Full text of "The New American cyclopaedia : a popular dictionary of general knowledge"

See other formats

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.

We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at|http : //books . google . com/

-X/lA

/I , .

RESTATE Ot ftU-Oi K^.FOTTEK.

NEW

AMERICA]^ CYCLOPiEDIA.

VOL. lY.

BROWNSON-CHARTRES.

THE ISTEW

AMERICAS CYCLOPEDIA:

f npiar guti0iiarj

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE.

EDITED BT

GEORGE RIPLEY aot) CHARLES A. DANA.

VOLUME IV.
BROWNSON-CHABTRES.

NEW YORK :
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

S46 & 848 BROADWAT.

BOSTON: L. A. ELLIOT & CO.

H.DCCO.LTni.

442878

EsTEBSDy aocoiding to Act of Congnas, in the year 1858, hy

D. APPLETON & COMPANY,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Coort of the United States for the Sonlhem District of

NewYoA.

THE

NEW AMERICAN CYCLOPJIDIA.

BROWNBOK

BROWNSOIT, Obestes Attofstttb, LL D., an
American author, born at Stockbridge, Vt.,
Sept. 16, 1803. His earlj life, passed chiefly
with old people in a lonely locality, was without
the sports and charms which nsaally beloDg to
childhood. He was taught Uie assembly's cate-
chism, the apostles' creed, and the Lord's
prayer ; and, with a fondness for reading, had
for books almost nothing but the Scriptures and
a few religious treatises. Hence his thoughts
took a deeply religious turn; and at 9 years
of age, having been permitted to witness a gen-
eral military muster, and being asked what he
had seen to interest him, his answer was, that
he had seen two old men talking on religion. In
fact, he had forgotten the soldiers to listen to a
debate on election and free-will, in which he
himself took part One of his earliest aspira-
tions was to become a clergyman. In his 19th
year, he joined the Presbyterian church at
Ballston, N. T., where he was attending an acade-
my, but soon meeting with men of various re-
ligious opinions, he changed his views after much
argumentation and a period of perplexity, and
became, in 1825, a Universalist minister. He
preached in different villages of Vermont and
New York, and wrote for and edited various re-
ligious periodicals, disseminating a confused med-
ley of bold thoughts. His ecclesiastical position
had grown into disfavor with him, when, mak-
ing acquaintance with Robert Owen, he was
fascinated by schemes of social reform ; and in
1828 he was prominent in the formation of the
working-men's partv in New York, the design
of which was to relieve the poorer and more
numerous classes b^ political organization. Of
the effectiveness of this movement he presently
despaired, when the writings of Dr. Ohanning
drew his attention to the Unitarians, and in
1882 he became pastor of a Unitarian congrega-
tion. He now enjoyed the acquaintance of
many cultivated persons; was introduced to
the French and German literatures; and began
the methodical study of philosophy and theol-
ogy. His chief advisers were the works of the
French philosophers, and the most important
result of his study was a conviction of the ne-
cessity of a new religious organization of man-
kind, which should render the religious senti-

ments efficient in society, and give to &ith, love,
and union the supremacy over disbelief xmceiv
tainty, and individualism. In 1836 he organiz-
ed, in Boston, the " society for Christian union
and progress,^' of which he retained the pastor-
ate till he ceased preaching, in 1843. Immedi-
ately after removing to Soston, he published
his " New Views of Christianity, Society, and
the Church," remarkable for its protest against
Protestantism ; and in which, by speculations
akin to those of Benjamin Constant and the St
Simonians, he looked to the immediate fhture
for a tran^ormation of religious and social ideas
and institutions. In 1838 he established the
"Boston Quarterly Review," of which he was
proprietor, and almost sole writer, during the 5
years of its separate existence, and to wMch he
contributed largely during the first year after
it was merged into the "Democratic Review,"
of New York. It was designed not to support
any definite doctrine, but to awaken thought on
great subjects, with reference to speedy and
radical changes. To this end also he pub-
lished, in 1840, "Charles Elwood, or the
Infidel Converted, " a philosophico-religious
treatise, in the form of a novel. This book
has passed through several editions in Eng-
land, but as the author soon afterward
changed his views on the subjects treated in it,
he declined to have more than one edition issu-
ed in this country. In his sermons, essays, and
books, he had pushed abstract principles to
speculative results, and, as he afterward said,
had accepted and vindicated nearly every error
into which the human race has ever fallen.
Having gone in one direction about as far as was
possible, and meeting with little either of sym-
pathy or success, he began to suspect that man
was not mfide for a church- builder, but that God
himself had founded a church centuries since,
fully adapted to the nature and destiny of hu-
man beings. This reactionary tendency in his
thoughts was encouraged by a course of reason-
ing ; and the ultra iconoclast in institutions, and
" chartered libertine" in doctrine, began to look
to the Roman Catholic church as the organiza-
tion which he had vainly endeavored to con-
struct for the redemption of humanity. With
his entrance into the Roman communion, in

BROWNSVILLE

BEUOE

1844^ the romance of his intellectnal career
terminates, and he has since been laboring
strennonsly for the doctrines of that chnrch«
Ilis oonrse as a metaphysical thinker mns par-
allel with his ecclesiastical career At one
time a sensationalist, he passed to the senti-
mental or intuitional philosophy, and was one
of the earliest admirers of Consin in this conn-
try. Two articles which he published on
edecticism in the "Ohristian !Examiner,^' in
1837, Were noticed and applauded by Cousin in
the preface to the 8d edition of las Fragments
Philo&ophiqu€9. After devoting more atten-
tion to philosophy, he embraced rationalism.
A later persuasion of the necessity of what may
be called the traditional element, made him a
Catholio in religion, and produced in his philoso-
phy a union of the two systems of traditional-
ism and rationalism, which is substantially his
E resent doctrine. The method which he aaopts
1 his system is the distinction between intuition
(direct perception) and reflection (indirect or re-
flex knowledge). The mind is unconciously in-
tuitive ; it does not, in intuition, know that it has
intuition of this or that truth, because as soon
as it knows or is conscious of the intuition it
has reflex knowledge. Reflection can contain
nothing which is not first in intuition. In or-
der to reflect on that which we know intuitive-
ly, we must have some sensible sign by which
the mind may apprehend or take hold of it.
Such a sign is language, both in the ordinary
and figurative sense. of the word, which thus
holds in the metaphysics of Mr. Brownson a place
corresponding to that which tradition holds in
his religious system. The knowledge of God,
he maintains, is intuitive. The ideal element
of every intellectual act is God creating crea-
tures, ens creat exietentiae. The later publica-
tions of Mr. Brownson are the " Spirit Rapper,"
in 1854, and the *^ Convert, or Leaves from my
Experience,'' in 1857. Since 1844 he has sup-
ported almost single-handed, in Boston and New
York, " Brownson's Quarterly Review," 4evoted
especially to tiie defence of Catholic doctrines,
but also discussing the questions in politics and
literature with which the public mind is occu-
pied. An attempt was made by Dr. John H.
Newman and others to persuade him to accept
a chair in the new Irish university in Dublin,
but he preferred to continue his labors in his
native country. Translations of several of his
works and essays have been published and fa-
vorably received in Europe, and his "Review"
is regularly republished in London simultane-
ously with its appearance in this oonntry.

BROWNSVILLE, a post borough of Fayette
CO., Penn. It is edtuatcd on the Monongahela
river, where it is crossed by the national road.
A bridge over the river has been erected here
at a cost of $50,000, and a 2d bridge, of cast-
iron, over Donlap^s creek, connects Browns-
ville with the neighboring borough of Bridge-
port. In the vicinity are rich mines of bitu-
minoos coaL The Monongahela is navigable to
this point for large steamboats. The borough

was incorporated in 1815, and contained in
1853 about 4^500 inhabitants, who are exten-
sively engaged in various manufsustures, and in
steamboat building.

BROWNSVILLE, formerly Fort Brown, a
post town, capital of Cameron co., Texas, on
the left bank of the Rio Grande, opposite Mata-
moras, and about 40 miles from the gulf of Mex-
ico. It is easily accessible -by steamboats, and
its advantageous situation and trade with Mex-
ico have rendered it one of the most prosperous
and populous towns of the state. The value of
its imports in 1852 was estunated at $5,000,000.
It contains a custom-house, 2 newspaper ofBces,
and 3 churches; pop. in 1854, about 5,000. — ^At
the commencement of the war with Mexico, in
1846, the IT. S. troops under Gen. Taylor occu-
pied this place, threw up a strong work, and,
leaving in it a small garrison, marched to the
relief of Point Isabel, on the coast, wliere their
supplies were threatened. In the mean time
the Mexicans, under cover of the guns of Mata-
moras, erected batteries, and on May 4 com-
menced a bombardment of the fort, which
lasted 160 hours. The Americans defended
themselves with spirit and success, maintaining
their position until the surrender of the city to
Taylor, but losing their commander, M%jor
Brown, who was killed by a shell on the 6th.
It is in honor of this officer that the town was
named. It has of late years been the starting
point of several nnsuccessfol flUibuster expedi«
tions into the Mexican territory.

BROWNSVILLE, the capital of Haywood
CO., Tenn., is situated in the midst of a rich,
level country, is surrounded by cotton and
maize plantations, and is the centre of an ac-
tive trade. It contains a female college under
the direction of the Baptists. Pop. 1,000.

BRUAT, Ajzmand Joseph, a French admi-
ral, born at Culmar, 1796, died in 1855. In
1843 he was governor of the Marquesas islands.
In 1848, after having, under the administration
of Cavaignac, officiated for a short time as prefect
of the port of Toulon, he was appointed governor
of Martinique and commander of the naval depot
in the Antilles, of which he became governor-
general, March 12, 1849. In 1852 hebecame a
member of the board of admiralty, and in tiie
following year commander-in-chief of the ocean
Bouadron. In 1854 he served in the fleet in the
Black sea as vice-admiral, under Admiral Hame-
lin, and took an active part in the first bom-
bardment of Sebastopol. On Dec. 8 he took
the place of Hamelin, and was on the point of
returning to France when, after leaving the
port of Messina, he died of the cholera.

BRUCE, a noble family of Scotland, 2 mem-
bers of which occupied the throne, after one had
pretended to it in vain. — ^Robsst, 7th lord of
Annandale, was one of the 13 claimants of the
crown in 1290, when, by the demise of Marga-
ret, the "maiden of Norway," the posterity of
the 8 last kings of Scotland had become ex-
tinct, and the succession reverted to the poster-
ity of David, earl of Huntington, and younger

itfivac

Wrrinin.tljflT.Irt]. TTiat r,Ti-.:tum Inf.^ !L*< * Vhi -iK *l*Ml\AttiLrf4 tliii Ivl- J^iL-4

l^fni'triifntt*

IlaniL
rf::
\

1 ut^

V^Afn Im:*^' i't*'^*-

.,,_. jX

^-i mmkm %%«liiii| T^ «i^ til^lV ^^^ 1^ vL|«i£n tta. lius Hi liOi^lii MvOivd i4w&t^ ^M ^^

6BIJ0E

the head of a large anny, encamped in the
neighborhood of the beleaguered fortreea, and
was there met bv Brace at the head of 80,000
^oked men, on the eve of the festiyal fixea for
its Borrender. The battle of Bannockbnrn,
which sacceeded, was the bloodiest defeat which
the English ever suffered at the hands of their
Scottish neighbors. It fixed the crown secnre-
ly on the head of Brace, and at once enabled
mm to exchange his prisoners^ who were of the
highest rank in England, agamst his wife, his
sister, and his other rdatives, who had lan-
guished so long in oaptiyity. After this snc-
oeas the Scottidli people assomed the offensiye
and invaded Ireland, where they at first gained
considerable sncoessesi and of which Edward
Brace was crowned king. While the dissen-
sions lasted between Edward and his barons,
Robert Brace repeatedly devastated the bor-
ders and all the north of Yorkshire, even to the
walls of York, into which he on one occasion
chased Edward in disgrace, narrowly faHlng to
make him prisoner, m 1823 this bloody war,
which had raged, with few panses, for 28 years,
was brought to a dose by a trace conduded
between the 2 kingdoms for 18 years, to rem^dn
in force even in the event of the death of one
or botii of the contracting partiesL Fonr years
after this Edward IL was compelled to ab^cate
in favor of his son, Edward III., and Brace,
seeing his occasion in the distracted state of
England, renewed the war, with the avowed
Intention of forcing Edward to renounce his
claim of sovereignty over the crown of Scot-
land. In 1828 this renunciation was made;
Scotland was declared sovereign and independ-
ent; Jane of England, the sister of Edward,
was affianced to David, prince of Scotland; and
Robert Brace paid £20,000 sterling to defray
the expenses of the war. He died the next
year, having, after a life of incessant toil and
waruire, secured the independence of his coun-
try and won the crown, which he left undis-
puted to his son. — ^Davib, son of the preceding,
long of Scotland, born about 1820, died in 1870.
Shortly after his accession, at the age of 9 years,
his kingdom was invaded, and his crown
wrested from him, by Edward Baliol, son
of that John Baliol whom Edward I. had
compelled to resign the crown. In support
of lus claim Edward III. maintained a fierce
strife on the borders, in active though unde-
clared hostilities to the Scots. David, with
his young queen, Jane of England, escaped to
France, where he resided till 1841, when, the no-
bles Murray, Douglas, and Stuart having expel-
led Baliol from the throne into the northern
counties of England, he ventured to return. In
1846, while Edward III., with the floVer of his
army, was absent in France, David suddenly
invaded England, at the head of 80,000 infantry,
mounted for the march on galloways, and of
8,000 men-alrarms. But a small army of Eng-
lish had collected themselves secretly at Auk-
land park, in Durham, composed of 1,200 men-
at-anns, 8,000 archers, and about 7,000 Tassals

of the diurchf ofiGloered by clergymen and oth-
ers, and animated by the presence and exhorta-
tions of Queen Philippa. The English fought
desperately, though with no regular leader, and
the Scottish troops were totally defeated, leav-
ing 16,000 men dead on the field of battle and
their king a prisoner. From this time nntU
1857 David was detained a prisoner in the tow-
er of London, when he was liberated after the
battle of Poitiers, on the agreement to pay 100,-
000 marks in 20 half-yearly instalments, a trace
being sworn to and hostf«es interchanged be-
tween the 2 countries. This trace was after-
ward extended to 25 years ftirther, under the
name of the great truce, which, David Brace
dying shortly after its ratification, was faithful-
ly observed by his successor, Robert, the first
of the Stuart kings of Scotland.

BBUOE, Edwabd, Lord, a Scottish judge and
politician, bora in 1549, died Jan. 14^ 1611. In
1694 he was sent to remonstrate with Queen
Elizabeth on the countenance she gave to the
earl of Bothwell, and though she would not de-
liver Bothwell up, she compelled him to leave
her dominions, in 1698 he went a second time
to England on an unsuccessful mission to induce
Elizabeth to acknowledge James YI. as her
successor. In 1601, having again gone to Eng-
land with the earl of Har, to intercede for the
ill-fiited earl of Essex, and arriving after his
execution, they adroidy converted their mis-
sion of supplication into one congratulating
Elizabeth on her escape from the conspiracy.
Owing to the judicious conduct of Brace, the
undisputed accession of James on the death of
Elizabeth took place. Bruce, knighted and
created Baron Brace of Kinloss, accompanied
James to England in 1608, and was made
privy councillor and master of the rolls.

BRUOE, James, a Scotch traveller, bom at
Kinnaird, Dec 14^ 1780, died April 27, 1794.
He was educated in London and in the uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and abandoned the pro-
f^ion of advocate, to which he had been des-
tined, for a mercantile life. His wife dying
soon after his marriage^ he sought divernon
from his grief in travel, made the tour of the
continent, and at Madrid studied the numecous
Arabic MSS. in the Escurial, but was forbidden
by the Spanish government to publish them.
He returaed to England, engag^ in studying
the oriental languages^ particularly the Ethio-
pian, and renounced commerce in 1768 to
accept the consulship at Algiers. He was soon
after selected by Lord Halifax to undertake
what had baffled curiosity and power since the
age of Oambyses, namely, the dlscoveiy of the
source of the Nile. He left Algiers in 1766,
visited rapidly Tunis, Tripoli, Rhodes, Oyprus,
Syria and Egypt, and in Feb. 1770 reached the
city of Gondiar, where he be^m his explora-
tions for the head of the Nile. After remain-
ing 2 years in Abyssinia, and visiting the source
of the Bahr-el Azrek, which he mistook for the
trae Nile, he returaed through Nubia and Egypt
narrowly escaping the plots of the savages and

HBGtS

ORCtai^

.1-1. IL?. t-1P_

fwl^gjglft

11. 1

IT.
I.

pro|»crlJt3

i. ii*^a .jf nar±TiA r'

ythftt*

Xh . .

lJl4f»j

life!*

Ir
11.
tf-

k
111

tii
111 I

£1

tit. LiJnvjii^ hoTOix, At&tiifir

1 t'l.-

^^ Aiwi 1X1

I.)

■ nu5

Lj ill.'

ipbTv

&tUtr»j'*

^ "fin,

(tr«;, Asii Aim iTtti yiywD iiila l4Si l&DasEuid Ira^
a ia«ii%tft.

Ktrtt

rmhm m pop

-ITSXl i1h> &l^r

ii. n. r.^ ■4.\ F

• ^1

BBUGES

BBUQlCAISrS

the ooean by the canal of Ostond, and bj
nmneronB canals and railways with the other
parts of Belgiam. It possesses spacious docks and
excellent qnaya, which admit about 100 vessels
of 200 to 800 tons. The shipowners of Bruges
are engaged principally in fishing and coasting.
Lace is the most important branch of rnanu*
factnre^ and there are also manufiustories of
linen, cotton, and woollen goods, of soap,
leather, tobacco, and porcelain. The fine
quality of the water in the canals enhances the
success of the dyeing establishments. The town
presents a quaint and curious aspect, contains
about 200 streets, 9 public squares^ 54 bridges,
and seversJ beautiful fountains. The church
of Notre Dame, with a sculptured virgin and
child, supposed to be by Michel Angelo, the ca-
thedral of St. Saviour, and the hospital of St.
John, are remarkable for the treasures of art and
monuments which they contain. The belfry
tower in the great square is the finest structure
of the kind in Europe, and its chimes, which
are the most beautiful in Belgium, sound at
every hour of the day and night. Bruges
possessea a flourishing free academy of fine arts,
a botanical garden, a library, a museum, a fine
theatre^ an agricultural society, an exchange, a
commercial and other tribunals, a gymnasium,
and a remarkably large number of charitable
institutions. The corporation of weavers of
Bruges was celebrated in the time of Charle-
magne. From the 9th century till the middle
of the 14th, the town was under the sway of
the counts of Flanders, who contributed much
to stimulate its prosperity, which reached the
height of its splendor early in the 16th cen-
tury, after having passed under the dominion of
the dukes of Burgundy. Factories were estab-
lished here by merchants from 17 states, 20
foreign ministers were accredited to its court
Philip the Good instituted the order of the
golden fleece in honor of the remarkable pros-
perity of the woollen trade of the town. Bruges
was then one of the great commercial empori-
ums of the world, one of the leading com-
manderies of the Hajoseatic league, the centre of
resort for English, Lombard and Yenetian
merchants, the great mart to which Ck)nstantir
nople^ Genoa, and Venice sent their precious
argosies laden with eastern produce, Persia its
silk, England its wool, and India its spices*
The merchants of Bruges had a large share of
the business of the globe, while their manu&c-
turers^ especially in ti^try, excelled all their
contemporaries. A native of Bruges established
the gobelins in France under Henry IV. ; an-
other, named Berkea, discovered the secret of
polishing the diamond. Hans Hemling and the
brothers Van Eyck, practised their art at Brngea,
and the fine arts had a full share of the gener-
al flourishing condition of the town. This great
prosperity, however, engendered extravagant
habits in dress and social life to such an
extent that Oharles V. was obliged to pass
stringent sumptuary laws. The dominion of
the house of Hapsburg proved fatal to the

prosperity of iiie town. The citixens, who had
alwaya been noted for the Jealous care with
which they guarded their priimeges, imprisoned
the Austrian archduke "MTft-riTniliftn for violating
them, and to punish the town the trade was
transferred to Antwerp, and its ruin was finally
oonsnmmated by the persecutions of tiie duke
of Alva at the end of the 16th century, when
many of the inhabitants fled to England, where
they introduced some of their native arts and
mannfiictures. The town was on 2 occasiona
the asylum of English kioffs : once when Ed-
ward IV. fled from England^ and again during
the exile of Charles II., the latter inhabiting a
house which still stands on the south side of
the great square, at the comer of the rue St.
Amand, bearing the sign, Au lion Beige,

BRUGES, Hbnbi iULPHossB, vicomte de, a
field-marshal under Louis XVIIL, bom 1764^
died Kov. 4^ 1820, served in his youth in the
English navy in the expedition against Tous-
saint-Louverture, devoted himself subsequentiy
to the cause of the Bourbons, followed the
duke of Angoul^me to Spain, and after the
battle of Waterloo negotiated with the allied
powers on the subject of the prisoners of war.

BRUGES, RoGZB van, a Flemish painter and
pupil of John van Eyck. He flourished in the
middle of the 15th century, and was probably
the same person as MagisterRogel, of Flanders,
who painted in 1446 three pictures in one, which
were presented by Don Juan II. to the Car-
thusian church at Miraflores. He was one of
the few painters of his time who painted on
canvas.

BRUGG, or Bbuok, a cirde in the Swiss
canton Aargau, on the Aar, with 12 parishes,
fertile valleys, with manufactures of hosiery
and straw goods, and other goods, and a popu-
lation of 17,800.— The capital, of the same
name, with a population of 1,160, is sur-
rounded by walls^ defended by conical towers,
and is built on a portion of the site of the
ancient Vindouissa, some remains of which are
still to be seen. In the vicinity are the ruins
of the ancient castie of the counts of Hapsburg.
The ruined abbey of KOnigsfelden is in the same
neighborhood. The town is the centre of an
active transit trade. An old bridge across the
Aar at this place is the origin of its name.
During tiie reformation, Brugg was called the
Proph^Unstddtehen, or the little town of proph-
ets, from the many theologians who were bom
here.

BRVGGEMANN, Kabl HsDmiOH, a Ger-
man journalist, bom Aug. 29, 1810, was im-
«|>licated in the movement of the Heidelberg
Students of 1880, and for some time detained
in prison. Since 1846 he has been editor-in*
chief of the Kolaiscke ZeiPung, one of the
most influential papers in Germany.

BRUGMAN8, Sebjlib Justhots, aDutdiphy-
sician and naturalist, bom at Franeker, March
24, 1763, died inLeyden, July 22, 1819. He was
first appointed professor of botany and after-
ward of natural philosophy at Ley den. On the

brDel

tmrvAfiti;

A 4^^ur *^ [v^M iiiiik

tt-n> ,

Oih'

I row ll^ wii» liliO*!

jLt4.' ^J Unx: XT'
AKUm

lltPTm^onrit t& Urn Mnp
iiMH wlilitb waft ttiji*uii»-

la bu oilliil til

. I,,. f.: 1. ,.J

0^ bi

.,^ ...^.*. ....,^ ^.. ^ ... Ow fmt UL Am u ^, *i woj «si inr

!» oUiisr «t llMvauJd cJifrnti* iikd IftdBetlOiilgenritiliim and b Hit

kitwl i<3

ludtiUrd Lisa tu aLiuud^n i

i:>_i rff niLU f^ii

BRUMAIRE

BBmCATH

be to tlirow the BQpreme poirer into their own
hands. AooordmgV the Utter formed a con-
spiracy, with Sieyds and his friends, for the
complete overthrow of the government ; and to
prepare the way for it, they invented reports oi
dangerous plots on the part of the Jacobins,
which aliurmed the timid and the friends of or-
der generally. The di|y set apart for the execu-
tion of their scheme was the 18th Bramaire.
Siey^ was given liie conncil of ancients to
manage; Napoleon undertook the military;
and Lucieu Bonaparte, who was president of
the council of 500, that important body. As
a last resort^ however, as in all such cases,
their reliance was upon the army, with which
Bonaparte was an immense favorite. At 6
o'clock on the morning of the 18th, the ancients
(with the exception of the republican members,
who had not been notified) were assembled at
the Tuileries. 8ieyds aroused their fears by an
animated address on the dangers of the repub-
lic, the plots of the Jacobins, and a meditated
return of the reign of terror, and persuaded
them to transfer the meeting of the le^slative
bodies to St. Cloud, on the pretence that they
would there be out of danger. He also per-
suaded them to appoint Bonaparte commander-
in-chief of the military division of Paris. The
removal of the chambers thev had a right to
effect by the constitution; but this appoint-
ment they had no right to make, yet it was
made. Bonaparte at once made his arrange-
ments for the disposal of the troops. Sieyds
and Duces resigned as members Of the directo-
ry ; Barras, another member, corrupt and cow-
ardly, made secret terms with Bonaparte and
also resigned, whereby the other two members,
Moulins and Gohier, were left in a minority.
Thus there was in reality no executive govern-
ment; and the council of 500, which met
at 11 o'clock, found that their session had
been adjourned to the next day at St Oloud.
On the 10th Brunudre (Nov. 10), the two
councils met at St. Cloud. The republican
minority of tiie ancients complained fiercely of
the trick by which they had been left out of
the proceedings of the previous day, when Nfr-
poleon appeared at the bar to justify the action.
In the midst of considerable tumult, in which
he Bpoke of volcanoes, conspiracies, traitors,
&c, he lost his presence of mind, lus language
became confused and incoherent, and he did
not recover himself till he caught a glimpse of
the grenadiers outside, when he threatened the
assembly with the army, if it dared to decide
against him. In the council of 500 a more
violent scene was enacted. Lucien Bonaparte
read the resignation of the directors, the as-
sembly shouting: ^^No Cromwell, no dictator,
the constitution forever I" In the midst of
the uproar Napoleon entered with four grena-
diers. He attempted to address the assembly,
which, furious at the outrage inflicted upon
it by his presence, interrupted him witib cries
and clamors. ^^No soldiers in the sanctuary
of the law T' they shouted, and crowded about

the general. He essayed to speak, but being
more used to the command of an army than to
that of a deliberative assembly, he stammered
and hesitated, and could only get out a few-
broken sentences. At last, a voice from the
military outside said, ^* Let us save our general,"
and a body of troops rushed in and tore Napo-
leon by main force from the crowd. No dun-
age appears to have been done in this mM4e
beyond tearing the coat of one of tlie grena-
diers. A motion was then made to outlaw
Bonaparte; Lucien refused to put it, and then
left the chair. At that crisis a body of grena-
diers, despatched by Napoleon, entered the hall
and carried Luden ofL As soon as he reached
the military outside, already somewhat exas-
perated bv the treatment which Napoleon had
received, he exclaimed that factious men, arm-
ed with daggers, and in the pay of England,
had set the deliberations of the representatives
of the people at defiance ; and that he, as pres-
ident of the assembly, requested the military to
?ueU the disturbers. The army hesitated, when
lUden swore that he '^ would stab his own
brother if ever he attempted any thing against the
Hberty of the nation." Murat, at the head of a
body of grenadiers, entered the hall and order-
ed the deputies to disperse. They replied with
vociferations and curses, and shouts of " The
republic forever!" The drums were then or-
dered to beat, the soldiers levelled their mus-
kets, and the council escaped by the windows,
as it could. Meantime Napoleon repaired to
Paris, circulated reports of his having been at-
tacked with daggers, procured a person named
Thom6 to assert that he had himself received the
Wj>unds intended for Napoleon, and in other
ways won upon the feelings and affections of
the troops. Sure of their support, ho was id-
ready master of the situation. The council of
500 was dissolved by a vote of some 50
members, who also, in connection with the an-
cients, passed a» decree making Sieyds, Napo-
leon, and Duces provisional consuls, invested
with supreme executive power. "Thus was
consummated," says Mignet, ^^ the final blow
against liberty, and from that day brute force
commenced its dominion." Others, however,
look upon this coup d'etat as a necessary ter-
mination to a reign of anarchy and confusion,
although none seek to disguise the fact that it
was an act of violence, in which the entire civil
I>olity of a nation was subverted in order to
make way for the supremacy of a single man. —
(See Bourrienne, Memoirea de Napoleon ; Thiers,
Mistoire de la revolution Franpaise; Mignet,
HUtoire de la revolution IVan^ise; "Annual
Register "for 1799; M. de Barante, Eistoire
du directoire de la republique Fran^ise^ 2
vols., Paris, 1855.)

BRUMATH, or Bbximpt, a French town,
in the department of Bas-Rhin, on the riv-
er Zom, within a short distance of Strasbourg,
celebrated for a number of tumuli in which
have been found pieces of wood, a hatchet, a
knife, a ring, and some other objects, all of Cel-

QiimoKtx

fiT

iril^ itail mid

n ihsi prints; 'i InfiUliUit/ of
-. ,; J .- -, J40 ir» trr. 1 'if tirr anf^ ]|^

af Clio aucilflai» U%m f tbeie «b i b» wm

BRUK

BBUNAI

ed the 4th by as a total stranger. BrommeUt
who knew his horror of having his corpnlentsy
alluded to, asked, in a most distinct tone, jost
as the prince passed him, ^ Alvanley, pray who
is yonr&t friend?'* This insolence was dexter-
ous, for it hit the prince on the very spot where
he was notoriously thin-skinned. After this,
when Brummell's fimds began to run low, he
became a gambler. Play ran hiffh at the dubs^
One night, in 1814, Bmmmell lost every shil-
ling he had in hand. He raised money at usu-
rious interest, appeared at the opera as usual,
and then, entering a friend's oarriaffe, posted off
to Dover, and was safe in Calais the next day.
His capital was reduced to 25,000 francs, on
which, with occasional remittances from his
brother in England, he contrived to live for
some years. He took his reverses calmly, re*
marking, in reply to some regrets about lus exile
at such a place as Calais, *^May not a gentleman
manage to spend his time pleasantly enough
between London and Paris? " In 1821, when
George IV. passed through Calais, en route to
Hanover. Bmmmell made some timid advances,
which the king contemptuously disregarded.
At last, to place him above actual want, Brum-
meU was appointed English consul at Caen,
where he continued for several yearsi until
the oflSce was abolished as unnecessary^ Coca-
rional remittances fr(»n his family and a few sur-
viving friends in England were seized, to pay a
few debts which he had contracted, and at last,
reduced to absolute penury, the former associate
of royalty and leader of fashion died in a hospi-
tal for lunatic mendicants at Caen, at the age of
62. He had spent a quarter of a century in exile,
and was only 87 when his reign in London came
to a sudden dose. Bmmmell found it very
difficult to master the French language, and
Byron remarked on the subject that *4ike
Napoleon's progress in Russia, Brummell's pro-

rs in French was stopped by the elements."
amusing life of Brummell, by Capt. Jesse,
was published in 1844, which gives a graphio
account of his whole career, and a fair estimate
of his character.

BBUN, Fbudkbisb Sophie CnsisTiANit, a
German authoress, bora near Gotha, June 8,
1765, died in Copenhagen, March 25, 1835. 8he
was a dau^ter of Balthasar Mtlnter, a preach-
er and Ijrrical poet, and in her 18th year was
married to Konstantin Brun, a wealthy Dan-
ish frinctionary. 8he accompanied her hus-
band first to St Petersburg, then to Ham-
burg^ where for several months she enjoy-
ed an intimate acqnamtance with Klopstock,
and then to Copenhagen. In the winter of
1788, in an excessively cold night, she suddenly
lost her hearing, and from that time devoted
berseli^ for many years, to travelling and to lit-
erary composition. She became acquainted
with many of the most eminent literary persons
of her day : passed the winter of 1801 at Cop-
pet, wiUi Madame de Stafil, after which she
again resided for seversJ yean in Italy. She
finally returned to Copenhagen in 1810, where

her house was a favorite resort for the literary
notabilities of that capitaL Most of her works
are written in German, comprising poems,
travels, and essays on art

BRUNAI, a Malay state of Borneo, extend-
ing from the mouth of Batang^upar river in
long. 108° 88' E. along the N. W. coast to the
'bay of Sandakan, aclioining the territories of
the sultan of Sooloo. Its inland boundary is a
mountain range, at an average distance of 90
miles from the coast, called the Madei and Anga-
Anga range, forming an unbroken chain from
the head waters of Satang-Lnpar to Lake Eini-
Balu, which is in the same latitude with the
bay of Sandakan. The coast line is about 900
miles; area, 28,000 sq. m. The state comprises
also several extensive islands, Banguey, Bala-
bao, Malawali, Mantanani, Mangkalaan, and
numerous islets, with about } of the large isl-
and of Palawan. Probable pop. of the Borne-
an portion, SOOjOOO; of the islands, 40,000.
The territoiy of Brunai is mostly covered with
a dense tropical forest, accessible only to the Dy-
aks and orang-outangs ; and ^ere has been no
communication with the interior, by Europeans
or civilized Asiatics, except along its water
courses. These are numerous; the mouths of
not less than 21 can be counted, whidi disem-
bogue into the China sea, between Cape Sam-
panmanlo and Cape Datoo, all of which are
navigable far inland for vessels of light draught
of water, and 2, the Bajang and Bmnai, for ves-
sels of the largest class. Extensive fields ot
valuable fossil coal have been discovered on
many of these streams, and European compa-
nies have commenced their development The
chief exports of native production are pepper,
ratans, sago^ camphor, birds* nests, bezoar
stones, vegetable tallow, ebony, pearl shells,
and tortoise shelL Europeans are engaged in
the mining and export of coal and antimony,
the latter being found in this territory more
abundantly than in any other part of the world.
The principal imports are European and Bugis
manufactured doths, either plain blue or small
checks, brass wire^ fire-arms, coarse crockery,
unwrought iron m small bars, Chinese urns,
iron caldrons^ and tobacco. Salt is an impor*
tant item of import, as on account of the low,
alluvial character of the whole coast of Boraeo,
none is manufactured in the island. The sale
of it in this territory is a monopoly of the
Malay sultan, as it is of the Dutch government
wherever established. There is no money in
use, either among Malays or Dyaks ; even in
the shape of coin it has not yet been employed.
The chief standards of value, in the intercourse
between the Malays of the coast and the rude
Dyaks of the interior, are small bundles of iron
roo, of the weight of a Chinese cattie, or H lb.,
and pieces of Bugis manufacture checks.
Among the Dyaks themselves, smoked human
heads constitute the principal medium of ex-
change. Of the population of this territory,
not more than ^ are Malays, the ruling race.
The most of them claim to be descendants of

BRPKAT ^^^ Dumtt ja ^J

UUnd'

^^B

1 Tlvn ,-,■

• Fitn I'll i« * 'r. 1

■ ^'

H *"

^^B

H ^

^^H

P 1'

^^^

K V^

H tr.

^^H

■ ^'

H '"

^H K^) «a '^i

^^1

H kmMi blMl*

^^H

^B «Ia^n iim]

^^1

^H liiniQ^i«ut

^^1

^r flu. r^T.,K
I'

b ''-

■ »'

^^1

B <^v

^^H

H ""

^^H

H ^'

^^H

H 1''-

^^H

■ ).■

^^1

H c»

^^H

■ '''

^^M

■ *"

H *

1 ^^^1

H ^^

iim If 1 ^H

H »'

^^H

H ^'

^^H

^ -'

^^H

^ Uniii ^^1

J ^,

ri»Ei(Wrv' ^H

^K viii

^^bilr«| M^ cail^ Tltyilf FlillllU«| ^^1

^^H

^^^M

^H i-'

^^^1

^^H

%tf^4ri4tfi! ^^H

^H r-'

^^^1

^H %ii

^^H

^^r

:uLij^.r Eiiu; tiifti :<j j ^t^.^ u< ?<TiiiJj ^^^|

■

^ ii^mii'^^f^ ^H

H ir

Ut» H'NM i<rTif iitu'ril ^l»ii ^^^1

^^H

^H jui

^^H

^^Ljfi

. ji%V in^ij* ^^1

B«tte

rM^4'n*r4 ^^^1

^^^v pnyuxk'i :

' uich. T|-^ ^^^1

^H nm <e«

:tMr^ V ^H

■^^ *"

[*n«iyng! ^W

'iiaVfti 1 ■

^K iiaiiHL

<i^hf««ii. llili«iM» Hind nenyiUrf^piHJbitQiifaliitL-. loui 1

BBUIi^

BBUNEHAUT

dajs of Sept 1792, and bis sndden prMnotian.
in Oct. 12, 1792, to the rank of colonel and
a4]ntaiit'migor. He served under Domonriez
in Belffium ; was sent against the federalists of
Galyados, advancing tmder Gen. Poisaje npon
Paris, whom he ea^y defeated. He was next
made a general of brigade, and partidpated
in the battle of Hondschoote. The committee
of public safety intrusted him with the nusdon
of putting down the insurrectionary movements
in the Gironde, which he did with the utmost
xigor. After Danton's imprisonment, he was
expected to rush to the rescue of his friend and
protector, but keeping prudently aloof during
the first moments of danger, he contrived to
shift through the reign of terror. After the 9th
Thermidor he again Joined the now victorious
Dantonists, and followed !EV^ron to Harseiiles
and Avignon. On the 18th Yend^miaire (Oct.
6, 1796) he acted as one of Bonaparte's under-
generids against the revolted sections of Paris.
After having assisted the directory in putting
down the conspiracy of the camp at Grenoble
(Sept 9, 1796), he entered the Italian army in
the division of Massena, and distinguished him-
self during Ibe whole campaign by great intre*
pidity. Wishing to propitiate the chiefs of the
eordelierSy Bonaparte attributed part of his suc-
cess at Rivoli to the exertions of Brune, ap-
pointed him general of division on the battle-
field, and induced the directory to instal him as
commander of the second division of the Italian
army, made vacant by Augerean's departure for
Paris. After the peace of Gampo Formic he
was employed by the directory on the mission
of first lulling ttie Swiss into security, then
dividing their councils, and finally, when an
army had been concentrated for that purpose,
fidling upon the canton of Bern, and seizing its
public treasury ; on which occasion Brune for-
got to draw up an inventory of the plunder.
Again, by dint of manoBuvres, bearing a diplo-
matic rather than a military character, he
forced Charles Emmanuel, the king of Sardinia,
and the apparent ally of France, to deliver into
his hands the dtadel of Turin (July 3, 1798).
The Batavian campaign, which lasted about 2
months, forms the great event of Brune's mili-
tary Ufe. In this campaign he defeated the
combined English andEussian forces, under the
command of Uie duke of York, who capitulated
to him, promising to restore all the French
prisoners taken by the English from the com-
mencement of the anti-Jacobinic war. After
the eavp d'itat of the 18th Brumaire, Bonaparte
appointed Brune a member of the newly creat-
ed council x>f state, and then despatched him
against the royalists of Brittany. Sent in 1800
to the army of Jtaly, Brune occupied 3 hostile
camps, intrenched on the Yolta, drove the
enemy beyond this river, and took measures for
crossing it instantly. According to his orders,
the army was to effect its passage at 2 points,
the right wing under Gen. Dupont between a
mill situated on the Yolta and the village of
Pozzolo, the left wing under Brune himself at

Konbanm. The second part of the operations
meeting with difficulties, Bnme gave orders to
delay its execution for 24 hours, although the
right wing, which had commenced cros^g on
the other point, was already engaged with far
superior Austrian forces. It was only due to
Gen. Dupont^s exertions that the right wing
was not destroyed or captured, and thus the
success of the whole campaign imperilled* Thia
blunder led to his recall to Paris. From 1802
to 1804 he cut a sorry figure as ambassador at
Oonstantinople, where ms diplomatic talents
were* not, as in Switzerland and Piedmont,
backed by bayonets. On his return to Paris, in
Dec. 1804, Napoleon created him marshal in
preference to generals like Lecourbei Having
for a while commanded the camp at Boulogne,
he was, in 1807, sent to Hamburg as governor
of the Hanseatic towu& and as commander of
the reserve of the grand army. In this quality
he vigorously seconded Bourrienne in his pecu-
lations. In order to settle some contested points
of a truce concluded witb Sweden at Schlach-
tow, he had a long personal interview with King
Gustavua, who, in &ct, proposed to him to betray
his master. The manner in which he declined
this offer raised the suspicions of Napoleon, who
became highly incensed when Brune, drawing
up a convention relating to the surrender of
the island of ROgen to the French, mentioned
simply the French and the Swedish armies
as parties to the agreement without any cd-
losion to his "imperial and royal msgesty."
Brune was instanUy recalled by a letter of Bcr-
thier, in which the latter, on uie express order
of Napoleon, stated " that such a scandal had
never occurred since the days of Pharamond.''
On his return to France, he retired into private
life. In 1814 he gave his adhesion to the acts
of tbe senate, and received the cross of St. Louis
from Louis XYUI. During the Hundred Days
he became again a Bonapartist, and received the
command of a corps of observation on tiie Yar,
where he displayed against the royalists the
bratal vigor of his Jacobin epoch. After the
battie of Waterloo he proclaimed the king.
Starting from Toulon for Paris, he arrived at
Avignon, on Aug. 2, at a moment when that
town had for 15 days been doomed to carnage
and incendiary fires by the royalist mob. Being
recognized by them, he was shot, the mob
seizing his corpse, dragging it through the
streets, and throwing it into the Rhone.
" Brune, Maasena, Augereau, and many others,'*
said Napoleon at St. Helena, ^^were intrepid
depredators." In regard to his military talents
he remarks: ''Brune was not without a certain
merit, but, on the whole, he was a general de
tribune rather than a terrible warrior." A
monument was erected to him in his native
town in 1841.

BRUNEHATJT, or Bbi7Nxhiij>]e, a famous
queen of Austrasia, the eastern langdom of
the Franks, born in 684, killed in 614. The
daughter of Athanagild, the Visigoth king of
Spain, she married in 568 Siegbert, king of

'AITT

Ir..
An ■.

