are
secured in such a manner that they lie in a plane
parallel to the glowers and at right angles to them.
The use of two or more heater tubes is superseded by
a "Wafer Heater" consisting of e small pletinum - wound
end refractory-cement coated rod, ben&t so that sever-
al sections lie parallel to the glowers and securely
mounted on a flat porcelain, The wefer slides on
the heater prongs when inserted in the holder; the
heater terminels being in the form of a Sleeve con-
tact. Hence it will be noted that heaters end glowers
can readily be changed without tools and without
disturbing any othermember of the lemp.

The various sizes of single glower units
are of the Edison base type and present « similer
appearance to the old populer 110 watt unit, although

{ga}

etottsoi{qqs [sereviauy ict ebam ed moog {ftw ,tmemele

ifos efqitium ssedt to teSfod edT
-owt 6f0 ecT .mgieoh af egaaio [goths s etnoaetqet
.easd tebfod seeiq-eno0 s (d booaLqe:r et ntsfeot0g soetg
Luriuret oftaizesvostado oft Sodoatt= ex: dotcw ot
acivnavom to bodtom Sf0 edt to baetent brs gagnoig
& iiiw bebivorg ei rtebfod odd ,agelq atiw atewols
etodso sii mo tostcoo bexit s bas Bae ono mo yritqs
yi tewofs sat qiuyn doidw ,ebme bottoLa diiw Sebivotq
smolamet reins ¢f bLod Sas exlw beef ott at beok a
ets ons sasd teilod sit dguordt tdeword ers agmotq owt
ersia a mi eif yett tedd tentsm 8 dove at hexs098:
emond of gelagra tdatat ta bas arowols odt ot Lelf{sa2e7-
yd Sebesteqse 2i geduwt usteed exom to ow? to sas odT
Sasow - mumtislq [fame s to gritatance “setae retail” s
-tevee tedt oe tened ,bou fefsoo tromes-yrotesrter fx
yieioee brs arewols odt ot [efl{eisq eff amottoce Le
mo aebifea tetew ed’ gnatalestog tsl[t 2 no Setason
oft yteblod oft mt Setroant snetw egmorg rotsert oft
-mop oveefe : to mot sdt mt yated afsmlarced atsised
axowols bu: avotsot tatt beten ed {ftw tf someH etost
dsonsiw bos afoot tuvodtiw begaedo od Uitsex so
equsl odd to todmenrodte yms aatduvtath

ations towols ofanta to gests avoliev edt
anaiimt2 > tmesetq bas eqyt casd goekda oft to 918

figuodtis tins tiew OLf s3iuqog 5fo ett of sonsiseqqe

(53)

the construction is a unique departure from former
practice. The cutout is located within the Edison
base; immediately below this is the bellast secured by
means of a bayonet catch. Three prongs lead to the
base porcelain, the lower side of which forms the
Yernst receptacle.

The holder consists of a glower and wafer
heater permanently connected on @ small porcelain
providéd with a standard screw base, with en addition-
al contact pin in the center. By an assortment of
diameters end lengths of contact pin, it is impossible
to insert any other than the proper holder in the lamp,
thereby insuring the consumer against troubles incident
to the use of lamps of s wrong size or class of voltage.

This form of renewal is populerly termed
the "Screw Burner", and should supply the demand for
a high efficiency incandescent lamp, so rugged in design
as to be easily maintained by anyone. The burner is
furnished complete with glassware when small bells
are desired, and without glassware when the standard
size of ball is used on the lempe
pos)

Next in order of importance is the life
of the unit. A summary of the life of the various
elements is given in the table herewith. These figures
are the basis of the standard guarantee given on any
installation of over 100 units for the average life

performance when operated on a circuit whose regulation

{xa
wists

comrot mort saty 3q95 enspins 2 at mottourtanroo eft
moathbs oft afdtiw betsool at tuotys osT .eottesrq
yi bewosa tas[fsd edt at efit wefed yYfetstiommt seasd
edt ot fgef agrorg sordT efotso temoysd s to anrsem
odd amxct dotdw to etta rewl ont ,ataleotog oead
eelostqsoet tarrse™

Toisw Ges tewoly s to etatanoo steff[ot edT
sisfeorog [lama 3 ao betoenxrcs yfimengnreq totaecd
-noitiébs as diiw ,easd wetee Srsinete s diiw bébtvorg
to soonmttoeas xs YE .rstneo eft at atq tostaoo [sz
e{dteaoqmt ei tt wmiq tostaoos to edta3rel bre aretemts

eomefl oft nt te5fLod reqorq oft asdt tedte yas droent ot

tme5toxt agiduyort tenisys semvenoo oft antusemk yWeoreds
-sastfov to aasfo to sate 3nomw « to eqmsl to een edt ot ©
herret yfusfucoqg at L[eweret ko aot atdT
sot Bupa@es edt vlacve bIvode ira "terre werse" odt
vataeb at bexyart o2 ,qmsf treseebmaont yorostottte dai a
at <oxtusd sAT .emoure (dd bentstrtam yffess ed ot as
eff=d [fate cedw etaweesfs dtiw otelquos besatrwt
sxshrste odd xedw ovsweesfs tyottiw fine ,betiae5 sis
eqmasf oft co Seas et [fed to esta
ls
etts edt at sonstiogmt to tobao af tre
ayo xev edt to etrf oft to gramme A tims edt to
sersgit eeed? .dtiwexed efdst oft mi nevig ef atmemole
yrs mo sevis setrsissy brabasta etd to atesd ett e1s
etif exzsreve edt tot atiay OOL revo to moittsifstant

nottsiu3e1 saodw tiverto 8 mo betsreqo nedw eoremroltes

Ti, ~~

(54)

is within 5% above or below the normal point of
operation.

Soooaaleaaa@q>A9R]>R»O)T€ET[DD9@™EO™@@E&™TOY™WVXaXS————_—_—_—_—

HOURS LIFE
See — LS”) ee

DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT

25 Cycle 60 Cycle 133 Cycle |

v £220 V.110V_ 220V 110V_ 220V 110V e220V |

Glower 600 400 800 800
Heater 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000.
Ballast 15000 15000 15000 15000 15000 15000 15000

Screw } 600 600 400 400 800 800 800 800

COLOR

The color of the light given by this Glower
Lamp is another of its meny distinctive features.
It is a so-celled white light, yet it has a soft and
rich warmth of color which illuminating authorities
recognize to be the easiest upon the eye, the most
pleasing to the senses, and the best for general light-
ing of all places; in short, this quality of light
meets the popular demand, so well expressed by one of
the leading merchants of the country as :What we want
is a soft warm inviting light--not ea cold cheerless
repelling light."

PIEXIBILITY AND ADAPTABILITY To
ARTISTIC FIXTURE DESIGN.

By reason of the natural downward dis-

tribution of light, the wide range of sizes and the

to tatog [smrom eit wofed +o evods &8 nidédiw eat

emoftereqo
ee —
a RaLE _asU0K
TUSHLUO OUITANTARI. # THMRAUO TORAIC

sfoyo StL efoyo Ce eLoeyd ds

VOLIt Voss
ocg 008 Qos OCs towola
| C008 O008 9008 O0OE O00S O00E OO0s totsol
OOO0Gf SOOdL COOCAL GOCaL OOCRL OOCAL Ccoodr Ifsd
003 008 008 0°08 oc} = GOD 0038 000 Wore

Pe ane ne:

woe 0.20

sewold aidt <d movig tdsilf eft To tofooe al
sorstset evitonidvealb ynsa ati to wedvors af qmat
Sas ties s asd tf tey ,tdgti otidw Bef "so-oe ge af FI
setitueddus anitentapiif deidw gofoo to Avamew colt
gzom odd ,eys ent moqs taotagse edd od of og ingooet
-tdetif favooeg xct teed edt fos ,geames odd of aclageiq
tdgti to ytifenn eitt ,trods mt ;ge0osfa £fs to ant
to eso yi besseraxe [few ca ghaaneb rsfvqoq eft efeen
trusw ow tafW: as yrinsco edt to eatassotem gathast oft
easiuesio boo sg tom--trasti gaitivek axew dtoe « af
".tdail galifeqet