HFTfir T I

diaiu

oofimr

i:^jj 1-1-1 i>i Liif nvfr aii^i urn J>]aLiii^

•y^'jjiiit», I'll' I 4ii T

led-

.! iiTi

ir. lei J

W WM 1

'"'isa-

r-tpi, f'

•■r^

luyilw

ID moit tllrir

TOIi. IT.—-'

inpur hi i*M' iJiMT.'jt'* vuuma riikih'P huf

•

BBUNELLEBOHI

BBDHK

of his life from the breaking in of the water.
He was long occupied on an engine driven by
earbonio acid gaa, designed by his father, the
nse of which as a motive power was abandoned
from economical motives, although the machin-
ery was brought to high perfection. At the
commencement of the railway system of Eng-
land, Mr. Brand threw himself with ardor into
the movement. He planned the Great West-
em, the noblest and most massively constmcted
line in the world. He designed the broad gauge,
on which the highest locomotive speed mther-
to known Is attainable, which cannot, however,
be said to answer in an economical point of
view. We believe that he is the inventor of
the skew bridge, by which the inconvenience
in railway ennneering of constructing bridges
at right angles with a water or roadway is
avoided. Beside being engineer-in-chief to the
Great Western railway, and its numerous con-
necting lines, he was the constructor of the
Great Western steamship, the first which reg^
olarly traversed the Atlantic, and which trad^
for many years between Bristol and New York,
afterward of the Chreat Britain screw steamship,
and lately of that prodigious result of skill and
ingenuity, the Leviathan. Mr. Brunei took
part in the floating and raising of the Oonway
and Britannia tubular bridges, constmcted some
of the most important docla on the English
coast, conductea the works of the Tuscan portion
of the Sardiman railway, and of other foreign
railways, and during the war with Russia he
had the endre charge of establishing and orsan-
izing the Renkioi hospitals on the Dardanelles.
The Box tunnel on the Great Western railway,
near Bath, is a fit pendant to his father^s Thames
tnnneL The Hungerford suspennon bridge on the
Thames, at London, the largest span in England,
is a model of lightness and elegance. As may
be inferred from his professional achievemente^
his activity and industry are absolutely inde-
fktigable, while his enthusiasm and self-confi-
denoe are unbounded. On the latter point it
is related that when the controversy between
engineers on the respective merits of the broad
and narrow gauges was at its height, Mr. Bru-
nei offered to drive one of his own ordinary
broad gauge locomotives, with a common load,
at 100 miles an hour, if any narrow gauge en*
ffineer would accept the challenge. None was
found daring enough to take it up. The history
of this gauge controversy is folly detailed in
Mr. 8miles*s *^Life of George Stephenson.'*
Mr. Brunei is vice-president of the institution
of civil engineers and of the society of arl^
fellow and member of the council of the royal
society, and member of many other learned

societies.

BRUNELLESOHI, Foippo di Skb Lappl an
Italian architect^ bom in Florence in 1877, died
there in 1444. He first studied painting and
.sculpture, and brought the art of perspective to
perfection ; but as an architect he gamed most
distinction, having, according to his country-
men, revived the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian

orders. His great works are the cupola of the
church of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence,
the celebrated Pitti Palace at Florence, and the
abbey at Fiesole.

BBUNET, Jaoqttes Ohahles, a French biblio-
grapher, bom in Paris, Nov. 2, 1780. The son
of a bookseller, he early acquainted himself
with rare editions and copies of books, and
made several catalogues of old libraries. His
most important work is a Manuel du Libraire
etde Vamateur de Iwres^ which appeared in 1810,
and to which a supplement of new bibliograph-
ical researches was added in 1884. A 4th edi-
tion in 5 vols, appeared in 184^^44, and a 5th
edition has been announced for 1868. The
completeness of this work mi^es it of value
to the bibliographers of all countries. In 1852
he published researches upon the original edi-
tions of Rabelais.

BRUNETTI, Akgelo, a leader of the Roman
democracy in 1848 and 1849, more generally
known in Rome under the name of Cicemacchio.
A carman by trade, he obtained much influence
over the Roman populace, which during the
time of the reformatorv aspirations of Pius IX.
he exerted in the pope's favor, but subsequently
in favor of Mazzini, whose cause was to a great
extent indebted to Brunetti for its success.
After the occupation of Rome by the French,
Branetti removed to G^noa, and subsequently
to France. His execution, by Austrian soldiers,
was reported in 1856. According to another
report he has been seen at a later period, at
Kertch, in the Crimea, carrying on a successful
trade as a sutlor

BBtJNN (Slavic, Brno, a ford), a circle in
Moravia ; pop. 869,200. The capital, of the same
name^ pop. 45,000, is situated on a declivity at
the confluence of the Schwarza and the Zwitta-
wa. and is connected by railway with Vienna
ana Prague. The streets are generally narrow
and crooked, but are well paved and lighted,
and relieved by large open squares, in several
of which are fountains. Fortifications separate
the city from a number of suburbs. It was
formerly defended bv the castle of Spielberg,
which stands on a Ligh hill just back of the
town. This castle was converted into a state

Srison, and was the place of confinement of
ilvio Pellico, and of other political offend-
ers. The last renmants of its fortifications
were destroyed by the French in 1809. The
city contains many fine buildings, some of
the most notable of which are the cathedral,
the church of St. James, buUt between 1814 and
1480, the LandhauSy formerly a rich Augusti-
nian convent, the barracks, once a Jesuit col-
lege, tiie city hall, and the palaces of Prince
Dietrichstein and Prince Eaunitz. A public
park, the Augarten, was opened by Joseph II.,
and in the public gardens of the Franzenburg
quarter is a monument to the emperor Francia L
The Zderad monument— one of the most
ancient of Moravia — stands outside of the
town. Brtlnn is a bishop's see, and the seat
of the principal law and military courts for

■

^^^^F^^ . J?

^^M

^^^^^■^

^^^B^^^^

^^^^K| ,

^^^ktit^

■

^^^P^' '

1 llL'TJUtl-

|f»'-' /MltlULi- IL L*^ ^^^M

^^^^r

m,9tms%

^u uAiuki^bomAtotf ^^H

^^^^Bt.

'■^<i,, c^i: r),-i ;tnHj*iui-'i III |||18|<

1Cil;i .. v^^UiKvif. H' ^^H

im 1

fW: ^umiiTL ^H

1^^^^^^

■' ^ T-ni:.i--m r,f' il.,* fi-rlm^ *<n.'..'r.M

■

•nm iiHiiir-i ^^^1

^r mr'

■ .'

iT>T vfT??^ fl OmTnin

■

OOalttAtft^ i7f|kt>dyRi, ^^1

■ .

d?i*i| fn T^ 1 fn?ii4»l Ui ^^1

L.I

^^^H

!■ f"

^^^Ba^,

4 ^^^^H

^^ki^^

^^HK^.

* wibrw» %h% ^EMooaaif ^^M

^^^^^■2_Ju

nv wUfiih Imii Isc^ri firr ^^H

^^^Hh^

^^^^^^^^ft'

^^H

^■Tv^

i!^ Tf^HimtdlHdf

%Mii0 > I'^'iw ^^H

^p ,^i

Mr JiMrrtrNa

^^^^Mk*'

1 Ui»? TLP-'TT'

■ itjL'U Ikvry >r»eufUi llkAt Li- ' ^^M

JCia^i^&ii Kirir

^^^^^Kff^

, ■ ll.d-^4 HI1.,J,J.^IJJ <JT i.JtJ

.... ...<^^.-i ^ ...^..,.. ..^....p;. Uj uriliag a ^^H

Mii«4/ flatilM n dmifMp; and ftto br ^H

J«

tko

LoBt. In Idda bA wBui tei Um*ku ^^M

1 1 jnii6.is- •!

jITTj-

^^^^^E

*-r A Wi^'

U«tju;» \i^44iia1^ MUcltad ibo ^ambr iiC ^H

^^^^^^^^^^K *

. ^UltbOMO*

^^^^^^^^^^^P '

i iiud^jf tbe ^Ikiir*

^^^^^^^^^^^B >

rakk iiCieoiMiiii&

BRUNO

whioh alone would have made him a heietio:
for ia tiliofle times Aristotle's philosophy had
almost the sanctitj of religion, notwithstand-
ing the ooorageons attempts of the spirited
Peter Bamos to overtom it Bruno defended
his opinions in pnblio discnssions with Hen-
neqnin and others, bnt at last, when he had
set up a complete pantheistical system in
his writings, Paris became a dangerons place
for him, and in 1586 he went to Germany.
After a brief stay at Marbnrg, he settled at the
nniversity of Wittenberg as a lecturer on phi-
losophy and mathematics. But his restlessness
did not allow him to remain there more than 2

Sirs. In his valedictory address he paid the
best tribute to the genius of Luther, but he
declined the preasinff invitations which he re-
ceived to join the Lutheran church as pernst-
enUy as he had those of the Oalvinists at Gene-
va. For 4 years he went from one German
university to another, lecturing now at Prajpe,
then at Helmst&dt, then agun at Frankfort
until, in 1592, contrary to the urgent advice of
his mends and well-wishers, he ventured to re-
turn to Italy. There he remained for 6 years,
living in Padua, unmolested by the ecclesiastical
authorities, and devoting his time to philosoph-
ical researches and literary pursuits. At last,
in 1598, when on a visit to Venice, he was ar-
rested by the inauisition, sent to Rome» and k^t
in a dungeon for 2 years, in the hope that
lus phyeical sufOBrings would make him recant
his doctrines. But in this his opponents were
mistaken. He would not falsify his opinions
even to save his life. Accordingly, he waspub-
lidv burned at the stake as a heretic, an inndel,
and a breaker of his vows. Hediedashehadlived.
£ven when the flames had enveloped him, and
life had become almost extinct, he turned his
face away in disgust from a eealous monk who
held out to him a crucifix. — Bruno was a man
of great mental activity, facility and breadth
of perception, boldness of thought, and of a
vivid imagination, aided by extraordinary power
and brillianqr of expression, both in speaking
and writing. As a philosopher, his place is
upon the dividing line between those devotees
of soholasticiBm and dasddsm — ^who, durinxr the
fiist half of the 16th century, cultivated a kind
of philosophical speculation, which bore the
same relation to true philoiii|)hy tiiat alchemy
SDstains to chemistry, — and the really ori^nal
thinkers and creators of modem philosophy
who «»peared in the course of the 17th century.
Guided in his earliest reasonings by the Eleatic
philo80i>hers, he drew from them lus first crude
Mmceptions of the identity of God and the uni-
verse. But these ideas were strangely and fan-
cifully blended not only with the mental ecsta-
sies of the Christian mystics, but also with the
first vague and imperfect reveUutions of modem
astronomy, with some coarse fragments of as^
trolo^, and even with some of the abstrase
oabahatic and metaphysical ciphering of Ray-
mond LuUy. Thus his philosophy appears as
a remarkable compound of strange ingredients,

held together more by ^e force of intuition
than by argument or logic. Still, such as it is,
it has proved very captivating, and not without
influence on the development of modem thought.
Montaigne excepted, t^ere is no philosopher of
the 1Q& century who has been so frequently a
subject of research and comment by modem
scholars as Giordano Bruno. Descartes has
bonowed largely from him, and Spinoza's
system would appear almost like Bruno's, re*
fined in the logical cracible of Descartes. Kay,
even with some philosophers of the 19th cen-
tury Bruno has been a fetvorite. One of the
profoundest works of ScheUing bears the name
of Bruno on its title C' Bruno, or the Divine
and the Natural Principle of Things"), and this
once more directed the general attention of
scholars to Bruno's works, which had become
extremely rare. They have been republished
since then, those written in Italian by Wagner
(Opere di Oiordano Bruno j 2 vols., Leipsio,
1880), those written in Latin (Jardani Brum
NoUini ieripta qua latins reaegit omtM}^ by
GfrOrer, in his CorpuM FhUosaphorum (Stutt-
gart, 1884]. The works of Bruno are numer-
ous and of the most varied character. It has
been stated already that he was the author of a
comedy which, by the way, was at a much
later period conadered good enough to be adapt-
ed to the French sta^. His flashing wit, at '
least what in those times was honored with
that namci and lus keen perception of the ridio-
ulous, prompted him to write satires which
even now. when the interest in their subjects
has entirely passed away, are agreeable reading.
Of these, the Spaccio della AtHa trio^fante
(" Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast"), a satire
on the immorality of the times, and the Cabala
del canallo Fegaseo eoWaggiunta del aeijio Cil-
Imico^ a satirical eulogy on ignorance, were the
best The Oena deUe Ceneri C' Table-talk on
Ash Wednesday ") is a spirited dialogue in de-
fence of the Gopemican theory. But those of
his works in which he has developed his philo-
sophical views in the dearest and most concise
form, are the essays, Bella eauea, prindpio^
ed uno^ BelV ir\flnito univena^ e mondi^ and
Be ffumadey numero^ et figura. In his system
there is but one fundamental principle, one
substance, whose existence is real and ori|^-
nal. This eternal and infinite being produces
by contraction or expansion innumerable ^>-
paritions whose existence is but secondary,
merely a shadow of that of the original being.
Grod and the universe are identical ; the universe
is infinite. Every being or thing {em) has, be-
side the innermost principle of its existence, a
cause of existence. While the former is the im-
manent condition, the latter is the immediate
source of existence. The original cause is the
universal intellect which shapes and moulds
matter into individual forms. In the hamioni-
ous perfection of the universe, all possible
forms would obtain real existence in all portions
of matter. Every form being the result of an
intellectual action, and matter being conceiv-

^^^H jiltinlRBK ^^M

I '91' ■

^H ^' ^^1

^m ^' ^H

^1 tt ^H

^H ^ ^^1

^1 M ^H

^H en ^^1

^H t'i - ^^H

^1 ^'' ^H

^^P I'r %'^liF.^ \n ^^H

^H O-.; ' ^^1

^H u ^H

^V ^" ^^1

H ^ ^1

^^H ^' ^^^1

^1 ^' ^H

^^B d-' ^^H

^^1 i* F>inU;K} ^^H

^^H f, ^^^1

^^1 ^'^ ^^1

^^v if>> ^^H

V ^ ^1

^H ST' ^^H

H ^^- ^1

H It ^H

^^1 fir ^^H

^1 d. ^H

^1 11: ^m

^H *^' 1

^^M T^ *<Hj TjiMTi to iirrr* ■

^H r> n?« Ai BrvissirTolE J

fr it ''tHitC,!li«ik!|Si ^J

^H t1 lO^eood YT.. rtilMbl, i bietll^ ■

^B p-.i .L_ _ _^ :.i9 titfmftj w TliefrAliooLi ^M

^V g^ Uif cdiHilfieti III ^^1

^H '"ir^. T, A FWlhrTti mi*iTilT ^f ■ y^d^rdn t^}]r^. ^^H

H \ li, Affiirt ^H

^H iy r*!^^ (In., ft^' ^^H

^m ri ' iu m^'- '/iii^ ^^M

^f p ^ # Hv ^^H

fi ^ li ^^H

«r rt*r 1^0 H% ^^H

I^H 0^ '<t «^ ti^- i^Titn>jri%s utl Be ri:t)mi 4 i-uHnil, H ^^^|

^H K' r hftf f^ -j6v. Ilie imtni»M lo St mmmh ^H

^^^1 ^ .1...^..!, »1,:.X iV .. T'^wy^l.* .^..^.H #,nijiir.» ^^^H

■ ^; H

^B .*i Thfi ntnas'k^ktmdr ^H

^H & <r,|H!hi«l >nv- if J fiftAjit^tl t ^^M

^H f: /ii^«i»io^' ''^/ ^^1

^H ?r, ..tif, Iti .v; . :-ip, ^H

'' iliv^ nM ^^ &VV iiiilipfi?a Iii^ |fr«iLu4}l«im« (U»&7; »t>v m IvJImw- * ^H

BRUNSWIOK

1. BnuMwlek. »* «,«*

Sl Wotfenbattel 280 «»,4«6

a H«lmstidt 805 44,68T

4. Qudenbelm 816 4^101

& HoUmlnden 276 88,886

«. BUmkMibiug. 178 M,471>

1,524 969,818

About 240,000 of the inhabitants are Protest-
ante. The general character of the sor&oe is
hillj, and in the monntainons districts the di-
inate ia severe and the harvests latew About ^
of the land is arable, i thickly wooded, and
mnoh of the rest moorland. The largest rivers
are the Ocker, Leine, and Weser, the last of
whi€li drains the greater part of the duohj and
has many affluents. Brunswick may be divided
into the mining districts, which lie chiefly
among the Hartz mountains, and the agricul-
tural regions, which comprise nearly all the
rest of the oountiy. Grain, fruit, tobacco, flax,
catUe, and horees are raised in the latter, while
the former are rich in gold, silver, copper, lead,
iron, sdphur, and coal. The mines, m some of
which lumover has a joint interest, are not now
80 productive aa in former times, but are still
of high value. Other minerals, such as marble,
alabaster, limestone, gypsum, potters' clay, as-
bestua, asphaltnm, jasper, and agate, are found in
yarioua localities. Salt is obtained in abun-
dance. The manufiictures are inconnderable.
The making of linen once employed a number
of hands, but is now declining. Spinning is a
favorite occupation throughout the duchy, and
tiiere are several camlet manufactories, dye-
houses, paper, oil, and saw mills, breweries,
iron works, and manufactories of lacquered
wares and porcelain. The advantages of rail-
way communication with Hanover, Magdeburg,
and Neustadt, have given to trade a magnitude
ficaroely to be expected from the geographical
position of the country. The university of
Hehnstadt was suppressed in 1809, but tiiere
are 2 seminaries, 5 gymnasia. 2 normal, 21
Lfttin, and 869 common schools, and a library
at Wolfenbtittel, of considerable repute. — ^The
form of government is a limited hereditary
monarchy, the supreme power being vested in
the duke and a legislative body of 1 chamber,
ooDsisting of 48 members, of whom 10 are
chosen from the nobility, 12 from the towns, 10
fhnn the rural districts, and 16 from the people
at large. They are elected for 6 years, i going
out of office every 8 years. They assemble tri-
ennially on convocation by the duke, but
in certain eases may meet without his anthori-
ty. The duchy holds the ISth place in the Ger-
man confederation, has 2 votes in the plenum
assembly, 1 vote with Hanover in the diet of
the German states, and contributes 2,096 men
to the federal army. Its own force in time of
war is 4,867 men. The public debt in 1855
was 7,168,524 thalers, including 4,078,000 tha-
lers for railways, and the budget for the 8 years
1866-*6--*7 presented an aggregate revenue of
4,219,000 thalers, and the same aggregate
amount of expenditure*— The capital of the

aboye-desoribed duchy, of the same name,
is situated on the Ocker, and connected
by railways witii the other cities of Ger-
many. It is sud to have been founded in
the 9th century, by Bruno, was enlarged by
Henry the lion, ranked in the 13th century
among the first cities of the Hanseatic league,
and, although much less important than in for-
mer times, It continues to be one of the most
active cities of N. W. Germany. The annual
furs held here are. after those of Leipsic and
the 2 Frankforts, the most animated in Germa-
ny. The pork sausages of Brunswick {Braun-
sehweiger Wwnt\ and its beer, have acquired
great celebrity ; the latter is known under the
name Braun$chweiger Mumme, after Christian
Mumme, who was the first to prepare it, in
1492. The trade in this beer extended in for-
mer years to East India. The book trade
is of great importance. The principal pub-
lisHfcg house is that of Yieweg. Brunswick is
the seat of a bank and of several banking estab-
lishments. The appearance of the town is an-
tiquated, but there are several handsome streets
and promenades. The new ducal palace is a
magnificent building, with beautiful pleasure
grounds. The most interesting monuments of
tiie ancient cathedral of St. Blaize are the tombs
of the ducal family, comprising that of Caroline
of Brunswick, queen of George lY. There are 10
churches and a synagogue. The museum in the
arsenal contains a gallery of valuable paintings.
There are also many private galleries. The most
prominent of the institutions of learning is the
Collegium Carolinum, which was founded in
1745. Monuments have been erected to the 2
dukes of Brunswick who fell at Jena and at
Quatre Bras ; to the memory of Schill and his
companions, 14 of whom were shot here ; and to
Lessing, who died here. Rietschers statue in
honor of Lessing was erected in 1853. The
most extensive of the many charitable and san-
itary institutions is a great asylum which ac-
commodates 250 orphans. The town supports
a good theatre and several journals, of which
the DeuUehs Beichtteitung is the best. Pop.
about 38,000.

BRUNSWICK, HousB op, one of the oldest
families in Germany, a branch of which occu-
pies the throne of Great Britain. The territory
which now forms the duchy of Brunswick
formerly belonged to the part of Saxony which
Charlemagne united to his empire. With the
other Saxon provinces it was governed succes-
sively by the princes of the houses of Saxe,
BilUng, Snpplinburg, and Guelph. The Guelph
house, of Italian origin, obtained, in the person
of Otho the Toung, in 1235, the city of Bruns-
wick, as a fief of the empire, which, with its de-
pendencieS) was then first erected into a duchy.
The 2 sons of Otho, Albert and John, reigned
in common from 1252 to 1267, and then di-
vided the paternal inheritance. John received
the city of Hanover and the duchy of LtLne-
burg; Albert, the duchy of Brunswick, the
Hartz, and the district of the Weser; the city

ini?

fitio^^swicit unw^n

■iwQ j#i#|*jrlf. X\f

l!r

lir
Ul
Ijl .
/■<

V '

A-

!>'

41^
%l

I''

.'\
I.

r
I

(itnr^n f_^_"«ik*, ^tif u^ymriHj ji--^u\i* Juji^ iji C^iivnil^ iM-il t>*l*Ji ^►r MP^i'*-!"

BBUNTON

BBUBH

ptred bj oiddldne metalfio copper in the air,
hj sprinkling it with s mixtnra of salplutite of
copper, common salt, and water. It is also
generated by the corrosion ot copper in sea-
water. Its composition, as giyen bj Berzelios^
is 1 equivalent of the chloride and 8 eqaivalents
of the oxide of copper. An artificial bicarbo-
nate of copper, or mountain green, is also some-
times called Brunswick green. Thej are both
naed as pigments.

BRUNTON, Maby Bautoitb, an English
novelist, bom in the island of Barra, Nov. 1,
1778, died in Edinburgh, Dec. 19, 1818. At
the age of 20, she married the Bev. Alexander
Brunton, a minister of the Scottish church, and
Bubsequentlj professor of oriental luiguages in
the university of Edinburgh. 8he publiiSied a
novel, *^Self-OontroV' in 1801, which obtained
immediate popularity from its moral tone, as
well as its literary merits. This was followed by
*' Discipline^" in which the same moral purpose
is kept in view. Some months after her death,
her husband published a volume of her '* Re-
mains,^ containing ^^Emmeline," a fragment in
100 pages, with a few shorter sketches, pre&ced
by a memoir of her Hfe, with extracts from her
correspondence. This fragment is written with
great power, bat so revolting is the subject, and
80 painful would have been the task of complet-
ing the story, that many critics have doubted
wnether she could have carrried it to the dose.

BRUSASOROI PoioNioo Riooio), a Vene-
tian pamter, bom at Yerona in 1494, died in
1567. He painted principally in fresco, and
ohose mythological subjects. At Verona he
painted his celebrated " Coronation of Charles
V." and the "Procession," in which appear the
portraits of the emperor. Pope Clement VIL,
and other distinguiBned personages of the time.
He also painted ^^ Phaeton," in the ducal palace
at Verona, and the " Kartyrdom of St. Bar-
bara."

BRUSH, a common name for a variety of im-
plements, employed, some for removing dirt,
some for smoothing and polishing surfaces of
objects by rubbing, and some n>r laying on
colors, lliey are usually made by inserting the
bristles or hairs of animals in a firm support^
which holds them in their proper arrangement,
and at the same tone serves as a handle. The
0reat proportion of brushes, as nearly all
the vanous kinds used for house purposes, in-
cluding house painters' and whitewashers'
brushes, and those employed about liie person
and clothing, as hair, tooth, clothes, shoe-
brashes, &c, are manufactured of the bristles
of the hog« They cause so large a demand,
that bristles have become an important article
of commerce. The great hog markets of the
western states furnish the brash manufacturers
of this country. England is supplied from Rus-
lia. the bristles from the Ukraine being prefer-
red as superior to others. They are also imported
from France, Germany, and Prussia. Previous
to March, 184^, when the duty was repealed,
the annual importations amounted to about

1,800,000 lbs., of which all but about 800,000
lbs. were from Russia. After this time they
immediately exceeded 2,400,000 lbs.— The first
process of the brush manufacturer is to sort the
bristles according to their colors, unless he ob-
tains them thus assorted. The divisions are
into black, gray, yellow, white, and lilies. The
last are the purest white, and are preferred for
tooth and shaving brushes. Each kind is then
assorted according to size, which is done by
passing a bunch of them, held in the hand, b^
tween a row of steel points, like the teeth of a
comb, which catch the coarser bristles. B7
using a succession of these combs of increasing
fineness, the bristles are separated into as many
heaps as desirable. Care is taken to keep them
always arranged uniformly, the large or smaU
ends of all pointing the same way. The cylin-
drical brush used D;^house painters is made by
taking a bundle of bristles, and tying them
firmly around their root ends. This bundle is
then strongly bound between 2 prongs of a
forked stick, and covered with a coating of glue
and red lead. Another and more conunoa
method is to arrange the bristles around the
small end of a conical stick, the small ends of
the bristles pointing to the larger end of the
stick. These being well secured by twine wrap-
ping, and placed in a cup or socket with a hole
in the bottom to let the handle pass through,
this is driven home till the large end is buried
in the centre of the bundle, tightening the fast-
enings and thoroughly securing the bristles. —
The delicate brashes, called also hair pencils,
used for water-colors, are made of the hair of
the camel, goat, badger, sable, squirrel, &c., by
binding a bundle of them together after being
carefully arranged, and then: points temporarily
protected, and sliding this through the larg^
end of a quill, till the points project sufficiently
flEur through the smaller end. The tube, having
been previously softened bv water, contracts as
it dries, and holds the bundle of hairs fast. The
best brushes of this kind are made of the hair
taJcen from the tail of the kolinkski, a Busman
sable. — ^Brushes, except those used for painting,
are made for the most part by inserting little
tufts of bristles into holes bored in rows into a
stock of wood, bone, or ivory. The bristles are
in some kinds secured by dipping their root
ends into hot pitch, winding a piece of string
round these ends, then dipping tJiem again, and
quickly introducing them with a twisting mo-
tion into the holes, where the pitch soon seta
and holds them. The small ends of the bristles
may be trimmed, and the stiffness be thus some-
what increased ; but all such brashes are much
softer and more flexible than those made by
taldng that portion of the bristle near the root
end, and doubling it, so that it presents at one
end a loop for securing it, and at the other 2
stiff points. For these the stock or board is
sometimes prepared bv boring the holes not
quite through of the foil size, but finishing them
with a small bit Each hole is correctly made
in its proper place by a scale or pattern board.

^^^V ^H

^^P ntiTTS^rr TrrTtrrr ii ^H

^^1

r ■
'1

t'
h
DbUSn

1^ r .,

L •

iiH»<Pr

U . *

1 ■ :. ... ^

mil. ^stmMf ft! ft ' ^H
cu3W ^H

■

pruv^iliu l>^ lu ^tra W4miu£r'nju ' ^V

ir«rf gfwl» Am
ingmmllr Ukm horn ooe of
i«ftms(*tiBM. From czperimeBU Ihii hsr«
ittODiMktt be^«e&Uifctcdbf bodfuvtiallj
doai«Oinrt»ii, the btt of their centre hm been
aie«ttm«'ltorn9BMii]ghM95''F. Tbe&^M
U€liaia^ gtktAhtr of tfaa interatiiv sroop, de-
prMitA licr «gg» ia mooiMk of amad mumMdng
with kjen of drkd kftTtt aad griwci, The
€01^ m V^ are laid, ere carttaZj eorcred up,
fwi th* ptnoi birds nerer tit opoo tbenu The
njs of the fOA^ ftdrling to the beat epgeodered
hf rtgfUtiiAe decocnposition, mppljr the reaainta
aixni. Aoeordlog to Gray, thift f|>eciet oeposit
iiboat 12 en^ eadi* These are teiMrited hj
rtgHMts matter or hy earth, aod the whole,
tooo ^ter they an bud, are corered up bj «
krie heap of aaod, scratched op bj the pair
and fofnaing « moond 9 Ibet in diameter aod
$ in hei;(tit« The megofodius tumuiu$ eroploya

K' aoc/tiier, tiv/uf^ anau^ous maaner of hatch-
her e((g9. Thia species eonstnict large
Hk/OO^U of earth for the deTelof>ment of their
ava» Well-antheriticated accoanis di^acribe these
moanda m oftea (4 aa innae&se nze, Tarying
from thoMe of 20 feet in circamfereoce and 5
In heiKhty to those of & diameter of 20 feet and
a hetgiit of 15* In these the egg^ are carefallj
eorered ap by the parent birda, aod boried often
to the depth of 6 feet. Other species of tliis
ilwoily are found in nearly all the inlands of the
•aatcm archipela^^oea of Aftia. Borne of these
merely dcfx/Mt their eggs, in large noroben, in
hoies excavated on the sea-shore, to the depth
of 2 or 8 feet. Nearlr all the family, however,
ore more nneoai vocally monnd-builders.

BKL.SSELS, (Flemish Bryjf»el, Fr. Bru^
ttUt). the capital of Belgium, s'ltaated on
the little river Benne. Lat. 50^ 61' N., long.
4" 21i' K, Fop. in 1857, inclading the subnrlMS,
166,8^; 1, showing an Increase of about 16,-
000 over the preceding year, owing to the
annexation of the ffMbionable and stately
qua/rtUr Leopold, In the new town there are
the royal palaces and the mansions of the
nobility, the i>ark, public promenades (the AUee
^erU bomg the most popular), the chambers of
the legislative bodies, and the libraries and mn-
aeams occupying tlio former residence of the
Austrian viceroys ; while in the old town there
are the ohnrches of the 14th and 15th centuries,
with their superb oak carvings, stained glass win-
dows and statues, Hxq hotel de vilUy and the man-
^ns of the former nobles and burghers of Bra-
bant The principal church is that of St Gudule,
an immense and ancient building in Gothic style,
with 2 very lofty towers. The choir and tran-
septs, 04 at present existing, were finished in
I27d, the nave in the 14th century, and the towers
in 15 i 8. lU windows are filled with the richest
stained ghiss in the Netherlands, and it contains
a number of costly monuments of the dukes of
Brabant. The high altar in this church is soar-
rangod that by some ingenious maohinerv within,
the sttored wafer doaoouds apparently of itself at

the priait is alHHit to elexLia
Iba pulpit is one of thoee woc^-r: i
of Flemish oak caning. Ai:>.:L.r
moomneotof the middle a^ ia
tifee hold d4 wiUe in the grmrndt plaet, a t^
atmelve eommcDeed in 140L Its tower, cf
Goifak open woik, rises to the beic^ of 364 fen ^
and is crowned by a vane representing tL^
figoro of St. IGchael, in pilded copper, 17 fc^t
hjgfa. It is freqooitly staled, bat «Tooeou>lT^
that the ahdiffirifln of Chaiies Y. took place in
this edifioeu The real aeene of that strange
pageant waatheold dncal palace, bomt down la
1733, and whidi stood on the Hte of the /r.'r.v
royoie in another part of Brnmrli. The appear-
ance of the ancient square, on one side of wh\<z
is the h6Ul de tiUt, and the others sor^oac1I:^i
with the old 6pankh buildings and the Bro^'
kui$ or fliau^a dti rvt, ia much the same as
in the days of the duke of Alva. In this Bnx^i-
hnu, Connts Egmont and Horn passed the Ls:
night prior to their execution, and from a win-
dow of the same building Alva looked upon the
bloodr qiectacle. The square of the h</Ul di
tille haa been the scene of nearly erery p*op-
nlar eonnnotion that has agitated Brabant.
TV ithin the present century it has swarmed with
soldiers; as in 1815, when Wellington marched
from Brussels to Waterloo, and 15 years later,
during the revolution which resulted in the inde-
nendenoe of Belgium. In the place du petit «3?>-
lon the Protestant confederates assembled to
draw up their remonstrance to Margaret of Par-
ma, regent of the Ketheriands, and half sister to
Philip IL The palais dee beauz artSy formerly
the regal residence of the Austrian governors,
contains a very largo collection of paintings, few
of which, however, are remarkable ; a palaii
d'tndtutriej or museum of models of machinery
and inventions in the mechanic arts ; and a noble
library founded by the dukes of Burgundy in
the 14th centunr, and enriched by successive
sovereigns^ which now contains 200,000 printed
volumes, and 18,000 MSS., many of the latter
superbly illuminated. A museum of antiquities
attached to the building contains numerous curi-
osities. The private palace of the duke d^Arem-
berg is widely known for its exquisite pictures,
librazy, objects of verttt^ and a head supposed on
the best authority to be the original of that of the
central figure in the group of the Laocodn. The
head in the Vatican, at one time in Pons, is a res-
toration, and for toe one in possession of the
duke d'Aremberg Napoleon offered weight for
weighty gold for marble. The palooe of the prince
of Orange, formerly considered the richest resi-
dence in Europe, has of late years been disman-
tled, and its contents removed to the Hague. The
picture gallery of the prince de Ligne abounds
with remarkable pictures. The galerie St, Hu-
^t, a splendid bazaar, eictending from the mar-
che aux herhea to the rue de VevSque^ was com-
pleted in 1847. An observatory was built in 1828.
The academy of science and the eoMervatoire de
muiijue^ and other institutions of learning and
art» ore inafioorishing condition. There isac^-

v^V

«m(>i! ^mirr r^»A» ii^ ^H

■

^^B flmi

^H W\ iMdA.

^1 ^'

^1 b

: H

^^H

^^m

^^1

^^H

^1 W :

^H c^'i* 1

^^1

MUJC^.- 1

^^B

■■Jt AT© 1*1

^Vi

^H 4>]

^^P

^H T

■

^V ^

^^H r 1

■ f

^^M fif mrr^jrfiir w

^^^

H UAB. Bdil fvilmi

^^^

^^B

^1 OjyfM du mdEMOk nut if«i

-"«- 't C --— 1 t

^H n LmLiu^IcuI

\«%uti dtf J£i!»>

^^1

^H Ui _._,.__, a dn^iv '

'uti'R- {nm«trn

^^M

^m ^ 4X)CF*o-fecnM^'

' Bawre-i

^^1

l^r famwd in 2 riiit,^i

t, atoortl^

^^1

ia tbc

i!i fnr ih

^^M

Go^Ui

ir^UI, tv,

inF:niI.^^i

li,:.-^L

^^^

_ AiMlrR» 1 . /

i Lt .'! '

^K cfioliil«Ur-

: Uits h

^^1

^H Eiif}fiAH cft|

1 lirfi- i^v.

^ ft^f* ■ '

-V,

QSSi»e'

^^^

i iija- It' iifi; J v.r i; i

^^H

lUan^U liil:a mlo if

^ mr^i^ ,. . .--^

/w,^.^ iu ?f.M-.u

^^^

^H t <i knowii

B Jt^ Vrx.t. /

■ Wb.

^H imtiniE

H '^'

^^H

■ v^

^^1

^H Xj Ji^ hm btMil v'«¥«lt^

ij^OMi 2

■ ^''

m1 "'. .fUi Uifijail4iiii*JJiiaii:£;

m\\\

ti.or

tiitL^iA ^^^

BBUTUB

Lnoins Janins ftnd Ladns TarquJnios of Ck>l-
latia, thence called OoUatiniis, to be the oohsuIb
of the first year. Bnt, shortly afterward, on
reflecting that the second magistrate was still a
Tarqoin, the people took alarm, and requested
him to abdicate his office, and withdraw from
their city in all honor, that they might be
liberated firom their apprehensions^ and no
longer have a Tarqnin ruling over tnem. He
did so, and they elected Fublins Yalerins to
be consul in his room, who received the name
of Foplicola, from his popularity. But^ after
all seemed settled, some of the young men of
Rome, of noble birth, regretting their ancient
government and averse to the republican sim-
plicity whicn had supplanted the royal usages,
conspired to bring back the Tarquins, and to
reestablish royalty in Bome; and the sons of
Lucius Junius, Iltus, and Tiberius, were among
the conspirators. The plot was discovered by a
slave, and Lucius Jumos sat in judgment on
his own sons, and did not hesitate to do justice
on them, but caused them to be scourged with
rods, in accordance with the law, and then
beheaded by his lictors, in the forum: and he
neither turned aside lus eyes, nor shed any
tear over them; for they had been false to
their country, and offended against the law;
and *^ a man," he said, " may have many more
children, but never can have but one country,
even that which gave him birth.'' When the
conspiracy was discovered, and so proved of no
avail, for bringing back the Tarquins, that
proud and daring mmily determined to return
by force ; and, with the favor of Porsena, king
of the Etruscans, and Mamilins, prince of the
Latins, and the vassals of their own family from
Cesre, and Agylla, and Tarquinii, they rused
a great army, and invaded the Boman territo-
ries. It so cnanoed that ArunsL son of Tar-
^uin, and Lucius Junius, the consul, encountered
in advance of the main bodies of the army, at
the head of detachments of horse, and riding at
each other with levelled lances, transfixed each
other, and both fell down dead. Then the
cavalry met, and fought fiercely ; but it was a
drawn battle, and neither party had clearly
prevuled in the fight, and both encamped on
the ground face to face. During the night
there came a great voice, greater &an human,
out of a wood hard by, making proclamation
that '* one man more had fallen on the part of
the Etruscans than on that of theBomans,
and that, therefore, the latter would come off
victorious in the war." When the Etruscans
heard the voice, thev were afraid, and struck
their tents, and marched home, leaving the Bo-
mans to enjov the independence they had won,
and to bury their dead consul with great honor.
This is the l^end of Lucius Junius, whom the
Bomanscallea Brutus, and whose posterity bore
the name, given in the first place as a term of
obloquy, esteeming it thenceforth as an ornament
and a grace.— There has been much doubt and
dispute as to the reality of the events related in
the above legend. It may, however, be taken

as certain that ** Bmtos and Poplioola,'' to bor-
row the words of Dr. Arnold, " were, no doubt,
real characters, yet fiction has been so busy
with their actions, that history cannot venture
to admit them within her proper domain." It
is shown distinctly by Niebuhr, from the transla-
tion found in Poly bins, made by himself from the
brazen tables in the capitol, preserved in the
archives of the ediles, of a treaty with Oar-
thage of commerce and navigation, ratified in
the first year of the commonwealth in the con-
sulship of Brutus and Ck)Ilatinus^ that their names
were recorded in that treaty, and that when it
was made Bome was in possession of all the
Latin country, and all the coast from Ostia
beyond Terracina, probably along the whole
shore-line of Campania to the confines of Italia,
and also that she traded -largely with Bicily,
Sardinia, and the Libyan ooast^ to the west-
ward of the Beautiful cape or Hermoan promon-
tory, now Cape Bon ; the treaty being entered
into with a view to the preservation of the
rights and privileges of 2 ahready great
maritime nations. Notwithstanding Tuscan
conquest, Gallic invasion, and consequent de-
struction of monuments, registers, and archives,
the preservation of this one treaty indisputably
fixes the fsuat of the abolition of a monarchical,
and the establishment of a consular, form of
government in Bome at this date; fixes the
identity and authenticity of Brutus and CoUa-
tinus; sets aside, as worthless, the stories of
Bome being merely a small, rude town, oc-
cupied by agriculturists and half-brigand sol-
diers, and proves her to have been already a
large, , wealthy, fiourishing community, with
regular navigation, regular commerce, and a
government at once sufficiently well establish-
ed and foresighted to fhune regulations of trade
with foreign powers for the increase of com-
mercial flEusilities, and sufficiently powerful and
well known abroad to treat on equal terms
with great powers beyond the sea.