Of YTITICAT&AIA TIA YTLELELT SSG
eMDIGRI GAUTXTYT OITGITAA

-e@f5b 5Siswewob [sistem edi to mosget ya

edt fre ageate to earsr obtw odt ,tdati to moftsdist

(55)

simple system of renewal, the lamp offers great latitude
in artistic fixture design, so that the range of artis-
tie possibilities is within the scope of the most crit-
ical eye. The units may be used with equal satisfac-
tion as a unit source, in clusters, in ceiling bowl
lamps, or in fixturesof elaborate designe The artistic
ceiling bowl unit by reason of the adaptability ofa
high intensity to a limited space, can be used for
efficient commercial lighting, end is a type of unit
not practical with any other system. In this unit, the
elements are built radially about the base porcelain
in contrast to the vertical position used in the stand-
ard lamps. With this system, absolute uniformity in
quality of the illumination can be obtained throughout
any installation, no matter how diverse the requirements.
The chandelier units present a departure
from former fixture practice in the form of a distinc-
tive design. Heretofore, the complete single glower
lemp was used in a pendant position in ordinary fixtures,
but in many cases the appearance of such a combination
did not harmonize with the architectural features.
The new fixtures are constructed with the ballasts
and eutouts in the body ball, so that the receptadle
forms the socket into which the screw burner only is
placed . In this design, the lamps may be operated
in eny position, and e lamp presenting to the eye only
a 3" ball will lend itself to artistic effects without

(ad)

ehsttist tsetg aretto aml oft ,Isweret to meteya sfquta
-aftrs to egrsr edt tadt oa gmgieei exustxft ottattrxe ot
-tixo decom edt To sqcoe odd midtiw eat aektkitdtasog oft
-osteites fevpe ctiw bees ed yam eticu odT «eye [sot
fwod aniftes at ,avetenfo xt ,eomwoa ties s ss mott
Sivattus oft .agiaes otsrodsi[e tosewixit ct to .aqual
s to ytitidstqeis efi to moaeset yd tinw Iwod antites
tot Seas od cso ,e0gqa Setimt£ s of yttanetat dytc
! tiqu to exgt s at ine yggmttreatf£ Iatoxrenoo ¢metoettte
sit ,tias aft al .meteayea teito yw dtiw fsottesrq ton
nisfesteq easd oft tvods Uistist tftud ors atnewele
-hbxste sdt at feas moftiecs {settvev edd of Jasirince ai
ai ydiarotins etwlocds ,mweteye aint dtitvy .equst bis
tuodguordt Beristdo ed sse gotentasif[t edt to wifesp
-2inenstisoer edt ostevii wod tetism om gmottclist amt yas
ewitsreb eg taozexrg atiaw reffetasde eAT
-onttath s to mot edt ot eoktos1iq etutxtt tearot mort
<swols ofgnte etefquoo eft ,erototexsHh .myisei evit
.eoustxit qrerthro at sottteoq tasiaeq 3 mt boaw agw qusl
xotdsgidsoo s dasa to eomsiseqas sit eeaso yam ai tad
ecotstsget [exsteetivors edt dtiw eatsoarmed ton th
atesiisd edt dttw hetouytence ets aexvtxtt wer oft
e{det yeoot ont tals of ,Ifad ySod edt x! awedwa bas
at yfoo tered werce ott dot otnt tecfooa edt amwrot
petarsqo ed yam aqmel edt ~agteceb aidd xl . heoasly
yino eye ait of grttnosetq quel s has stoidtacg yrs mt

+yoddiw efoette otteattia of troatit Bael (ftw LIad "5 8

(56)
limit and still provide efficient illumination.
These fixtures are made of both spun and cast bronze
for use with any size of single glower lamps and may
be obtained in straight electric or combination gas
and electrice

MAINTENANCE

Unlike the incandescent lamp, the frame
and connections of these glower lamps form a perman-
ent structure, having an indefinite life, with only
its light giving elements to he renewed from time to
time. Of these the ballast has a life so long,
as before mentioned, that it plays little part in
the maintenance system.

Likewise, the wafer heater has a long
life, and will require only accasional attention in
ordinary use. The glower, however, like the
vacuum lamp, has a practically definite term of use
and is the item of greatest importance in the mainten-
ance system. It is now generally recognized that any
lighting system, be it incandescent, ars, or glower,
will give the best results when controlled by a reg-
ular inspection and maintenance organizatione

AULPIPIE GLOWS TYPE

In view of the general Similarity in the
construction of the are and the multiple glower lsmp,
it is self-evident that che maintenance is much the
same. In the are system, the lemps sre periodically

inspected, globes and shades cleaned, carbons renewed

(a3 }
emoitearimufit drofettte ebiverq [Lite bas timetl
esxotd teso bre orga ttod sc ebsm ois germstxtt seonT
Yen Cre aqn-I tewols efanis to este yrs ddiw say rot
ase moftanidmwos to sittvoef[s tigtsite ak beristdo ed
edinttosis bs
BOMA a7 IT ais

smgit oft ,qust treosebagont edt eftint
-“eareg s aot aqastl towol 3 seedtd to anclttoonnoo ins
Yino diiw ,stil ettatteiat ws qmived ,exutosite tae
ot emit covt bewenes e@ ot atnomefo anivie tdetf att
egnol oa e8HL s asd dasliad oft eno 10 -omtt
et txeqg ofttil ayalfq ff teAdt ,bomottvem eroted as
eMetays conenstatam ont

gamof s ead teteot retew edt ,eatwo ‘hI
mt mottmetts [snctacope yf[xo ertuper [ffw bra , otter
edt exif ,revewot ,rowols off .ean yrsetiro
ear to aroet etiniteb yifeottosaiq s aad ,qusl munosv
-vetnisn ect xt eonstrogmt taetserg to mett eft al ine
yas tedt Bestrsooe: Yffstemes wor af SI .metaya cone
etowols yo ,618 ,ineosefmsent tf od ,metaya aritdatl
~301 8 yd beffovtnoo modw atinvex teed oft evtgs Iitw
enottestasgrto sorsmetaica Ses motteecank rele

edt ot yttislimta fexroreg eft to wetv al
‘am £ rvewoly efqitfun odd Bas ow ent to sottomtenos
edt dou at sonenetetam et) tadt tmebtve-tlea af tt
yifsotboiseq ers aquel of} ymoteye ors eft al .ense

bewener enodtso ,bemgelo eebade ins aedoiz ,betooqsat

A ee (57)

ahd occasional faults in the internal mechanism
or a burntout coil repaired. In the Nernst sys-
tem, the requirements are cleaning glassware, and

replecing burned out holders. The extra labor
which is necessary for the subsequent repsirs of

holders in this system is about counterbalanced by
the extre time required in the are system for more
frequent inspection tourse

A system usually adopted by lighting comps
enies is the organization of a Maintenance Bureau,
which looks after all lemps on the circuits, visit-
ing all installsetions periodically, cleaning glass-
ware and changing holders when necessary. The
total cost of maintenance under these conditions will
be comparatively low, provided the work is executed
in a systematic manner. In tase the lamps are not
installed on the free renewal basis, this mainten-
ance is then charged for es a fixed sum per glower
per month, or for an additional cherge per K..hour
for current. The exact sum depends upon the class
and length of service, but averagws 10¢ per glower
on the former basis and from 5 to 7 mills per X.W.H.
for the letter. It is obvious that location end cost
of Labor have a rather important bearing on the cost
of any specific installation.

fen \
1 ¥a ?

yeatasdoem [envetnt edt af atinust Isnotagoco bas
-2aya tame’ est al .bertaaor {foo tsotnisd 2 10
ies ,evaweesis amkmeclo ors estromeitiiupet oft mot

xodsf axtxse efT .arebfod tuo bomaud gniosiacer
to axisges tmorpeadva ext tcl Yrsesgeoen af Aotdw

ud Beonslsdtetasos tyods af meteye atit at @xebfod
sion rot sstaye ores edd ai Sertypex emtt sytxe sAt
eawmot soltosqart trespert

ae anxitdgtt yd Setcobs y{isawaw metaye A
seme sorsnetnis’ 2 to soltexfusgre off ak eetne
-tiaty ,avisorte edt mo aqmi [[s 1rottes atool doicdw
~gasig arineef{[o ,yfIsotboiieq egoltsfistant [fs ant
edt .yasessooen medtw atefhiod atignets ins e1aw
Cfiw axottiSnon exedt reSms soreretateam to teoo [stot
hetyoexs et Miow edt bobivergq ,Wof yleviteusqaoo od
ton sts agusfl eft sasd al .tencan oftemet eye 3 mi
-retniem atdt ,eatesd [eweret sert odd ao bel fetent
newols req mvs bextt s ae fot begredo mott al eors
tol.’ .= teq egisto Ienoitthis ae tot 10 git mom 138g
gasfo oft soqs abmoqeh mre tosxe edT .t@xetTavo tot
towols teq \Cf aesereves dud ,eeivires to dtgns! fins
.H.|.* toe afftn ¥ of @ mouxt bas ataad tantot edt sto
-ta05 bea wnottecol stadt amotwdo at tI atetis£ eft st
taco oft xo aniusod tnstxoqat toftet s eved sodal 9
ettottelletant oftfesqa yxe to

(58)

Single Glower Type.