BBUTUS, Mabous Junius, the tyrannicide,
the son of that Marcus Junius Brutus whom
Pompey caused to be murdered, and of Servilia,
the half sister of Cato, was bom in the
autnmnof 85 B. C, died 42 B. C. Helosthis
father when he was only 8 years old, but his
mother and uncles conducted his education with
the utmost care. On the outbreak of the civil
war, he followed the example of Cato, and
Joined the Pompeians, notwithstanding his
aversion to their leader. In the engage-
ment near Dyrrhachium, he very much dis-
tinguished himself but after the defeat of
his party at Pharsalia, he made his peace with
Cffisar, and returned to Bome. On the termi-
nation of the Alexandrine war, Casar appointed
him to the government of Cisalpine Gaul. In
44 B. C, he caused him to be made prtBtor ur^
hantu^ and promised him tlie consulship, and the
province of Macedonia. But all the offices and
honors, all the marks of friendship and esteem,
which the dictator had, or might nave, bestow-
ed on him, could not hold Brutus to his al-

t(TYSIIC

'21k

Mil

^tmnuf df 0»cirviii, I'

diijy I7i* t .

iojiiirfiii D

!: -^ tfcfV |*r4t«U?tl

1 1

'\f ham

> '.J

1 nil

eo-. L*traid

5: ........ ^^,

BRYA2JT

18 jeanswhenliewasdiflmined, not being suf-
ficiently economical in the management of tke
ohnroh accounts; he was also careless with re-
gard to those whom he admitted to the church.
BBTANT, William Cullsn, an American
poet, bom Nov. 8, lTd4, at Gummington, Hamp-
^ire CO., Mass. His father, Peter Biyanti was
a distinguished local phjaician, who had also
travelled considerably, and devoted much time
to the culture of his mind. He took unusual
interest in the intellectual and moral develop-
ment of his children, and was rewarded in the
case of all of them, and partieularly in that of
William, with early evidence of their proficien-
oy. The poet, in his beautiful hymn to death,
iJludes fe^ingly to this parent in the lines be-
ginning:

For he b In Ua grave, who tengfat mr youth
Th« art of yereo, and in the baa of lile
Offered me to the muses ;

which was no poetic exaggeration, but a literal
truth. There are few instances of precocity more
remarkable than that of Bryant. He communi-
cated lines to the county gazette before he
was 10 years of age, and in his 14th year his
friends caused to be printed 2 considerable
poems, the *' Embargo,^' apolitical satire, and
the '* Bpanish Bevolution." These passed to a
2d edition the next year (1809), and such were
theur merits that, in the pre&oe to that edition,
it was found necessary to certify the production
of them by a person so young, in order to re-
move the scepticism of the public. In his 19th
year he wrote Thanatopsis, which still holds its
l^ace, in general estimation, as one of the most
mipressive poems in the language. He had in
1810 enterea Williams college, where he was soon
distinguished for his attainments in language and
in polite literature. At the end of 2 years he
took an honorable dismission, and engaged in
the study of the law, at first with Judge Howe,
in Worthington, Mass., and afterward with
William Baylies, in Bridgewater. Admitted
to the bar in 1815, he commenced practice in
Phiinfield, and afterward removed to Great
Barrinffton. He speedily rose to a high rank
in the local and state courts ; but his tastes in-
clined him rather to letters than to law. In
1816 his poem *' Thanatopds*' was pnblished in
the *^ North American Beview,'' and introduced
him to the acquaintance of Mr. Richard H.
Dana, who was one of the club which then
conducted the "Beview.'' He contributed slso
several prose articles to that periodic^. In
1821 he delivered before the Phi Beta Kappa
society, at Harvard college, a didactic poem on
the *^Ages," and in that year seversl of his
poems were collected in a volume at Cambridge,
and obtained for him immediate recognition as
a writer of the highest merit He removed to
the city of New York in 1826, and was en-
gaged as an editor of the '^ New York Beview,**
soon after merged into the ^* United States Re-
view,'* to which he contributed several criti-
cisms and poems, which increased his reputa-
tion. Por these periodiciJs he received many

articles from his friends Dana snd HaUedk.
In 1826 he connected himself with the
** Evening Post" newspaper, under the edi-
torial control of William Ooleman. At that
time it was inclined to what was termed
federalism, and Kr. Bryant, whose tendendea
were toward republicanism, sought to give
it more and more a republican character.
When he acquired an exclusive control of its
columns, a few years later, he rendered it decid-
edly *' democratic," taking ground openly in
favor of freedom of trade, and against all par-
tial or class legislation. From 1827 to 1880,
Mr. Bryant was associated with Robert Sanda
and Gulian 0. Yerplanck in the editorship
of the " Talisman," a highly snccessfhl annual ;
and he contributed about the same time
the tales of *'Medfield" and the *' Skeleton's
Cave " to a book entitied " Tales of the Glauber
8pa." In 1832 a complete edition of his poems
was published in New York, and a copy of it
reaching Washington Irving, then in England,
he caused an edition to be printed there, with
a laudatory preface. It was most generously
reviewed by John Wilson, in^||J31ackwood*s
Magarine," and from that timfflir. Bryant's
reputation in England, and on the continent of
Europe, has stood as high as it does in his own
country. Having associated William Leggett
with himself in the management of the " Even-
ing Post," he sailed with his family to Europe in
the spring of 1884. He travelled extensively
through France, Italy, and Germany, residing
for months together at the principal capitals,
and enlarging his knowledge of the languages
and literatures of the leading nations, fiis
poems bear witness to his familiarity with the
Spanish, Italian, German, and French lan-
guages, which he has continued to cultivate.
After returning to his native country, and re-
suming his professional labors for some years,
Mr. Bryant went again to Europe in the year
1845. In 1849 he made a third visit, and ex-
tended his voyage into Egypt and Syria. The
desultory letters written to his journal during
these wanderings were published m a book call-
ed ^* Letters of a Traveller," soon after his last
return. But in the intervals of tiiese foreign
journeys he had by no means neglected his own
country, andtiie same volume contains evidences
of his sojourn in nearly all parts of the United
States, from Maine to Florida, and of a trip also
to the island of Ouba. Mr. Bryant's love of
nature is so pervading, and his habits so active,
that he has scarcely allowed a year to pass
without accomplishing a visit to some locality
remarkable for its natural beauty or grandeur.
An inveterate pedestrian, also, he is always de-
lighted when he is able to make these visits on
foot, and under ciroumstances in which he can
oontrol his movements, without regard to the
exigencies of steamboats and railroads. About
the year 1845 Mr JBryant purchased ^ an old-time
mansion," embowered in vines and flowers,
near the beautiful village of Roslyn. on Long
island, where he has dnoe reaidea, earnest-

mtiXES

^^^^ iiRiigffilF ^^^^H

^^HlH • Im', r ■

-; ' V ,: ' •,

. _. ^H

M(Wr

msaaiC

..J ,, ,, , ,,

^^H

c«iiiAi«: •■ M"

. t , r-r " ,

^^1

^ IH-'suit

' , . ■ • 1 . 1

^^H

■ ""

^^1

■ UV

^^H

■ r:

^m A

^^^^^^pilTV

BotlUl

^^1

^^ •T'—T-

^^H

H w.

^^H

■ .1

^^M

■ »]'

^^1

■ l7

H c..'

V^40 ^^H

■ ">

■ b.:. ,.

^^H

■ fir '

^^^

■ C^:

^^H

■ .»

^^H

■ '

TAtii fitr*lA'

iitiil Uj. ^^H

■

chimcKT*

irfaooil ^^M

^ ,11 r. il."

"'^ifiirii

iror'- ^^1

Ulfi7i.!

tjnrp*

k tlt^

■ in

^^H

B ^''

. . i , . , : ^

^^1

■ ^

TUM^

^^1

■ K.

i Jklud

exx V

^«tn.tTT, wT3r* flrrtrr-

e!5;-.r??^,

iU^ji'

lag Ui '

tWi tmr^wr,

www ^'

iij M>:u9 t-j luo cui>iL>r?.u^i

t-'n ir 1- tr. .„,^.

fl3l«Uli

mifitfi^I

JHttb

^....-. T. ^"^^"!',pSi4,

**t!t-'- ■ ,-^- =>.o.,.. ...^ ..i.^ ^

iiHv

pe: MUEOlUorOitfliigll- ^H

dPil^KIKT

,^ lutB-

iMi .., ,,♦ lip tni'*'"VtLri*tt *Ti ^^^^

&;„ ■ ■

1.^0 dentil

Wf&oc^ li> tho ii|M ai>d A|i«r : ^H

^ 01

.liUO!!^ !i.^

Wtn- thrui .H: 5^LiTr »i;4 MiUt 4 r ^H

H «iiier !

v^Ultif' ifiiil iilAii ^H

H Str^^

nm'':,h ^ ■■•. Ifnir?>*ri-^ ^^H

^H 4 '

Ui« ■

^^^

^^^r^Ti-

itniMbOM en Utn mnmiiil

H &:

Hn wiiiri4itt*<l iiwjtmiiy In

H i!.

*% i.i'

BETNHILDA

BUOOANEERS

mtuio, who flonrisbed between A.D. 1282 ftnd
1328. Dr. Wallis translated his works in 1680.

BRTNEILDA, a mystic personage, in the
Scandinavian legends, varionsly represented as
connected with Attila, Sigurd, and Gumar, or
Gnnther, and playing the principal part in tife
aeries of extraordinary adventures attributed
to those persons.

BRYONIA, or Bbtonins, a poisonous ex-
tract of bitter taste, prepared from the root of
the ^<mia alba and dioica. by the process for
bitter extracts. It is of a yellowish brown color,
soluble in water and alcohol, but not in ether.
The pknt bryonia (6r. ^/wcd, to grow rapidly)
is a wild creeper, with twisting tendrils and
acarlet berries of a disagreeable odor. It is met
with in different parts of Europe, where it is
employed as a purgative medicine, and its ber-
ries in dyeing. Its root^ when bruised and ap-
Slied to the udn, is so highly irritant as to pro-
ace blisters. Over-doses of the extract have
proved &tal by its poisonous qualities.

BRZESO LITEW8KI, or Bbkst Litowskt, a
fortified town in the western part of Russia,
government of Grodno, on the risht bank of
uie river Bug, about 110 miles south of Grodno.
It was formerly the capital of a Lithuanian
palatinate, and contains an old castle, a high
school, 8 churches, and a synagogue, and has a
considerable transit trade. In 1794 Suwaroff
gained here a victory over the Poles. Pop.
18^100 ; pop. of the district, 100,460.

BUA a small idand in the Adriatic, belong-
nig to the Dalmatian district of Spalatro, is con-
nected with the town of Trau by a bridge ; pop.
about 4,000. Daring the latter period of the
Roman empire many political offenders and
heretics were confined here. It contains 6
villages, of which Santa Croce, or Buo, is the
principal; pop. about 1,400. The productions
of the island comprise dates, wine, olives, and
particularly asphaltom, of which there is a
remarkable well.

BUAOHE, Phiuppb, a French geographer,
bom in Paris, Feb. 7, 1700^ died Jan. S&, 1773.
He spent 7 years in arranging a new repository
of maps and charts. In 1729 he became chief
geographer to the king, and in the following
year a member of the academy of sciences,
in which he had been the means of institut-
ing a professorship of geography. His notions
of geography were in some respects peculiar.
He asserted that there was a vast continent
about the south pole, traversed by lofty moun-
tains and gigantic rivers. The suggestion, that
at Behring's straits a connection between Asia
and America might be traced, came from him.

BUACIIE DE LA NEUVILLE, Jean Nioo-
LAB, a nephew of the precedmg, and also a
ge(^rapher, bom Feb. 15, 1741, died Nov. 21,
1825. He instructed the royal princes, after-
ward Louis XYL and XYHI., and Charles X., in
geography. Aft»r the death of D^Anville, he
became first geographer to the king, and keeper
of the marine charts and log-books, in which
eiq>acity he prepared the charts and plana with

which La P^ronse was provided for his royage
of discovery. During the reign of terror he
was deprived of his office, but was reinstated
after the fall of Bobespierre.

BUBASTIS, or Bubastts, a city of ancient
Egypt, now in nuns ; mentioned in the Old Tes-
tament as Phi-Beseth, now known by the name
Tel-Bustak ; situated in the delta of the Nile,
S. W. of Tanis ; was built in honor of the god-
dess Pasht, called by the Greeks Bubastis. This
goddess was represented by the figure of a cat^
and manv mummied cats have been found in the
tombs or Bubastis. On theN. side of the city
commenced the canal between the Nile and the
Bed sea, constmcted by Pharaoh Neco. Bubas-
tis was taken by the Persians 852 B. C, and its
walb dismantled. Among the ruins of this dty
have been found remidns of costly and magnifi-
cent temples. • Here were celebrated solemn
feasts to tne goddess Pasht, attended by people
from all parts of Egypt, even to the number of
700,000 at one time, as is stated by Herodotus.

BUBBLE, a fihn of liquid substance blown
into a globular form, by the gas or air with
which it is filled. Bubbles rise naturally and
burst upon the surface of waters, by the escape
of carburetted hydrogen or other gases from
the mud at the bottom. When blown in a mix*
ture of soap and water, the film has sufficient
adherence to rise in the air, and thus the bub-
bles form small balloons, particularly if filled
with hydrogen gas. Filled with a mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen, thev may be exploded
on the approach of a candle with a report like
that of a pistol.

BUBNA UND LTTTIZ, FEBDmAND, count,
an Austrian general, bom at Zamersk, Bohemia,
Nov. 26, 1768, died in Milan, June 6, 1825.
His poverty forced him to Join the infantry at
the age of 16 as a volunteer. After tiie siege
of Belgrade he was made standard-bearer, from
which position he rose to the dimity of field-
marshal. He was also charged with some im-
portant diplomatic negotiations, hi 1821 he
put down an insurrection in the north of Italy.

BUBONA, in Roman mythology, the god-
dess who presided over cows and oxen. Small
statues of this goddess were placed in the niches
of stables, and her likeness was often painted
over the manger.

BUBULCUS, Gaits Jninus, a Boman consul,
lived about 800 B. 0. He received the consul-
ship thrice ; was appointed dictator 802 B. C. ;
and waged successfully the war against the
^quians.

BUG, Sm GsoBoiE, an English antiquary and
historian, bom in Lincolnshire in the 16th
century, died in 1623. He wrote the *^ Third
Universitie of England,'' and the '^Art of Bev-
els ;" and is spoken of by Camden as " a person
of excellent learning." His history of Bichard
HI., in which he maintains that that monarch
was deformed neither in body nor mind, consti-
tutes his principal claim to distinction.

BUCCANEERS (Fr. hawanier, onewhocures
the flesh of wild animals), a name applied to

^^^^ft 1

ihli .ip,1 r iM^tt^i rfi^f^>rff*viT»-.o'»i4»s ITin M^l.trv J,M n,u,ni ii**!-* ••aTajI, T»* K<-.r -- ^H

^M *'^

^^^1

H »"

^H V*

^^1

^^^

H ^'-

^^H **

^^^

^H t;.

^^1

^H i.

H j^^

^H d<

^^^1

H ^'

^H f..

^^1

H ^'

^H ^''''

■ fl;

^^M

^M »i.

^^M

^^H

^H c

^^1

^ SjMk

hx^

■fK'

m f

^^1

■ "'

^^M

H "'

H ""

H v.:

^^H

m ^'■-

■ ^'

^^1

■ 1"

H "'

F U« ^^^1

I ^"

r.-*. Tlib ^H

H ''

' lllMflta ^H

H ''■

ndi «UM ^H

H «i.

n ^^^1

■ ^'-

H '''

^^^1

m \

' »i>^ ■

V ^

71*^ ^^^1

^ r ■

1 i li Un^u «)aD4Ml ^^1

'M'bMM^n^Uc^ ^M

■ <■"

k .»^.

.' ^ t^fSdi'nwJ^l Trim ^^M

B i^

^Uf^Ymma^ ■

^^^ %TrXLL'" ^IflT

jv^.i it.. juj^ ■

.,^^^,, ^i, ^^ .,.-., 1114 ^J

. h iir ommtiST Urn n otk lli^ ^H

m ^'

Alt ii&jisfiiiiMi nnwin ^H

H '^

■ *!it> t'nrr^Tir.*-riieiI^ ^H

■ "

tfid H

H ^"

!^«i ^H

H ''

■ tl:.

^^1

^B AIIjL U uUt. 1

' ''V.'.iiiij fxj^urMt-i j1 rn^uj llLvum^ >«Lfr- nut,;,L^. '^ :j«)H' u^r.^ nM,Ulj' JOO- ^^|

^3 ^M

BUOOANEERS

BUOENTAUB

memb^red, was Henry Morgan, a Weldiman.
WhOe L'Olonnais and De Baaoo were wasting in
debauchery ttieirin-gotten gains from YenezaekL
he sailed from Jamaica in Dec 1670, sorprisea
and took Portobello, and then directed his operfr-
taons against Panama. He at first went to the
island of St. Catharine to prooore some gaid«8
if possible, and here the governor of a strong for-
tr^ who might hftye beaten him off, no sooner
found ont who he was than he ooncerted with
him to surrender on easy terms, and after keep-
ing up for some time the &rce of a camumade,
the buccaneers entered the place, demolished the
fortifications, and carried off an immense quan«
tity of ammunition. They then steered toward
the C%agrea river and took a fort at its en-
trance, after a gallant resistance from its com-
mander, who was killed. Then leaving some of
his vessels, Morgan sailed with sloope up the
river 88 milefl^ to Oruces, and thence proceed-
ed by land to Panama. He defeated some
troops sent out to meet him, and then entered
the dty, where he found a prodigious booty,
with which the buccaneers departed, after firing
the place and carrying off a large number of
prisoners.— In 1688 an expedition was planned
Dy Van Horn, a native of Ostend, who had
served among the iVench for the greater part
of his lifetime; he owned a frigate, and joining
. a number of other rufilans as desperate as him*
self; with 6 vessels and 1,200 men, he scaled for
Vera Oroz, and under cover of darkness land-
ed, surprised the fort and barracks, and sur-
rounded the churches whither the citizens had
fled in terror for safety. The pu*ates then pil-
laged the city, and after they had secured every
tMng of value they proposed to the citizens to
ransom their lives for about $2,000,000. This
proposal was at once accepted, and half of the
money paiddown forthwith, when the buccaneers
became alarmed at the approach of troops as
well as a fleet of 17 Spanish vessels, and made
ciSf carrying with them 1,600 daves, and sailing
through the enemy's line unmolested. About
a year later aU the buccaneers were seized with
a sudden passion for plundering Pern. Up-
ward of 4,000 men joined in this movement,
some sailing by way of the straits of Magellan,
and others crossing the isthmus. Many cities
along the coast were pillaged, and the inhabit-
ants massacred; silver was so common that
the buccaneers would not receive it in ransom,
and would accept nothing but gold, peftfls, or
Jewels. — ^While these events took place in the
southern seas, an adventurer ofthe name of Gram-
monty a gentleman of good birth and educatioiL
and distinguished as a military man, but obliged
to join the outlaws from his excesses with wine^
women, and play, made a demonstration in
1685 agamst Oampeachy. He landed with
his ^arty withoot opposition, but meeting 800
Spaniards outside of the town he defeated them,
and the combatants all entered the place to-
gether. The buccaneers then turned the guns
of the city against the citadel, but as these did
little harm, uiey were preparing some plan to

aorprlse it when news waa brought that it had
been abandoned. Only one man remained
fiiithfiil to his duty, refusing to quit his post,
and Grammont was so pleased with his fldelity
that he secured to him aU his effects, beside
rewarding hun handsomely. After this the
marauders spent upward of 2 months at Cam-
peachy, and rifled the counlary of every thing
valuable for 15 leagues around ; proposing when
their treasures were embarked uiat the govern-
or, who was still in the fleld with 900 men,
should ransom the city. On his refusing to do
so, th^ burnt it to the ground, and then retir-
ed to St Domingo.— In 1697 a squadron of 7
ships, under the command of a buccaneer named
Pointis, with 1,200 men, sailed from Europe to
attack Carthagena. This was the greatest en-
terprise that ^e buccaneers ever attempted, but
they were perfectly successfid; the city waa
taken, and the booty seized amounted to near^
ly $8,000,000. The rapacious commander man-
aged to secure for hmiself nearly all of this
immense sum, and the buccaneers exasperated
with this treatment returned to Carthagena, and
there again secured enoi^h to repay them for
their losses; but on sailing for £nrope they
were attacked by a fleet of Dutch and TCngliah
ships, in alliance with Spain, and most of their
vessels captured or sunk. This was tiie last
considerable e3n>loit of the buccaneers ; as the
most remarkable of their leaders dropped off
one by one, none were found to supply their
places, so that by degrees the organizations fell
to pieces; and moreover, many of them were
induced to accept civil and military appoint-
ments to draw them from the piracy which
governments had been unable to suppress.

BUCCAEI, a free royal Austrian seaport
town in the circle of Fiume in Croatia ; pop.
7,800. It is on an arm oi the gulf of Quamero,
and has a good harbor. It formerly belonged
to the Zriny family, and upon the conspiracy of
the Litter in 1671 it was seized by Austria.

BUCCIKUM rLat huecina, a trumpet), a ge-
nus of shells, the shape of many species of
which is like that of a trumpet, while the sound
of a trumpet may be produced by blowing into
them. Their characteristics are a smooti^, non-
plicated, columella of thidc gibbons or flattened
form, and a short canal at the base of the shell,
abruptly curved away from the outer Mp.
Some species of this shell are often very large
and handsome, so that they are used as parlor
ornaments. Those commonly called harps are
the most beautiful shells of this flmuly.

BUCCLEUGH, or Buoolbuoh, an ancient
parish of Scotland, but now comprehended in
the parish of Ettrick, Selkirkshire. It givea
the title of duke to the head of the ancient and
illustrious family of Scott Bucdeugh is also
the name of a suburban parish of Edinburgh.

BUCELLAS, a village of Portugal, in Estre-
madura, surrounded by an excellent grax>e-
growing district It gives its name to a species
of white wine produced in its vicinity.

BUCENTAUB, the e^ded galley in which

^^^^^ BtiaimLixw "

^^^^^ ^T?aiT ^^^^^^^B

H .. _T-,,...;.^ .t.... .^j ,.. -..|,v,.^. ,..-1...

^' " • ' ' '^ " '"^ -^ ^^fCfl FlM'ir-'^ ' • l^"ff*# ^^1

' -Ami i^v J'»tfA ^^H

^La*^^ ,

.w<dlL ^H

^Hj^^^ ; or tb0 rr ,

.ii4 a» ^H

^■VWK-'

.L^ve«.« ^H

H .M

if^iic^ftiiii^rfli ^1

H^K"

7ir*^t-')f Br»^ ^^1

^m cr

^1 td r

i 1 w* r . » V . •^ r 0/ :j LX, \ . jn l^^^Xi MX X f t*> T U » M 1 1 J ifCfcl 1^ ^^H

^H m.vl

«citl iKtftaiSKtea lb ii0B9)lir jipttltidf* tur'wm^ ^H

^^HBIt

■t"

^H - , t fJrinLni f?ti*Tm«f. bom

^1 81 '

-dt ^^'efnefi ^H

B f T

■ ;

^^^^1^

ai v^^dpi^iiiai ■

^^^E

whUi MooDff m

^^^^b^B ' .rMiK'j &nii d^l'1lt> my

lUrtir|ll«. ~^ ' \ ^(^ ^^H

^^^^^B* iiff •MftliiHnit^ iiA^f ^(iii

ifiuiwi Ai^ ^H

^^^■p^

-•'-'^ u:Mlm ^^

^^^^Hi^*

t^dfatfdl ■

^^^^^^^^^^^'

.-,^-i.. -•-''* "-**- ^^H

^^^^^H^ n)itk(^imftt« Willi

fflwiMtr^ ^H

thi' cnn: ^^H

^^^^■liifr, iiiu^j W W0« ^a 1

^^^^Ktn ^h*^n, ' TbU wfttf ft K >

^^H

^^^^Btf M' AfKifer^ri'

umUUt. r«»:L^ moj^ bji^ i^ i ^^M

^^^^.. . *::»^nk^U*'

1 <i If u9 \y^ wmt t» Niff4i- ^H

^^^mVtC O-itdit^li'li of li*^ -

^^1

noli Twj mm tign« ^ !^
fiiaAfBaye lil£ tirUiii

L nc.u iiiij-i^umsr^ itii' ^^^1

tbtf tinui lif tto EUptkiL ^^1

l^ju^cA. BtcaTi frmf

l^n.\ Ik,. Vkltl^ ' ^H

entTii^ii«Bi| UkUt Urn ix :

th« ll>g|»r H

Kl*tl^ i,rr> -'Tir.^-.^ir-i/ ■ 1

tbft 0t^] ^H

liJi '

1 in mtk€ ^H

■_ if.

a^4ltk< is' ^^1

■ ^

^^1

Hwt

^^H

^^^^^'

<[4i.«4iaft ji^iM&iiJii, tbm immMi» <rf ^^|

^^^Ki' '

^^^^^B^ll

^ JiNiM ^1

^^^^IF'

•U. #?f^. ^^1

^^^BT^T

MU>ui^t>.M ' ■■ ^H

^^^Bit 'J7iiT^& Ui

QlJftll, OJ^ ^H

^^^^^j

t^ldfCfl tiiic- n^Jntmi^ ^^H

^^^^^^Ai

^^^^HPf^

1 ^h^lf lib &»^ 1

^^^B^

^^^^^^^

' '.itwi TOf

Sac

BUOHAK

tal disbibotion of plants. Yon Badh was the
tint to suggest the idea of the slow and gradual
elevation of the hmd of Sweden ahove the leyel
of the sea, from the region of FrederickshaU as
ftr as Abo. The results of these explorations
were published in his " Trarels in Norway and
In La^and," 2 vols. 8yo. Berlin, 1810. Hisex-

goraHons of the Alps, in Switzerland, and of
le mountains in Glermany, induced Yon Buoh
to put forth the opinion that the highest chains
of mountains have ne^r been covered hj the
sea, but are the result of sucoessiye upheavings
ttvough fissures of the earth's crust, the paral-
lel dinction of which is indicated hj the prin-
cipal (^ains of mountains in the Alps. This
snggestion had already been made by Avioenna,
or £bn-Sina, a celebrated Arabian physician of
the 11th century, and it has since been de-
veloped into a general theory by £lie de
Beaumont. About this time, also, Yon Buoh
published his views, which have since been
oonfirmed by the labors of N&ggerath, with re-
gard to the formation of amygdaloid agates, or
almond stones, in the porosities of melaphyre.
Li 1815 Yon 6uch went to the Oanary islands,
accompanied by Christian Smith, the Norwe-
gian botanist, who perished in the unfortunate
expedition of Capt Tuokey at the mouth of the
river Congo. The volcanic islands, with thdr
gigantic i^ak of Teneriffe, became the basis of
an elaborate series of investigations on the na-
ture of volcanic activity, and the results pro-
duced by fire, which he published in his Phyti'
kaUtehe Beaehreibung aet Oanaruehen Irueln
(BerHn, 1825). He next visited the basaltic
group of the Hebrides and the coasts of Ireland
and Scotland. He continued his geological ex-
otmbns and investigations, in &ct, almost inces-
santly until the last day of his life. Eight
months before he died he made another visit to
the extinct volcanic regions of Auvergne in the
south of France. His life was one continued
round of observation, travel, and investigation.
Being a bachelor, the ties of home did not ob-
Btaruot his taste for travelling to any region of
the globe where scientific curiosity attracted
him. Hisioumevsand his explorations were
made mostly on ioot ; with a change of linen in
his ample pKKskets and a geological hammer, he
was equipped for any journey, and his own
busy nund was sll the company he needed in
his travels. Such was the mode of life and the
career of the man whom Alexander von Hum-
boldt deems ^^ the greatest geologist of the age."
BUCHAK, David, a British voyager and
explorer, bom in 1780. He obtained a lieuten-
ant's commission in the navy in 1806, and in
1810 commanded in that capacity tiie schooner
Adonis on the Newfoundland station. His
admiraL Sir John Duckworth, despatched him
to the nver £xpl<nt& for the purpose of explor-
ing the interior and opening a commimication
with the natives. He reached the mouth of
the river in January, 1811, and with 84 men
and 8 guides penetrated through the greatest
difitolties 180 miles into the country, finding

at length a village of wigwams, he took its
inhabitants, 75 in number, captive, and treated
them so well as to induce 4 to accompany him
to a place where he had deposited presents for
them. But so great was the hatrod inspired
by the cruel^ of earlier travellers that Buchan
on his return fomid the wigwsms deserted
and 2 of his sailors, whom he liad left as host-
ages, beheaded and horriblv mutilated. In
1816, Buchan was promoted to ttxe rank of
commander, and in 1818 was appointed to the
command of an arctic expedition. The Green-
land whalers having reported the sea to be
remarkably dear of ice, the admirallj fitted
out 2 expeditions that year— one to discover
the north-west passage, the other to reach the
north pole. The first was intrusted to C^tain
(soon Sir John) Ross and Lieutenant (soon Sir
Edward) Parrv, with the Isabella and Alexan-
der. It proved unsuccessful, and much dissatia-
&ction was felt with its conduct The Dorothea
and Trent wero the vessels selected for the
other expedition, under Captain Buchan and
Lieutenant (afterward Sir John) Franklin*
Among the officers were several who have
since greatly distinguished themselves in these
voyages. The 2 vessels, admirably provided
with all the scientific equipments of an arctio
voyage, sailed in April and reached the plaee
of rendezvous, Magdalena bay, Spitzbergen,
about June 1. There they found walruses
in abundance, and immense glaciers from the
sides of which avalanches would fall every
now and then with the crack of a thunder-
clap. Before them rose that gigantic barrier
of ice which has hitherto frustrated every
effort to reach the north pole. Twice they
attempted to penetrate it in vain. On June
7, they put to sea, and aflier several efforts
to force a passage, were shut up for 18 days
in a floe of ice within 8 miles of land, and
with the water so shoal that they could see
the bottom. At length the field separated
and boro to the south at the rate of 8
miles an hour. They reached the open sea and
took shelter in Fair Haven. Chi Joly 0,
finding that the ice was again driving north-
ward, they emerged from their harbor and
sailed northward untU the barrier of ice closed
upon t^em, reaching the latitude 80^ 84' N.,
which was the most northerly point gained.
They attempted in vain to drag the vends on
by ropes and ice-anchors, for the current ear-
ned tnem 8 miles an hour to the southward.
The only result of the effort was the loss
of several lives. Captain Buchan then stood
over toward the coast of Greenland, but both
vessels encountered a heavy gale of wind,
which, with the constant shock from floating
ice, so disabled the Dorothea that she was in a
foundering condition. Lieutenant Franklin
wished to tnr again with the Trent which was
much less damaged, but it was thought best
that both vessefi should go home together,
which they accordingly did, after making such
repairs as they coma at Fair Haven. On

BtCRAlf ^^

fipnna-K7^ g| ^^M

^r - *^«^ *^- ■

1-* "-

-,^1 r^ I'u i •! 1

, .... 1... •!■..

^v.^.t^^^^^ ^M

iitmiti td ^^M

^^H

til

^^H

!»['

^^1

^^H

111

^^H

li:

fti .

^^H

^^1

r*-

^^1

Vfc.-xiK_-. , ;.!

^^1

iK)oc«tiaif of

vf}m »r^vi

^^M

■

tlif^ orfslMitvi

^^M

■

li/an»r[ j.l! "

■

^^M

■

it''
11 !

, iil tlti* M^CDl«Ii;^t^a

■

fit

ll'

:ni ■

^^1

Ui-

C -Jt *-■ ■".-'

J n jni., 1 4 r.

'w 'L- i,^.vT..; d. ^^1

I*.

Ill liud i

tfniQi caSilniiL In «uq»» ^i^m ^|

[jn.lj.* •* iif'

tifffy »*<TT^

,n.- utJ\ on .^Ah itifc ^^H

■

fl[ .

imoo^Ii

■

L* •?*\lt]<

^^J

■

^^^^

■

^^H

■

C|-

[H\mit> 4^

|tlC<j^

^^H

■

'iD*^intn«»i

l«|.i «-

■

^^1

■

tJ,.

■

P'.r.- ;

■

rflLi: , «.

^^H

■

nr' 11' A' .

''TTk\--'l*J 1 ^^W

lirr V IT

'If CaMt 1

liWj t' nL.lj . ' 1 '

Ai-**\i ■

An4 Q&rjjr-i

iM'i w..*.

■

ii»iir^ til

■

uf ■ ■•

' Ull4>' 1^^ iiu»tl

'i *

^^M

iir

. .1

Tf.

■III, tt

■

fnr

-f hl»

■

■ ^11 liii*tat*W-±. : . ♦11'- m ^^W

iflf > ,

. ,,,,1 *.,■» ;i.i.+Fi

■#, 1

■

If,..!-

Nil IjdUjuli for

iTi,tir% IX !>*« (tbB^liliLitf 1

U.I :.

' Im^ti »nfi:- nfiwirirtrlii I

■

^Th' ., :

la 1

Aii> :•

I ;

! In* 1

i«i«* mt i*uth

AAwr

pTM^isflg lor & aiwri

—^

BUGECANAN

BUCHANAN

Iranded A college at Fort 'William, he was noini*
Bated Tioe-proT06t sod classical professor. He
vaa the aatoor of ^ Ohiistian R^earobes,'* and
other works, which had a great iofluence both
In England and America in directing the at-
tention of the religioos public to the promotion
dT Ohristianitjr in India. He was employed in
superintending an edition of the Syriao Testa-
ment at the time of his death.

BUCHANAN, Gsoboi, a Scottish author of
the 16th centory, bom in the beg^ning of
Feb. 1606, died Bejyt 28, 1682. He was sent to
Paris abont 1620 for his edacation, returned in
about 2 years to Scotland, and in 1628 was en-
gaged in a border foray and the storming of a
casde in England. Two years later he took a
degree at St. Andrew's, and in 1627 went agam
to Paris, where he remained connected with
the unirersity about 10 years. In 1587 he was
again in Scotland, as tutor to one of the sons
of King James, when he wrote some satirical
poems directed against the monks and friars.
The animosity of the church party, and espe-
dally of Cardinal Beaton, obliged him to flee,
and he repaired successively to London, to
Paris, to Bordeaux, and. to Portugal. His
occupation was probably that of teaching the
rudiments of Latin in the universities, but be
published 4 tragedies upon the classical model,
and various odes and poems, by which his
name became widely Imown. He returned to
France in 1568. and in 1662 was at court in
Scotland, and classical tutor to Queen Mary.
As such he lived upon terms of apparent inti-
macy with her, and was made principal of St.
Leonard's college^ in 1566. He now openly
declared himself a Protestant, and took the side
of that party both in church and state, was a
member and moderator of the assemblies of the
church, and held some important secular offices.
His Fratrei IhUerrimij another satire upon the
friars, was published in 1564. In 1566, and
again in 1567, he collected and published an
edition of his poems. He was the author of die
^ Detection of Queen Mary's Actions," before
the tribunal appointed to examine her at York,
in 156^ which was extensively circulated in
England, and used to blacken her fame. On
this account he has been sublected by her
friends to accusations of the darxest treachery.
In 1670 he was intrusted with the education of
James VI., then 4 years old. The year 1570
was marked by the publication of his De Jure
Beqni apud SeoU^, a treatise, under the form of
a dialogue, concerning the institutions of Scot^
land, upon the principles of government and
eociety. For nearly 2 centuries this book,
which inculcates the doctrine that governments
exist for the sake of the governed, was held up
as containing the sum of all heresy and rebel-
lion. It has had the honor of many courtly
refutations, and of being burnt, together with
the works of Afilton, in 1683, at Oxford, and
again, in 1684, received a formal condemnation
and burning from the Scotch parliament. His
last production, the Berum Seotiearum Sh-

UriOf in 20 books, was published in 1585!,
the year of his death, but he is now remember-
ed chiefly for his trandation of the psalms into
Latin verse. His mother tongue was probabl j
the Gaelic, but the celebrity <^ his writings has
been to some extent due to the elegance of
their ktini^.

BUOHAKAN, Jaxss, 16th pimdent 6t the
United States, was bom at a place called Stony
Batter, in Franklin co., Penn., April 22, 1791.
BiA father, James Buchanan, emigrated to the
United States from the county of Donegal, Ir^
land, in the vear 1788 ; his mother was Eliza-
beth Spear, daughter of a respectable farmer of
Adams co., Penn. The flither commenced life
as a hardy pioneer, but, by snccessfol industry,
soon acquii^ that competency which enabled
him to give his son a classical education. Mr.
Buchanan graduated at Dickinson college, Oar-
lisle, in 1809, with high honor. In Dec. of that
year he commenced the study of the law in
the ofSce of James Hopkins, of Lancaster, and
was admitted to the bar Nov. 17, 1812, being
then little more than 21 years old. A. law-
yer of not more than 4 years' standing, and
not over 26 years of age, he successfully de- ]
fended, unaided bv senior counsel, in the ses-
sion of 1816-'17 of the Pennsylvania senate, a
distinguished Judge, who was tried upon ar-
ticles of impeachment. His practice in-
creased with his reputation, Ms profeasional
business accumulatea, and his name occurs |
oftener in the ^ Beports " of the state than that
of any other lawyer of his time ; thus he found ;
himself at the age of 40, enabled to retire from •
the profession. Once only after his retirement I
could he be prevailed upon to reappear at the '
bar^ and that was in an action of ejectment,
which involved the only little property of a
widow. The case was surrounaed by great
technical difficulties, but Mr. Buchanan suc-
ceeded in establishing the widow's title. At
the age of 28 Mr. Buchanan became a member
of the Pennsylvania legislature. In the progress
of the war of 1812 between the Unitea States
and England, the British had taken and de-
stroyed the public buildings at Washington.
This act caused a feeling of general indignation
throughout the country. At a public meeting
in Lancaster, Mr. Buchanan, though a federdist,
made an appeal in favor of a vigorous proseca-
tion of the war, while he himself neaded a list of
volunteers to march to the defence of Baltimore.
The company was commanded by Judge Henry
Shippen, Mr. Buchanan willingly taking the
position of private soldier. They marched to
Baltimore under the command of Mi\}or Charles
Sterret Ridgeley, but thehr services not be-
ing recuired, they were there honorably dis-
chargeo. In the legislature, to which he was
elected in Oct. 1814, he supported every meas-
ure of national defence. When Philadelphia
was threatened, and the state of Pennsylvania
was obHged to depend on her own resources
for the means of repelling the British forces,
Mr. Buchanan made the most urgent appeals to

JAW3& nirCBAHAK W ^|

&tli>^t £/S*

^ 1^-4. h«vl M« 9ii»efift^«>f lUlo Ci? ^^ ^M

^B bet nil jrrn* ru] n i -

■

iBAtHl'. 1

^^H

tcH«l nc ^H

^H i«ii ifil ffi

li:^ of lilt ^H

HM : iIlU OQ|$bt tjl Ia Mllpttil t

■

^^ "^ ' ' >9ifHmi f<» bnaMJUi £ii*^

^B t 'a jviiitaQcifi, Uitti w« tn^

.»i

^.^ H

^H |ir«iikrn4, '

rt^ik^ifc^ Uu^fw^t^ 4i*tisiiiiS^ ^^H

^M b# ta crt^:

1A whkh Um Ji»d«Q iMd MIm. ^I

^1 «A041% ilhil. HI i

1 litm of UiA i4j*^l ru att ^^M

^V iBftiUm of fj^msp^ u^*^ ^-*

' >jt t l'^ ftri^lj' ' ^1

H^ itf Ilia '* ^isiifdoin mCtfan

.Vtf. L»wJcM nwiUi r 1

B ft br Mr. etur ; btit Mr. li

1 i<M ir*r 11

^H ^^[^^ M A rt^iVAQl* OU^i

doQiljr d^

^H l«IIUl4d4 b J ' ^ > ' > -rflStMll «^^

•^fiyifff.

^1 J^OTbiftliii f mglte
^H rifinii^Uii ... j:19, Mr, F^i

ikjl^Tilbil f.i" Till,' }jrii«^* AfO • 1

■ t; ' ^

■

'I^i^mI

1 1-

(iitolvii

<>;

^H •i<y^!*.^ .jf Jiir. tl4j^, Mj- UilcIiiut&W M Wif

JAHSS BUOEANAN

WlUiammrt and Jonatlian Meredith were the
oonBfiel of Judge Peck. The trUl was con-
docted with great ability on both sides, and
became celebrated in the annals of American
Jorispradence. Mr. Bachanan closed the case,
oonnning himself solely to the legal and con-
Btitntional questions involved, and to pointing
ont the di&renoe between the principles which
govern English courts and those which under
the constitution must govern those of the
United States. Though the senate, by a vote
of 22 to 21, refused to punish Judge Feck, it
shortly afterward unanimously passed an act
obviating whatever technical objections then
stood in the way of his conviction, and so
framed the law that no judge has since ven-
tured to commit a similar offence. In 1831, at
the close of his 5th term, Mr. Buchanan volun-
tarily withdrew from congress, but was soon
afterward selected by Gen. Jackson as envoy
extraordinary and minister plenipotentiaiy at
St Petersburg. In this c^>acity, he concluded
the first commerdal treaty between the United
States and Russia, which secured to our mer-
chants and navigators important privileges in
the Baltic and Black seas. In 1883, on his re-
turn from St. Petersburg, Mr. Buchanan was
elected to the U. S. senate. A great revulsion
in politics had taken pkce during his absence
firom the country, A rupture had occurred
between Gen. Jackson and Mr. Calhoun, which
eventually led to the dissolution of Gen. Jack-
son's first cabinet; a new tariff had been enacted
after an impassioned struggle, and the battle
against the renewal of the charter of the U. S.
bank had begun and been led to a final issue.
The first symptoms of that sectional animosity
which has since been gradually on the increase,
were already observable in and out of congress.
It was, indeed, impossible that such imp<»tant
measures as the removal of the deposits from
the U. S. bank, the abrogation of its charter, the
tariff and the force bill, should follow each other
in quick succession and affect such a variety of
interests, without exciting those who felt them*
selves aggrieved to the most determined resist-
ance. That re«stance extended even to the
government officials, and with a man of Gen.
Jackson's unbending character, naturally led to
a pretty general removal from office. The cry
of '^proscription" was raised in consequence, and
an attempt was made by Mr. Clay and his fol-
lowers to deprive the president of the power of
removal from office without the advice aud con-
sent of the senate. Mr. Buchanan argued the
necessity of appoinlang officials by the president
alone during the recess of congress, and exposed
the personal hostility to Gen. Jackson which
prompted all these proceedings. Theoppondon
of the U. S. senate to the acts and measures
of Gen. Jackson rose to historical impor-
tance, and only terminated with the dose of
that extraordinary man's career, when that
body itself expunged the record of its animosity
by a decisive vote. — ^During the session of
lS85-'86, a new element was introduced into

national poIiticB, as to which Mr. Buchanan

has never made any secret of his views. As
he perceived, the ideas of liberty and equality
which swayed the public mind of Europe to-
ward the close of the 18th century, had, in
their indefinite expansion, embraced the cause
of the African negroes. With the peace of
Paris, in 1814, the doctrine of liberty and
equality, as far as it related to Europeans,
had effectually received its quietus; but the
sovereign princes who, during the same year,
met at the congress of Yienna, thought this
a fit occasdon to exhibit their regard for the
ne^oes, in other words, to raise the stand-
ard of liberty for the blacks out of EuropcL
while that of the whites in Exurope was hauled
down aud forled. The emperor of Bussia, the
king of Prussia, and the emperor of Austria,
could without danger proclaim that every ne-
gro touching their soil should be free. They
had none but white serfi^ and there was no
likelihood of negroes taking refuge in their
countries. They could contend against the
slave trade in which they had never been di-
rectly or indirectly interested, and they risked
nothing in proclaiming the abstract right to
freedom of the negro, after they had made a
covenant amonff themselves to put down by
force any struggle for constitutional liberty in
Europe. The government which, about that
time, was established in fVance on the embers
and hot ashes of revolution, was but too glad
to turn the attention of Europe to America,
Africa, and the West Indies; while England,
above all other countries, was most interested
in holding up negro slavery to the scorn and
detestation of Europe. The example of America
had much to do with the first French revolu-
tion, and that brilliant example had to be tar-
nished and rendered odious by exhibiting the
contrast of negro servitude. At the period
referred to (1835), the slavery agitation was yet
in its infancy ; it was confined to a small body
of persons who printed and published a few
abolition pax>ers in the north, and occa^onally
circulated copies of them in the southern
states, through the mail. The o^y political
bearing of the agitation was through petitions
to congress for Uie abolition of slaverv in the
district of Columbia. Tet as insignificant as
these incipient steps appeared to the nujority of
public men in the United States, Mr. Buchanan
perceived the ultimate political consequences of
the movement He desired to stifie the agitation
in the bud, by some act of congress which should
prevent the question of slavery from being
raised and discussed in that body. He wished
to receive the petitions or memorials for the
abolition of slavery in the district, and then
dedare, after respectfully considering them, that
congress had no power to legislate on the sub-

Sot. "I repeat,'' said Mr. iBUchanan, " that I
teuded to make as strong a motion in this case
as the circumstances would justify. It is neces-
sary that we should use every constitutional
effort to suppress the agitation which now dis-

^AKfiS IfOCtHAJfAlf ^^^^^^^^^^B

^B ftr*^ '^- * ' ^'' ■

^ ^- «,...:. » *

irwiiWHtt' -* '■:^-* * ^ ^^

^1 tir

fiaiadii ■

^H B^

^^1

^H *^

^^B

^1 «>'

^^B

H It

^^1

^^H

^1 ul

^^1

dual

'mm 1

H ^

^H All

^^1

^H in

^^B

^H VI i ....