When screw burner lamps are used, the

maintenance problem becomes that of the 01d system

of ordinary incandescent renewale Where free renew-

als are included in the contract, the user returns

the burned out burner, for which he receives a

rebate towards e new one. “ith this system, the

Nernst Lamp Company is prepared to supply all the nec-
essary burners for a specified sum per year, based upon

the length of"burning hours."

The advantage of this guaranteed renewal,
or maintenance cost is at once evident es compared
with the unknown quantity representing renewal costs |
in commercial installations of vacuum high efficiency
lemps

APPLICATION TO MODERN ILLUMINATION PRACTICE,

With the advance in the effiéiency of var-
ious modern illuminsents came a corresponding demand for
an increase in the efficiency of application of the
units to modern illumination requirements, due to the
fact that the consumer is more interested in the
application of light than in the means of productions
A further demand exists for comparative figures of
total operating costs (current nd maintenance, including
labor end materials) of the various systems of illun-

ination now before the public on the basis of equality

eogyt xowold efgnia
efy Soar eis sequel torimd weroe vod!

metays 6fLo ett te dads aomoosd mofdorq sonsnetntan
-weres osil exon! eiewenert tneoeebmsont yramtiro to
amiuder tsavy odd gdoardroo odd xt bef font otg als
& acevieoe: ed dofdw ict ,tenmuvd tuo benwd ont
ent ,motaya atdt dtt” somo wor 2 oftawot otadox
-oon eid [fe ylqque ot beoteqenq 2f yoeqmod qual + aro”
moqu beasd ,tasy toq mye Betttoore es rot atenwd yrease
",amgond natmid"™ to Atgcref oft
.isweret bsotagiss3s aidt to egetmevis odT
beisgmoo 233 tmehive oomo ta ef taco eonsmetatam 10
ete20o [awenst ant} nose1qer ytitnesp mwomins edt dtiw .
yorstottie datd muyosav to anotts{Istani {[stotemmoo ri
2 adm £
eMOITIART MOITAMIMULII "ATOM OT MOTTADLIITA
-tsvV to yorerottto odd af eorsvis sft Ativ
1ot Sxeneh gatbnoqaetroo s omso etecetawf{it wxvetem apot
sft to moitsot[ara to yonofeitte eid mk easoronl os
eit of avi ,einomertupes moftontup{it crebom of ati an
eit at beteeretal erom al temanoo oft tadd tot
etoitoshoig to aneom edt at xatt tdgtf to sottsvliqgs
to secsatt evitarequos rot atetxe basmoh redirst A
gaiiufonk ,eonsnotatam ins tnotavo) ataoo anttatoqo Letod
~msCfi =o emetdaxye avotisv oft to (afeatiotem Soe todsL

ywitsspe to atesad edt mo offduq adt sxoted won moftsnt

(59)

of illumination, and in this regard, great stress
should be placed upon the actual illuminating
efficiency rather than the "Candle Power", which has

become an indefinite term,

While the necessity and value of laboratory

performence curves of individual units is fully apprec-
iated as a means for planning the lighting of large
areas, the conditions so found in practice cannot re-
ceive the consideration their importance demands, md
although some commercial conditions are considered when
arriving at a set of figures for the installation of

@ lighting system, yet one very important phase of

the question is almost invariably underestimated or
sadly neglected, an item which has a very marked
effect on the satisfactory operation of a systen,
namely: the loss of illumination due to unclean
conditions of the glassware.

It is at once apparent that a system which
does not require reflecting devices is the simplest
and most economical to maintain, because of less
glasswere to break, and the absence of all labor
involved in the constant cleaning required in order to
keep reflector lemps up to normal efficiency.