^^B

^M Biin6iUj^«

^H ill4 )1ir

^H c« ' '

^^^H

H ^'

^H [ti

^^B

^^1

1^ b.-

^^B

■ b.

^^M

■ •''^

^^M

■ F.

^^M

■ '-

^^B

■ It

^^B

■ 111

^^B

■ i>

^^B

' H

A*sriJr

^^1

H Blfy^tlMeZifti.

^^1

^H alfe^^iiwIfWli^cirdtalidK. 1

^^B

^m ^mliiiUw^lG^immlt^ Vy \h

^^1

^V Mid ihOL Jmikatm dbur.

^^B

V ptinitm of |3«mvoo

:.i'»7y, - n'l r^ji* ilrr'.-n

^^B

J, Mr i'l.^li n L'l^ i^ >-\jjjj,. ■

^^B

^K I't' '<-rii?n^(hl tiw TrJia^o a[i^lUti.^iKl »ti

^B c' Itib^il iyi)aiidiwi^

d^a dtlni, *B^

''-{,r>LuJc-r ^^B

iji> ij-»L' rij'.-i «:-?ij|t]

1 [LT [!«.» ^.tl^e l*-i

£t'.--«f^ ir :rr bff A pirrrra': ^^B

«<ori*x- 11 ItoDiml^Se mattTot. — A

eraar, fff imtiAliif rir nrjw^. ^^B

^^ T^*^ ' cmrcwjtn

»l . -.,!_. T. i; . ^

ffHto oC UlO UHIOEIy i*r *br m- ^^

^B 0^ 4^a ItttO t

jifraiin In wmrm Ui ooj |iublic fif B

^^^^ii <

*i. ^^ ■

:idii-

ifiit 6f Mr, DucMawi ■

: i^j df

t""""

ft Tif H co^lvr

JTAMSS BUOBAKAH

democmUo ptfty, in both hotiaea of oongren
and in the majority of states, in what was then
deemed a hopeleas minority. The reTolaion in
bnsinesB had prodaoed a revulsion in polities^
and it was natural for the opposition to en-
deavor to regain in the shortest time the
ground which they had lost during 12 yesrs of
democratio rule. One of the first measures
introduoed during the extraordinary session of
1841 was the repeal of the independent treas-
ury. This accomplished, the way was paved
for the recharter of a IT. S. bank, but Gen.
Harrison died before he had an opportu*
nity of signing the bill, and his successor, John
lyler. vetoed it. Its successor, the ^'fiscal cor«
poration," shared the same fate ; not, however,
before Mr. Buchanan had been afforded an
opportunity of humorouflly opposing it.*~On
the arrest of HoLeod, a person who had
boasted of having been concerned in the out-
rage committed on the American steamboat
Caroline, during the Canadian rebellion of 188t,
and the demand of the British government for
his surrender, Mr. Buchanan took ground
against yielding to the demand, and contended
that if McLeod were actually guilty, he should
be tried and nuiushed according to the laws
of the state where the crime was committed.
This view of the subject also prevailed with
tiie admmistration. McLeod was tried for
murder in the state of New York; but, as he
was acouitted, the case received a natural solu-
tion independent of the action of either gov*
ernment. The repeated vetoes of President
Tjler exasperated the whig minority in con-
gress to such a degree that Mr. Clay seriously
introduced a proposition to abohsh the veto
power confer^ by the constitution on the
president. On the other hand, Mr. Buchanan
contended that, so far from limiting the power
of the people, the veto power was a potent
means of doing them Justice. It was but a
oprb on the momentary supremacy of &c-
ti«^n, and a means of safety to the people of
the weaker statea Mr. Bndianan also opposed
in seci^t session the ratification of the WecMiter^
Ashburton treaty, not so much because the
Dorth-eas|em boundary line between the United
States and the British provinces of North
America, aetermined bv that treaty, did not
correspond with what he thought it ought to
be, as becausev|ie believed that it did not eettie
other matters of. di^Hite then existing between
the two governments. — ^The most important
part of Mr. Tyler^s administration consisted in
the steps which he took ior the annexation
of Texas. Mr. Buchanan, as has already been
stated, was one of the earliest advocates of
that measure. In his remarks on the subject,
he observed Uiatz ** While the annexation of
Texas would afford that security to the south-
em and soutii- western slave states which they
have a ri^t to demand, it would, in some
respects, operate pr^'ndicially upon their imme-
diate pecuniary interests; but to the middle
and western^ and more especially to tiie New

England states, it would be a source of ttii-
mixed prosperity. It would extend tiieir ochh-
merce, promote theur manufactures, and in-
orease their wealth. The New England atatea
resisted with all their power the aoouisition of
Louisiana; and I ask, what would those states
have been at this day without that territory?
They wiU also reost the annexation <xf Texas
with omilar energy; although, after it has
been acquired, it is they who will reap the
chief pecuniary advantages from the aoqnlsi*
tion.^' Mr.%uchanan urced immediate at^on,
and adverted to the fact that had Mr. JefEeraon
delayed the acquisition of Louisiana but for
one short month, that invaluable territory
could not have been acquired without in-
volving our country in war. The treaty of
annexation received only 15 votes in the sen-
ate; nevertheless, after the election of Prea-
id«it Polk, Texas was finally admitted by
Joint resolutions. Mr. Buchanan was the only
member of the committee on foreign relationa
in the senate who reported favorably on
the admission, and it was his last sena-
torial act.— With the accession of ^. P<^
to the presidency, Mr. Buchanan had, as aec-
retary of state, the initiation of those meas-
ures which he had hitherto defended as
chairman of the committee on foreign rela-
tions in the senate. England and America
had both claimed the whole north-western
territory — ^Mr. Polk in his message to congress,
and the British premier in a speech in the
British parliament. The protocol between 1&.
Buchanan and Mr. Packenham induced Eng-
land to accept the compromise line of lat. 49° N.
Mr. Buchanan had felt himself obliged to offer
this line, because Mr. Tyler had offered it
before him, but it was rejected by Mr. Packen-
ham. Hereupon Mr. Buchanan, in an elabo-
rate state paper, exhibited the claims of the
United Stateis to the whole territory, and
concluded by a formal withdrawal of his offer.
This decided the fate of the controversy. It
amounted virtually to a dismissal of Mr. Packen-
ham aa a negotiator, and shortiy afterward pro-
duced a direct proposal from the British govern-
ment to settle the boundary on the terms first
proposed by Mr. Polk. The British govern-
ment declan^ this to be its ultimatum. In thia
dilemma Mr. PoUc referred the pro^sition to
the senate, and the senate advised its accept-
ance.— Our difficulties with Mexico were not
soeasUyeettied. Irritated by the advance of our
troops to Corpus Christi, she had crossed the Rio
Grande, and commenced hostilities without a de-
claration of war. The president and his cabinet
hM that there was no alternative but to repel
the attack by force, and to c<)mpel a settiement
of aU tiie outstandmg questious at the cann<m'8
mouth. Congress shared these views, and at
once passed we necessary acts and appropria-
tions. How that war was conducted without
meeting with a single reverse, how our land and
naval K>roes distinguished themselves by their
skill and daring^ how our volunteers partidpat-

^^^^^^ ^^^ JAMEIl BTOfTAXAS ^^^^^

1 ^^^1

^ H

^^^ OdiiiiJUtL Mi J '

, . ' . ■.!

^^M

^H ti*

M^rHuvuiteLt

^^H

H i

nttTftllfjxlff^ Tra-

fii^:

"^ u

Dr.'

^^M

l^. ■ rinj

|J» f III.". UJ

^^1

Aa^ >if pjd Cq

rt»t.._ .^i.,i-,^,;i 1 uMUi^».

orfa«Tiijat6«^ Wi

^^1

^1 idujiiiti. iti if"! r >i

^^H

■ Bl\

^^1

■ Mr

^^1

^ tlr

(•V,

^^H

w..

^^1

^k th<< N'JiJiii ru .■in'>'_"-^ aii4 LiinL ^r ^t n^tjuu ,

^^H

^H limiliie^ioa^truMUfrt'mtMiii^ir^inktaL h

^^1

^H WiJmo^ pr^>v[M> ill

^^1

^^H

^H bj i& BK^inibt^r af 01..^^.^ .^

^^1

^^r lucJi'ir i;. flit! fiV'tr^^TTT^ A' ii

tttiM llli

^^H

Wi ll

^^M

_^ewiijnti

^■HBl eilfiTU .iI fJkv, ' ii^d ti^ax

^^^1

^^^^■todf In UiIIa liOtKlfei^ LfiPftfUrb*

^^1

^^^^FIHfio ' '^'*i''ii i"^^^*' '

^H A Itttisi iTtttu tfooii

^^H

^V frjOB ali-^t iiiv- jnt'-ntf1f of liit^c *^i'j*^*j[m|

tji. 1

^^H

H^ Mr* fIfiobiiusQ wtb:« m ^Mur In a miloci

mi.

^^H

V mMrUdg ikia4 Ui riilMii|ili(*, In whLcJi li<! mj

wti.^. .,

^^1

apfiiwid tibeo, i&itin; t1if» fmmm whf tii^

hm^^^mmm^

^^H

t«iiffi1^ UmoM Tw MCiL"-^ji Ifl l^Qifi, 11)4 «xJif2rv

lE«i i/mtnitb,-

^^1

iT'i ufjioiiiliMkrtlorKiubUe*
^ wti . ill' Ui# ik»4 fitf4i oC Mn Pioftci^'t fliDiilnii-

^uttMwlUi ibo intkaiii

mA tod, ^H

aiuOJlj^ lllU llMMllb^ltTF '

. U(trp- ^H

m>r% m%^l ^ndm.

:ittd ^1

If J r J fnt tb*f ttTo^TitaMaiE oT Mr, BodwiiiC} lu

l»eetjn»i» mtlnini^rj

$Gmm o€ Bt Dotiuii^. IL

^^1

tun WifrVf^ timl ia «m> C i

^^1

^K wliiaU U^3v*-c»iL-- . . ^ ^

titiaisl^iniiitil lucii fliMitbiir E'

^^1

^H iviiDjil&G&M, boi

flcfvf^fi mlirbi Kt |i6RiifdnQ&^ v

'^" lUfiimiiNK] tll« WlvoK* riuu« r ia lyi ijuor.nii*? aijii

uti, -■■ ^ ■ ^

^^1

pef^tj&mmm pniUiiaiL but anibttxuitftdf Uio

rn»f

^L wotrtVffir *^ ^^ "" ' * ' ffUtfoo* with

™

^B Gf^^rfa iku cuM^ -tkif. y)if{ijQ«

%}i

^^ mmiffs ni* **--»i.iT..i!.i „^.„ «;.„.« .ii*tj*if r*'** ■*"■•

*^-

OS Ltjn u- v«M]% tli« DIoAi

wii Brv . 1 L J .1 Spanlili irsir it««Gi!

J. .. . 1 ...;. .■:!..:■

1 . • ■

mmm uf AMbft. IVi^lrtni I'Liroe tL^Mielis tiw

iTtil^btfd iiMiA Is Apl4| l«(^ Ilu»

JAMES BUOHANAK

oonndl of the tMy of New York tendered
liim the hospitalitieB of the city, and his whole
joQumey thenoe to Lancaster, Penn., his home,
resembled a trimnphal march. The demooratio
convention, which assembled at OinoinnaU
in June IbUowing, nominated him unanimously
for the presidency, and he was elected, reoeiv-
ing 174 electoral votes from 19 states. — ^Imme-
diately after his election the popular passions,
which had divided the Union mmost into 2 hos-
tile camps, began at once to snbade. so that» at
t^e time of his inauguration, in March, 1857,
the country looked forward with confidence to
a period of political calm, and to a new era of
national prosperity. But the Kansas territorial
question, which had so largely entered into the
presidential canvass, was still unsolved; the
Central American difficulties had not been set-
tled by the Dallas-Clarendon treaty ; no decided
steps had as yet been taken in regard to the
fillibuster movements which embroiled our for-
eign relations; and the daims of our citizens
against Spain remained wholly una^usted.
The oountay, it is true, had become tured of
the slavery a^^tation ; but the expectation was
raised that it would be imposable for Mr.
Buchanan to satisfy both sections, and to en-
list the representatives of both in his support.
Mr. Buchanan, however, took an early oppor-
tunity to let his sentiments on the Kansas
Question be known to the public. In an ad-
areas which he delivered to the students of
Franklin and Marshall college, at Lancaster,
in Nov. 1856, Mr. Buchanan remarked that
the ol^ect of his administration would be to
destroy any sectional party, no matter where
it existed, whether in the North or in the South,
and to restore, if possible, that national, firater*
nal feeling between the different states, that
had existed during the days of the fathers of
our republia So, in his inaugural address, de-
Uvexed in March, 1857, he dearly expressed
himself on the slavery agitation, and the mode
in which the difficulties in Kansas were to be
settled. But there was a party in Kansas
which, firmly believing that they constituted
the msjority of the people, refused to obey
the laws enacted by the local legislature
of the territory, though these laws had
been recognized by congress; and they went
so far in opposition to them, that they elected
a rival legislature, which attempted to enact
different laws for the government of the peo-
ple of the territory. These acts the preaoent
in his capacity of diief executive officer, could
not recognize as legal, while the governor of
the territory himself pronounced them revo-
lutionary, and required the presence of federal
troops to preserve the public peace. Mean-
while, that territorial legislature recognized by
oongress passed an act for the election by the
people of delegates to a convention to frame a
constitution for the state of Kansas. An elec-
tion was acoordin^y held, and the delegates
returned met at LMompton, and proceeded to
perform their task. It has been objected by

the opponents of Mr. Buchanan's administra-
tion, that frauds were committed during this
election, that some counties were not repre-
sented at all, and that the convention did not
represent the majority of the people. To this
the friends of the administration replied, that
every facility was given to the voters, that
frauds were committed on both sides, that all
the populous counties were represented, and
that wnen a minority refuse to vote, as it is
alleged was done during the election of mem-
bers of the convention, the men thus abstaining
from exercising the franchise, are construed to
abide by the act of those who do vote, no mat-
ter whether the voters constitute a minority or
a minority of the electors. The convention,
after a protracted session, completed its work;
but, contrary to the general expectation, sub*
mitted notmng but the slavery clause to the
ratification of the people. Now it was con->
tended by some that the convention was bound
to submit the whole constitution to a vote of
the people; while others, though they would
have preferred that mode of action, held that
there were examples enough on record in the
history of admissions of states, in which the
constitution framed by the convention was not
submitted to the people, and tiiat, therefore,
this omission could not invalidate the act ox
the convention in a legal or constitutional point
of view. Beside, it was contended that the con-
vention had submitted the most important part
— the slavery clause — ^to a direct vote of t^e
people, declaring that if the dause were voted
down no slavery should exist in the state. While
this new agitation for "popular sovereignty'*
was going on, and b^ore the people had voted
on we clause submitted to their approval,
congress assembled. Mr. Buchanan thou^^t
this the proper time for stating his views on
the subject, though he refrain^ from making
an actual recommendation to congress. In
his treatment of this question Mr. Buchanan
had no other object than to act as peace-maker
between the 2 great geographical sections of the
Union. All men foresaw that Kansas must be
a free state ; but he held, that if the question was
settled by the admission of the state with the
Lecompton constitution, then the South could
not complain that its rights had been abandoned
and prqudiced ; while the North, which was
sure of enjoying the substance of the quarrel,
could well yidd that point. The president
also hdd to the power of the people of Kansas
to ** change their constitution within a brief
period" after being admitted into the Union,
notwithstanding a clause in the constitution,
which, after the year 1864, requires a two-
thirds vote for that purpose. Mr. Budianan
considered tiiat clause to be null and void
by the very dedaration of rights, and cor-
roborated this view in a spedal message to
congress, Feb. 2, 1856, after the Lecompton
constitution, with the slavery clause in it, had
been submitted to congress. The admission
of Kansas with the Lecompton constitution

ntnr»(.iR^T ^^

B niFOSAREf? 41 ^1

L.<ntl-' K* • K \ipi.'« r* -«^^* lA^i.'.Vi^ V ■

li^r.1 MV V «!»>(' !••• fix*"- Ifi I'li'i ) iPb.Vf^i^i. .tk." ^^^^H

111

^^^1

■

;

EtM/mr ^^M

■

' T Ult3Mt.i tjrx]_i'. m ojLKi iiiii=.j'i.iuH*P k ^^^^1

■

xiolMcioMci t axid <il ilui 1^' ^^|

IP"

IbL..'.

rlr.-^ TKr, xr. iTT .t, .-ir- .- f .Ji,l , ■ . , , ^^H

OfOl^i

^^1

ibrmal^ -

^^^1

flftfUi^ tUf--

^^H

|ft\T Mi 1

d^ja^iptiiut- ^^H

itt Air44pi 1%^ ^^^1

■

' ^r/i n E^YvU'cv >'4» ^^H

■

iinaim^ w^^

HMsH^-

ilMn.-

^^^1

^^iJLflir

^^1

■

inUn

il£|»i«»r ^H

'''fiiifij^ « ^^^^1

it-

' 1

■

Wl IL

C^.ri4!lyiJ^a 1 ^^H

■

euiiifi 1

Uf WllklO.! ^1

09U»t'

ODdor *' ^H

mibsil

ft Mtr ^^1

ekMI> -

, ^.'VlJ

kt'-«" ' ^^M

YHiU^aow

•MOA

1 : ^viilaci cf ^^1

f«^r. L-K.n

AHOf,

QL^ . *^r nci:.' ^^^1

fmM; OAd

C',

jMiLiUiKl ta

■

ttWm

^^1

■

*»

iiton^

(St-i.'iu'r.-J ^^1

r^^

f J

LiiW#d tollio

iODfS^ lU^m ViU^liwi. ^H

Jti

Ifilic^k^ tuaiiOi fu, ^M

"1 dslcf OOtlUDtllV

f^> it»d EitfiUa m 4 ti ^^H

■

fi-

U latHUA t}Q ^

tu Iliad w#ffi fti4ii(ufw«3 : ^^B

-a^Jo,

i5M".j»Tp AitiiT.ir*^ irn^K .■iita_^. ir^ir*, il-hj^ n iwCiia ^^^B

i .<d aa4ik«i!

limn Amtxtm $mmw^m qm^mal llitni QftUl ■
mljimma q% of Um» oSh^ of lJ>o DooaUAU |jriefi< ^H

ti-^*.. .;.

Nr..,,. o^-i.

Jf«^ !»««»;

irtu.i:u.. 1.1 r,f<vir.liiji*'** M i'h ti*u f*'i:n]iit(^u^ Oftlift ^^H

Vi ^lOi f Ui

ikv iuhiuk wl inniMiMs lift iii«uiM

BUOHABIA

BTOJK

p&lflce, the metropolitan draroh, and the Ans*
trian coDBolate. French literature is the fkTorite
stadjr, and the French langoage is freqaentl^
spoken hy the educated classes. The inhabi-
tants are noted for their frivolity and extraro-
gant love of ^easore. Joxumalism is not
flourishing in Bncharest, the Buharuehier
Zeitunff having ceased to appear in 1864, and
the only prominent Jonnuu now being the
BuUetin^ which is an ofScial organ« The ex*
tent of the town, which is abont 4 miles i^m
' north to sonth, and nearlv 8 from east to west^
wonld admit of a popnkition of 400,000; the
actual inhabitants, however, are only 107,000.

BUOHARIA. See Bokhajll.

BUOHER, AnroK voir, a German divine,
bom in 1746, in Mnnioh. died there in 1817. He
was snperintendent of the schools in Munich in
1771, and in 1778, upon the abolition of the
order of Jesuits, he became rector of the gym-
nasium and lyceum. He was an inde&tigable
opponent of the Jesuits, against whom several
of his writings were directed.

BIJOHEZ, PmuFPB Jobsph Bknjauiv, a
French writer, who was, for a short time, pres-
ident of the national assembly in 1848, bom at
Matagne, in the then department of Ardennes,
ICan^ 81, 1796. He commenced the study
of medicine in 1816, and received his degree
in 1826. He was a violent opponent of
the restoration, was engaged in conspiracies
against the Bourbons, and in 1821 was instra-
mental in founding the French carbonari
society, in imitation of that of Italy. A few
weeks after the establishment of this society in
France, its members boasted tiiat it numbered
200,000 men. The conspiracy was discovered
and crushed, and many of those engaged in it
were convicted and punished with imprison-
ment. The Judges disagreeing in the case of
Buches, he was set free, and immediately de-
voted himself to soientinc studies, published a
treatise on hygiene, and estabKshed in 1827 the
Journal de» progfia dm Kienca et iiutiUttians
nUdicaleB, He was also a contributor to a
weekly periodical, Le produeteur^ which ad-
vocated the doctrines of St Simon. For some
time he continued to take part in this pub-
licatioiL although differing in many points
from his collaborators ; but when the panthe*
istio direction of the new doctrine became
more apparent, he separated himself from
the school. After the revolution of 1830,
he established VEuropUn. which dealt with
questions of morals an^ or practical life. In
1888 appeared his IrUroduetion d la 9oUnee
de Vhutoire^ ou 9cienee du dScdappement de Vhu*
manitij in which his philosophical views are
elaborately presented. In concert with M.
Rouz he commenced, in the same year,
the publication of the Histaire parlemintaire
de la rhohttion firanfa%$6^ in 40 vols. The last
and most important of his works, which has, we
believe, never been completed, is the Eaai d^un
traiU eomplet de phUoeophie^ aufHHtU detuedu
eatholieime et du progrie^ 8 volumes of which

appeared in 1840. The revolution of February,
1848, threw him again into politics. He be-
came deputy-mayor of Paris under Marrast,
was elected member of tiie national assemUy
ftx>m the department of the Seine, and called to
the presidential chair. When the assembly was
attacked by a mob, on the 16th of May, he
showed much indedsion of character. He has
since that time returned to private life.

BUOHHOBl^, KutL Ludwio Bbbshabd
GHBurnAN, a German professor of engraving,
bomatHalberstadt, April 18, 1770, died m Ber-
lin, Nov. 18, 1866. On March 19, 1811, he was
made a member of the Berlin academy, and in
1814 professor and member of the academical
senate. In 1824 the direction of the school of
engraving devolved upon him. He bequeathed
$7,600 to the Berlin academy, and $8,000 to that
of his native town, the interest of botii sums to
go towA^ the support of poor artists.

BtTOHl^rER, Geobo, a German poet, bom in
1818 at Goddelau. near Darmstadt^ died in
Zurich in 1887. He had studied at Strasbourg
and Giessen, and for some time lectured on anat-
omy at Darmstadt. He was an enthusiaBt for
German liberty, and a member of the secret
political societies while at the university. He
was implicated in the Frankfort insuiireotion
of 1888, and fled first to Strasbourg, and in
1886 to Zurich, where the imiversity conferred
upon him the titie of doctor of philosophy. In
1886 he published a play on ** Danton's Death."
He left a drama, fra^ents of novels, and other
MSS. for publication to his friend Gutzkow.
He had also published during his lifetime a come-
dy of his own composition entitied *' Leonce and
Iiena,''and ^Lucrezia Borgia," and "Maria Tu- ^
dor," translated from the Flench of Victor Hugo.

BUOHWALD, JoBASV Hxndsxk, a Danish
poet, bom at Vienna, Oct 2, 1787, while his
parents were travelling. He was educated in
Copenhagen, served in the French army during
the wars of the empire and after the restoration,
till, in 1628, he was decorated with the cross of
the legion of honor. In 1828 he was appointed
professor of French literature in theumversity
of Kiel, which he held till the revolution of
1848 obliged him to leave it. He has written
several volumes of prose and verse, both in
Danish and French, among which are ^ Souve-
nirs," the '* Poetical Age of a Scandinavian,"
"Flowers of Kiel," "My Auditory," and the
"YoonglnvaHd."

BUOK, the male of some wild animals of
chase, and of some domesticated quadrapeds ;
properly and generally, the male of the fallow
deer, dama vutgairuy or common park deer of
Kngknd. The term buck is also applied correotiy
to mdes of the roe (capreohu eaprma) of Enrop^
of the spotted axis (axie maanma) of India, oi
the antelopes. of all species, of the wild and
domestic goat, and of the rabbit; improp-
erly, to the male of the American deer (cerwu
Vii^nianu»\ of the black-tailed deer (MnH»
maerotii)^ ana oi the Mexican deer (oervtu Mea>
kamui). The application of the temi buck to the

BCOE ^^^

nnooKtitiAii tr ^1

^^V ri »^^^ .^r,l.^^l..

nl.l.iF.I .. i-.jt^ /r^..^ r. r,r f1.-*. ll.it* ^ «Y_ « >4 ^^^M

^^£

v^^. ^1

^^^^^H^v*

C-^T|^;h*' ^^H

^^^^^fUi«.

^^^Hk^^'

^^^^^BHbiHl mriji *

^^KSMdoniir.i

^^M

^^^^B cif lliii ^'t

.l^i l^AJtll

^^^M

^^^^Bklii»i&d#

rf'OifrW

^^H

^^^KfrtftAhiiiJi'

• IS w!t.^.i

^^^1

^^^^■bW ACil f

^^H

^^PBDi far^i^.

^^H

^m^

r^DCf|]m«»l>>

^^H

w^^ at .

': rfl-nimiii;

^^^1

" S.-I

ilir 04 fu ^bM* ut*

mMA^fi. ^^M

TBlJiJ' l*lt^Tl f^f^l^Mf t^

vfifi^f. ^m

'ijjp:^ r4.**tit%;i

*i ^^^H

f .. .

r«ti«Uiui,iicen2

u. *

^^H

-.u

■^

■ .;

^^^M

^^M

^^^^^^■pifia wbim

tii<.

^^^1

^^HH&lUvrdflli

t'!l-!.

^^H

t 64 UUC^

hifc* 1^ fvi^ ^' ilk ^^1

-Ti^nrrl'^n-

JiaCK -'TUT. ^H

^^^^^^H^''

U^Ii^

5w#vb|i ^^M

^^^^^^^^B

*fii^^ «#

^^^^^^^f *

^^^^^Hin p:

^^^H

.4 Ihim ■

^^^^^^E

^^^^^Kf

Hfiii i^ «ittl ti4ii wvrj mil, Miii»|il ucar U«a ^^H

BUOEINQHAM

BUOEINGHAH

riTers. Tobaooo is its great staple. The pro-
ductions in 1850 were 804,711 ooahels of In-
dian com, 133,819 of wheat, 117,091 of oats,
2,842,987 pounds of tobaooo, and 88,480 of bat-
ter. There were 2 com and flour nulls, 8 saw
miUs, 19 churches, and 194 pupUs attending
public schools. In the vidnity of Willis moun-
tain, the principal elevation, are gold mines.
Iron is found here, and valuable slate quarries
have been opened near the Slate river. The
James river canal passes along the border of the
county. Its real estate was valued in 1850 at
$2,103,599 ; in 1857 at $2,419,006. showing an
increase of 15 per cent Capital, Majsville.

BUCKINGHAM, a market town, parliamen-
tary and municipal borough, and parish of Eng-
land, in the county of its own name ; pop. of
parliamentary borough in 1851, 8,069. It is
Duilt on a peninsula formed by the windings of
the river Ouse, which is here crossed by 8
bridges. A branch of the grand junction canal
runs through it, and a branch of the London
and north-western railway gives easy communi-
cation with the metropolis, 61 miles K. W. The
streets are irregular, but paved, well lighted,
and lined with neat brick houses. The chief
public buildinffs are the town hall, the jail, and
the large pari^ church, erected in 1781 ; there
are also various chapels, a free grammar school
founded by Edward YL, a green coat and na-
tional schools, 2 hospitals, and a workhouse.
Buckingham once kept numbers of women em-
ployed in lace-making, but this branch of indus-
try is now declining. There are some brewer-
ies and tan-yards, and in the vicinity are corn
and paper mills and quarries of limestone and
marble. The town is very ancient ; it was erect-
ed into a borough by Henry YIII.

BUCKINGHAM, Dukss of, English nobles
of different £EUuilies and creations, from anearlv
date to the present day. The title of earl of
Buckingham seems, at first, to have been borne
by the younger sons of the Plantagenet kings ;
as we find was the case with the voxmgest son
of Edward HI., who was created auke of Glou-
cester by his nephew, Richard IL, and subse-
quently murdereo, bv his orders, in the castle
at Calais. The title of duke of Buckingham
was borne, during the wars of the roses, by the
noble family of Stafford, descended from the
daughter of the above duke of Gloucester, sev-
eral members of which fell, either in the field
or on the scaffold^ in the course of that long and
omel 8trnggle."~Iii the battle of St Albans, A.
D. 1455, in which was shed the first blood in
that domestic quarrel of 80 years' continuance,
which required 12 pitched battles before it was
brought to a dose, cost the lives, as it has been
computed, of 80 princes of the blood, and al-
most entirely annihilated the ancient nobility
of England, was slain Humphrey, earl of Staf-
ford, eldest son of Humphrey, duke of Buck-
ingham. Ten years later than this, in the bloody
battle of Northampton, fought between that
city and Towcester, ^^ in which the king^s army
was profligat and discomfitted, and of the same

alavn and drowned in the ryver fewe lesee than
z thoosand talle En^yshmen,^ was killed Hum-
phrey, duke of Buckingham, fighting on the aide
of Lancaster, to which party the funily had
thus fEU* attached itself. — ^Hsnbt Staffobd, the
next duke of Buckingham, although son and
grandson of 2 noblemen conspicuous for their
nuth to the house of Lancaster, oeoame a ward of
iiie crown, neither his title nor his fortunes hav-
ing been attainted; and was subsequently married
to Catharine, the sister of the beautiful Elizabeth
WoodviUe, Edward's queen. After the death
of Edward, his brother George of Clarence and
his heirs having been set aside by attainder for
high treason, aid the appointment of Ridiard
of Gloucester to the protectorate, during the
minority of Edward V., we find this Henry,
duke of Buckingham, acting as the abettor of
Bichard, promulgating the statement that, pre-
vious to his marriage with Elizabeth, the late
king had been secretiy married to the lady
Eleanor Talbot, without any witnesses, by Stil-
lington, bishop of Bath, who afterward divulged
the secret ; and tiiat, oonsequentiy, his sal^
quent marriage with Elizabeth was void, and
the issue of that marriage spurious. On the
strength of this vain pretext, he proclaimed
Biohard HI. at the gmldhall, and procuring the
acdamations of a certain portion of the audience,
packed beforehand for the purpose, tendered
the crown to Bichard, as the fi^ee ana spontane-
ous gift of the people, who were resolved to
have a new prince, in lieu of the infiemt Edward ;
a gift which, after some affected opposition, the
usurper pretended to accept with numility and
wonder. Shortly after this, he committed Mor-
ton, bishop of Ely, whom he had for some time
held prisoner in the tower, to free custody in
charge of Buckingham, who, at his friend's cor-
onation, astonished the eyes of all men by the
splendor of his own dress and accoutrements^ and
by the magnificence of his horse's bardmgs,
which were so heavilv charged with embroider-
ies and blazonries of burnished gold, that it was
necessarv to have 4 gentiemen, walking by the
nde of the horse, to bear up the trappings from
the ground. Shortiy again, however, whether,
as it has been said, he was brought over by the
bishop of Ely to the part of the Lancastrians,
or whether ambitipn urged him forward, or re-
sentment against Bichu^ for not having bet-
ter rewarded his services, he entered into nego-
tiations with Henry, earl of Bichmond, and, on
being summoned by King Bichard to repair to
court, knowing his danger, took up arms, and,
raising a great power of wild Welshmen, march-
ed into Gloucestershire, with the intent of join-
ing the Cornish men who had set up the earl of
Bichmond's standard. A rising of the Severn,
however, prevented the junction; and his
Welehmen haviuff become impatient of delay
and inactivity and dispersed themselves, he was
obliged to seek safety in disguise. Being, how-
ever, betrayed by his servant Bannister, he was
apprehended, and, on his own confession, by
which he vamly hoped to obtain pardon, was

H^l.t- — ^ :— I •—•■^^.V-* i,f I J

- M Viii.

i0 fkU, 1

"1 i.nri.

^Ut of

hi. llikL.K,.

■ „,,,.r.^

Iglttiii^a *i)4 !

BiElMf l«^.^ Hm.

1I#9 til

mm £it<iHl« miiirH f

Lii j....r M;..uiz3t that 1*1' Ibe D«litlmit«d .-^
'titA wbfk bn4 i»r«iftnD«>d to taku port ^galiiiA kkii

itfOH l^lliof l)iklll»4f VTmUv tw vumiJtiiu Huaual

BTJCfEnirGHAU

tii« VKW infiaenoe^ toacnmbed, and wm rewaid-
cd by his appointment as lord ohanoellor, and
liis creation as baron of Yernlam. From that
day forth, George Villiers became, to all intents
and DurposeSy the king of England. He was
ah^Baoy baron, risoonnt, earl and mavqnis of
Bnckingham, privy ooonoiUor, knight of the
garter, master of Uie horse, and lord high ad-
miral of Enghind. The distribution of peerages,
offices, ohnroh preferments, the direction of the
courts of law, the control of all departments of
goyemment, were his alone ; and, by the ssleof
every thing previonsly held sacred, as also by
possessing monopolies of most articles in daily
use, he was able to make his wealth grow pari
pamu with his power. Tear after year, his
power and influence oontinned to increase; un-
til, in 1638, he went off in company with Prince
Charles, afterward the unfortunate Charles L,
to Madrid, with the secret connivance of the
king, to bring about a marriage between the heir
of the English throne and the Spanish infanta.
Buckingham's intolerable arrogance, however,
broke off the match, which was exceedingly
distasteful to the people of England, as it wss
understood, not probably without some shadow
of reason, that the marriage would be accompa-
nied, or preceded, by the conversion of the
prince to the Roman Oatholic religion. Buck-
ingham, who was created duke during his ab-
sence in Spain, seems to have been actuated only
by a desire dr mortifying and disgracing the
earl of Bristol, who was EngUsh mmister at
Madrid, and of wantonly displaying his authori-
ty. The worst feature of the whole matter was
its ruinous effect on the character of the prince
of Wales ; who here received lessons, which he
never unlearned, of emulation and dissimula-
tion. For a time, owing to his conduct in rela-
tion to the Spanidi marriage, Buckingham fell
into suspicion if not into disgrace with the old
king, wno had not, however, the courage to
resist the impetuous arrogance of his favorite,
or the calm and serene obstinacy of his son :
but the popularity which the favorite gained
with the people, and with what was known as
the country iMuty, together with the influence
he had acquired over the weak yet stubborn
character of t^e prince, more than recompensed
him for the loss of the dying king's affections.
His last act, in the reign of James, was to ne-
gotiate an alliance with Henriette Marie, the
daughter of Henry IV. of France ; but James
was already dead before the treaty could be rati-
fied, though hisdeath did not prevent the celebra-
tion and consummation of the marriage, almost
before his body was cold in the grave. Over
Oharles I. continued the dominion of Bucking-
ham, in a form even more obnoxious than that
which he had exercised over the father ; and as
he governed the king, so was he governed bv
his favorite, the earl of Holland. He made al-
Hanoes with foreign powers, and broke them, at
his own pleasure; involved England in war with
both France and Spain, the 8 Catholic countries,
which it had been the liftlong dream of King

Jamea to eoncfliate at all haiards; and would
have been impeached by the house of commons,
in 1626, when the king M>pointed him chancel-
lor of the university of Cambridge, in order to
manifidst his contempt of parliament, and dis-
solved the parliament in order to prevent its
farther action ag^ainst his favorite. After this,
Buckingham instigated and commanded an ex-
pe^tion against the ides of B6 and Ol^roo,
which terminated in the disgrace of the British
arms, in the loss of 1,200 soldiers and 20 stand
of colors. Buckingham was the last to retreat.
Notwithstanding the notorious incapacity of tlM
man, and the emphatic enunciation of the
house of commons, ''that Buckingham was the
cause of all the national calamities," Charles
named the favorite commander-in-chief of the
new expedition to be sent for the relief of the
Protestants of La Rochelle. On the same
day which was marked by the denunciation of
the house of conmions, Buckingham's physician,
Dr. Lamb, was murdered in the street by a Lon-
don mob; on the next the metropolis was
thus placarded: "Who rules the kingdom!
ThekingI Who rules the king? Thednkel Who
rules the duke ? The devil I Let the duke look
to it, or he will be served as his doctor was serv-
ed t " He had too much courage to regard the
menace ; yet the menace, whether it had any
connection with the event or no^ was accom-
plished; for one John Felten, a Heutenant in
the army, who had been unjustly superseded and
deprived of his arrears of pay, stabbed him
mortally in Portsmouth, a few hours before the
intended sailing of the expedition. The assas-
sin, who was a religious matic as well as a dis-
contented soldier, pleaded guilty to the com-
mission of the crime, confessed his delusion, ex-
pressed contrition, and died penitent and com-
posed.— GxoBOE VnxiBBS, second duke and son
of the preceding, bom Jan. 80, 1627, died April
7, 1688. He was superior to his father in abili-
ty, in profligacy, and in the depth and ignominy
of his faU. But, although he occupied himself,
more or less, in government intrigues and cabals,
they were rather connected with personal squab-
bles and small party conspiracies, entered icito for
individual purposes and objects, than with anv
affairs of national and general interest. Indeed,
with the exception of a few intestine affairs,
especially that concerning the succession of the
duke of York, there was no question that can be
said to have been of national or general interest
during the frivolous period of Charles II. He
was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, was
abroad at the breaking out of the civil war, but
returned shortly afterward, and served the king
under Prince Rupert and the lord Gerard. At
the death of Charles L, his estates were confis-
cated ; he sought in vain to obtain their res-
toration at the hands of parliament, and trav-
elled abroad until 1648, when he returned
with Charles U. ; was present with him in the
disastrous battles of Dunbar and Worcester;
and, on the failure of the attempt, followed
tJie princes to the continent, and served aa a

BOQKiinsadii

BUCKnonAM

-_^^ A- ft, .

.1 .__.». I..

'-f«y

»«ri*f

Hi
IK

*i(»,tU&'!

ore iinr^ ftftlil|i<iitelikliisiiaveute^
— T'^itid- b4 MiM for MdlUf «ii«9 liB 1

! wm. fHoiiili wUh A vmtKit of Iil< owl)

* .(* iRtt *,Ll lit 1 tin.:!.'' jam tli^ t^iia'^ U-.. . .

1 to bi«Ai.

fjna

hlM *«ff ieca^ tfi

4 ill

tA Oiim Abiiml tiAk%3,

I jn* V r*iT-jrii.ia Ui* rtj*i' i' *,

in Ill«U% 1114 «iiMjlli4 A ll«l« b«IWi«l trmi

nk&oe la iliQ
Ti4l of ii Ur»

Id Tvstldii In I^^utX ha mm ufilOTifd diet

k motn^r, 9m » itmuMit

leifv edUTfkf la H'^rirrftJ ^ikMili «cifij|«il la pip-

[ thF Tn«n|ali nf Hailfiii^
U^ tli«t bo c»M«bi-

ft^i^C«m Ckf Urn fiuiiauwl*
liomnvAiutlrii

.., . ,. ..^ .... . ^ j^il ihn *^fMaftUl li#mW/**

the

pa:'

BUOKIHaHAIC

BUQKINaHAMSHIBE

deTOted to Eaflftlndiaaflbira, which did. Hepab-
Ushed, in numeroas Tolumes, his trayels in
Palesdne, among the Arab tribes, in Mesopota-
mia, and in Syria and Media. He established the
^^Bplunz," a weekly newspaper, in Joly, 1827|
•ad, about tiie same time, the ** Athenaom^" a
literary journal, which passed suocessiyely mto
the hands of the late John Sterling and 0. W.
Di]ke;the '* Sphinx*' eyentnally was merged
in the ^Spectator." He threw himself with
great energy into the arena, some time before
the renew^ of the East India company's charter
in 1688, delivering lectures on British India,
aU oyer the united kingdom, against the
company's commercial monopoly, and subae-
qnentiy lecturing against impressment of sea-
men, intemperance, the com laws, and on other
subjects of public interesL He found time for
European travel, and published his tours in
Belgium, ^Switzerland, Germany, France, and
Piedmont. He joined very warmly in the pop*
vlar agitation of the reform bill, and the inhabi-
tants of Sheffield (raised into an electoral
borough by that measure) returned him as
their first member. He retained his seat in
pariiament until 1887, when he was defeated on
a dose contest Soon after he retired into
private life, he visited America, on a lecturing
tour, freely expressing his opinions on the tem-
perance and anti-slavery questions. Nine octavo
volumes contain his travels in America, viz. :
8 on the northern states, 2 on the slave states,
8 on the eastern states, and 1 on British North
America. They contain little that had not been
told by previous tourists, * and their author's
own opinions are diffusely expressed. On his
letum to Englimd he resumed his lectures,
which were generally wdl attended. In 1843
he establishea a dub, called the *^ British and
Foreign Institute," which was opened with great
state by Prince Albert, and had considerable
anocess for some time, with Mr. Buckingham as
its manager. The enmity of a leading writer
in ^^ Punch " was accidentally excited, and the
^ Institute" was literally written down, after 8
years' existence, by that lively satirist In
1849 Mr. B. published a volume on *^ National
Evils and Practical Remedies.!' In 1851 he
became president of the London '^Temperance
League.'' In 1855 he published the first 2 vol*
of his ** Autobiography," but died in that

year, before the 2 condudmg volumes could
appear. His latter years were passed in tranquil
competence, for the East India company, with
tardy justice, had granted him a pension of £800
a year, and he also had a literary pension of
£200 a year from the crown.— Mr. Bucking-
ham's private character was stainless. He pos-
sessed considerable abilities; was a graceful,
fluent, and sometimea even eloquent speaker;
was undoubtedly sincere; had travelled and ob-
served much ; and possessed considerable knowl-
edge of men and things^ but as a public man, hia
influence was limited.

BUOKINGHAM, Joseph Tinxxb, a promi-
nent journalist of New England, is the son of

Nehemiah Tinker, of Windham, Oonn., where he
was bom Dec. 21, 1779. His fither exhausted
his whole proper^ in supporting the American
army during the revolution, and died March
17, 1788, leaving a family without any means
of support Under these circumstances they
became so reduced that they were obliged to
i^peal to the town o£Blcials for assistance, and
were supported by them for a winter, when
they removed to Worthington, Mass. Here
Joseph was apprenticed to a farmer, with
whom he remained for several years. While
in this family he showed some desure for
knowledge, and made himself acquainted with
the rudiments of an English education. At tibe
a^ of 16 he entered the printing office of Da-
vid Carlisle, of Walpole, N. H., who combined
with his prmting business the publication of
the *' Farmer's Museum." Here young Buck-
ingham first became acquainted with the ele-
ments of the profession in which he was after-
ward to gain distinction. After remaining a
few months with Oarlisle, he entered the office
of the *^ Greenfield Gazette;" where he remained
until 1800, when he removed to Boston. In 180B
he perfoimed the duties of prompter for a shozrt
time in a company of comedians, who played dur-
ing the summer months in Providence and Salem.
In 1806, having changed his name, by application
to the legislature, from Tinker to Budongham,
which was his mother's family name, he oom«>
menced life for himself by the publication of the
"Polyanthus," a monthly magazine, which, after
an existence of a year, was discontinued and not
resumed until 1812. In 1809 Mr. Buckingham
published for dx months the ^' Ordeal," a week-
ly magazine. In 1817, in company with Bamud
L. Knapp, he commenced the publication of
the ^*New inland Galaxy and Masonic Msga-
rine," which continued in his possession until
1828, when he sold it In 1831, in connection
with his son, he commenced the publication of
the *' New England Magazine," which was con-
tinued under his care until 18iB4, and contained
contributions fh>m numerous writers who have
since attained great literary eminence. In 1824
he published me first number of the " Boston
Courier," a paper which he continued to edit
until June, 1848. Mr. Buckingham was several
times elected to the legislature, and, in 1847*
'48, and 1850-'51, to the senate of Massachu-
setts. He has also published, '^Specimens of
Newspaper Literature, with Personial Memoirs,
Anecdotes and Beminiscences," 2 vols., Boston,
1862 ; and " Personal Memoirs and Recollections
of Editorial Life," 2 vols., Boston. His pree-
ent residence is in Cambridge, Mass.

BUCEINGHAMSHIBE. or Bucks, an inland
county of England, bounded N. by Northampton-
shire, E. by Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, and
Middlesex, W. by Oxfordshire, and separated
from Berkshire on the S. by the river Thames.
Area, 464,980 acres, of which 440,000 are said
to be arable and pasture land; pop. in 1851,
168,654. It was oriffinslly a purely Saxon
county,and is said to derive its name from the

lUQKLill?I>

^XIQSQaAXD

^. 1^-, i..r

„ 1 r..„

fi.
Lku^Ml*. ',1,

l^j rv.: n: '
1

; 9 ID tiM «lMi*j^ la rv- «a4»«t j iritlt tlus olUir lim W-fiMlJAtiKif (» w I

BUOELAin)

BUOKLE

the groores made bj the old mode, and indeed
bj aU other machines so &r as is known, have
to be sabmitted. The last invention of Mr.
Baokland is one of his greatest and most nsefol
•^« machine for cutting the thread of the screw
on the inside of the barrel and for milling the
breech-sorew, so as to prodnce a perfect inter-
change, eyery screw fittmg any barrel to which
it may be ^plied. To accomplish this has nn«
dl recently been regarded as almost a mechan-
ical impossibility, and was so prononnoed by
lix. B. himself a few years ago. Within the
year 1857, however, he produced at the first
trial a very beautiftu machine which does its
work with a surprising degree of perfection.
l£r. Buckland has never received from the

S^vernment any other compensation than per
em wages.

BU03aND. Willluc, D. D., dean of West-
minster, an English geologist, bom at Azmin-
ster, Devonshire, in 1784. died Aug. 14, 1856.
From Winchester college, ne went in 1801 to Ox-
ford university, and in 1808 was elected fellow of
Corpus Christi collese. In 1 81 3 he was appoint-
ed reader in mineralogy, and in 1818 reader in
geology. In this double capacity he greatly
advanced practical scientific knowledge in
the university. The singular deamess, graph-
ic force, and full information of his lectures
made the study of geology very popular. He
may be sud to have founded the geological
museum in Oxford, sparing neither time, travel,
nor expense, to supply it with specimens^ which
he classified, arrai^^ and described. This col-
lection is more particularly rich in the remains
of the larger fossil mamnialia, and other ani-
mals from the caves in different parts of Eng-
land and Germany. As early sa 1813 he com-
menced writiuff on his favorite subject, com-
municating to the transactions of the geologi-
cal society his ^^Descriptive Notes*' of 50
miles of a coast survey of Irelandj^hich he had
' made in company with the Rev. W. Conybeare,
dean of Uandaffl In 1820 he delivered a lec-
ture before the university, which was publish-
ed as *' VindieicB GeologictB^ or the Connexion
of Geology with Beligion exphuned." The
object was to show that science was not at vari-
ance with the Mosaic accounts of the creation
and deluge. In 1823 he published Beliquim
DiluciarMy being the expansion of a paper he
liad communicated to Uie royal society (of
which he was elected member in 1813), re-
specting the fossil remains of the elephant, hip-
popotamus, tiger, bear, hyena^ and sixteen other
animals, discovered in a cave at Kirkdale, Tork-
ehirei in 1821, for which paper the society vot-
ed him the Copley medal, the lughest honor in
their gift His theory, put forth in this work,
and not vetr well received by the scientific
world, was, that beasts of prey which have long
ceased to exist in Europe had resorted to the
oolite caves of Yorkshire, previous to the dd-
nge; had dragged into these retreats, for food,
aach animals as then frequented the neighbor^
liood ', had been overtaken in these caves by the

delo^; and that the discovered bones were the
remains of themselves and their prey. In 1825
Hr. Buckland married Miss Mar^ Morland, of
Abington, received the lucrative ^)pointment
of canon of Christ church, and took the degree
of doctor of divinity. In 1837 appeared his
Bridgewater treatise on ^ Geology and Miner-
aloe^," which has always been the most popular
of the series. He bestowed such unusual pains
upon this work, that it was repeatedly rewrit-
ten before it went into the compositors' hands ;
it was reoopied as many as seventeen times ;
and the manuscript which finally was prepared
for the press was the fourth copy which Mrs.
Buckland had made with her own hands. Dr.
Buckland's own chirography was so singularly
feeble, strolling, and indistinct, as to be almost
illegible. Kis was his last and greatest work,
but he contributed several valuable papers to
the transactions of the geological society, in-
cluding his two anniversary addresses as presi-
dent, and his description of the south-west-
em coal district of England. From its forma-
tion, he idendfied himself with the British
association for ^e advancement of science.
He was on habits of intimacy and correspond-
ence Willi most of the acientific men of his
time, and with many of the leading public
characters of England and the continent. In
1845, when the deanery of Westminster be-
came vacant, by the elevation of Dr. Samuel
Wilberforce to the see of Oxford, he succeeded
him as dean of Westmiuster, on the nomination
of Sir Robert Peel, witli whom he was on the
most friendly terms. On accepting this, he re-
linquished his canonry at Oxford, but contin-
ued professor of geology and mineralogy. Re-
moving to London, his first step was to secure
public admission to Westminster abbey without
the fees which the dean and chapter had pre-
viously received; he was appointed trustee of
the British museum, where his practical good
sense was found valuable ; he actively employ-
ed himself in advancing the sanitary move-
ments in London; and he was mainly instru-
mental in procuring the establishment of the
national museum of practical geology in Lon-
don. In 1850 his career of activity and useful-
ness was arrested. His mind sank under the
pressure of its multifarious labors, and insanity
(though in its gentlest form) rendered his re-
tirement necessary. In Islip, near Oxford (a
college living which he long had held), he found
a retreat, and was there attended, during the
last 6 years of his life, by the nntirinff and af-
fectionate care of his wife. Dr. Buckland pub-
lished several sermons, preached on various oc-
casions, all of them distinguished rather by good
sense than scholastic divinity. In manners, he
was simple and social His appearance was
that of a country gentleman.— Fbancis Bucx-
ULOtDj his eldest son, is author of a volume of
aoological researches, published in 1857.

BUCKLE, Henbt Thoicas, an English schol-
ar, bom at Lee, Nov. 24, 1822. His father was
a wealthy merchant, and Mr. Buckle enjoyed

I^^^^^^^^^^^^w^^^

itOcin.»:n ^H

^^K ^BPt *^° ^1

(t# wm imk^^ ^mwtnf m ^H

jtnis^vi ^^H

■III

4lkS£M*.: ^^1

ta0^

''.-- 01^ .11 ;m ir^ji ^H

^PTICT.

.^-. *>.'-- v-'*j.^-.«j-

^i^ ttkutfiti*?^ ^' ^H

■ ''

i!^ii -ika i^iolar, nviv ^H

■1 I. Jfi lL-4J'r»'ti hji

f. 'T^ A4. t!jji>rAir/fLi ^^^1

itiff fl*.

utiijiiu^c^^bd

^^ fan n

■ -' 'V«ri-

^H tlN«l»-

J.^-

wer« tbun wlicvtt uamm ettdbit i^iptur in ^H
ill, tuid l>w^t Vfhm Lb4 i^eHod af ^H

1^ fciiHi

llMOct

1^ rmif.

.... .^^i!^ftiriil[i lersiba^Md bt becmtne a tuW ia ^H

^1 IwqW»

iUii dcklk^ oftd lU^Ubd ltw» dittlii* of iltin ^H

■ r"

ciffioa for 4 7im»; Ilia* |imIm 11 ji^n cf liL« ^^B

■ h.^

iltiriag bii i\5t{f^co lbit« be ptm^ '. ^^M

H '"'

gnitti meini' ' ti rmtlt of lik^iiiMiUTe ^^^

P ...

'■'.L^lh

Imd

k '^

yisiao

B It.

;ii&u^

■ :•

.Tn«J-»* t!.«4 *'~ ■"«

n* A rBHli«3'a*Si*;iitj¥Lrj ti;.iV ". '' ' ^W

H ^

^frt^r*^

conjotTTdiUan liAnmioUfi^r ' H

^H U. w.... w .

^v*4r.ZM tiw u^-'j^-ii^ ^ .-^-j. -. .. ..>■ <L

Kiiw Sitgkod C<aTSExUi4, u m^.u, .m...^.^ «.- ■

BUOKMmSTEB

the work oi the minifltry. In 1779 lie w«8
ordained pastor of the North ohnroh of Ports-
mouth, N. H., whence his 2 predecessors had
been called respeotLyeljr to the presidencies of
Tale and Harvard colleges. Hie friendship of
a remarkably gifted and cordial fraternity of
clergymen, the liberal disposition of his people,
their comparative prosperity and fine social
(mltore, rendered his position as agreeable as it
was influential. He soon after married 8arah
Bteven^ the carefully educated daughter of
the Bev. Dr. Stevens, of Eittery Point. The
period of his ministry has been called a great
transition era in New England hbtory, both
dvil and ecclesiastio. While there were yet
few newspapers, the clergy were the oracles of
the scattered communities upon all subjects of
public interest, and were expected to weach
upon important political events. Dr. JBuck-
minster cherished an intense admiration of the
leaders of the federal par^, which so far tinc-
tured his occasional homilies as sometimes, and
particularly in one instance, to call forth ani-
madversions from those of a different political
Greed. With this exception, his clerical course
was singularly calm and prosperous. He was
especially remarkable for the fervor of his de-
votional exerdses, and the general effect of his
preaching was to produce emotion ratlier than
conviction. Among the memorable traits and
incidents of his li& and character, were his
simple tastes and habits, his favorite exercise in
the garden in summer and in wood-chopping in
winter, his careful preparation of sermons, his
attention to the figed and poor, his consolations
of the distressed, his love of sacred music, in
which he excelled, his paternal care and sym-
pathy at home, and his vivid interest in the
controversy which, during his later years, made
so wide a division between the conservative
and liberal Congregationalists. The change of
views arrived at and maintained by his idolized
and gifted son, Joseph Stevens Buckminster,
the discussions between the two, and the strug-
gle between love and duty, self-respect and in-
dependence of mind, so obvious throughout,
form one of the most interesting features in the
memoirs of both. Although differing in creed,
and conscientiously tenacious of his own opinions,
he preached his son's ordination sermon. When
the latter died in the morning of his days, the
prophetic heart of the dying parent realized the
event before the news arrived, and he himself
expired a short time after his son's decease.
From the time of the death of his first wife,
followed as it was by the bereavement of
another wife and of many children. Dr. Buck-
minster suffered from occasional liabUity to
nervous depression ; yet the stringent duties of
his profession, his vigorous maturity of mind
and body, the society and sympathy of his ac-^
oomplished son and daughters, were rare amel-
iorations to the sorrows of his life. He died
while on a Journey for his health. One of his
danghtershas pubnahed an interesting; biogra-
phy of her fether and brother: '^ Memoirs of the

Rev. Joseph Buckminster, D. D., and of his son,
the Bev. Joseph Stevens Buckminster,'* by iSiza
Buckminster Lee, Boston, 1861. — Josiph
Stbvxnb, eldest son of the preceding, an Amer-
ican deigyman, bom at Portsmouth, N. H., May
26, 1784, died in Boston, Mass., June 9, 1812.
Few men, whose professional career was so brie^
have left so permanent and endeared a memory.
As a child his personal beauty, dastic tempera-
ment, instinctively religious spirit, love of
knowledge, and great aptitude in its acquiutioD,
made him the idol of his Jbome and neighborhood.
His first instruction was parental, and from
the parsonage he went, in his 11th year, to
Exeter academy, where he was soon distin-
guished as a scholar, and for moral excellenoe
and personal fascination. The letters addressed
to him by his father at this time, offer a sing^dar
Illustration of the economies, strict morak,
and minute supervision then characteristic of
domestic training in New England. Beside
the prescribed course at Exeter, he read with
avidity the standard English works in generiU
literature. Entering Harvard college in 1797,
he maintained his reputation f6r scholarship,
was admired for his thoughtftdness and mirth,
the graces of his manner and the winning kind-
ness of his disposition, became thet favorite
orator of the clubs and reasoner of the debi^
ing societies, and " as a belles-lettres scholar,^'
says one of Ms classmates, " he was unequalled."
He received the honor of the English oration
on graduating, and the fragments preserved of
this juvenile performance amply justify the
traditional charm of his mind and expression.
As assistant in Exeter academy, after leaving
college, he was one of the teachers of Daniel
Webster. At this time he pursued a wide
range of general reading, and after beginning his
preparation for the ministry, left the academy
to reside with a relative in summer at Waltham,
and in winter in Boston, while pursuing his
theological studies. After he had preach&i his
first sermon, he was invited to sup^y the
pulpit of the Brattie-street church in Boston,
and in 1804 that society unanimously elected
him their pastor. He wanted a few months of
21 years of age when he thus became the minis-
ter of one of the largest and most intelligent
religious societies in New England. He at once
rose to the level of the highest e^ectations of
his friends; his church became a shrine for the
lovers of pure and devout eloquence, and his
parsonage the frivorite resort of the most intel-
lectual society of Boston. The social graces of
the man were indissolubly blended with the
sacred gifts of the pulpit orator, and the geni-
ality and warmth ox his manners, and the
knowledffe and wit which marked his conversa-
tion, made his home delightftd to his friends in
the intervals of severe professional duties.
Although the charms of his voice and the ex-
pressiveness of his countenance and gestures
greatiy enhanced the immediate effect of his dis-
course, yet those of his sermons which were
collected and publidied idfter hia decease are

ft?

■lur.L II ,jv/i

f K.

,^ f#inT*!f¥ <tf piifirNA^If^i^fo^ Wnf^ne

:ri%id LUit' u^U

uriji, JLua i:ii'i-'jt4 ari^ ujiiii*j ;ii •ijpj.i ^jCLLiii*:^;,

tin iWl^i. AJ'

3i>^it/>, i«ci>iir« VaUffwl W

uu»^ i^^wininrv

■^ li

BUOOLIOB

BUD

into Spain. It thriyes on poor soiki oomee
npidly to maturity, and is most freqaondT
planted in tracts that are not rich enoo^
to support other crops. It is extremely sen-
sitive to cold, being destroyed by the least
frost, bat it may be planted so late and
reaped so early as to inonr no danger from that
source. Its flowering season continues for a long
time, so that it is impossible for all the seeds to
be in perfection when it Ib reaped, and the
fanner most decide by oarefid observation at
what period tiiere is the greatest quantity of
ripe seeds. Buckwheat does not exhaust the soil,
and by its rapid growth and its shade it stifles
weeds, prevents their going to seed, and leaves
the fleld clean for the next year. It is sometimes
ploughed ioto the ground in a green state for
manure. The seeds of buckwheat fhmish a
white flour, from which a popular gruel is
made in Germany and Poland, and breakfast
cakes in England and America. Cakes, and a
dark heavy bread, are made from it also in the
provinces of France, especially in Brittany.
Its flowers secrete a large amount of honey,
and are, therefore, always covered with bees;
and in the middle United States it is often
cultivated for their food. The grain is su-
perior to oats as nutriment for horses and
Sonltry, and is especially efficacious in making
le latter lay eggs. The green plant is said
to greatly increase the milk of cows, but accord-
ing to Thaer and Hauter, it produces cramps
and a sort of intoxication in swine and sheep
which feed largely upon it. — ^There is another
kind of buckwheat distinguished from the pre-
ceding by the sharper angles of its seeds, and
by its tougher stocks. It is earlier and taller,
less sensitive to cold, and produces grain in
larger quantity, but of an inferior and bitter

Suality. It was introduced from Tartary into
tussia iu the beginning of the 18th century,
and it has thence been dispersed all over Europe.
Hence its name of Siberian buckwheat, or poly ^
gonum Tartaricum,

BUCOLICS, a style of poetry introduced
by the Greeks, more especially by the Sicilians,
descriptive of the delights of the primitive rural
life of the herdsmen and mountain shepherds,
whose rugged and picturesque days were, for
the most part, spent among the forest glades
and upper pastures of the mountains, which
alone, under the burning suns and in the arid
climates of Greece and southern Italy, could
afford verdure, shade, or water during the in-
tense summer heats. These poems in Greek,
the most beautiM of which are by Theocri-
tus and Moschus, both Sicilians, are generally
composed in hexameter verse, and always in
the Doric dialect, the life of the woods and hills
belonging especially to the Dorian, as did that
of the city, with its theatres, baths, and acad-
emies, to the Ionian race. Sometimes tiiey
relate purely to the topics to which they as-
sume to belong ; sometimes they strike a much
higher strain, as that of Theocritus, which d^
scribes the killing of the Nemean lion by the

Dorio hero, Hercules, or the beautiftd elegj of
Moschus on the death of Bion. The chai^cter-
istics of these Greek idyls, for so they were
called by the writers, are a peculiar racy fresh-
ness, belonging to them alone ; a love of nature,
and an appreciation of its sounds and sights,
such as are found in the writers of no other
countries, unless it be some of the earlier Eng-
lish poets, from the days of Chaucer down to
those of the Elizabethan era, whom the old bu-
colic poets of Greece also strikingly resemUe in
the delicacy of the thoughts ana the riohneas
and elegance of the fancy which gleam out
frt>m the shadows of a rustic and antique dialect
and diction, like glimpses of evening sunshine
kindling the dewy glades into emeralds and dia-
monds, among the rugged and rusty trunks of
the pine foresto, in whose whispered music thej
took delight/ The bucolics of Yurgil, though
charming poems, are, except that strange one,
the 4th, entitled Pollio, and seeming to be par-
aphrased from the prophecies of Isaiah, mere
literal imitations of the Greek idyls ; elegantly
enough done, it is true, but entirely lack-
ing the toudi of nature which gives their
charm to the true Greek bucolics. The only
Latiu writer who had an idea of rural beauty,
or of the charm of rustic life and enjoyment, is
Catullus, who, though his idyls do not profess
directly to be bucolical or pastoral, wrote some
poems, such as his *^ Nuptials of Peleus and
Thetis," his *'Aty8," and his "Sirmis," which
areas distinctly bucolical as if they had been
written under the auspices of Pan, in the glades
of Erymanthus, or among the hill pastures of
Arcadia.

BUD (Gr. (pvTov^ firom ^v», to growj, in bot-
any, an organ which contains within itself the
rudiments of stems, branches, leaves, and flow-
ers. It is found either at the apex of a stem,
or at the axil of a leaf, and is thus either
terminal or lateral. Begarded externally, it is
an ovoidal, conical, or spherical collection of
scales, or rudimentary leaves, arranged one
over the other in an imbricated manner. In
cold climates a downy or resinous coating is
often added to give still further protection
from frost to the organs withiu; but in warm
climates, where this protection is not needed,
the leaves in the imbrication are both less
compact and less numerous. In the centre of
this enclosure is a growing vital point, a particle
of delicate cellular matter, continuous with the
cellular centre of the main stem. A bud is the
first stage in the plan of vegetation, and its de-
velopment constitutes the whole plant. The
embryo of the seed is but a pnmary stem
crowned with a bud. This stem elongates
through its whole length in growing, and r^ses
the budding apex above the surface of the soil,
where its cotyledons expand into leaves. The
plumule, or bud of the embryo, then begins
its growth from the joint of these leaves, and
carries up the second leaf or pair of leaves
to some distance above the first, and thus by
leaf after leaf, or pair after piur, the whole herb

^^^^^^^^^^^^^f

M ^1

^^^H

^^1 iW ' i^i^r^rrtV r

^M tel;

^H fbmi>

^V tbCr I^

^^H

^^1

^^M

^^^^^H *^

^^^■T'

^^^Kr; . 'dt» li Ulii fiiM

^^^^Hl» t ' ■

^^^^■t UM i«V^ r>;

^^^^B 1' rji b^#!i!

^^^^Ktvf*' lUufv i<

^^^^^%rf)P ^ itifiTfiii< '

^H OQl^ulf til lliaCuncltr

^^m ^l||»i]fut:ti>< T uf dia HjWQ

^M wtecntVlAt^T Q^ f«Hnb1baL

^ 1. . 1 .*'J llj J ,, 1

^^^HHtapiun^ of eIlRiii&«^ wdi And i]]« WQidbipr.

^^^^^^HB^^P^llM. ><rr JiiM. ii-T n^LiT? tTi h ri! Ld, ..irw^-'-Vj crir.

'^^ 1

^H V7i» L nf tmi^iojBifri * |}«riocBv

B«l« li ■

^^1 iortl. % tljo ii3tisj r p'jTcrrsjrof n^HTTTiiT, ■

^^M GT i X b£i|tk

■

^^H fciii— v#^Wt«i} "

■

^^M fv^m 4 \ir^^ i>.£iiK}LiM U sLl '' I^

ii^<xiii£jf ' fttr H

■

^^^^■ti

■

^^^^■%'

■

■ 1

^^^^^^^b - ." rtts tltn yf r^t h&nk otT (

: 1

^^^^^^Bl tfilljUlld, ilL^!

■

^^^^^^HK, ' riM Azio«iWt in

^^^v

BUDA

BUDDE

remidn on the defenMve in firont of Oomorn,
and to detaoh a strong corps for the siege of
Bada, where the Anstrians on their retreat had
left a garrison. GOrgey maintains that ^is lat-
ter plan was insisted on hy Eossnth and Elap-
ka ; bat Klapka professes to know nothing of
Kossnth having sent snch an order, and denies
that he himself ever advised this step. From a
comparison of GOrgej's and Elapka's writings
we must, however, confess that there still re-
mains considerable donbt as to who is to be
blamed for the march on Buda, and that the
evidence adduced by Elapka is by no means
condasive. G6rgey also says that his resolu-
tion was farther determined by the total want
of field-gun ammunition and other stores, and
by his own conviction that the army would re-
fuse to pass the frontier. At all events, all
offensive movements were arrested, and GOrgey
marched with 80,000 men to Buda. By this
move the last chance of saving Hungary was
thrown away. The Anstrians were allowed to
recover firom their defeats, to reorganize their
forces, and 6 weeks afterward, when the Bus-
dans appeared on the borders of Hungary,
they agam advanced, 127,000 strong, while 2
reserve corps were still forming. Thus, the
siege of Buda forms the turning point of the
Hungarian war of 1848-'49, and ii there ever
really were treasonable relations between Gdr-
gey and the Anstrians, they must have tak^i
place about this time. — ^The fortress of Buda
was but a faint remnant of that ancient strong-
hold of the Turks, in which they so often h^
repulsed all attacks of the Hungarian and un-
prial armies. The ditches and glacis were
levelled; there remained but the main ram-
parts, a work of considerable height, hoed with
masonry. It formed in its general outline an
oblong square, the sides of which were more
or less irregularly broken so as to admit of a
pretty efficient flanking fire. An intrenchment
of recent construction led down from the east-
em fh)nt to the Danube, and protected the
waterworks supping the fortress with water.
The garrison consisted of 4 battalions, about a
company of sappers, and the necessary allot-
ment of gunners, under Ki^or-Gen. Hentzi, a
brave and resolute officer. Seventy-five guns
were mounted on the ramparts. On May 4^
after having effected the investment of the
place, and aner a short cannonade from heavy
Deld-gnna, GOr^y aummoned the garrison to
surrender. This" being refused, he ordered
Kmety to assail the waterworks; under the pro-
tection of the fire of all disposable guns, his col-
nmn advanced, but the artillery of the intrench-
ment, enflladiDg its line of march, soon drove it
back. It was thus proved that an attack by
main force would never carry the place, and
that an artillery attack was indispensable in
order first to form a practicable breach. But
there were no guns at hand heavier than 12-
ponnders, and even for these the ammunition
was deficient. After some time, however, 4
d4-poundersandl 18-pounder, and subsequently

6 mortars, arriyed from Oomom. A breaching
battery was constructed on a height 500 yards
from the N. W. angle of the rampart, and began
its fire. May 15. rrevious to that day, Hentd
had bombarded the town of Festh without
any provocation, or without the chance of de-
riving any advantage from this proceeding.
On the 16th the breach was opened, thon^
scarcely practicable ; however, GOrgey ordered
the assault for the following night, one column
to assault the breach, 2 others to escalade the
walls, and a 4th, under Kmety, to take the
waterworks. The assault was everywhere na-
suocessfuL The artillery attack was resumed.
While the breaching battery completed its
work, the palisadiugs around the waterworks
were shattered by 12-pounders, and the in-
terior of the place was bombarded. False at-
tacks were made every night to alarm tiie
garrison. Late on the evening of the 20th
another assault was prepared. The 4 columns
and their objects of attack remained the sam&
and before daybreak on the 21st they advancea
on the fortress. After a desperate struggle,
during which Hentzi himself led the defence of
the breach and fell mortally wounded, the
breach was carried by the 47 th Honved bat-
talion, followed by the 84th, while Kmety
stormed the waterworks, and the troops of the
8d army corps under Knezidi escaladed the
walls near the Vienna gate. A severe fight in
the interior of the fortress ensued, but soon the
garrison surrendered. Of 8,500 men, about
1,000 were killed, the rest were made prisoners.
The Hungarians lost 600 men during the siege.

BUDAYOON, or Budaon, a district of Ro-
hilcund, British India, in the N. W. provinceS|
bounded N. by Moradabad. N. E. by Bareily,
8. £. by Shalgehanpoor, 8. oy Furruckabad and
Minpooree, and W. by Alighur and Boolund-
shahur. It lies between lat. 27'' 88' and 28'> 29'
K., long. 78^ 21' and 79'' 85' E. ; area, 2,868 sq.
miles; pop. 1,019,161, of whom 877,509 are
Hindoos. The country is low, level, generally
fertile, and well watered, the Ganges flowing
through its 8. W. part, the Ramgunga through
its E. part, and the rest of the district being
intersected by the Mnhawa, and the Sote or
Yarwuffadar. — ^The chief town of this district,
of the same name, has a population of 21,369.
It was occupied by the mutineers, and a
body of liberated prisoners from Bareily,
June 1, 1857. The Europeans escaped by
flight. Gen. Whitelock marched against the
town and captured it, April 19, 1858, after an
engagement in which the rebels lost 600 men
and 4 guns. On the 30th of the same month
the sepoys were again defeated about 10 miles
from here, by a force under Gen. Pennyfeather.
The rebels were entirely subdued on May 7,
1858,

BUDDE (BUDD^US), Johann Fbakz, a
German theologian, bom at Auklam. June 25.
1667, died at Jena, Nov. 19, 1729. He lectured
upon theolo^ and philosophy successively at
mttenberg, HaUe, and Jena. In his writingSi

Dlfia^Tt Ui

B iimifiut!M «t ^H

^H wM'^

VB>r% JiUii .

./iii.i ,*iuvr.i i,.

^i«lt^tl /7u4^/...,# f..1k.Ultl*.*, I>mJ,f^\J • l!.iV Klltlll ^^^^H

txitni C»v [u^

^^M

111

1^^ hfvM ilksS lij^iiiii^dlik Tttiijii

■ -l-i i*|' P^*1

^^-

«"

P Ir

■

Med

i
I

BUDDHISIC

Among the Boddhistio nadons thcM la a difibiv
ence of aboat 2,000 yean as to the date of hia
death* As the akilfhlly contrived story of 88
Baddhiat patriarchs in nnintemipted sacoession
is DOW exploded, we prefer the Oiogalese date
of 548 B. 0. Brahminism had become intoler-
able. S&kyamoni r^ects the Brahma, the
aothority of the Vedaa, the saierifioes and all
Brahminio rites. Even popular Buddhism in
adopting the Brahminic gods degrades them
below Bnddha, even below the Arhats (arhOf to
worship) or venerable priests, thns raising men
above the gods. Bnddha, a man, and not an
incarnation of a higher b^ng, is self-perfected*
In the Yedaa also, hoUness, piety, meditation,
and wisdom are mightier than all gods. Indian
virtne, more passive than active, oonsista in
the taming of sensuality, of one^s own will, in
sympathy with all beings, in self-saorifice. As
soon as sin is uprooted, infinite knowledge
opens. — Originally, Buddldsm was simple, ethi-
cal, and rational; and hence hostile to mythol-
ogy, sch<4a8tici8in, ceremonies^ and priestcraft.
It was b^evolent and humane in the highest
degree. It improved upon the Sankhya philos-
ophy, and rendered it popular and practical. It
called all men, without any distinction of quality
or position, to its fidd, opening to all the way of
salvation, which it teaches to be attainable by

Surity of conduct. Oastes, however, were not
irectly abolished, but ignored, so that they
exist to this day in Ceylon, the great southern
stronghold of Buddhinn. '^ I am a BhUuhu^^
(beggar), says B&kyamuni, without Brahminic
pride. ^* There is but one law for all: severe
punishment for crime, and great reward for
virtue.*' **My law is one of grace for all; like
heaven affording room for men and women,
for boys and girls, for rich and poor." '^ It is
difficult to be rich and learn the way.'* In a
legend all lamps kindled in honor of Buddha
ceased burning, except cme offered by a poor
woman. An^oda, his favorite disciple, drinks
water drawn from a well by a Ohandali. Sfikya-
muni spoke to the people in parables under
the free sky ; united the scattered anchorets into
communities, orders, and monasterieSi some for
men, some for women ; also allowing persons of
both sexes to be lay members without vowing
chastity and mendicity. The clergy were made
the foundation of Buddhistic society, whereas
in other creeds the laity are the basis on which
the hierarchy reposes. — ^The first period of
Buddhism, from Sakyamuni to its recognition as
a sort of state religion in the f^eat Frftchina or
Frasian empire and beyond Hmdostan, compre-
hends the fixation of the dogmas, its first
schisms, and oscomenic councils. Kfisyapa, the
principal disciple of Sakyamuni, held the 1st
council of 500 Arhats at Ri^agriha, establishing
the Vinaya M^ before ; nt, to conduct) or dis-
cipline basea npon the Stltraa (tAri, to sew,
string) or apophthegms and Simons of Bnddha.
Disorders in the great monastwy at Vais&li
called for a 2d council in that city during the
reign of the king Eilaaoka, a grelat protector

of the fkith, about 100 yean after Bakya^
demise. The history of Buddhism at that
time is enveloped in the greatest darkness.
Among about 18 sects 2 are prominent, viz.,
the Vaibhashika (vaibhdj division) or dilem-
mists, with many subdivisions; the Santrdn-
tika (tutra and antiha^ near), or close olraervera
of the original maxims.-*-Al6xander's invanoo
of the Puzgaub gaveagreat impulse to the niread
of Buddhism. The Nanda dynasty of Magadha in
south Bahar waa overthrown by the miraculoua
Ghandragupta, or Sandrakottos^ who freed the
Pu^jaub from Macedonian mle^ received Megas-
thenes at his court in Fataliputra, and united
aU India under his sceptre. Through his origin
as a Soodra, and throo^ the invasion in ques-
tion, he broke the power of the Brahmins.
His grandson Dharmfisoka, the greatest king of
the Maupa dynas^, extended the empire, and
being miraculously converted, became from a
cruel tyrant the most pious observer and the
most zealous propagator of Buddhism. Under
the name of PiyadOsi (love-gifted, pious) he
published most humane edicts, many of which
are found engraved on columns at Delhi and
Allahabad, and on rocks near Peshawer in
Guzerat, Orissa, &c., not in Sanscrit, the lan-
guage of the Brahmins, but in Prakrit or
popular dialects. These edicts inculcate the
practice of virtaes, order the construction of
roads and hospitals, and even abolish capital
punishment. The 8d great council was held at
the command of Piyadasi, at Pataliputra, where
1,000 Arhats tried to cure the great anarchy
caused in the church by sectarians, and fiedse
and licentious monks. At the conclusion of
the councU, an earthquake is said to have ap-
proved its decrees. The most probable date of
this council is 218 after S^amuni's death
^828 B. 0.) Scarcely any book which passes
for the word of Buddha is prior to this council,
in which the decrees of the preceding councils
were modified; indeed, it may be doubted
whether any such' book reaches even so fax
back. The creed waa introduced into Oeybn
in the first year after the 8d coundl, where it
was preserved for a century merely by oral tra*
dition. In less trustworthy quarters than the
Cingalese there are manifest contradictions;
tiie Nepaulese believing that Bakvamuni wrote
9 books, while the Ohinese derive the canon
from the first council, and the Thibetans say
that the Tripitaka (8 baskets) were written 2
centuries after the 8d council. In preparing
the canon, Sanscrit waa probably used atong
with other vernacular tongnea by the dis*
ciples. Tiie books of Ceylon, Burmah, Siam,
are translated from the P&li, a form of writing
oftheMagadhi, a dialect of the Sanscrit The
code of the 4th council, held in Kismira, is in
Sanscrit Unlike the Brahmins, who thought
barbarians unworthy of their holy religion, the
Sthaviras or elders of the 8d council had sent
out apostles to preach in foreign lands, who
converted tiie if agas (snake worshippers), and
other idolatrous tribes of Oaahmere; the Hima-

■^■1

Mir ^^^^^ ^1

^^^^^^ JL...

u ...... f... It.-. 11.. ..ir*. . , ^^^1

c «

^^^1

in Eh-

■

t: .