There is a marked contrast between the
improved glower lamp system, employing a minimum

number of units, having glassware of a desirable shape

we

©
cu

‘serve tgere ,fisger eftdt af boa ,sottantawiff£t to
atitentmurrt Isctos edt moqu beoslq ed Eifwora
ast doldy ,"xewol efbasd" edt asdt tedter yoretottte

etiet etinite at xa omooed

grotvsrtod2f to esfev bas ytieaseoon ont of tril
-setqgs ylist et etiow Lawbivibat to sevive eon antotyeq
egiel to gatdgtl edt gatresflq tot ansem 2 as botet
-or vornsy eoltosig mf dewot of ano ttibmoo oft ,asevs

“Ms ,aideash sonatirogmt tt oft mottarehtarce edt evteo

attw hexebteros eis emoltibmoo Istorstmoo omoa aguotti(s

to gcoitatfetant edd rot eeagik to tea s te antviris
to-easdg tastxogmt yrev ono toy wmeteys sattiall s
to Sstemituctobay y{[iaftevat teomis ef acottaerp edt
beiisa (isv 8 aed dotdw meti ns ,betoolfgen yIhse
,metaye s to mottereqo yrotoestsites eft mo tostto
xgeloms ot esh mottsmtmul{[?t to-egol oft : yeoman
eetawoasts off to amottibroo

fstiw metaya s tsdit tnersqqs eomo ts at #1
veeslamt2 oft ak geotveb anttosftor ertupe:x ton aeoh
eael to sassood gmtateian ot Igotmomooe taom ona
aods{ ffs to sonpads odt bas ,.aaerd ot ereweesly
o¢ sebxo mf Beriuper antnssfo tratemoo edt at bovlovat
eCorerolttie Izaron od au eqmef totoelter qoed

edt nsewted dvasrinoo bottom 3 at otedT
owmints s gntyolgue ,wetaye gqmel towols bevorqat

egeds ef[deriee5 s to staweesls grtvad ,atins to rodawr

ee

(60)
and of smooth polished surface, and vacuum systems
with their multiplicity of lamps and pieces of glass- |
ware. Exhaustive tests indigate loss of illumin- |
ation due to dirt on glassware in the former system

to be a negligible quantity «and in systems employing

reflectors, often as great as 30%, covering reasonable ©
periods of timee

There is,at the present time, urgent needs |
of investigation of existing installetions of Interior
Lighting Systems in order to arrive at some definite
and logicel data which will show,not what a system wh ich
employs « certain type of unit, theoreticelly should |
do, but rather, what the performance of such a system |
actually is, when opereting under normel conditions of
commercial regulation ané maintenance; for it has been
proven that the decorations, surroundings, size of ere
and all physical things have by far as fatal effect
on the net operating commercial efficiency eas does the
initial efficiency of the type of unit employed.

Althovgh this is ea subject for broad treat-
ment and wide application, an idea of the commercial
effiency end losses on commercial install tions of
the Nernst system can be gained by the following
results of a few tests. The small losses due to ac-
cumulations of dirt on the glassware are to be expedted

from the very nature of the élaessware employed; for

(03)

ameteys mausrosv irs ,eostrcae Seeftfow Atoome to ins
-22a8[5 to ge0efg¢ Bos aqual to yttotiqktIum trent dt iw
-xims (ft to eaol ets&tint ataet ovitavedxi +» OTST
moveya temtot eft nt o1sweests mo Jtib ot osb mots
estyofone emetaya of ins qWitnewp ofdiai{gen 3 9d ot
efdstoaset anixevoo ,R08 ec tsern as aefto ,atotoclter
e@ait to ebotieq

eafisen tueary ,emit tneacaq eft ta wt sietT
cotysial to amottcffatart anttetxe to noftesitteevmt to
stinttebh emoa ts evirrs of tebro at ameteyc ywrttdatt
a w netage s tedw toa,wode [ftw dotdw atab Isoefsof bas
| Hhisode ylisottercedt ,tinw to ecg atstyeo < ayolqme
ee doue to eonsamotteq eft tadw ,tedtst tud ,.of6
aroiitsros [om ron rete anitersqo sefw ,at yf fsutos
coed asd tit tot seornsnetnisam ons moltsiuger Letotomnoo
ets to ssie ,agntbayeotts ,arottstoseb oft teft mevortq
toette Istst es rst yd ever eget f[sokeyiq {fs ins
eff 2c05 es yometotitte Latoremmoo anitateqo tem edd sro
sSexolque tiny to eqyt oft to yomotottte Isisini