P .,

(til

btwn In roek, sumi^ ^^H

maw a

^H lib k.^-.n i i^ifiu^ ooril UmC of

^^H tn' Hmii QUID*

t^'

■ — 1

BUDDHI8M

the flOQl from all pain and illusion. The endives
rotation of metempsychosis is broken, ^pi^
venting the soul from being born again. This is
Attained by purification from even the desire of
ensteuce. These fundamental traits of Buddh-
ism are plainly comprehended in the most ancient
positive dogma, which is contained in the 4 Ary-
&ni Batyunis, the sublime truths attributed to
Sakyamuni in his first sermon in the gazelle-grove
near Benares. These 4 truths relate to pain,
its origin, its annihilation, and the way leacling
to annihilation. ^* Pdn is birth, a^e, dLsease,
death, the meeting with what one dislikes, the
separation from what one loves, the failure to
obtain what one strives for. The causes of pain
are the desires, lusts, passions. Annihilation of
all these causes is the third truth. The way
of annihilation again has 8 parts: right view,
right sense, right speech, right action, right po-
sition, right energy, right memory, and right
meditation.'* Such is the *^ formula of £euu^**
found upon many monuments, as weU as in
many books. The essence of Buddhistic moral-
ity is " to eschew every thing bad, to perform
every thing good, to tame one's thoughts^' — this
is the doctrine of Buddha. As the doctrine of
Mohammed is succinctly called al Idomu
(obedience to the precepts of the apostle), so
the precepts of Sakyamuni are named the
"Way (Gat%),'' or the "Way of the 4 truths,"
To teach is " to turn the wheel of faith." The
genuine law of Buddha S&kyamuni was contained
in these 4 truths, and was altogether moral and

Eractical. All the mythology, sacrifices, penances
ierarchy, scholasticism, mysticism, which we
find connected with it, have been superadded in
progress of time, in different countries, and
under manifold circumstances. This mixed
Buddhism, as depicted in the above-mentioned
Hinayaua, comprehends 8 sections, the Dharm-
ma, Yinaya, and Abhidharmma. We will give an
account of each in its order : I. The Dharmma
(virtue, duty, law, from cZArt, to support), com-
prehends the reveration, the dogmas, and their
precepts; and in a strict sense, cosmology and
cosmography, mythology, metempsvohosis, and
the theory of salvation. Buddhism knows of no
creation. " The worlds are, from the not-be-
ginning, in a continual revolution of arLung and
of perishing." Succession is the only reality ;
every thing else being a process and progress of
becoming in the concatenation of cause and
effect. This rotation has no cause, hence no
beginning. It u not within the domain of the
intellect to know whence all entities come or
whither they go. Four things are immeasur^
able, viz.: the science of Buddha, space, the
number of breathing beings, and that of worlds.
A Buddha alone can conceive the worlds. It is
hehsj to believe the worlds limited or illim-
ited, or neither limited nor illimited. Mount
Sumem is the centre of the world, as deep in
the ocean as it is high above its level. This
ocean is enclosed by a girdle of rocks, within 6
other concentric oceans with similar girdles,
which decrease toward the periphery (the

oceans in breadth, the rooks in height), in the
progression of 84, 42, 21, lOi, 5^, 2f, 1,^ thon-
sands of yojanas (about 6 miles each). The whole
stands again in the genuine ocean known to
men, in which are the 4 islands with 600 islets
each. The southern island, or India, is trian-
gular, with men of trigonio face, living 100
years, 8 yards high ; the eastern, semicironlar,
with men of semilunar face, living 250 years, 8
yards high; the western, circular, with round-
faced men, living 600 years, 16 yards high;
while the northern island is quadrangular, con-
taining the happy square-faced hyperboreans,
who live 1,000 years, and measure 82 yards.
Chakravala {ckahra^ region; vala^ to encom-
pass), or an iron wall of 8,610,850 yojanas, near
which the sea is very shallow, surrounds the
above-desmbed group. Each such universe has
its own sun, moon, stars, and hell. The Mem
is like an index of a di^J, shading each island,
and thus producing night. Above the Mem
rise the heavens in the following order: 1.
D^a loha»y or heaven of the gods, 6 in number^
forming with the earth the Kama dhdtu or lust-
principle. 2. Above it the Bupa dhdtu or
form-principle, with 4 Dhydnaa (divine and
clear contemplations), of which the first has
8 heavens for the Brahmfis and their servants;
the second 8 for the gods of light; the third 8
of purity ; the fourth 7 of merits, exemption from
pam, beauty, &iO, 8. Still higher is Arupa
dhdtUy or formless and colorless principle, with
4 heavens, viz. : one of illimited space, one of
illimited knowledge, one of naught, and the 4th
of neither thinking nor not thinking. Among
the extreme heavens, the lowest m position
and migesty is that of the Catur mahdrdia
idyikoi (guaUwr magnorum regum eomitum\
or kings of demons, a sort of magnates guard-
ing the higher heavens. The 2d, In^ayastrifMcm
{trigitUa trium) belongs to Indra, who is the
highest Buddhist god. The 26th of the Ifdibdr
tanjndfidsanjndyatanam (nee tehit cognotcenti-
um nee nan eognoBcentium\ or the 28th and
highest heaven of alL affords a life of 80,000
great Ealpas or periods from the origin of one
world to the beginning of another. The 4th
Dhyana, referred to above, comprises 1,000
Dhyanas of the 8d kind, or 1,000 millions of
worlds of lust, with 1,000 millions of Ist
Dhyanas, and 6,000,000 of the 2d; the whole
forming one great chiliocosm, or 1,000 worlds.
Again, 1,000 great chiliocosms, as many as
perish at each revolution, form a Buddha-
territory, or system of a single Buddha. With
the northern Buddhists "8,000 great chilio*
oosms " is a stereotyped phrase. Twenty great
chiliocosms, piled one above the other, rest on
alotus-fiower, of which an infinite number
blossom in the " sea of aromas," each bearing
20,000 millions of worlds. The number of these
aromatic seas is again 10 times as great as tiie
number which we would write with a " unit
followed by 4,456 488 zeros," and which would
extend, in common print, in a line of 44,000
feet. The above-named 8 groups of worlds and

^^^^^^^ aozjpmBM ^

^^^^

■

^H hw—

* .4 ^^ _|. 1 . T _ ^--1- _ _.*■ I _ % .1 *i i t-! . t

Tf :., 1 1 ^» - i.*i

.» . J. .. 1 J. .-

^H RT

^^^

^^H n r

^^^L

^H »ii

^^1

^H It

^ mitfeftlc Hill |ii'

" * * — 1 -^

-iLa wurltl U
fibtiiTi^ lit oa

ciosL mwittadip iaafiDW| i^ loiitmi b Its iw^^gtn^ fu iboeH

«6

BUDDmSlC

the iiniTerseisaresnltoftheiDOTality of breath-
ing beings, and destiny is the product of their
merit and guilt. There is no indivisible abso-
lute Brahma, as the germ of nature. The car-
dinal point of the rotations of the worlds lies
in the lowest stations of the 4th Dhyana, viz. :
in the 2 heavens of the gods of great merits
and of the unconscious, which form the line of
demarcation between sin and sinlessneas. Mo-
rality is the prime agent of that whirlwind
which tosses tne universe into being and not-
being. The mode of its action is variously
expldned. — ^Beings migrate, because they are
einful, by having rallen through terrestrial nour-
ishment into avarice, hatred, d^c, in conse-
quence of unatoned guilt in former lives. Buddh-
ism makes no inquiry into Uie origin of individ-
ual entities, Sansara Uany Lat. simul, triy to
go) or mundane life, is the fundamental evil, the
ocean of existence with the 4 poisonous streams :
birth, affe, disease, and death, upon which we are
tossed by the storm of passion ; restless and
without haven. Out of the Sansura there is
naught ; on the one hand Uiere is emptiness,
and on the other Nirvana, or beatific enfran-
chisement. In Sansara there is no truth, no
essence; all is deceit and fallacy. It is only
constant in inconstancy ; in it every form or
determination breaks like a bubble. Birth leads
to death, death to rebirth, youth to old age ;
beauty, healthy wealth, vanish. All ages are
beset by peculiar evils. Death is not the last
of pains, for it leads to birth again. Sin de-
grades to a lower being or leads into hell. Even
godliness does not exempt from rebirth or from
relapse into a bad Gati(w&j) of rebirth. — ^With
regard \o ontology, and psychology, the philo-
sophic schools of Buddhism are at variance, and
especiollv concerning the notions of the souL
and of the Nirvana. In some cases the soul
of man may sink even below the 6 Gatis or
ways of rebirth into t^e vegetable and mineral
way ; although this view is less supported by
the more ancient texts, than by Bnmminic or
Thibetan legends. Elesa (klUa^ to suffer or
inflict pain), or the original sin in a former ex-
istence, is the fountain of all evil. Its conquest
is the last aim of all life and effort. He who
breaks its fetters, '* breaks through the eggshell ''
and escapes the alternation of births. The £le-
sa awakens evU desires, which are chains to
existence ; this clinging to life impels us to a
renewal of existence, and to further wandering
after death; the love of life begets new life.
Both this motive and the so-called destiny by
morality have their root in the Klcsa: the
former acting as impulse or gravitation into
corporeality, the latter, as tiie germ, leading to
the realization of the former. With the death
of the body the soul is not freed from its de-
sires, but wanders by that Gati, which it de-
serves. All good and bad deeds are balanced
against each other like credit and debit in a
commercial account, and determine individual
destiny, not providentidly but in consequence of
the endless chain of causes and effects. Only

a Buddha or an Arehcha (areha, to worship) or
saint can overlook and unravel the thousandfold
knotted threads of the moral chain. Buddha
said once toAnanda: "If a well-doer comes
to hell, the merit of his present life is not yet
matured, but the evil of a former. To be re-
warded before such maturity would be tanta-
mount to being paid before the appointed
term." — ^Freedom is obtained only after the es-
cape from the bonds of desires, and from the
pover of our past deeds. Then only do we see,
with a ^^ divine eye." our numberless births,
risings and fallings, wnich are all due to our ac-
tions. The succession of the existences of a
determinate being, is also a succession of
souls, which are united by Uie law of moral
causality, each one being the product of the
guilt or merit of all its predecessors. When an
individual dies, the body is broken, the soul is
extinguished, leaving merely its deeds with their
consequences, as a germ of a new individuaL
According to the germinating power, determined
by the Karman (morality of actions), the result
is an animal, or a man, or a demozi, or a god.
Identity of souls is thus replaced by their conti-
nuity, in the solution of the moral problem. Each
soul inherits the fruits of the Karman and the
office of liberating and purifying its predecessor.
I ought, therefore, not to act well merelv on
behalf of my own selfish weal, but for the ben-
efit of a new '%" which is to follow after me.
The Buddhistic metempsychosis is, therefore,
rather a metamorphosis of the souL " A lamp
is lighted from another ; the lamps differ, the
second only receiving the light from the first.
So is it also in regard to souk." — ^The final goal
of Buddhistic salvation is the uprooting of sin,
by exhausting existence, by impeding its contin-
uance ; in short, by passing out of the Sansara
into the Nirvana. The signification of the latter
term is a prolific subject of discussion and specu-
lation with the different philosophic schools and
religious sects of Buddhistic Asia. Its interpre-
ters prefer vague definitions, from fear of offend-
ing sectarians. It means the highest enfranchise-
ment; to theists, the absorption of individual lifo
in God; to atheists in naught. The Thibetans
translate it bv Mya-ngan-tos-Jidahrbaj the con-
dLition of one n'eed from pain; eternal salvation,
or freedom from transmigration. Its etyma are :
mr, not; van, to blow, and arrow; its ortho-
graphy is NirtTdna ; its collaterals are : Nirmd-
fiamaataka^ liberation; nirwdpa^ putting out,
as a fire, &c. It is NtbhdJia in Pali, Niban in
Burmese, Niruphan in Siamese, M-pan in Chi-
nese. Weighing all divergencies in its exegcsifl,
it may be safely designated as the definitive
enfranchisement from existence without a new-
birth, the cessation from all misery. It is the Be-
yond of tiie Sansura, its contradiction ; without
space, time, or force. In the 8d council it was
declared to be ineffable and indescribable. Life
being the gummum malumy its annihilation is
the mmmum honum. The common definition
is *^ total annihilation of pains and of the Skan-
dhaa or attributes of existence." But this

BUDDHI8M

iila (to learn), regards the morality of laymen.
The Sramdnas (seDse-tamers) are bound to ob-
serve 250 ordinances. Of these 10 are essen-
tial, viz.: not- to kill, not to steal, to be chaste,
not to lie, not to get drunk, not to eat in the
afternoon, not to sing or dance, &c., to abstain
from ornamental dresses, not to use a large bed,
not to receive precious metals; 5 concern the
respect to be paid to Buddha, to the law, and
to the priesthood. Good conduct, good health,
and little learning sufSce for admisaon to
monkhood; even in very early youth. The
novice is enjoined to eat only the leavings of
laymen^s meals, to wear a soiled garment of
rags, to live near the roots of trees, to use the
urine of cows as medicine, not to boast of
superhuman faculties. Ordination is performed
with many ceremonies, on great festival days.
The vows do not bind for the whole of me.
The clerical dress, which consists of an under-
jacket, a gown reaching to the knees, and fas-
tened by a girdle, and a cloak over the left
shoulder, all yellow, must be kept on, even at
night, and its loss entails that of the priestly
character. Different climates^ sects, and dig-
nities have introduced some modifications ; thus,
Lamaists wear crimson or -violet garments.
Kew and costly materials, cut in pieces, are
sometimes sewed together and sprinkled with
dust, to comply with the letter of the law.
Except apostles and very holy men, all others
shave their heads and beards at the new ^d
full moon. The nails and teeth are kept clean.
The indispensable implements of a Bhikshu or
mendicant are : a great, round, narrow-mouthed
bowl, without a handle, for receiving alms; a
sort of sieve or ewer to filter water ; a staff or
umbrella ; a rosary of 108 beads ; a razor, and
needles. Beside these, he has no property,
and lives altogether on alms, which he collects
without importuning the givers.— Solitude and
wandering about, begging without a fixed resi-
dence, were soon exchanged for residence in
convents, with cells for single monks. Celi-
bacy is strictly eiyoined. The homes of lux-
ury, of nobles, of widows, and infidels, must bo
avoided by the begging monk. The receiving
of alms or of presents is regarded as a &vor to
the giver, who is more benefited than the re-
ceiver. It is a sin to receive more than is need-
ful for one meal, or to spill a part of the gift, or
to separate liquid from solid victuals. Animal
food is forbidden, and even vegetables while
retaining the power of germinating. Although
poverty be a law for single monks, the monas-
teries can receive and possess great wealth,
lands, serfs, &c., for the maintenance of tem-
ples and stupas. Obedience and subordination
are less required than fraternal and peaceftQ
conduct Sins are confessed twice a month, to
an assembly of at least 4 priests. The penalties
are not cruel, and oonmst in repentance, repri-
mand, suspension, or expulsion, according to
the character of the sins. Nuns {BhihshuniS
have to observe the same rules as monks, ana
to be respectM to them; some are allowed to

dwell with their parents or friends. They
also shave their heads, dress in white, and go
about begging, sometimes for the monastery.
The abbots, or heads of monasteries, are chosen
by a meeting of the monks ; but in Siam and
Burmah they are appointed by the king, and
among the Lamas of Thibet they are elected by
the college. The number of monks in a mon-
astery is from 4 to many thousands, especially
in northern countries ; for instance, in the col-
legiate monastery of the Ohutucts, in Mongolia,
there are 80,000. On the whole, the hier^urchy
is more democratic than monarchic. We have
seen that the uninterrupted series of 28 pa-
triarchs, who jure believed to have followed
Buddha Sakyamuni, has no historic foundation.
In Thibet, however, there is a minutely regula-
ted hierarchic and monarchic goyemment un-
der the Dalai-Lama, who is always reborn
after death in another person, and whose ad-
ministration is carried on, during his minority,
by regents. — ^In the beginning Buddhism was
very simple, without a complicated system of
saints ; but in progress of time we find : teach-
ers of theology ; Aryaa (venerables), who know
the 4 truths; men of the 4 pa&s or fruits
those who have attained the stream which floats
them into the Nirvana; others who will re-
turn yet once to life; others who will not re-
turn ; and ArchaU, or the worshipful, who are
perfectly pure, infallible, endowed with mirac-
ulous powers, and see the Nirvana ; still higher
saints, of 8 sorts, according to the 8 passages
or vehicles. The 8 sorts are: those having me
on account of their being pupUs of Sakyamuni ;
Pratyeka Buddhas, or self-saviours, a million
times higher than Archats, comprehending all
causalities ; and Boddhisattvas, a sort of embryo-
nic Buddhas. The 8 passages or vehicles are
represented as being drawn, the little by ante-
lopes, the middle by goats, the great by oxen.
Buddha himself is represented to have been
thrice as great in body as ordinary men, of the
most msdestio beauty of appearance, with 82
great and 80 lesser cSharacters of physical per-
fection, with a protuberance on the head, with
bluish-black locks flowing like a periwig, a tuft
of hair between the brows, &c. His footsoles
are marked with various emblems, sudi as a
wheel with many spokes, an mnbrella, an ele-
phant's trunk, a lotus, mount Meru, the sun,
moon, tiger, mystic crosses. The atmosphere
about him is aromatic, his head is surrounded by
a halo of light. — ^Buddhism favored the laitv bj
admitting them to salvation, and binding them
to the priests. Updmkas and Updmhte (tipck^
before ; cua, to be^ are male and female religions
servants, a sort of half monks and half nuns ;
bound to observe the first 5 of the above 10
precepts, with the following 5 : not to swear or
corse, not to talk nonsense, not to be concupis-
cent or greedy of pleasure, not to be malignant,
to eschew superstition, heresy, and scepticism.
In short, the whole morality is more one of en-
durance, of patience, of submission, and absti-
nence, than of action, of energy^ of enterprise.

rjJi'L

BvuMbtaD

ilQtO^ lit

;^aetei

l.i;>t r

lUfBtf

AfV 0

iul«r

lm|iii»>

•

, -

BUDDHIBM

BUDDING

ments : an umbrella, a horn, crosses en*
twined in a knot of 24 angles, a lotos-flower, a
gold-fish, a ewer, a wheel, an allegory of 6
senses; all symbolic of Buddha, and made of
pasteboard or of metal, varnished, gilt, and
paioted. On the altar are sacrificial shells, aar
cred vessels, a metallic mirror to reflect Buddha's
image, a round plate with 5 protuberances,
representing the Mem and the 4 Dvipas or quar-
ters of the world, and a chalice. Fumigations,
illuminations, music, bell-ringing, and many
other things similar to those used in the west,
attend the rites. Beside the festivals at the
new and full moon, and some others in different
countries, there are 8 great annual festivals.
One is called the lamp-festival at the close of
the Varahciy or rainy season, our autumn;
there is another at the beginning of spring;
one on the day of the conception or birth of
Sukyamuni, whose time varies in different
countries. There is also^ in some parts, a 4th
festival, when the images of Buddha and of the
saints are carried about on wagons ; and in the
north a 5th, is that of the consecration of wa-
ter, rivers, lakes. The Lamas also say masses
for the repose of souls. Synods are held annu-
ally and qninquennially; the latter, in olden
times, on the sacred plain at the confluence of
the Ganges and Jumna, called the great alms-
field. Family-worship takes place at different
stages of life, such as birth^ naming of the
child, hair-cutting at puberty, marriage (though
this is merely a civio and not a religious act),
death, funerals; at all of which the priest is
present, although not necessarily as in Europe.
The priest acts also as a physician, and in the
north as a sorcerer, magician, augur. — Samddhi
(«am, together; dha^ to have hold), or medita-
tion, for the sake of arriving at the extinction
of the selfhood in the manner described above,
is the acme of spiritual life. It consists of 4
degrees: 1, consideration of one thing as dis-
tinct from others, with satisfaction at the dis-
cernment of multifariona things ; this frees one*
from the conditions of sin ; 2, suppression of
that discerning judgment, reduction of the
many things to one ; with pleasure thereat; 3,
indifference in the discernment by judgment;
memory and consciousness yet active, with a
dim feeling of bodily well-bwig ; 4, complete
indifference, purification from all feeling of joy
or pain. Nothing can resist contemplation,
and the Bodhisattvas thereby reach the 28th
heaven. There are theories concerning 108
Samudhis Over the 28th heaven there is
yet Nirodha (ni, before; rudha, to opposeX
or the obstacle, before the Nirvftna can be
attained. Whether this obstacle necessarily
ends life, is not yet ascertained* The fruit
of Samudhi is Ljana^ science or onmiscient
omnipotence, containing the Moktlha or final
liberation. III. The AsanjmhXMMK {abhi^ over,
upon, and DharmmcC} constitutes Budohistio met-
aphysics, and is derived indirectly from Sukya-
muni. The southern Buddhists say : '^Sntras
are for men, Yinaya for priests^ Abhidharmma

forgods." Thereare but 2 souroesof knowledge;
sensual perception and logical deduction. There
are 2 i>rincipal philosophic schools : 1, that oi
the VaibhdtMkoM^ or dilemmists, who mAJntAiw
the necessity of immediate contact with the ob-
ject to be known ; 2, that of the 8autTa7UUDa9j
who insist on perception and on deductioa
therefirom. Some among the former r^ect the
existence of the world. Buddhistic logic is ex-
ceedingly contradictory. Each determination
ends in naught. To be is said also not to be.
A common formula of arguing is this : ^ A
thing is and is not, and it neither is nor is nof
The method is purely dogmatic and dialectic,
proceeding with stereotyped categories and
formulas. Philosophy, cosmology, and theol-
ogy, are an overturning wheel without any
locomotion. In general, the wheel and water-
bubble are the constant emblems and symbda
of Buddhi^o reasoning, which is most develop-
ed in the theory of the ^^ great passage." Matter
is merely a product of morality. Some schools
count 5 elements, with as many qualities and
senses; some have 6, viz.: earth, hard, nose;
water, wet, tongue; tr^ hot, eye; air, movable,
skin ; ether, audible, ear. To these is added the
Mcmas^ or common sensorium, whose objects are
the Dharmma (law, being, nature matter), and
the Vidjndna (science, conscience). Some
systems admit a specifio soul or self (Jwa
Atman^ Vpadhi) ; others deny it. It is need-
less to enter into further details, and we con-
clude with a list of the following chain of 12
causes {Nidhanas; ni, in, on ; dha to poaseas):
1, age and death; caused by 2, birth; oansed
by 8, existence; this by 4, attachment to
things; this by 6^ desire; arising firom 8, sen-
sation ; which presupposes 7, contact ; this 8,
senses; which perceive 9, forms and names
or distinction; caused by 10, conception of
ideas or consciousness; which comes n*om 11,
stirring and action: this being, at last, the
resolt of 12, Avidya (mm and tider^^ or
ignorance. All these illusions must be anni-
hilated before we can sink into the emptiness
of the Nirvana.

BUDDING, a method of propagating trees
and shrubs. It S& now well understood ^lat the
seeds of cultivated fruits^ when planted, seldom
produce trees bearing fruit true to t^eir Idnd.
Young trees, grown from seeds, are called stocks.
They are removed from nursery beds when in
a thrifty state, with well-ripened wood, set in
regular nursery rows in good ground during
early spring, and in smnmer worked with ohoioe
buds from fruit trees. Large trees are frequent-
ly remodelled by the inoculation of some of
the thrifty yonng shoots with buds from more
desirable varieties of fruit than th^r natural
product. A tree is composite in its charac-
ter. Each bud may be made a separate indi>
vidual ; it is a point of vitality, and sends out its
delicate rootlets of woody fibre, burying them
in the rich soU of the branch on which it is
borne, at the first awakening of the dormant
tree in early spring; Just as a seed under

lliii tiil1i.*>iii'« r,i* nm-nviK find rj^i>N*f<T^. T^ (111 !^*^1. T'5mjtlr,tf tf ■'ini T.ti^v*^*** li» r**! n^*\^

LfiA bt^

rIkAV"

:i.*j . . IV].. ,Lij
.r: ff «n I'll ' '^.m * In

lu^iCf Uuk 4)|/y4u4Mi wi«fei4U ^«* kta^iW «tLiyt¥ 4iu» 1^ Umi^ Hye fituUb4«;iiidUi4jt^a^£U'ifij b^gnft^^Mi

BUDS

BX7DGETT

a trae reproBentatlTe of the Tariety from -wMoh
the bud was originally derived. Budding is
Bometimes performed in spring, sometimes in
Jnne, bat these are not desirable periods. —
Anchor bndding is a new method, which has
some advantage over the old process. Instead
of making a cross incision so as to form a T,
cats are made from the apper end of the verti-
cal incision at a alight angle, so that the whole
is shaped like an anchor ^. The bark may be
more readily raised from the stock than in the
old method. Mr. 0. G. Paige, of Washington,
D. 0» recommends this method as the best

BUDI; (BUDiEUS), GunxAXJifE, one of the
most learned Frenchmen of the 16th centary,
bom at Paris in 1467, died Aag. 2^ 1540. He
revived in France the study of the Greek lan*>
gaage, which he had learned under Johannes
Lascaris; was appointed by Frauds I. royal
librarian and master of requests; and it was
chiefly by his counsels that the college of France
was founded.

BUDE LIGETT, the name given to the method
of increasing the light of coal gas, or of argand
burners of lamps, by introducing oTyg&a gas
into the interior of the hollow flame. The pro-
cess was contrived by Mr. Gk>ldsworthy Gumey,
of Oomwall, England, and called Bude light
fh>m the name of his residence. The matermla
consumed to produce light bum to waste in i^e
ordinary hoUow flame ; only the outer portion
of this is exposed to the oxygen of the atmos*
phere, and the gases in the interior are carried
off only partially consumed. By directing a
carrent of oxygen gas upward through the in-
ternal cavity of the flame, all the gases meet
the full supply of this element, and thorough
combinations take place, wiUi greatly increased
vividness of light. This principle has been in-
troduced into the English house of commons,
with the most satis&ctory results as regards
economy and efficiency of the light produced,
and its agreeable effecte. The gas furnished to
the dty of London is of such inferior quality,
that it is found well to purify it and' improve
its illuminating property by passing it through
naphtha. Oxygen is produced by heating black
oxide of manganese in retorts set in a furnace in
a vault of the building; this gas is conveyed
through pipes to a gasometer, from which ex-
tend other pipeS) with a branch leading into the
centre of eacn burner. The house of commons
was formerly illuminated with 240 wax candles,
placed in different parts of the apartment — an
exceedingly ill contnved and expensive arrange-
ment. By the adoption of the Bude light Sie
expense is redaced f , while the light is far
more brilliant and agreeable to the eye, more
nearly resembling daylight than any otJlier artifi-
oial light Even with the extra expense of the
naphtha process, which is probably only neces-
sary in the use of the London ffas, the applica-
tion of the oxygen is not attended wil^ any in-
creased expense, when the additional amount of
light obtamed without extra consumption of
gas is correctly calculated. Iti8aproceflB,how-

ever, that can only be advantageously conducted
upon a large scale. According to the quantity
of oxygen supplied, the color of the light may
be made to vary from the most perfect wlUte to
the red hue.

BUBGELL, EusTACB, an English writer and
friend of Addison, bom in 1685, at St. Thomas,
near Exeter, died in 1786. He assisted Steele
in the composition of the ^ Tatler,*' and Ad-
dison in the ^' Spectator,^' where his con-
tributions are distinguished by the signature
X. Li 1717, Addison obtained for him the
place of comptroller general of the revenue in
Ireland. He lampooned the Llsh viceroy, and
was removed from office, and in 1720 he lost all
that remained of his fortune in the South sea
acheme. Soon after this a legacy of £2,000
was left him in the will of his fnend, Dr. Tin-
dal ; but BudgeU was accused of having interpo-
lated this passage into the will, and the legacy
was annulled. He Anally ended his life by
leaping from a boat into the Thames.

BUDGET (Fr. hougeUe, a bag), an official
statement respecting the annual income and
expenditure of a nation. In the parliamentary
oarlance of England the term refers to the
financial statement of the chancellor of the
exchequer. As a matter of mere amount,
the greatest budget ever proposed was that pro-
viding for the British expenditure during the
late Russian war, at the rate of $425,000,000
per annum.

BUDGETT. Sahuxl, an English merchant, as
eminent for piety as for business talent, born at
Wrington, July 27, 1794, died in Bristol, April
29, 1851. The son of a trader, he received little
education at school, but began early to receive
in his father's store lessons for hb future prac-
tice. At 7 years of age he removed with his
parents to Kingswood, and 2 years after to
Ooleford, where he began to display his mer-
cantile predilections, and, with a habit of mind
which always remained to him of deducing
general principles from particular facts, inferred
n*om an incident that self-interest is the
mainspring of human actions, and determined
in all his future dealings to be able to present
a case which should convince men that their
interest lay in purchasing from him. He began
his apprenticeship in a commercial house in
1809, and at the age of 22 years went into part-
nership with his elder brother at Kingswood
Hill. The energy of the new merchants, and
the fact that their business was conducted on
the system of cash payments, gave them rapid
and sure success, and they soon had several
establishments in Bristol, dependent upon the
central one at Kingswood Hill, and were among
the most extensive general merchants in the
western part of England. In 1685 the elder
brother retired from the firm, and the business
was prosperously continued by Samuel Budgett
till his death. He was an earnest member of
the Wesleyan church, and was distinguished for
his unvarying religious character, and for his
admirable and Chnstian management of the

■

OnDH^fTt^S

ItrrrvA vr-rA f| ^^M

■

1&...

fn»«i

In KLi . ju.}m.

Tlit'tULili fLi A TniiiJ.i'i *U<\ l\ ' i^< < Mwjri-^' ?«% ^^^1

^^1

^^H

^^B

1X1

^^^1

'h:

^^H

wi-UW .

JWX iti ^tUI*»4^ nJ ^^^^

tKti^i'

^^H

&'.-

^^^H

^^^1

III

J/'

■

iiiMi4i£ l^it l;U*U» wo* ]«4»i*ll^]i- g'i ^^1

■

r„i

^^1

^^■_

^^^H

. hixctkt IB ^H

^^1

ii.

■

r,,

■

!•:

M«^M> ^H

< TTt^ ^ ' M

'v;LL Lii-

T. :

' '■ r..rui I r ..■

^^1

I' ■

lilrt. dkL.

. IT mo l|6XlCw <

.Vdcrisiini^at:'

^^1

f,L-.t;..n4, 1,. _, ..

■

^^f

'!:<

' teike Iw bcij 4^* v;

r^t-}b^^^. llifi ll,

■

• nCW.Jn^..

;- I'ra**'-

I Tl

>.T(i.....i v.jij ?'-'iv., n, tn #ri I!"!" ^^H

■

i',i^i3ottiii<litif^ Hn a£.«if%i- ^ 1

i' •!„

..»♦ 1.,-, .1,,M,r.. .-..,r..T.. .y , 1 ■

■

1, ■

■■

„. . ..,.„„.., J

BI7ENA VISTA

tage of its nmnerical snperioritj. Qen. Ta^of
returned a short answer to a summons to but*
render, his line of battle having been already
formed. A strong battery was posted on the
road at Angostnra, supported by 8 regiments on
the crests of the nearest ridges. One regiment,
with 2 guns, was thrown westward across the
streamlet, to prevent any flanking movement of
the enemy in that quarter. Two regiments of skir-
mishers occupied the extreme left, near the base
of the eastern mountaina. One regiment with 8
guns was advanced upon the plateau ; and in the
rear of the plateau the remaining foive, consist-
ing of 2 regmients, 2 squadrons of dragoons, and
4 guns, was kept in reserve. The battle began
by a shell from a Mexican howitzer, and a
rapid attack by the light troops of Ampndia
upon the American skirmishers on ^e left, with
a view of gaming the eastern heights. This
was the only engagement during the idtemoon ;
and at night Ampudia had succeed in posting
himself upon the summit of the ridge, while
the American regiments were withdrawn to
the plain. Meantime Gen. Minon, with a
strong brigade of cavalry, having passed to
the rear, Gen. Taylor regarded Saltillo as
endangered, and repaired to that place dur-
ing the night to complete his arrangements
for its defence. The orders of Mifion, how-
ever, were only to fidl upon the Americans
in their retreat, which Santa Anna was confi-
dent of forcing the next day. At dawn of day
the battle recommenced, by an attempt of Am-
pudia to push the advantage which he had al-
ready gained. Both the American and Mexi-
can detachments on the left had been reinforc-
ed ; and after a brief interchange of musketry
the Mexican skirmishers moved across the side
of the mountain to gain the American left and
rear, but were considerably harassed by a few
shells thrown from a great distance from an
advanced American position on the plateau.
Santa Anna soon after organized a ge^ral at-
tack in 8 powerfol columns, intending for the
forces of Ampudia to sweep down m>m the
mountain at the some time. Paoheco, at the
head of one column, ascended the plateau
against 2 regiments of volunteers, who, gaUed
at the same time by a flank fire from a heavy
battery, after a stout resistance broke and fied.
The whole fire of Pacheco's column and the Mexi-
can battery was then concentrated upon an
American battery of 8 guns, which had to be with-
drawn with the loss of 1 gun after every man
and horse at that piece had beenkilled or disabled,
and when the other pieces were in not much bet-
ter condition. Pacheco's masses now effected a
junction with Lombardini^s corps, whidi had ad-
vanced at the base of the eastern mountains, and
with Ampudia*s light division, which had pressed
down from the slope, and their combinedstrength
completely turned the American position, and put
the whole American force on the left to flight.
Meantime Mora y Yilkmil hod led the third
column of attack against Angostura, but the
American battery opened upon it with sodh ter-

rific rapdity and eflfect, that the whole i
immediately thrown into confusion and fled in a
rout. Pacheco attempted in vain to drive the
small American force completely from the pla*
teau, being successfully resisted by a force of
volunteer infantry, a squadron of dragoons, and
6 pieces of the regular artillery. The contest at
this point formed no small part of the battle*
Obliged to desist from their attempt to come
down the plateau, the Mexicans under the protec-
tion of a powerful battery began to sweep around
the base of the mountain to the American rear.
In this posture of the battle Gen. Taylor ar-
rived on the fleld from Saltillo, the chief com-
mand having been held in bis absence by Gen.
Wool. On the left, 4 American regiments were
in full retreat, and the whole Mexican force in
that quarter was advancing. Gen. Taylor im-
mediately took up his position on the plateau,
and advanced 2 regiments of infantry, well*
supported by artillery and dragoons, directly in
face of the Mexicans. Without regarding the
overwhelming odds against them, the companies
of gallant riflemen advanced, finng with great
effect into the Mexican masses. They passed
with a shout the last ravine intervening be-
tween them and the enemy, reappeared in an
instant close in front of the hostile lines, and
poured in tiieir shot with additional rapidity
till the enemy rolled back in confusion upon
the supporting forces. Meantime the Mexican
cavalry, persisting in its attempt to gain the
American rear, had skirted the mountains even
to the vicinity of Buena Vista. It was checked
by the American dragoons, but the latter being
called away to operate on the plateau, it
hastily returned and attacked 2 unsupported
American regiments, and in the furious m^6e
which succeeded, Ool. Tell was killed. The
enemy escaped in season to avoid the dragoons,
which had a second time appeared. At the
same time a new attack made upon the Ameri-
can front by a fresh brigade of Mexican cavalry
was repulsed. Gen. Taylor now ordered a com-
bined attack upon the enemy's right flank near
the eastern side of the valley, which was
inmiediately carried into efiect. The canno&*
ade and musketry were directed with so much
skill and vigor that the routed masses of the
enemy were driven back upon the mountain*
The route to the Mexican rear was in danger of
being intercepted, and the destruction of the
whole Mexican body in this quarter, of more
than 5,000 men, seemed impending, when a
white flag was borne from Gen. Taylor's po-
ntion, and orders were given to stop firing.
Three Mexican officers having approached the
American lines for the apparent purpose of
conference, Gen. Taylor sent an American
officer to communicate with Santa Anno.
Yet the only result of this manoeuvre was,
that it enabled the endangered Mexicans on the
left to make good their escape to the south of
the plateau. The conference proved delusive,
and the Mexican forces now prepared to make
a final struggle for the victoiy in a single col-

^^^^F nVESSA riBlA

mnsm avues

^H axnn "-if ilJ^i^t. 1^-1 bi n.n. P^iTift, Th-* ^lirfu

fftin^ »^rt f^r^ nf n p^r^kTiTf rfr^Tif

^^^H

^1 ^^

t 1

»!„„„..,......,..

lAff u^ ilifilr irt VMI0 tfap <*ilvtfiobiff

^^^

ttkniki aidr« jhi^ ih

^^H

■

■ ^

^^1

■ ^^'

^^1

H ''-

.i,^i_

■ ^

^^^1

^ Usfl »*

^^H

iBAr&l

^^H

ia«iui)-

^^^1

sUaifk

^^M

■

^B f]h.

^^H

^H a( 4UlijLr«iUl tli^iA ik. .^d tyiV4» Lc.*^

^^H

^m \/m imn «fi4 Afiiti n t iMrrolo 4)«iQ4imi

^^M

^H trf f

^^H

^m J MmlL^WMt ^IMltt Af

^^H

■ C :. . .AfirUfio,

0'>K1 J y .J 1 1 1

^^1

^H l^^: i woiiira

Wred; Oi*

^^H

^^"^ IWUfiiOA, f .-jiLi i.

* . .1 N ^ 1^

^^M

isiiifil fart, Ip

^^M

^^ #m»< ><**"'> --rR»iiuU -■; .^^ .. .-.,^.^-. .. .._,,*-

.,r.,.,., -. „^,-j jj..>..^*. »^1 »4,, ^^ ~.^ .

^^^B

iiiaiiJa^'t^ t>f UiU.'d tj'O luH. naoli^ i

H '-'

tl«d iiisi»^

^^M

■ 11'

•■rTT^Ov T

^^H

■ ^

■ P'

f^Ji.

^^^1

^H €TIA, pe Bo? Btrr^A^rgyrumA^

^^M

^B 1 anutribo

^^^^

H 1 LoeAfifi*.

M'l

^^H

^^^^»i i^tnucl 1:

^^H

^^^■pj SjnivlKr

^^^1

^^^^■■b — :iliJ u

!•'

^^^M

rmml , f om«f^-

f.|.,

^^H

m^ - ;v

%i-

^^^1

Lii Atpmt^

flL

^^1

II F- ^ ftlilLi^ir^l

li-'

^^^M

■ n,

^^H

H '"

^^^1

,E?w '

^^H

■ ^

W-(^4 ill -

■ f

iMWfi^aeiK

^^^

I l«k» >Jvei.liir^r Cf LLa IILL Cvllil^, K^'laj lui-

Uii: lihLa U^efii arc teauj ^Ui^^ r.ii;.rt.I

^^H

BUENOS AYBES

the state, wMdh, in the rainj Mason, beoome
lakes, but daring the snmmer fonn extennve salt
marshes. The climate in the northern part is
mild and pleasant, the temperatare varying from
dO^toQO^'F.intheyear. Tropical fruits flonrish
to some extent in the vicinity of the city of Bne-
n OS Ayres: In the south it is colder, and ice and
snow occasionally appear ; but the country gen-
erally is very healthy, and the air pure and dry.
The S. W. wind is usually accompanied with
thunder, and during its prevalence frequent hur-
ricanes occur. The vast pampas furnish abun-
dant and luxurious herbage for immense herds
of wild horses and cattle, the skins, hides,
horns, hdur, tallow, and beef of which form
the chief articles of foreign export of the state.
Salt is produced at some of the salines, and the
city of Buenos Ayres was for many years sup-
plied from the lake of TJrre Lauquen, distant
450 miles. Since the restrictions have been
removed firom commerce, it has been found
cheaper to import it The coxmtry produces
saltpetre, clay, iron, cotton, rice, grain, sugar,
tobacco, flax, hemp, wool, ipecacuanha, fruit,
wine. Among the wild animals are jaguars,
martens, foxes, tapirs, &c. liamas, horses, cat-
tle; sheep (vicufla), are domesticated. Serpents
(including many poisonous species) abound.
The most remarkable birds, are the 4mu, the
black-necked swan, &c. In 1856 the number
of cattle was 4,502,090, of horses 2,196,663,
and of sheep Y,966,Y25. — Buenos Ayres
shook off the Spanish yoke in 1810, and
in connection with the adjacent states formed
a confederation, known as the republic of La
Plata, or the Argentine republic. But the am-
bition of the state of Buenos Ayres to secure
to itself the lion's share of the advantages of a
confederation, led to repeated changes, and the
states were sometimes isolated and independent
republics, or rather anarchies ; at other times
confederates like the United States ; at others
still, merely in a state of alliance. During
the administration of Rosas (1835-^52) they
were virtually allied, though not without occar
sional rebellions, and his efforts were directed to
the aggrandizement of the state and city of Bue-
nos Ayres, at the expense of the other states and
countries of the comederation. The final sepa-
ration from the Argentine confederation took
place in 1853. A new constitution was framed
in Sept. 1854, liberal in its general tendencies, es-
tablishing the freedom of the press and the inde-
pendence of the Judiciary. (See Abgentote Con-
7EDEBATI0N.) The predominant religion is Ro-
man Catholic, but all creeds are tolerated. The
national independence of Buenos Ayres was rec-
ognized by several countries in 1655, most of
which, however, have since withdrawn this
recognition, and now maintain diplomatic rela-
tions only with the Argentine confederation.
Dr. Valentin Alsina has been governor of Bue-
nos Ayres since 1657. Receipts in 1855, $3,000,-
000 ; in 1856, $3,400,000. Expenditures in 1854,
$2,500,000. Public debt, with interest, domes-
tic, $925,000; English loan (£1,750,000), $8,-

750,000; in paper money, without interest, $5f*
250,000; total, $14,925,000. Standing army,
6,870 men. Naval force, 3 steamers, 2 corvettes^
and 4 inferior boats. Pop. of Buenos Ayres in
1856: Northern district, 53,844; western di»-
trict, 66,134; southern district 82,877; rural
pop. 202^355 ; pop. of the city oi Buenos Ayres,
101,000; total in 1856, 303,855, of whom not
far from 40,000 are Europeans, and a larae pro-
portion of the others Indians and mixed racea.
The population, in round numbers, is estimated
by some authorities at 400,000. Our estimatei,
however, which is based upon the census of
Oct. 1855, is probably the most correct.

BUENOS AYRES (Ciudad de Numtra
Seflara^ Ciudad de la Trinidad), capital of
the above-described state, situated on the 8.
W. shore of the estuary called the Rio de la
Plata, about 150 miles frt>m its month. The
estuary is here about 36 miles wide. Lat 84''
35' S., long. 58** 22' W. The plan of the city is
regular, and the streets are laid out in squares of
about 500 feet, and paved with granite brought
from the island of Martin Grarcia,oppo6ite the city.
The houses of the native inhabitants are buUt
of brick, and are usually of only a single story
in height, but enclose a court after the Spani^
fashion. Little or no wood is used in the con*
struction of these houses. The dwellings of
the foreign residents are usually three stories in
height, and resemble similar residences in thia
country. The principal public square, the Plaza
del 25 de Mayo, has a monument erected in
honor of South American independence ; it is
adorned with fountains, and surrounded by fine
public buildings, among which are ^e cathedral,
one of the largest and richest in South America,
the bishop^s palace, the hall of justice, the polioe
office, &c. Beside the Cathedral there are 15
other Catholic churches, and 8 Protestant, viz. :
an Episcopal, a Presbyterian, and a Methodist,
intended for foreigners. There are 2 monasteries
and 2 nunneries. There are 2 coHeges, a female
college attached to the church of our Lady of
Mercy, and a college for young men, attached to
the church of St. Francis, and which might, with
propriety, be called a university, since it in-
cludes also a department of naturtd history,
with a very fine museum, an observatory, a
normal school, a mathematical school, and a
school of painting and drawing ; its library
contains over 30,000 volumes. There are several
literary and scientific societies in the dty,
among which may be named a philosophical, a
mathematical, and a medical society ; an asso-
ciation of jurisprudence, and an agricultural
society; that of the friends of the natural
sciences is the most important. There are sev-
eral journals published at Buenos Ayres which
are conducted with ability, but with a strong
partisan bias. One of them. La Prensa, gives
occasionally interesting accounts of the new
settlers, mainlv from Germany and Switzerland,
to many of whom the great nvers of the Argen-
tine states offer greater attractions than the in-
accessible inland districts of Brazil. The chari-

BUENOS ATRES

tabic institntions are, ft general hospital, and a
foundling hospitaL The fort is an imposing
strnctnre, and contains most of the military
offices. There is also in the city a military
depot, called tht Retiro, capable of receiving
8,000 soldiers. The hall of representatives,
built in imitation of the capitol at Washington,
and the custom house, are the only other publio
buildings particularly worthy of notice. — ^Tho
commerce of Buenos Ay res is rendered diffi-
cult by the shallowness of the Plata in the
vicinity of the city, and the want of a good
and commodious harbor. Vessels drawing
more than 12 feet of water cannot como
nearer than 6 or 7 miles, and their cargoes
must be brought to the city on bullock
carts, or by lighters. The south-eastern winds
endanger vessels in the harbor, by the violent
surf which they create. The inner harbor is
shoal, and only largo enough to accommodate
the coasting trade. Yet with all those draw-
backs the commerce of Buenos Ayres, as the
principal port of entry for the states of the
Argentine confederation as well as for Paraguay,
is large and constantly increasing. The inland
trade carried on between Buenos Ayres and Pern
and Chili, is very considerable. The finest tobac-
co, sugar, wax, Paraguay tea, &c., are brought
from the interior, and the foreign trade is daily
becoming of greater magnitude. The tonnage
which entered the port in 18-t3 was 105,238,
and that which cleared, 84,117. In 1849 the
clearances were 110,984 tons, of which 22,469,
or i, were for the United States. Vessels en-
tered in 1865, 619; in 1856, 607; cleared in

1855, 832 with freight, and 260 in ballast; in

1856, 858 with freight, and 193 in ballast. Wo
subjoin also a table of the trade of 1855 with
the different parts of the world :

ImporUfrtym

Great Britain |4,«^00,W)0

France 2,7t>0.<KM)

Northern Europe 91^.000

Gibraltar, tlie Muditerrauean, and Spain. . C4">,*MX)

United States 1.0>0.0<)0

Brazil and other countries 1,1SS,000

Total, $11,394,000

Exports to

Great Britain $3,239,454

rnit<?d States 8,2W.'^44

France 2,1S1.*>G2

Bcl^um 1,S10,716

8i>riin 1,85>.133

Cuba &2S,:3S4

Italy 9^7.152

Brazil 9i5.( m

Chili 293.524

Hamburg 22^707

Holland 115,237

Other countriei 52,914

Total, $15,260,9S6

Exports from Buenos Ayres and Uruguay to
Great Britain :

From Jan. 1, to May 1 , 1 fiST. S«ixm ixriod, 1858.