~tsett beaotd rot testdme s at atAt ds oftia
fatoremmoo odd to sobt ms gmotigotiqrs ebiw ins tnom
to anoid distent [storemmoo mo eeagaol ins ye ttto
anhvoffot oft yd Sexteg od aso meteya tame” srt
-os ot etb geagol [fsne ofl .ataet wot s to atfuaoer
betdsqxe od ot ers etsweasts ait mo t<th to anoltsiuawo

sot :boyofqme ereweasis odt to etyvsm YIev edt mort

—

(61)
only round types or "balls" are recommended, snd in
view of the downward distribution, amd, further, that |
any dust accumulations «re confined to the uppermost
part of the glass where relatively little light emanates,

the loss on the effective surface of the glessware is |

of little consequence.

INSTALLATION Type of Mean Effie. %Ioss

Lamp Illuminetion Watts per Due to

Foot Candles Lumen Dirt
EIS ON CDA
Rosenbaum Co. 4.20 -558
Pgh. 3 gle 4.34 0327 3025
Armour & Co. 1 gl. 3228 0427
Chicago (Old Type) 3.45 2406 4.93
Mershall Field 6 gl. 6.52 0367
& Coo, Chicago(0ld Type) 6.87 0362 1.40 .
Sweeney Co., 3 el. 2 5S 228 -
Buffalo
Siegel Cooper & Co.
Chgo. 3 gle S017 0295 ~
Charlton Coe,
Fall River 1 gle 2066 e271 -
Newcomb-Endicott
Detroit 5 gl. 3.60 0517
(Special)

Sears, Roebuck
& Company 1 gle 5266 2503

The Nernst glower and its application to
& commercial unit of illumination is s subject of great
interest and breadth and would permit of many exheus-
tive treatments, were time not a factor, md, in
conclusion, it msy be said that the Westinghouse “ernst
lamp, in the fiel@ of comercial lighting, fills the

mi or: ,beboemmoser ots “elisad" to asqyt bavor yimo

feds ,tedtuut ,ins ,mottisudirteifn Siewnwob edt to wetv
taosmeqrs eft ot Benmitccs sr: anoittsIumpoos taus5 yrs
f

e2oismsme tdatt eftsitl yfovitefer eretw seats edt to Jraq

af ersweact{a oft to sostuna evitostte odt mo ascfl sit

aac e0ittZ seei to eqy? MOITATTATOUI

ot sod tsq atte” softentam iii

_driG rom a afbrg0 toot
8S. OS. + 200 musdroaot
SS S86 dS, 4 of 2 of sf
Toa. 83.8 efg £ .09 38 wwosrs
Se.8 30a. @.8 (oeqy? £0) ogsoidd
Yoe. $8.3 fg 3 Slett Ifadersit
Ob. gas. Wa.dlecc? SLO)ogsofAd ,209 &
= 88. 83.8 ofa & 9209 Yorsowe
ofettid ;
209 3 reqood fexota
~ Gee ¥i.8 efg & 2ogfd
e200 mov iusdd
- IvSe 33.8 efa3 £ seviaz {fst
ttool bxi-dacowel
VIS. 03.8 fg & tiorted

(Letoeqe}

fomdeoH ,e1rs9c
SO. 8328 efa fl Ursgqmaod 4

a ee ee

»eoreunsacos eftit£ to

ot moitsotiqgs att fae tewels terre” oT

yseT, Yo toefds2 s af moftentaw([t to tinw Istoremioo 2

-aseanxe yas to tierreq bIyow brs diSserd Exs taotetrt

ni ,io8 ,totest g ton omtt arew ,etrentsertd evit

tarte” esavodynttas” est taft brea od wo tt ,motaufonco

oft aft yanttdat ls Istorsemoo to BLleft oft nt ,qapl

(62) —
|
|

long-felt wants of every aggressive lamp consumer

for a rugged lemp of the incandescent type; having max
imum flexibility and embodying in its design high ef-
ficiency, low maintenance cost, simplicity in renewal
system, natural downward distribution of light, com- |
paratively low intrinsic brilliancy, pleasing quality
of light, absence of flicker, rugged mechanical con-
struction, unity power factor, a large variety of
sizes, and lastly, operative on any commercial cir-
cuits; either alternating current of any voltage and
commercial frequency, and on direct current for both

110 end 220 Volt service. ‘

-~--000---

3 (=

Niky, $5, (700

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