Hides, number 25.453 4,915

Tallow, cwt 8,150 1,294

Imports from Great Britain into Buenos Ayres :

January 1 to Aprill,lS57 $1,400,000

t* *' li58 1,375,000

Export!! from Bnenos Arres and Arsfpnllno re-
public (through Bucuua Ayres) to France in
1S57... $2.<»9n,.';%3

Imports from Franco to Buenoa Ayres, dec, 1S57. b,695,0dl

In 1854, owing to the anarchical condition of the
country, tlie clearances for the United States
were only 12,914 tons, and the entries from
that country, 10,356. In 1857, with a moro
quiet and peaceful condition,trade had revived,
and the commercial intercourse with the United
States, which had formerly been carried on
mostly in foreign bottoms, was almost entirely
conducted in American vessels. The tonnage
of that year, entered at the port from the United
States, was 28,235, while that which cleared
for the United States was 16,872, sliowing an
increase of tonnage entered from the United
States of more than i in 3 years. The imports
of Buenos Ayres from the United States tho
same year were $1,313,807, while its exports to
this country were $2,784,473. She received
from us lumber, bacon, lard, flour and other
breadstuff's, rice, sugar, hops, spirituous liquors,
spirits of turpentine, household furniture, car-
riages, boots and shoes, nails, ironware, drugs,
cotton goods, paints, tea, spices, matting, cord-
age, twine, and a trifling amount of manufac-
tured tobacco. Uer exportawere almost en-
tirely confined to the raw materials of com-
merce, as her manufactures consist only of tho
most simple articles. The following table ex-
hibits the principal exports to tho United States
in 1857, with the value of each :

Specie, gold

Copper and tin, in piss and bars
Leather tanned and dressed,

doz. skins

Hatters' furs

Kaw hides and skin*.

Hair unmanufactured

Wool pound*

Nutnnojjs, **

Tallow, »*

RatTi, «

UnmanaCactured articlea.

Total |2,7S:^,i3:W

— ^The city is poorly supplied with water and
fuel ; the wells are all brackish, and there are
few or no publio cisterns ; the river water is
good, but is carried around in butts, and sold at a
very high price. The wealthier citizens have
tanks and cisterns on their premises, in which
they collect rain water. The fuel is coal
brought as ballast in English vessels, and the re-
fuse wood from the fruit plantations established
on the islands in the river, by the Jesuits, in the
16th century. From these plantations, covering
over 20 miles of surface, the city is also supplied
withfmits, and particularly oranges, peaches, and
lemons. The procuring fruit and fuel from these
sources is not unattended with danger, as the
plantations are infested with panthers. The en-
virons of the city are very beautiful, being occu-
pied mostly by the country seats of the wealthy
inhabitants. The climate is dry and bracing,
and very healthy. Living is very cheap. Meats
are especially low, the best beef being sold at

BUFF

BUFFALO

from 2 to 8 cents per xxmnd. — ^The city dates
from 1680, at vrhich time it was fomided by
Don Juxm de Graray. In 1776 it was made the
seat of the viceroyalty, and in 1778 the port
was partially thrown open by the Spaniiurds.
The repeated reverses it has met with in the
last 20 years have materially interfered with its
growtih and prosperity, rendering property
insecure, and almost annihilating its commerce ;
bat since 1852, its trade has greatly revived,
and its population increased. Population in
1856, 101,000, and since then variously esti-
mated from 100,000 to about 150,000 ; owing to
the fluctuation of the foreign population, the
French and English alone^ numbering not less
than about 25,000.

BUFF, a mixed color, something between
pale pink and pale yellow. It was adopted by
the £nglish whig party, in combination with
blue, as their distinctive color; and, possibly in
oon£«queuce of that circumstance, the whig
party having been opposed throughout to all
the measures of government which led to the
American revolution, was chosen as the na-
tional uniform of the United States at the
commencement of the revolutionary war. —
BxTFF LsATHEB, ft strong soft preparation of
ball's or elk's hide, which was worn under the
mail armor of the middle ages, to deaden the
effect of a blow, which might drive in the
pliable rings, so as to inflict a painful contusion.
As armor fell into disuse, bnff coats, which, if
of the best quality, would turn a broadsword
cut, and even a pistol ball, were often worn in
lieu of complete steel, either with or without
a cuirass and gorget of metal. The buff coats
of the time of the commonwealth were often
lined with white or tawny satin, and splen-
didly laced with gold or silver. The name is, of
course, derived from its color. Modem buff
leather, of which soldiers' crossbelts and other
accoutrements are ordinarily made, is for the
mostpart made of common buckskin.

BUFFALO, the name of 2 species of the
true oxen, as distinguished from the bisons, to
which they bear at best but a faint resemblance,
though they are included with them in the genus
hos (Linn.) The general characteristics of the
buffalo are conical horns, inclining successively
outward, downward, backward, upward, and
forward, with their tips on a plane above and a
little in front of the top of the forehead ; fore-
head convex, and longer than broad; the inter-
maxillary bones elongate, shelving back, and giv-
ing prominence to the nasal bone. This animal
must on no account be confounded with the
American bison (hot Amerieantu\ which is al-
most universally called the buffalo, as its fhrry
hides, prepared by the Indians, are called buffalo
robes. The 2 species of the true buffalo are the
hoi hubalit (Linn.) of India, and the bo$ Caffer
(Sparm.) of South Africa. They are called, on
both continents, simply the buffalo, but are
separated zoologically as the Indian and Cape
buffalo. In India, the buffiilo is again subdi-
Tided into the tame and the wili^ althouf^

they are both of the same species. Ifir. B. H.
Hodgson, who has done much for the zoology
of British India, thus speaks of them: **The
bhainsa, or tame buffalo, is universal in India.
The arna, or wild buffalo^ inh Aits the margins
rather than the interior of prinuBvid forests.
They never ascend the mountains, and adhere,
like the rhinoceros, to the most swampy sites of
the districts they inhabit. There is no animal
upon which ages of domesticity have made
so small an impression as upon the bufl^o, the
tame being stm most dearly referable to the
wild ones, frequenting all the great swampy
jungles of India. The arna ruts in autumn,
gestating ten months, and produces one or
two young in summer. It lives In large herds,
but in the season of love the most lusty males
lead off and appropriate several females, with
which they form small herds for the time.
The wild buffalo is fully i larger than the larg-
est tame breeds, measuring lOj feet from snout
to vent, and 6 or 6^ feet high at the shoulders,
and is of such power and vigor as by his charge
frequently to prostrate a well-sized elephant.
It is remarkable for the uniform shortness of
the tail, which does not extend lower than the
hock, for the tufts which cover the foiehead
and knees, and lastlv for the great size of its
horns. They are uniformly in h^h condition,
so unlike the leanness and angularity of Oie
domestio buffalo even at its best." The arna
variety is known to naturalists as the hos ami.
Its horns, which grow out horizontally from ei-
ther side of a flattened frontal bone, rise in a reg-
ular crescent upward and backward until near
the point, when the tips, which are nearly
equidistant with the bases, turn slightly for-
ward. The bases of the horns, which are flat-
tened and deeply corrugated in irregular rings
through f of their length, and smooth only
at the points, often measure each upward of
18 inches in circumference, while their length,
taken along the outer curve, has been known
to exceed 5 feet in either horn, and to in-
clude a distance of 10 feet from tip to tip.
In no respect does it differ from the bison
more than in its covering, which consists of
smooth, short, thin hair, resembling the bris-
tles of a hog more than the coat of the ox
family. It is much addicted to wtdlowing in
the mud, is a fierce and vindictive animal, and
in its native Jungles is more than a match for
the Bengal tiger, which never dares to attack
it unprovoked. This buffalo was introduced
into Egypt, Greece, and Italy during the middle
ages. Its great strength makes it peculiarly
adapted for draught ; its milk is good, its skin
highly valued, but its flesh is much inferior to
that of the ox. It is a singular fact that it
prefers marshy and even mtdarious places and
coarse plants.— The Caffer or Cape buffalo of
Africa has very large, black horns, placed
dose together and flattened at the base,
broad, rough, and sinuously ringed, cover-
ing the whole front with a sort of homy
helmet, with a smooth tip curved upwaM and

BUFFALO

inward. Its horns are more horizontal in posi"
tioa than those of the arna) which are some-
timcs elevated 2 feet ahove the frontal hone.
It has pendant ears and dewkp, skin with
dark, stiff hairs ahoat an inch long, and though
of massive proportions and extremely ferocious,
has neither the height nor the activity of its
Indian congener. Neither species have either
hump or mane, which at once distinguishes
them from the hisons. The Cape huffalo is a
native of all South Africa; it congregates in
immense herds, hut the old hulls, which he-
come quite gray and are often almost destitute of
hair, sometimes adopt solitary hahits, when they
grow very morose and savage, attacking both
men and animals In mere wantonness, and
when killed, trampling and kneeling on the
carcasses and crushing them with their massy
horns and frontlets, until every bone is broken.
Gordon Gumming, in his South African wan-
derings, gives many accounts of this powerful
aud savage brute, which has not, however, the
power of defending himself against the lion, as
his Indian relative has against the tiger, but,
on the contrary, often falls a prey to him by
open attack. This animal also delights to wal-
low in the mire, like a hog, and when heated
by hunting, plunges into the first water-pool, in
which he wholly submerges himself, allowing
only the extremity of his muzzle to protrude
among the water plants and floating leaves of
the nymphaeaB. All travellers dwell on the loud
bellow which he utters in the death agony.—
There is an Indian wild bull (bos gaurus\ little
known, which appears to be intermediate be-
tween the bison and buffalo. General Hard-
wicke and Captain Rogers describe it as a genu-
ine bull, neither bison nor buffalo; but Major
"W' alter Campbell, the author of the " Old Forest
Ranger," who gives a full description of this
rare animal, which he calls the jungle rool^ha^
makes it clearly a bison. From the character
of it« horns, which resemble those of the Cape
buffilo in form, though they have not the
horny helmet over the brow, and of its hump,
supported by hump-ribs, and of its mane, it is
presumed that, on further investigation, it will
be elevated into a distinct genus. (See Bison.)
BUFFiVLO, a city and the county seat of Erie
CO., N. Y., situated at the eastern end of Lake
Erie, and at the head of Niagara river, lat. 42°
53' N., long. 78^ 65' W. It was founded by
the Holland Land company in 1801, and dur-
ing the war between the United States and
England, in 1814, was burned by a force of In-
dians and British. The city was laid out by Jo-
seph Ellicott, upon a plan which has been great-
ly admired. The streets are wide and straight ;
tliey generally cross each other at right angles.
A few of the side streets, however, enter the
principal avenue of the town, Main street, at an
angle of 45°. These latter streets, crossing the
otiiers at their points of intersection, form a
large number of places or squares, give variety
to the outlines of the city, and destroy the
monotony which would have been produced by

1<VW $S5,4<*8,74S

ISOr 37,4S7,0ai

a rigid adherence to a rectangular plan. The
city is well paved, is lighted with gas, and is
supplied with water from the Niagara river.
The site is a plain, which, from a point about
2 miles distant from the lake, slopes gently to
the water's edge. The ui)lands command an
extensive pros[>ect of the lake and river, and
afibrd beautiful situations for suburban resi-
dences. The city has no park, but there are
several small public squares. Buffalo is an in-
stance of the rapid growth so often seen in
American towns. In 1814 it was a hamlet of
200 houses. The following table shows the
increase in population from the year 1810 :

1910 l,.'iOSIl«WO 1S,213 ISM T4,214

1820 2.'»95 1 <VS 84.C)G lb5S (oat'd) .90,000

1630 8,653 I 1S50 4S),7W

The increase in taxable property during 5 years
has been as follows : •*

1858 |22,S87,?00

\^'A 29.1»7«,.'><)9

1855 83,<m,711

Total debt, Dec. 81, 1S6T . . . .' f 704,SW 88

Besources of the city at tho same period 75,200 57

Buffalo was incorporated by act of the legis-
lature in 1832. It is divided into 18 wards,
each of which is represented in tho common
council by 2 aldermen. The legislative powers
are vested in one body, the common council.
The mayor is the chief executive oflBcer. Ho
has the veto power, and measures to which ho
refuses his assent must receive a § vote in the
council in order to be passed. He is the head
of the police ; his appointments must receive
the approval of tho council, but he has, in
certain cases, a summary power of removal.
Those departments of the executive which are
connected with the finances, schools, public
works, and law, are independent bureaus, and
the officers are elected by the people. AJl of
these officials hold their places for 2 years.
The fire department is composed of 13 engine,
8 hose, and 2 hook and ladder companies. Tho
chief engineer is elected by the members of the
department, subject to the approval of tho
common council. — For educational purposes
the city is divided into 32 districts, in each of
which there is a school. All children wlio re-
side in the district may attend without charge.
In addition there is a school for colored chil-
dren, and a free academy called the centnd
school, where instruction is given in more ad-
vanced studies. Candidates from the district
schools are admitted into tho central school,
after being subjected to a thorough examina-
tion. Two hundred and twelve teachers aro
employed in these schools. In 1856 they wero
attended by 19,093 pupils, tho average daily
attendance being 7,878. An officer called tho
superintendent of schools is at the head of this
department, who appoints the teachers. This
educational establishment is in every respect
most admirable, and the cost of maintaining it,
during 1858, is estimated at $115,000.— The
climate of Buffalo is more equable than that of
any other American city in the same latitude.
The winter and spring months aro boisterous,

BUFFALO

bat the heats of smnmer are tempered by the
kke winds. Owing to the salubrity of its cli«
mate, and an admirable system of sewerage,
Buffalo will compare favorably with anv other
town in point of healthfulnees. The yearly mor-
tality is stated to be in the proportion of 1 in 60.
— ^The United States government has lately built
a fine edifice for a post-ofiice, custom-house,
and court-house. The state is ndw (1858) con-
structing a large arsenal, and the city contains 4
fine market houses ; but the other public build-
ings are not important. The private architec-
ture is creditable ; there are many handsome
banks, stores, and dwellings. The number of
dwellings in the city is estimated at 10,618,
valued at $21,620,100. There are 67 churches
in Buffalo, estimated at about $1,000,000: 10
Presbyterian, 6 Episcopalian, 8 Metnodist, 6
Baptist, 14 Catholic, 1 Unitarian, and others.
St Joseph^s cathedral (Catholic), and St.
John's and St. PauFs churches (Episcopal),
are unusually beautiful edifices. St. Joseph's
is in the decorated Gothic style; its shape is
oruciform, and the eastern front is flanked by 2
lofty towers. It is built of blue stone, with
dressings of white sandstone, and is not yet
(1858) entirely finished. This church contuns
a stained glass window, lately made at Munich,
which is the finest specimen in this department
of art in the country. St. John's church is a
simple parallelogram in the style of the transi-
tion from the early English to the decorated
Gothic, "v^th a square tower upon the north-
west corner. It is built of blue limestone, and
is worthy of notice for having an open timber
roof. St. Paul's is in the early English style;
the material is red sandstone, and Ihe building
is very remarkable for its picturesque appear-
ance and for the variety of its outlines. — ^The
university of Buffalo was chartered in 1846 ;
the medical department is the only one in
operation. This school has a fine building, and
is under the charge of a corps of higlily accom-
plished teachers. The Toung Hen's associa-
tion is a society of citizens formed for literary
purposes; any suitable person may become a
member upon making application. The yearly
fee is $3. It has a library of 9,350 volumes,
and the reading-room contains 57 newspapers
and periodicals; a considerable collection of
shells and minerals has been made, and some
steps have been taken toward the establishment
of a gallenr of the fine arts. During the winter
a series of popular lectures are delivered before
this association by distinguished gentlemen from
different parts of the country. The Germaa
Young Men's association, and the Young Men'a
Christian union, are similar institutions; some
religious qualification is necessary in order to
procure admittance to the last The Buffalo
female academy is liberally endowed; it is de-
lightfully situated, and is now in a very fiour-
isIiiDg condition. The Forest Lawn cemetery
is situated in the suburbs of the city, and con-
tmns 75} acres of land. The principal chari-
table institutions are the Buffalo orphan asy*

lorn, hospital of the sisters of charity, female
orphan aaylnm (Catholic), Buffalo general hoe-
pital, children's aid and reform society. The
German, Scotch, English, and Irish remdenta,
all have societies for the relief of unfortunate
countrymen. There are 7 lodges of masons, 2
chapters of royal archmaaons, a grand com-
mandery of knights-templars, 2 temperance
organizations, and 6 lodges of the order of odd
fellows. There are 9 banks of issue, with an
aggregate capital of $2,683,091 (Dec. 81, 1857),
8 savings banks, and a trust company. In 1855
BnfQdohad266 manufacturing establishmentS|
employing 6,848 persons, having a capital in-
vested of $4,000,000, and producing $10,169,829
worth of manufiiotures. In 1857 the number of
manufjEMstories is stated at 450. Ship building,
for which Buffido possesses many facilities. Is
extensively carried on. In 1857 there were 7
ship yards, from which were launched 18,2^6
tons of shippmg, of the value of $1,180,800. —
Buffalo is the western terminus of the Erie
canal, to the construction of whidi the city-
owes its prosperity. It is likewise the princi-
pal western station of the New York central
railroad. The other railroads are the BufG&io
and State line, which connects with the roada
of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and other western states;
the Buffalo, New York and Erie railroad, which
connects with the New York and Erie railroad
at Coming and Homellsville; and the Bufblo
and Lake Huron railroad, which intersects ^e
Great Western railroad of Canada. A new
road is under contract which will make a con-
nection with Pittsburg and the cod fields of
Pennsylvania, and for the purpose of facilitat-
ing railroad communication it is now proposed
to bridge the Niagara river. — ^The principal
business interests of Buffalo are those of com-
merce. It is the largest commercial town on
the lakes. The harbor is formed by tiie Buf-
falo creek, a small stream, which is navigable
for one mile from its mouth. The entrance is
protected by a breakwater upon the south side
of the creek, which is 1,500 feet long. A break-
water has likewise been constructed in Niagara
river upon the north side of the creek, by which
a new and capacious harbor has been made. In
addition, there is a large number of slips and
basins for the acconmu^ation of shipping and
canal boats. The entrance to the harbor and
the approaches from the river are defended by
a small fortification called Fort Porter, situated
on the heights to the north of the citv. In
1857, 242 vessels were owned and enrolled at
this port, 80 steamers and 160 sail vessels, with
an aggregate tonnage of 91,974 tons; value,
$8,640,950 ; 160,000 tons of shipping were en-
gaged in the trade of Buffalo, nearly i of the
entire lake marine. The number of entrances
and clearances of vessels to and from the port
was 7,581; tonnage, 8,221,806. The value of
imports by lake was $36,918,166; by canal,
$47,627,526 ; by railroad, $65,500,000 ; making
a total of imports of over $150,000,000. The
exports were about the same. Grain and flour

tvnsBT

BtffynK

L. f.1

4*. ,*...,..,•-. |.U

|p-^^ • '

CiiM«» tr

mqi^r-

■ .1^ 'V

c^t

ruiP*

fcr ^

l-\Uini ' ^ '

liovisrfji

pm fitr

Ut 1

'>'J,

liTO &

iff«^

ftjiiowM

L;..

1 M "-i 1

IJ ,, ,

JL-.- '

1,-

11'

ti;

rMi 111 Ix^

lIa^ii iiV own inuuAMtuva,

L ftftffltf^!^

:k* main MTnilwrod forU^ to fmde

tni* tm ft iii*iiw f*f th« fni9!it1fitl*ia

ijL.

:rjj^

131 UlC ill'-I'v '

s'i

slV^

otM rt'%tilui

*-■■

' tAFiT jmru

of ^v^ riQiN ►!■■, 1 aii*v> I :j*' i«- 1 n? ?\ 'J 1 : ■

: irii^ ft |i»^

til fiinii & ihmTf nT nftity, ftiii3 tiiiU-

rU- . ■

-*'- ■ ---'^-

........ .... .-.-, 1-1 1. .».. .,,fj,jj .,^,^^^_, ^,

^ixji'i.

! ^i!i«|lli;mil

I.f^

.-,.., J -. .... ,...« »uili, BliipEiaffBl

< Aoifnttl tstMmk attd (lie IIM«»1

aja&nttik mow* «9oooalbt ditm !iD

ciiiJi iUiie liii rv«i4t«ii

•" ntoiMTj tiC itiA fUrUi;*' una, jw\mi
1

BUFFOIT

BUGEAUD DE LA FIOOKNSBEB

the ohKfoAtf of his ideas with regard to
'^organic molecnlefi," and 'interior moulds of
form," in his theory of generatioiif hia ideas of
relation between form and sabstanoe were felt
to be at least poetioallj tme, in his own daj,
and they have smoe been demonstrated scientl-
fioally by the experiments of Flonrens on the
gradual appearance and disappearanoe of oolor-
ing matter in the bones of living animals.
*^ That which is the most constant and unalter-
able in nature/^ says Buffon, *' is the type or
form of each ^des; that which is the most
Tariable and corruptible, is the matter or the
substance whidi clothes the form ;" and this has
been experimentally proved by Flourens, in ad-
dition to the evidence of daily nutrition and loss
of substance in every individual organism. His
eloquent description of the gradual develop-
ment of the human organism, and the concomi-
tant unfolding of sensation and the fletculties of
thought and reason, is a masterpiece of observa-
tion and delineation never before equalled in
ita way, nor has it been surpassed. The in-
fant learns bv slow degrees to see and feel and
hear distinctly, and to separate sensations and
ideas, wluch arrive in a conftised mass, into
relative degrees of size and shape, distance,
Ibroe, and motion; and this power of analysis
and synthesis increases as the child develops
into manhood or womanhood, until the highest
powers have been attained of which the indi-
vidual is capable; some attaining to colossal
heights of genius at maturity, while others
never grow beyond the stature of a dwarfed
intellect ; Just as the body of one type of animal
attains to the proportions of a lion or an ele-
phant, while others, of like nature, never grow
beyond the stature and the force of a domestic
cat or a small pig. The body is developed slow-
ly, and more slowly still the mind; and Buffon
paints in glowing tints the process of unfold-
ment, which suggests to us the difference be-
tWMU the animal and the human powers of
dismmination, reason, and progression; the
difference between one man^s mental develop-
ment and another's, as the two pass through the
animal degrees of infieincy, to reach the human,
and then stop at very different heights of the
ascending scale. The first ^lass of animals de-
scribed by Buffon were the quadrupeds ; the sec-
ond, birds ; and here, with regard to the animal
kingdons, his labors ceased. The ^^ History of
Domestic Animals," published between 1758
and 1766, was particularly interesting to the
farmer and the general reader. That of the
carnivorous tribes and -other wild species was
published between the years 1758 and 1767.
More than 8,000 species and varieties are there
described. The '' History of Birds" was pub-
lished in 8 volumes, between the years 1770
and 1781. Daubenton then retired from the
work, and Buffon obtained the cooperation of
Gu^neau de Montbeillard, the abb6 Bexon, and
Bonnini de Manonconrt The "History of
Minerals" was published between 1788 and
1780, and the '^Epochs of Katnre" in 1768.

The style is always good, and the illustnitioiiB
rich with imagery, but the theories become
more and more hypothetical and vague; but
his ideas paved the way for his successors, Oavier
and Geonroy Saint Hilaire, who have liud the
foundations of true science in these branches of
investigation. He, more than they, inn>ires the
reader with a love of nature, and tranB»>rms the
dry details of science into poetry and eloquence
of the sublimest kind. His mind was not as
analytical and accurate asthatof Ouvier; not
so keen in the perception of remote relations
between normal and abnormal types of organism
as that of Geoffi^y Samt Hilaire; but he had
more poetical views of truth and beauty than
either, and deeper intuitions of the unitarj
laws of nature, physical, instinctual, and ration-
al. His works have been reprinted many times
in France, and rendered into all, or nearly all,
the languages of Ohristendom. — ^He left one son,
HsNBi Lbclebo, born in 1764, who erected a
monument to his fieither in the gardens of
Montbard, and who died by the guillotine dur-
ing the revolution.

BUG, Bouo, or Boo, a river of Europe. It
rises in Galida, and after a course of 800 mile%
during which it receives the waters of the Mu-
chawetz, Zna, and Nsrew, it joins the Vistula,
18 miles N. W. of Warsaw. It forms theE.
boundary of Poland. — ^Also, the name of a Bus-
nan river which empties into the estuary of the
Dnieper. It is navigable from the sea to Yos-
nesensk. Total length, 840 miles.

BUGABES, or Buloasii, a religious sect in
Bulgaria, otherwise known as the Gatharists^
from whom sprung the Faterini of Italy and
the Albigenses of Languedoo and Provence.
The Buknurii themselves were a branch of the
Gnostic Faulicians of the East after their amal-
gamation with the Manicheans. They denied
the necessity of infant baptism, and rejected the
Old Testament

BUGEAUD DE LA PIGONNEHIE, Tsomas
Robert, due d'lsly, marshal of France, bom at
Limoges, in Oct. 1784, died in Paris, June 10^
1849. He entered the French army as a pri-
vate soldier in 1804, became a corporal during
the campaign of 1805, served as sub-lieutenant
in the campiugn of Prussia and Poland (1806
-7), was present in 1811, as migor, at the
sieges of Lerida, Tortosa, and Tarragona, and
was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel
aft«r the battie of Ordal, in Oatalonia. After the
first return of the Bourbons Col. Bugeaud cele-
brated the white lily in some doggerel rhymes ;
but these poetical effusions being passed by ra^
ther contemptuously, he again embraced, during
the Hundred Days, the party of Napoleon, who
sent him to the army <of the Alps, at the head
of the 14th regiment of the line. On the 2d
return of the Bourbons he retired to Exoideuil,
to the estate of his fieither. At the time of the
invasion of Spain by the duke of Angoul6me he
offered his sword to the Bourbons, but the offer
being declined, he turned liberal, and joined the
movement which finally led to the revolution

^^_ BnvEAtTD Ds.u nooomauK

BCTHnouara n 1

^^^^HHvt:i>iji rf^s «-»•

.u^ - - — *- ^.' •> -

k f . « A k 1 ^ « 1 1 . . %r.« .^1 t^M mt S.^ . ,*^^' ^ *!l ^. «^ 1

* f,-- -^ — -'

^"^M^^fari^i^Kr _^^^^l

^B «ir ''

.iOtta^

^1 i)u:-:

4 Mn*>1

*^^^^Kb- ^^I

^H V '

^^^1

I^H Ci. u- -J 1 ■

^^^1

V n[iHr<

b ^"^^^

H ^

H *i

■ U--'

^1 t-:--'::

^1 Ik

■ i.

H '"

-l<ctt

■ >-•:

~'^ai4

H v>

-r.

H "

Pf,

1 <^

^^^1

H »'

tbc »;)|Mia&4 ^^B

H "

({.•t«ian4«l ■

H *

I atTiiii-: -. H

H «"'

liOMk teir ■

H b.,:-

^^^H

■ t'-'-'-

life'

H»^

^^H

H ^>'

^^H

■ ^'

■ *''

'^*~ ^^H

■ <-

H ""'

^^H

P r

1 1 '

^ *

^^H

^1 OI

.l4lie«

iHP^SKii Vr^ 1 ^^H

H <>'

rjjt-

■ l!

Mdii ^H

■

•'

H "^

^^^1

1°'

OAKS, V ^iCtfp- ^^H

H *

(■* tH*%, |»>«.>-'

r^^kf'drn, iQiniiiQiTf>T#^'tniUi^ ^^1

H <^'

«l All »1]10]91 ^

1 :_ - .. ._ _ J

i EM^Ii) Wi faqiti^lj. Ha llitm mmmetm ^^M

^^ft

..Ls woamtkX 0r tb« ProC«PiKt|| mm^ : "^ thm ^H

^^ft Vr>

rw, immi ite wueoH i4J

wtiolii winy te Iilb4 ^(^ (1* OttiBitfiM ^H

BVQOS

VOQJB

dftrlmess ; fbi» raaa'alone 9am the ttnUkJ" Ha
assisted Luther in the traadation of the Bible,
imd pabliahed a great niunber of books now lit-
tie read or known.

BUGOE, TiBOMAs, a Danish astronomer, bora
in Copenhagen, Oct. 12. 1740, died Jnne 15,
1816. After l^cho de Brahe^ he was the gr^t*
est astronomer of Denmark. First officiating
as professor, he afterward spent most of his
time in trayelling abroad, and was sent to
Paris in 1798 to confer with the commission of
the French institute on the snbject of the in*
trodnction of nniform weights and measures, on
which occasion he was made a meml>er of that
learned body.

BUGIS, a people of the Halay archipelago,
noted for a spirit of enterprise and independence.
Their colomes and emporia of trade are found
fo many islands, in all partq of the archipelago ;
bnt the chief seat of this people is in the souths
western peninsula of Oelebes, in the territories
of Boni and Wtyoo. The Bugis traders are
the chief carriers and fiftotors of the Indian seas.
In the European ports of Singapore, Malacca,
Batavia, and Eliio, their richlj freighted vessels
are to be seen at all times. From data derived
from their intercourse with these ports, they
bad in 1867 about 960 padewaharu, or prahus,
averaging 60 tons each, engaged in foreign trade ;
and probably a still larger amount of tonnage
engaged in ttte tripang, pearl, and other fisher-
ies, and in trade with the Papuan islands, and
other portions of the archipelago not yet mdi-
sect communication with European commerce.
The value of this native trade may be Judged
from the fact, that it is not uncommon to see
in the port of Singapore the cargo of a pade-
wakan, consisting of dammar, sapan wood,
birds' nests, tripang, pearls and mother of
pearl, ratans, gatah taban, nutmegs, and other
Malaysian products, sell for |20,000 and $80,-
000, and even for as large an amount as $60,-
000, Their advancement iadviLization keeps
pace with their active conunercial development
Barbosa, in 1616, describes the Bugis and their
neu^hbors, the Macassars, as ferodous pirates
and cannibals. None of we Portuguese histo-
viaas of the archipelago give any intimation of
the commercial enterprise of this race. When
in 1660 the Dutch conquered the Macassar tribes
of Goa, no other mention is made of the neigh*
l)oring Bugis people than as of an inferior race
of barbarians. A little while previous to this
oonquest, the Macassars had invaded the Buffia
territory, destroyed the pagan worship of uie
people, and forced them to receive teachers
of the Mohammedan faith, the Bugis being
the last o<mverts to the creed of the Koran in
the archipelago. Islamism abolished head*
hunting^ as now practised by the Dyaks in
Borneo, human sacrifices, cannibalism, and
many degrading superstitions ; and from this
period of oonver^on to the present day, this
people have made rapid progress toward a
respectable position in the civilized world.
They are perhaps a more vi^orouB and promis-

ing branch of the brown races than the Kew
Zeaknders. They have domesticated the horse,
ox, buffiilo, sheep, and goat They cultivate cot-
ton successfully, and manuflu^ure it into dotl»
of substantial quality ; they are skilful workers
in iron and copper; the wealthy construct
houses of substantial materials, flie waHs of
Gome being made of a solid mass <^ small bro-
ken stone and cement, which after a short time
cannot be torn apart with chisel or pick, and
their dwellings are generally surrounded with
evidences of much horticultural taste; they
build durable sailing vessels; in their navigation
they use charts and ccnnpasses ; they have firam-
ed a maritime code, that has been admired by
authorities in navd jurisprudence ; they have
also framed a calendar, dividing the solar year
as we do; but more than all, they have in-
vented an alphabet and a system of phonetic
writing, which none of the energetic races of
western Europe, except those of Italy, have
done. The government of this people is an
oligarchy or elective monarchy. The state of
Boni is composed of 7 principalities ; and that of
Wijoo, of 40. In both states the sovereign ia
deoted by the nobles, and from the patrician
class. The vote^ in choosing a ruler, must be
unanimous ; and often the merits of every nobl^
man and noblewoman (females being eligible^
and generally preferred), in the state, is canvass-
ed, before a choice is made; the sovereign only
holds power during good behavior, and may be
deposed by an adverse migority vote in coun-
cil; hence there are frequent changes in Hie
presidency, as the executive power of the
Bugis people may be Justly termed. A privy
council of 6 nobles is Aosen to advise with the
chiefii, who receive the title of BoH-lumpOy or
^^ great banners." The people pay no taxes;
except a small tribute of three days* labor, or an
equivalent, to the sovereign ; and there are no
imposts on trade. Strangers visiting their ports
are exempt from all charges. The princes de-
rive their revenue from their own estates. An
unrestricted freedom of intercourse with all
parts of their own country, and with foreign
ooxmtries, prevails; and this liberty of foreign
enterprise. Joined to their entire freedom of
trade, may be justly regarded, as it has been
observed, as both the cause and effect of the in- •
dependence, enterprise, and prosperity of this
interesting people. The Tuwf^u, or HTcqq
tribes, are esteemed as decidedly superior in
many respects to their brethren of Boni. The
Wigus have been enterprisiug colonists as well
as traders. Large communities of this tribe
have within the present century been formed in
Borneo, Sumatra, in portions of Oelebes distant
ftom the parent country, and in many small
islands of the archipelago. The native entre-
pot of Bonirati is one of their settlements. In
Singapore they form a separate and fiourishing
community. They have not been encouraged
by the Dutch to establish settlements in their
possessions ; and indeed the rulers of Java have
00 often be^ worsted in hostile encounters with

BOniBAiB&ir "

^^V ^DinmosB M ^H

iS^ti f .1.1 .<** 1 tu.i/.

.^ ih^A U...e t^j.^ Iri^Ir il*wi'.il 'ji.«^

?S^.iT>r S^/n ^nd iVtJtrti'p li r«rtiTi»A4»ir ^fVMA ^^^|

'»

^^1

^^^^

^^H

HI-

^^^1

^^H

f ♦*

^^H

I ^

^^^1

" »u^;., .-i .

^^^1

■

j^ i£^.\lw^ •» id i ^^1

■

iJi.

K^it 4ini| U(^, fi|l«f ^H

■ I,.,

^^1

^^H

•J.

■

f*'

^^1

■

?Hy cr ^H

■

^^H

^^1

^^H

^^1

-.t d£/r^ ^H

i-..

^^^^^1

€■'

^i^ptmi ^m

tlJ '

L vifloMkitM ^^M

tlmiSlLMs

r« rvfiiitfn*il »P#tiiftL, ^^^

w^m.-w.-,, .

1 :.i^-v-\ ^^n*! >iV 'T.^1': ^^B

«|atr«i ^^1

' r^^-

b Ttiii ^^H

1-
I'
I-

\1 Viillk 4t£U^ ^^M

".TUi^ Mitm , ^1

II T

I mateM ^H

i't<i?\ruciifi^ iiiiiiPt^iie/L It fai a ^^M

\ amud iDtMMUM with t^ ^H

'.-gru.

«.:].', :-^igIlil5tllIM»lrflfeiftl?r'- '— ^H

\'.

H> fr«f

nmiiiifx F%H« l^iji, petit v ^H

- ISI- t^.

1',^

ibdi Ji t» liS^ticnl it« laMnpiidiaii^ ^H

<^^^«£i9tB]ieil itraHiiits, «od HMtsL ^H

'« 11* vuimp^iUio \ff

iiii«l ^4ii||tti. «IliAi fciulcf li Oitt liM PiMiii- ivf ^H

BOIL

: BUKKCfR

grinding. The fossil shells of land and fresh
water origin, with which the rock is sometimes
fOled, are converted into the same hard silicioos
substance as the rest of the stone, and their
cavities are often lined with crystals of qnartz.
The color of the rock is whiti^, with a shade
sometimes of gray, and sometimes of yellow and
bine. The best quality is that about equally
made up of soM silex and of vacant spaces.
The stones are quarried at numerous lociditiefl
near Paris, whence they are transported in
large quantities into the interior, and to Bor-
deaux and Havre for exportation. La Fert6-
Bous-Jouarre, Seine-et-Harne, is one of the most
important points where they are procured. The
quarriea are worked open to the day, and the
•tones, when extracted from their beds, are
split with wedges into cylindrical forms. The
pieces are cut into pandlelopipeds, which are
called ffones. These are to be hooped to-
gether into the shape of millstones, answering
w purpose perfectly well, while they are of
much more convenient size for transportation
than single stones. Good nullstones of a blu-
ish white color, and 6^ feet diameter, are worth
1,200 francs, or about $250, each. In this
country numerous substitutes for the Frenob
buhistone have been found, the most impor*
tant of which is furnished by the Buhrstone
rook of the bituminous coal measures of north-
western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio, inmie-
diately underlying the principal iron ore depos-
ites of that region. This rock has been wrought
into millstones ever since the revolution, but
the French rook has, nevertheless, maintained
a decided preference in all the great markets.

BUIL, Bkbnabdo, the first Spanish mission-
ary in the new world, died in the convent of
Guxa» in 1520. He was selected by Ferdinand
and Isabella to accompany Columbus for the
purpose of converting the natives of Hispani-
ola. He took with him several priests, but re-
turned to Spain after 2 years in consequence of
disagreements with the governor concerning
the treatment of the nativesi

BUILDIKG, the art of construction, appli*
cable to a variety of oUects, as houses, bridges,
wharves, ships, &c. The term architecture, of
which building is the mechanical execution, is in
oommon use Imiited to the construction of build-
ings for the purposes of civil life ; but this is
sometimes designated as civil architecture, in
eontradbtinction to the planning and construc-
tion of forts, .&c., which is called military
architecture, or of ships, which is called navid
architecture. Building sJso is commonly under^
stood to apply to only the first dass of objects,
unless othervrise q>ecificflJly designated. Even
thus limited, it is too comprehensive for more
than a general notice ; so that for the detiuls of
the art reference must be made to the articles
in this work upon the materials employed, as
BuoK, Qtose, Tdibsb, Bkams, Slats, Like,
Ac. ; and also to those upon the various minor

fortions or processes of the construction, as
ouNDATioBs^ Oaxpxntbt, 'PixsTao^ "Wasmt

XHO^ Ymmtanoir, ^ &c. With afi tiiese
subjects the practical builder should be familiar,
as also should the architect, who designs tiie
plans which the former executes. The history
and principles of building have already been
treated in the article Abghitsctubb. The im-
portance of this art to all classes of men has
cansed it to receive en>ecial attention with all
cultivated nations ; and from early periods there
have been able treatises elucidating the various
processes it includes. The modem progress it
has made has called forth numerous works and
periodicals devoted to this subject, among which
may be named as particularly adj^ted to the
wants and tastes of this county, Lafevw'a
"Modem Builder's Guide" (New York, 1846X
andSloan^s ** Model Architect." Among &[ig-
lish works^ those of Loudon, and the periodical
called the *' Builder " may particularly be re-
ferred to. A very elaborate work by Rondelet
was published in Paris in 1880-'82, in 5 vols,
quarto, with a folio volume of plates, entitled
iVaiti de Vatt de bdtir.

BUITENZORG, the official name of the an-
cient province of Bogor, in the iriand oi Java,
now forming a residency ; bounded N. by the
residency of Batavia, £. by Krawang, S. by the
Prayangan regency, and W. by Bantam. Area,
l,276sq.m.;pop.820, 756. of whom 650 are Euro-
peans, 9,580 Chinese, and 28 Arabs. The name
was first given to a country seat of the Dutch
goveraor-eeneral, and signifies '^without care,**
or equivalent to 9an9 wuei. This rural resi-
dence of the Dutch viceroy is now a plaoe of
considerable magnificence ; being situated near-
ly 1,000 feet above the level of the sea, it en-
joys a much more invigorating climate than
^Datavia, which is 40 miles distant. Many fruits
of temperate climates, the cherry and plum,
and every variety of European esculent vege-
tables, are. cultivated with success in the gar<*
dens of Buitenzorg. A park enclosing several
ti^rs and other wild beasts, large tanks filled
with the fresh-water fish of the archipelago,
and aviaries containing cassowaries, rhinoceros
birds, and other remarkable birds of these
islands, form a part of the oriental features of
this palatial residence. The grandeur of the
surrounding mountain scenery is very impos-
ing. A company waa formed, parUy American
capitalists, to constmct a railroad from Batavia
to Buitenzorg, but the government withdrew
permission to go on with the work, even after
the locomotives and other material had been
imported. However, an electric telegraph is
established between the capital and the seat of
the viceroy; but it is used exclusively for gov-
emment purposes.

BUEEjSN, an island on the W. coast of Nor-
way, province of Ohristiansand. It has a small
vUlage of the same name. The Bukke or Buk-
ken nord, an arm of the sea 85 miles long, frt>in
10 to 15 miles wide, and crowded with small
islands, separates it from the island of Karmoe.

BUKEuB, a fortress of Sinde, HindostaI^
occupying nearly the whole of a rocky island

^^f liOL40Air

■

liCMIAXaA t? ^^

^m t'

^O" ' ' J^ff^

fir*^ f*r^ K^frtrfrfk UP?! !»? ^|

1^ L Uir.q^Vl

■ ':'

b*ftii^ ^ JtlfJi w^ sail

Ir.

■ ^'

H ^

^^1

^H i» . ir,itinif'i# ^,

i^uuiA i«^-. ^H

T.'

.f tKo rr.. ^H

^^ lll-:Jir-

^^1

wooa-

^^1

IWUQ 1

^^1

«Imti

^^^

ItBtS ^i. i.

^^^

iauiaAiloc.

^^1

^1 uLU ^*>. ,fi- .

B i"^'

^^H

^H ^

^^^^H

^^ ^

■^ r

^^1

f., ^

^^1

t2j& ifr^u^

II iW^ifU'ilBl^rt* !

^^1

^ C^ '

i"i

bLilliuut-^ ^H

4la. nim f^ < ^H

■

»3-

n-:

^^H

»j

miL-4^ ^H

»:"•

Ir/'t^.n! ^^B

L-

^^H

^^^

t ,

i..

^^H

^ T«r'

U*-

^^1

3.. -

^^1

I^IVri^iC-X 71': >

fi»'j i:hii'.« ■

^^1

€%%«^

liiiis)aiMn»ii \

^^H

•- •-«*'** -■ ' ^-'i.SB

tb— ^--T^

^^^^1

■JM

•

^^^^H

■^

^^^^1

£1

^^^^^

7(»Uj

^^H

and tlac r

^^1

(rjriiiift.S (Jnptk^i^ Am

^^1

IdUm fC^^'^r^, P*Mr,i(ji

^^H

mm9, I

^^1

h r"-'

^^1

TM ^H

vifc.^ V* t^JL^ijjfefiL''^ viit iitrr^ ^ naj laui^j,

■ c< w Lii la Li^;<^4i; t-^ |M.. »|' tnuJi J ^^^

BULGAfilAJf LANGUAGE

BULESSADS

in Bulgaria, is a matter of great moment for
the Torkish gOTernment. In 1858, daring the
Boadan oconpation of Moldavia anaWalladiia,
the line of fortresses along the left bank of the
Danube and those in the Balkan range were
guarded by a large Tnrldsh annj, divisions of
which crossed the Danube opposite Oltenitza and
Kalafat, and obtained some slight advantages
over the Russians. The St George's mouth oi
the Danube is by treaty open to all trading
vessels, and to the war ships of Russia and
Austria, and measures have lately been taken
to facilitate the navigation, which is difficult^
Various railways are projected; but that be*
tween Bo^hazkew and Eusten^ji, is the only
line to which a charter has as yet been granted,
and which, when completed, will be the first
railway in operation in Turkey.

BULGARIAN LANGUAGE ANDLTTERA-
TURK Bulgaria and the adjacent provinces of
Kaoedonia are considered to have been the
cradle of the old Slavic languages. The ancient
Bulgarian language was the richest of them all,
and was the Scriptural language of the Greek-
Slavic church, and the great medium of ecclesi-
astical literature in the ancient Slavic lands.
After the overthrow of the Bulgarian kingdom
at the dose of the 14th century, the grammati-
cal structure and purity of the language became
impaired by mixture with the Wallachian, Al-
banian, Roumanian, Turco-Tartar, and perhaps
Greek vernaculars; and the modem Bulgarian
language has only the nominative and vocative
of the 7 Slavic cases, all the rest being supplied
by prepositions. It has an article, which is put
after the word it qualifies, like that of the
Albanians and Wallachians. Among the an-
cient Bulgarian ecclesiastioal literature must bo
mentioned the translations of the Bible by Oyiil
and Methodius, and the writinas of John of
Bulgary in the 10th century. The modem lit-
erature is very slender, consisting almost en-
tirely of a few elementary and religious books.
Granomars of the Bulgarian language have been

gublished by Neofyt m 1885, and by Ghristiaki
I the following year. Yenelin, a young Rus-
rian scholar, sent to Bulgaria by the Russian
aroluBographical commission, published in 1887
a grammar and 2 volumes of a history of the
BulgaiianS) but died while he was engaged in
preparing a 8d volume. A new grammar was
given to the public by Bogojev in 1845, and
finally in 1849, by the Rev. £. Riggs, an Amer-
ican missionary stationed at Smyrna, who also
sent a Bulgarian translation of Gallaudet's
''Child's Book on the Soul" to New Tork.
Dictionaries of the Bulgarian language have
been prepared, or are in course of preparation,
by Neofyt and Stojanowicz. A Bulgarian ver-
sion of the New Testament was printed at
Smyrna in 1840, for the British and foreign
Bible society. The Bulgarian national songs
are numerous, and are similar to those of the
Servians. Gzelakowsky^s collection of Slavic
songs contains a number of Bulgarian songs.
Bogojev published 12 historical poems in 1845,

while a pnblioafcion on the 8Bl)[|eQt of ednoft*
tion has appeared from the pen of Neofytb
Bulgarian miblioations are issued chiefly in
Bucharest, Belgrade, Buda, Cracow, Constanti-
nople, Smyrna^ and Odessa. A paper, called the
'' Bulgarian Morning Star," has appeared at the
latter city since 1848. llie first number of a
monthly magazine, entitled '' Philology," was
issued from uie press of Smyrna in 1844^ and a
Bulgarian almanac from the same press in 185(k

BULGARIN, Thiddbus (Pohsh Tadbdbs
Bulhabtn), a Russian author, bom in 1789, in
Lithuania. His father fought under Kosduszko^
and after the fatal issue of the Polish war of
independence, his mother removed to St.
Petersburg, where Thaddeus was educated at
tiie military academy. In 1805 he took a part
in the war against France and Sweden, and
subsequentlv left the Russian service, served
in the Polisli legion in Spain, was taken
prisoner by the Prussians in 1814, served on
recovering his liberty under Napoleon, and
after the Emperor's downfall, occupied him-
self with literary pursuits in Warsaw, After
some time he returned to St. Petersburg, and,
tiirowing off his Polish nationality, he hence*
forth devoted himself to Russian litenture.
In 1828 he edited the <' Northern Archives,*^
originslly a historical and statistical paper,
but which he made popular in Russia by his
humorous and satirical contributions. In 1825
he published in conjunction with his friend
Gretsch the ^^ Northern Bee," became also
editor of the *' Daguerreotype," and of the first
Russian theatrical almanac, called the ^ Rus-
sian Thalia." His complete works, published
at St. Petersburg, 1827, and at Leipsio, in Qer*
man, in 1828, include many of his fugitive
essays and his Spanish sketches, to whidi he
added his Turkish sketehes in a separate volume.
In 1829 he made his debut as novelist with
*'Ivan Yuishigin," or the Russian ^'GU Bias,''
of which *^ Peter Ivanoviteh Yuishigin " is the
continuation. Subsequently he published 8
works containing pictures of Russian life^** Bos-
tavlev," '* Demetrius," and ''Mazeppa," which
have lost somewhat of their popularity in Russia,
although fiN>m a Russian literary point of view
they have many excellent points, especially Uie
two last-named novels, from their historical
character, and « generally from the insist
which they afford into Russian life. Hia
Russian ** Gil Bias " was published in Endish
at Aberdeen in 1881, and nis ^* Russia in a His-
torical, Statistical, Geographical, and Literary
Point of Yiew," one of his most valuable
works, has been translated into (German by
Brackel. His literary labors proved profiteble,
and he lives in comfortable circumstancea in a
villa near Dorpat His last work, FoipMi»tfMi-
niya^ of which 6 volumes have already ii^
peered, oontams interesting reminiseenoes of
his stirring life. The czar and his family have
always befriended him, and he writes with a
stro^ bias in favor of Russia.

BULKHEADS, the paititiims built up in

tfUWDMt*

UUU.

».i.4i*i ^ M

IIIUpiL.lv

il\ fi^r rf !fiti

Ua Ar[i"«Uiib.r%

Illl-

mil¥^f •

If, jilU iAaTiii0 fvail^Jiliiii wiHi ilMAiM»^ nwvil |Pibio» aciil uufebM'trU, mid It^ voaiit lim^

BULL

BULL-DOG

led a preoarioBS and most vntohed ezistonoo.
Moreover, he was robbed of everything he pos-
sessed, indading his violin, and la despair he
threw himself into the Seine, from which he
was rescued. A bereaved mother, who traced
in his features a remarkable resemblance to her
dead son, took him into her house, and assisted
him so liberallj that he was enabled to make
his first appearance in public as a violinist*
The public were charmed by the performancci
and the proceeds of his fint concert enabled
him to make a musical tour through Italv. The
next 7 years were spent in frequent professional
tours through Italy, Fnmce, Germany. England,
and Bussia, by which he acquired a hanosome
fortune. Returning to his native place in 1888
with his wife, a Fariaan woman, he settled upon
1^1 estate which he had purchased in the neiish-
borhood. At the end of 5 years he came to
the United States, and experienced an enthu-
siastic reception; and after a career of great
pecuniary success, he returned to Europe in
1845. During the next 7 years, he gave concerts
in the chief cities of the continent, made a cam-
paign in Algeria against the Kabyles with Gen.
Vusuf, made improvements in musical instru-
ments, built a theatre in Bergen, and endeavor-
ed to establish in Norway national schools of
literature and art. Influenced by patriotic feel-
ing, he introduced political sentiments into
the dramas performed at his theatre, and was
brought into collision with the police. Vex-
atious lawsuits, resulting from these troubles,
dissipated a large portion of his fortune; his
wife sank under the rigors of the climate ; and
the artist once more left his country for the
new world, where he arrived in 1852. In that
vear he purchased a large tract of uncultivated
land, comprising 120,000 acres, situated in
Potter CO. in tlie northern part of Pennsylvania.
A large number of families, to whom the lands
were sold at a nominal price, gathered upon
the spot, forming the germ of an extensive
agricultural colony, to which the name Oleana
was given, in honor of the founder. For a
time the new settlement was fletvored by bright
prospects; but dissensions soon crept in; pecu-
niary embarrassments followed ; and at length
the project was entirely abandoned and the
colony broken up. To repair his shattered
fortunes, Ole Bull resumed his concerts, and af-
ter the completion of the academy of music in
New York, m 1854, took a lease of the build-
ing with the intention of undertaking the man-
agement of the Italian opera. The enterprise
proved disastrous, and at the end of 2 months
he found himself involved in a number of law-
raits resulting from it, beside having experi-
enced heavy pecuniary losses. He has since
returned to Europe, and is now (1858) engaged
in giving concerts in Vienna and other cities.

BULL, WiixiAM, an American physician, and
lieutenant-governor of the colony of South
Carolina, of which province he was a native,
born in 1710, died in London in 1791. He re-
ceived at Leyden a medical degree, the first, or

one of the first, ever obtained by a native of

America. With some short intervals he was
lieutenant-governor of South Carolina from 1764
till that province ceased to be sulgect to Great
Britain. He was faithful to the crown in 1776,
and in 1782 accompanied the British troops to
England, where he resided during the remainder
of his life.

BULL-BAITING, a barbarous and brutal
exhibition, common in England from a very
early period, till the commencement of the
reign of George IV., when it was prohibited
by act of parUament. The bull was secured
to a post by a chain fastened through a ring
in his nose, allowing him to move in a
circle, but preventing him from gaining his
liberty, which would have been dangerous
to spectators, when bull-dogs were let loose
to run at him, which, rushing always at the
head, either pinned the bull by the nose or
lip, or were tossed in the air, gored and tram-
pled. The excitement consisted in witnessing
the courage of the dogs in the attack and of
the bull in defence; but there was no fairness
in the contest, as the more powerful animal,
chained to the stake, had neither the opportunity
to decline the contest, nor to exert his powers^
and terminate it by defeating his enemies.

BULL-DOG (eanU fnolo89U8\ a species of dog,
said to be peculiar to the British islands, and
distinguished almost solely for its undiscrim-
inating ferocity. The dog, generally, by natu-
alists, is distinguished into 8 divisions, to one
of which all natural species belong, while to
a combination of 2 or more all the artificial
varieties are to be referred. These are the eana
iogaces^ veloeeij and feroeeiy distinguished re-
spectively for their intelligence, their speed, and
Uieir ferocity. The first or highest is represent-
ed by the spaniel, to which belong all tine pure
species which hunt by scent ; the middle, by the
greyhound, or, more properly, gazehaund^ to
which are referred all those which hunt mainly
or solely by speed ; and the lowest, by the bull-
dog, of which pugnacity is the sole characteristio.
The bull-dog is low in stature, deep*<)hested, and
strongly made about the shoulders, which, with
the chest and neck, are enormously developed,
as are also the muscles of the thighs bebond,
although, generally, the hind quarters are light
as compared to the fore part, and the flanks hol-
low and tucked up, like those of the greyhound.
In his head, however, are seated his principal
peculiarities. It is remarkable for its short
broad muzzle, and the projection of its lower
jaw, which causes the lower front teeth to pro-
trude beyond those of the upper. The candy let
of the jaw are placed above the line of the upper
grinding teeth ; and it is this conformation which
renders the bite of the bull-dog so terribly
severe, and his hold, when once taken, almost
immovable. The lips are thick, deep, and
pendulous; the ears fine, small, and pendant
at the tip; the tail thick at the root, but
tapering to a point, as fine as that oi the
greyhound. ^* lie is the most ferocious and ua-

Bcru^'^'OG

BULCrFidirr

ttl

p*.Vih.ti ■>* o^^ *V.^ ^*f.r...i ^ ^T . »,tk-l t^<k.% li.T i.in.+* ii«.tTT'w.iiHfi,f*<..iI \fr|iHf. ^(, n lr\ l].«. i.im-r nTT ki*k*

TUefr

u ^m.

tViliiiv^

l«r- Mi *ad Ilia loi ^

Wv liii?d mi • vUd| Ihriiia^i laptli, b iU4 f^^*' l**^ i^ Uf%^^

BULLA.

smusr

BULLA (Lat huUa, a boblile), tiie nime of
a genus of shelb, the form of which is gioboae
like a bubble. Th^ are not famished with any
projeoting spire. The animal which inhabits
the shell is too large to be contained within il
so that the whole shell is fireoaently ooncealea
beneath the fleshy covering. The bnlhe are all
ihmished with a gizzard for masticating and
digesting their food. Thui consists of 8 rongh
and prominent pieces of shel^ connected by a
cartiiaginoiis ligament by which they are moved.
By ^is apparatos hard substances, each as small
shells, are ground and converted into food.

BULLABD, Abtbicas, D. D., en American
clergyman, bom at Northbridge, Kaas., June 8,
1802, died Fov. 1855. He was graduated at
Amherst, in 1826, stodied theology at Andover,
and visited the western states as agent of the
Sabbath-schoolsodety. Li 1833 he was appoint-
ed general agent of the board of commismonerB
for foreign miasionB, and took np his residence at
Cincinnati, maldng ezoursimis over the Missis-
nppi valley. He was installed pastor over the
first Presbyterian chnrch of 6t. Louis, Mo., June
27, 1888, and was one of those who perished at
the railroad aoddent in crossing the Gasconade
river in 1865.

BULLARD, Hknbt Adams, a lawyer of
Louisiana, born at Groton, Mass., Sept. 9, 1788,
died in New Orleans, April 17, 1851. He grad-
uated at Harvard college in 1807, studied law,
and also many modem languages. Through his
knowledge of the Spanish he became acauaint-
ed, while at PhiLbielphia, with Gen. Toledo, and
embarked with him, as his military secretary,
in an expedition to revolutionize New Mexico.
Upon its failure he contrived to escape, and
opened a law office at Natchitoches. He suc-
ceeded in the profession, and in 1822 was ap-
pointed one of the Judges of the district court.
In 1881 he was sent to congress, in 1884 became
judge of the supreme court, and in 1846 re-
moved to New Orleans, and entered upon a
large legal practice. He was made professor cf
dvil law in the law school of Louisiana in 1847,
and delivered 2 courses of lectures. He reen-
tered congress after an absence of 16 years, and
died soon after his return home.

BULLER, Ohables, an English politician,
bom at Calcutta, Aug. 1806, died in London,
Nov. 28, 1848. He was educated in England,
graduated at Cambridge as B. A. in 1826, en-
tered parliament for West Looe in 1880, and in
the following year was admitted a barrister at
Linooln^s Inn. He voted for the reform bill,
which disfranchised West Looe, and in 1882
was sent to the'house of commons for liskeard,
in Comwall, which he continued to represent
till his death in 1848, distinguishing hin^elf by
his support of liberal measures and by his readi-
ness as a debater. In 1888 and 1889 he officia-
ted as secretary of the earl of Durham, governor*
general of Canada. On his retum to England
he was devoted to the practice of his profession,
chiefly in connection with cases relating to In-
dian afllurs. In 1841 he became secretaiy of

the board of eootrol; in 1646, judge-advoeatfr'
general; in November of the sane year, a
queen's counsel ; and in July, 1847« a member of
the privy counoiL In Nov. 1847, he was made
prem^ent of the poor-law board, Iwt his promii^
ing career, which pointed to him as one of the
fhture great statesmen of England, was cut
short by death a year afterward. £us akill in
the treatment of public questions was made
evident in his writings, m<M9t of which appear-
ed in the journals of London and the leading
Ssriodicals of the country. — Sib Fbanois, an
nglish judge, bom in 1745, died June 4^ 1800.
He acquired some reputation by his publica-
tion relative to trials at nisi prius, which is con-
sidered a standard work, and has pasaed throng
many editions.

BULLET, or Ball, a round piece of lead or
iron, used to load a musket or cannon. Erom
the invention of gunpowder to the beginning of
this century bullets were made sphericaL The
best material to make bullets is the heaviest; lead
is used for musket bullets, but this substance is
too dear and too scarce for cannon balls^ and
cast-iron, though much lighter, is genmlly
used. Balls are made by casting; this pro-
cess leaves a rough surface. This is unimpor-
tant in lead bullets, as the metal is soft and gives
way ; but in cast-iron balls it is a cause of wear
for the cannon, and means are employed to give
more finish to the sur&ce. Numerous persons
during the last fifty years have experimented
on the form of bullets without marked success,
till Captain Minie, of the French army, succeeded
in introducing his cylindro-conical bullets. The
desiderata of bullets are : Ist, that they fill ex-
actly the bore of the ^n ; 2d, that when pro-
jected, they proceed with a rotary motion ; 8d,
that they be shaped so as to encountar the least
resistance from the air ; 4th, that the whole of
the bullet, or at least the forward part, be of a
solid substance to cut through obstacles. The
Hini6 buUet is for rifles, and is made of lead ; the
shape is that of a cylinder of nearly the diame-
ter of the rifle, one end of which comee to a
point in a conical shape, and in the other end a
curved recess is left. The eflfoct of powder, when
firing, is to expand the thin portion of lead
around the rec^ and to make it fit tightly in
the grooves of the rifle. Leaden buUets have
been made with a steel point. The expansioii
of lead to make the bullet fit has been prodno-
ed by inserting in the end of the bullet a cone
of iron, which was forced, in by the expan-
sion of powder, at the first instant, before the
inertia of the bullet had been overcome. The
best cannon ball was patented in 1858. in
the United Btates, by 8. H. Sigoumey ; it is
cast of the shape of Mini^^s bullet without the re-
cess at one end ; it is a cone and a cylinder on
a common basis ; the cylinder is smaller than
the bore of the cannon, except at the top and
bottom, where rims are left projeoting a quarter
of an inch : between these rims there are. on
the body of the cylinder, three ribs, sh^ed like
the grooves in the bore, prcjectiog sumoientlx

AIVm»> k..iii.« ^». Ik. lU'!^ Lii^H

IIaj fAii iIliaL^ t^i iiLav. t iftfV^^

II,.

. liapitt Art iift.1

»^ wna^ ocGi:^

<>vA. ft irrmi derh-

tifi<*

/'^ivr^JlyJii rsihMBrt^ ^^\ ^*^

^1 WIWU'

irf^ I Jut fbrmec b fipcKJtJi uir ^iari j en, tliai

llKlt^Of

r W««e

till.

X^mf^Mw muFimm tft ium lutaiif M«4 iiCl^bti liiu ti^j^tutiivf-

BULLHEAD

BULLDJTGSB

ence c^ tho orbits, is omOarly armed, or is
flerrated in various ways; the nasal bones are
in some species surmounted by a ridge or spine ;
the head is high and broad, occasioDaUy de-
formed, with very large eyes and an immense
mouth; the body is without soales, the back
often arched, and the first dorsal almost as
h\^ as the second; the soft rays are 8 or 4 in
the yentral fins; the lateral line runs uninter-
rupted and distinct from the head to the base
of ^ tail ; in the cottoids, the lateral line is
remarkably developed, being in some a regular
cartilaginous tube with a series of openings
oommunicating by pores of the skin with the
surrounding water, leaving no doubt that this
line in fishes is intended to supply water to the
oystem. The common bullhead or sculpin (A,
VirginianiUj Willoughby) is well known to
every boy as a perfect pest and scarecrow
among fishes. The body is of a light or green-
ish brown above, with irregujar blotches ar-
ranged as 4 transverse dark brown bars; the
abdomen is white, occasionally stained with
fuliginous; the dorsals are crossed by dark
brown bands, the pectorals light yellow with
ooncentric brown bands, and the ventnJs, anal,
and caudal yellowish white, also banded. The
length is from 10 to 18 inches, of which the
hei^ is about one-tiiird. There are 10 naked
spines on each side, on and about the head, the
largest being at the posterior angle of the pre-
operculum, and partially covered with a loose
membranous sheath; there are also strong
scapular and humeral spines, so that it is rather
a difficult species to handle ; the gape of the
mouth is large, and the jaws, pharynx, and
palate are armed with numerous sharp, card-
like teeth; the caudal fin is even at the end.
This species is found from New Brunswick to
Yirguda. Another species of the New Eng-
land coast is the Greenland bullhead (A, varia^
hilis, Gd., and A, Oroenlandiciu^ Guv.) ; these
may be different species, but they are described
under one head by Dr. Storer, in his *^ Fishes of
llassachusetts," in '' Memoirs of the American
Academy," voL v. p. 74. This is darker col-
ored than the oommon sculpin, with large day-
colored blotches on the top of the head and
gill covers, smaller ones on the back and sides,
and circular yellow spots on the sides near the
abdomen, which is yellow tinged with red, and
the throat dull white ; the fins are more or less
banded and spotted with vellow; the sides
are rough from granulated tubercles. The
length is about a foot, of which the head is
one-fourth; this is armed with spines. These
Hl-fiivored sculpins are the fiivorite food of the
Greenlanders, though rarely, if ever, eaten by
us. They are very troublesome in the fishing
grounds of the British provinces, and often
compel the vessels to remove to another place,
as experience proves that their presence drives
away all desirable fish. The bullheads are very
voracious, devouring small fish, crabs, echino-
derm^ moUusks, and almost every thing, even
decaymg matter that comes in the way. There

are several other American spedes described
by Mr. Girard. The genus eottus (Artedt,) has
but one small spine at the angle of the pre-
operculum, and sometimes another smaller, hid*
den under the skin, and perceptible only to the
touch, at the lower margin of the aubopercu*
lum ; the head is depressed, truncated in front,
and broader than nigh; mouth less deeply
deft than in acanthoeotttUy . but, like that,
having teeth on the intermaxillaries, lower
maxilUries, and front of the vomer; body
smooth, gradually tapering to the tail; second
dorsal higher than the first, ventrals with 8 or
4 soft rays ; lateral line generally interrupted.
The river bullhead {CffracUia^ Hed^eL) rarely
exceeds 8 inches in length, and is of a light
green color, with irregular dark brown blotches,
largest posteriorly; it is found in the New
England states and New York. The O. wmco-
$u$ (Hald.) is about 4 inches long, and inhabits
eastern Pennsylvania and Maryland; the color
is yellowish, clouded with black, the first dor-
sal fin being edged with a narrow line of
orange; it receives its name from the uncom-
mon sliminess of the skin ; it delights in dear
spring waters with pebbly bottoms, and lies
concealed under stones and stumps, dose to
the bottom, and, when disturbed, hastens to
a fresh cover; the eggs are laid in April and
May, in round packets about the size of an
ounce bullet, under boards and stones; it is
supposed that they are watched by the parent^
from her having been found under the same
cover. Many other species, all small, are
described by Mr. Girard as American; others
are found in the colder portions of the temper-
ate zone in Europe and Asia, at least 6; it is
probable that many have been confounded
under C. goUo (linn.). The family of cottoida
appeared on the earth some time during the
last period of the oretaceoud epodi, the genua
eoUu9 appearing in the tertiary. There la a
cottoid in the Columbia river, called the
prickly bullhead, for which Mr. Girard haa
established the genus eoUapHsy resembling the
marine spedes in its size, out the fresh-water
species in its smooth head; the body is beset
with prickles, there is one preoperoular q>ine
on each side, and the teeth of the palatio
bones are card-like; its length is from 9 to 10
inches; it is the C. aaper (Gd.). The name of
bullhead is also given to some species of o^pi-
dophorui (Lac6p.), and hemitript&nu (Ouv.)l
marine genera, extending from the New England
coast to the Greenland seas.

BULLINGEB, HEnmioa, a Swiss Protestant
theologian, bom at Bremgarten, July 18, 1504^
died in Zurich, Sept. 17, 1575. He aasodated
himself with Zwingli, and became his suooeasor
as pastor at Zurich in 1581. He took an ao»
tive part in the theological discussions of the
time, was one of the authors of the first
Hdvetic confession in 1586, and was sole an*
thor of the second Hdvetic confession. Ho
was the principal cause of the dose rela-
tions established m the reign of Edward

BUUJTT

iri:'

mdkJ^

t»r»* T-

wjWBQmm

.1 r.. if.it-Ll!,

T rif nf>.irjnaL

|!illr« 1^

i«wiitt»4^ U vvikMfin^ml ^jf a litft l^iifw

r, IM mil

It L» II Ubk^Um),

-tfa-

• i ^^ .V II.. ... I. .,-1. . „^_

,™ ... ..-U b

_ _ . dlo*iir Uii* riiriit J .%4t

BULWEB

byBoolaDdBhahnr; S. andS. W.by Goorgaon.
'Area, 190 sq. m. ; pop. about 67,000. At one
period (about 1880). during the minority of the
hereditary chie^ the tract was taken under
British management, bat was restored to the
r^jah on his coming of age, and its rektions to
the British are now bnt imperfectly nnderstood.
The annual revenue of the state is estimated at
160,000 mpees^ and the annual ezpeuditore at
130,000. The military force consists of 100
cavalry and 850 infantry. The town of Bulub-
gnrh, situated on the road from Delhi to Mut-
tra, 29 miles 8. of the former city, in a pleasant,
weU-Kmltivated country, is tolerably well built,
but amalL The streets are narrow, the houses
tall, and the temples numerous. The palace of
the r^ah is a neat edifice.

BULWER, Snt Henbt Lttton Eabu, an
English diplomatist, bom in 180^ is an elder
brother of Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton. He
was educated for publio life, and, in 1827, was
Attached to the British embassy at Berlin, and
in 1829 to the embassy at Vienna. He was
sent to Brussels in 1880, to watch the progress
of the Belgian revolution. In the same year he
was returned to Parliament for the borough of
Wilton, and in 1881 for Coventry. In 1832 he
was attached to the British embassy at Paris;
represented the metropolitan borough of Mary-
lebone from 1884 to 1837 ; was made secre*
tary of legation at Brussels in 1884, and sub-
aeqnently filled the same office at Constantino-
ple and Paris. He remained at the latter place
until 1848, when he was sent to Madrid as en-
voy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary,
where he negotiated the peace between Spain
and Morocco in 1844. During the disturbances
in Spain in 1848, he was the medium, more than
once, of conveying to Gren. Narvaez the remon-
strances of the British government on the ar-
bitrary system he was pursuing. Narvaez, who
knew his sympathy to be with the liberals, ac-
cused him of complicity in certain plots said to
be formed against the Spanish government, sent
him his passport, and insisted on his quitting
Spain. The jBritish government marked their
sense of this treatment by naming Mr. Bulwer
A kdght of the bath; by dismissing Sefior
Isturitz, the Spanish ambassador in London ;
and by withholding the appointment of an am-
bassador to Madrid for nearly 2 years, when
Lord Howden was appointed. It is said that
Karvaez eventually made an apology, the terms
of which were dictated by Lord Palmerston.
In 1848, Sir Henry Bulwer married the young-
est daughter (bom in 1817) of the first Lord
Clowley, and niece to the duke of Wellington.
In April, 1849, he was sent as ambassador to the
United States, and in that capacity negotiated
the Clayton-Bulwer treaty. He was transferred
to Tuscany in 1862, as envoy extraordinary,
and held that appointment until January, 1856.
fie was subsequently sent on a special mission
to the East, and in 1858 was appointed ambas-
sador at Constantinople. — Sir Henry Bulwer, in
parliament, was a frequent and fluent speaker,

and has always held liberal opinions. He is an
author as well as a politician, having pubMied
*^ An Autumn in Greece;^' ^* iVance, Social and
literary;*' «'The Monarchv of the Middle
Classes,'' and a '^ lifo of Lord Byron,'' prefixed
to a PiBJJs edition of the poems.

BULWER, John, eai English physician, bom
1596, died in the first part of the I7th century,
who devoted his life to the humane employ-
ment of discovering and applying means of in*
stmcting the deaf and dumb. His first works
on the art of speaking on the fingers (Chir<m<h
mia and Okirologia) appeared in 1644.

BULWER, RosiNA (Lady Btjlweb Ltttok),
bom in Ireland in loOT, married to Sir Ed-
ward (then Mr.) Bulwei^Aug. 29, 1827. She
was granddaughter of Hugh, 2d Lord Massy,
of Duntryleague, co. of limerick, Ireland, ana
only surviving daughter of Mr. Francis Wheel-
er, of Lizzard Connell, in the same place.
After living with her husband for several years,
a separation took place. Lady Bulwer Lytton,
who had decided literarv tastes, occasionally
contributed to magazines during the first years
of her wedded life. A classical sketch, in prose,
entitled " The Supper of Sallust," appeared in
an early volume of ''Eraser's Magazine." In
1889 was published her first novel, "Cheveley,
or the Man of Honor," to which have succeed-
ed "The Budget of the Bubble Family;"
" Bianca Capello," an Italian story ; " Memoirs
of a Muscovite," a tale of modem Italian life ;
" The Peer's Daughters," illustrative of the age
of Louis XV.; "Behind the Scenes^' "The
School for Husbands, or the Life and Times of
Moli^re," and " Very Successful." A new novd
from her pen appeared in 1858. Its title is,
** The World and his Wife ; or, a Person of Con-
sequence." Five of these works are vehicles,
under a very thin guise of fiction, for satire and
abuse of the author's husband, and his mother
and brother. A pamphlet, circulated during the
parliamentiu*y session of 1857, sets forth, more
plainly and particularly, the grounds, real or
assumed, of Lady Bulwer Lytton's quarrel with
and separation from her husband. On June
18, 1858, she created not a little excitement at
Hertford, by making her appearance at the
hustings, for the purpose of confronting her
husband, who was addressing his constituents.
Her historical novels, though overloaded with
(^notations in various languages, dead as well as
living, show considerable acquaintance with the
lives and characters of eminent personages, as
well as of the countries in which they lived.
Two children were the firuit of Lady Bulwer
Lytton's marriage. One of these, a daughter,
died in youth. The other, Edwabd Robest,
bom in 1881, heir to his father's title and estates,
was attached to the British embassy at Wash-
ington (under his uncle. Sir Henry Bulwer), in
1849 ; was transferred to Florence in 1852 ;
and in 1856, under the nom de plume of Owen
Meredith, published a volume entitled "Cly-
temnestra, the Earl's Daughter, and other
Poems."

^^^B^ ^^H DUIiWKR LTTTOX ^|

^M Timrm TTTTnT. Srr rw*^ Rt^.w.* ih"nut>».v.r. v*-,„rrrtf " ^'Vs r.,-. ^M

H ^ H

^^1 ^^1

^H ^ ^H

^H 1 ^H

H ^^ H

^B -K ^H

^H ^'' ^H

^H il ^H

^K ^^1

H &^ ^1

H '" ^1

^B ^' ^1

^m V ^M

^^F ^' ^^1

^H ^1

li' ■

^B y' ^M

H ^ ^M

^M A< ^H

^^B V ^^M

■ r ■

^B 1^ ■

^H 4i f^lcAdi^l H

^H li^ ^^H

H ^^" ^1

^H ^' ^^1

H K ^M

^1 *'' ^H

^^B fr.^ ^^H

^B F ^^1

^^r ''*4J i^rr-o^id 4 ^^H

^H . 4 liT i>(ii 0C4L- H

^L^gw ■

H^H 1

^^^PF* T-.-xMa^ ■

^1 e<! : l^i. if ■

^H 111 ■

^m i\: m

^M :u _^^

^H ^' ^^1

^H it> ^^H

^H 1

^^ ULgkab 1% Al tllV 4t=miJi^ M«^i>il 44' ^^^'T Ito *^ A^Mfl ^H

BUNAISOB

BUKGB

returned as member for Herta In Jime, 1858,
he became a member of the Derby cabinet as
mocessor of Lord Stanley in the office of aecre-
tary of state for the colonies.

6UKAIS0B (anc. VcmiMora), a town in
the presidency of Bengal, British India. It ia
now in rtdns, and is said to contain a great
number of temples, one of which surpasses in
size the famous temple of Jnggeruant.

BUNCOMBE. I. A county of North Caro-
lina, near the border of Tennessee ; area, 450 sq.
m., occupied in great part by mountains and val-
leys of the Appslaohian system. The Blue Ridge
is on or near the S. £. boundary. The French
Broad river is the principal stream. The soil is
fertile, and affords excellent pasturage. In the N.
W. part are celebrated warm springs. The pro-
ductions in 1850 were 487,014 bushels of Indian
corn, 27,548 of wheat, 185,804 of oats, 8,243
tons of hay, 127,677 pounds of butter, and 1,899
of tobacco. There were 86 com and flour mills,
7 saw mills, 2 newspaper offices, 44 churches,
and 4,682 pupils attending public schools. Y^ue
of real estate in 1867, $1,164,265. The county
was formed in 1791, and named in honor of CoL
Edward Buncombe, an officer of the continental
army. Pop. 18,425; 1,717 being slaves. Ashe-
ville is the capital. The ori^ of the phrase,
"talking for Buncombe,*' is thus explained:
" SeverS years ago, in congress, the member
from this district arose to address the house,
without any extraordinary powers, in manner
or matter, to interest the audience. Many
members left the hall. Very naively he told
those who remained that they might go too;
he should speak for some time, but 'he
was only talkmg for Buncombe.* '* (Wheeler's
History of N. C.) II. A north-western county
of Iowa, bordering on Kinnesota, and having
an area of 800 sq. m. The Inyan Keakah river
intersects it, and the Sioux forms its W. boun-
dary. In the E. part is Ocheyedan lake. The
county is not included in the census of 1856.

BUNDEI.OUND, or the Bundela Couhtey,
an extensive province of Hindostan, between lat
28° 52' and 26° 26^N., long. 77° 58' and 81<» 89'
E. Area, 18,099 sq. m. ; population, 2,260,714
It comprises the British districts of Bandah,
Hummerpoor and Calpee, Jaloun. Jeitpoor,*
Churgaon, Duboi, and Gurota, ana a number
of petty native i^tes and jaghires. all under
British protection. Up to 1857, it was in-
cluded in the North- West Provinces, but on
the overthrow of the lieutenant-governor's
authority by the sepoy revolt, it was erected,
with Goruckpoor, Benares, Allahabad, the
Lower Doab, and Saugor, into a new govern-
ment called the Central Provinces, of which
Mr. Grant, a member of the supreme council,
was appointed lieut.-govemor. It is a hOly
country, traversed by the 8 ranges of the Bindy-
achal, Bandair, and Punna, the last of which is
rich in diamonds and coaL From these moun-
tains flow numerous rivers, including the Bet-
wah, Desan, and Cane, all affluents of the Jnm-
na, which flows along the N. £. boundary. The

eoU produced almost every kind of grain and
^it known in India. The climate is healthy
in some places, but in others, chiefly in the W^
is fatal to Europeans. The chief towns are Oal-
pee, Bandah, Jhansi, Duttea, Oorcha, Jaloon,
and Callinger. — The earliest dominant power in
Bundelcund, of which there is certain record, is
that of the Chundel Rt^poots, from the 9th to
the 12th century. Under them the country
reached its culminating point of prosperity, and
on their decline was occupied by the Bnndelas,
a branch of the GarwhA tribe of Bi^poota.
About 1784 the district of Jhansi and a third
part of eastern Bundelcund were made over to
the peishwa, in consideration of services ren-
dered by him in a contest with the emperor of
Delhi. The remainder of the country gradually
became divided into petty chi^tainships ; inces-
sant wars naturally followed; and in 1792 tJie
Mahrattas made a partially snccessful attempt
to subjugate the entire territory. Soon aftw,
the peishwa ceded to the British the districts of
Hummerpoor and Bandah, and in 1817 by the
treaty of Poonah made over to them aU his re-
maining possessions in Bundelcund. The power
of the East India company was not established
in the ceded districts wifiiout much resistance
from the secondary chieftains, but after ^eir
pacification the country remiuned comparatively
tranquil until 1857. It was seriously c2Sected 1^
the sepoy rebellion, though the native princes
are said to have generally sided with the British.
Mutinies took place at Jhansi (June 4), Now-
gong (June 10), and Bandah (tfune 14). The
rising at the first of tiiese places was attended
with the massacre of about 70 Europeans, among
whom were 19 women and 28 children. The
Europeans at Nowgong escaped by fli^t, and
those at Bandah were protected by the nawanb
of that place, a titular prince who receives a
pension n'om the E. I. company. Sir Hugh Boee •
recaptured Bandah, Jan. 81, 1858, and stormed
Jhansi, after a siege of 12 days, April 4. Cur
latest accounts (July, 1858) left him marching
toward Calpee, where the sepoys had meanwhile
been gathering in great force. He was opposed
on the route by a body of 7,000, commanded by
the ranee of Jhansi and a brother of the Kena
8ahib, whom he defeated in a pitched battle.

BUND-EMIR, or Bund-Emser (anc. Arcam)^
a Persian river, rapid and apt to inundate its
banks. It is 150 miles long, and empties into
Lake Bakhtegan.

BUNGE, Alexandsb, a Russian botanist and
traveller, bom at Kiev, Sept. 24, 1808. He
was educated at Dorpat, and after taking ^e
degree of M. D., in 1825, he travelled in Si-
beria and the eastern part of the Altai moun-
tains, and then joined the mission of tbe
academy of St. Petersburg to Pekin. He re-
mained 8 months at Pelon, and procured an
extensive herbarium. In 1888, by invitation
of the academy of St: Petersburg, he made a
second Asiatic Journey, and in 1886 settled as
professor of botany at Dorpat His prindpal
pablicatioiiB are catalogues of. the plants which

BiTmov

BUHffKEllILL

fiij L^I !i)^rti#J \}.u Aft I

1.1

til.

tk4l;

If. I

111 -1 »^-

•»n fill M» 1 ^l I i h 4 n

jji ui|{l»|, and fiQ^

tto

... liOL, iud oil llf' k(^
<i( liipcUii^ a fijitilixmtiiiD

_l LTiV*!! tlL tt/l tiV lilt Ju^

.</, 43l«tiC| «U^ «IMt «k»«« ^}t^£L mts^Lim^ taikk lini «tMl# yf

100

BUNEEB TTTTX

Boston annoimoed im {mpencUng Attack, Pres-
oott repeatedly sent messages to Cambridge
asking for reinforcements and provisions, and
Putnam went in person to urge the exigencies
of the case. Yet Ward hesitated to expose his
stores and to risk a general engagement by
weakening his main body, and it was not till
11 o'clock that orders from him reached Stark
at Medford to advance to the relief of Prescott
This veteran was at the head of 600 New
Hampshire troops, and wisely and warily led
them on at a moderate pace, determined to
bring them fresh into battle. He appeared on
the heights at about 2 o'clock, and took his
position on the left to maintain the rustic bul-
wark which reached toward the Mystic. At
the same time Warren arrived, and after de-
clining the command, which was tendered to
him by Putnam at the rdl fence, and by Prescott
on Breed's hill, entered the redoubt as a volun-
teer, and was cheered by the troops as he
aelected the place of greatest danger and im-
portance.— ^Already the British army of assault
had landed. Gen. Gage had decided, in oppo-
aition to a m^ority of his council, to attack the
Americans in front instead of in rear, in the
conviction that raw militia would flee before an
assault of veterans. At about 1 o'clock, in
plain sight of the Americans, 28 boats and
Darges, containing 4 regiments of infantry, 10
companies of grenadiers, 10 of light infantry,
and a proportion of field artillery, in all about
2,000 men, bore away from Boston under cover
of a heavy fire from the ships in the harbor,
and landed without opposition at Moul ton's
Point, a little to the north of Breed's hill. Gen.
Howe commanded the right wing, which was
to push along the bank of the Mystio river, and
attempt to force the rail fence, and so to out-
flank and surround the whole American party ;
Gen. Pigot commanded the left wiug, which
was to mount the hill and force the redoubt.
Refinforcements were on their way toward the
American lines during the whole day, but the
whole number who arrived in time to take part
in the action did not exceed 1,600 men. Pres-
oott commanded upon the redoubt, EInowlton
and Stark on the left, and Putnam was active
and efficient, in various ways, now planning ad<^
ditional fortifications on Bunker hill, now scour-
ing the whole peninsula to hurry up reinforce-
ments, and now mingling with, encouraging, and
threatening the men at tibe rail fence. Tho
S columns of the British, after partfi^g of
refreshments, advanced to a simultaneoua as-
sault at a little after 2i o'clock. With their
scarlet nniforms and flashing armor they pre-
sented a formidable appearance, and Gen. Pig-
ot's division ascended the hill in good order,
discharging their musketry, and gaUed only by
a flanking fire from the Americans in Oharles-
town. The men in the redoubt, obedient to
the strict command of Ptescott, withheld theur
fire till the enemy had approached within 8
rods, when a tremendous volley was discharged,
and nearly the whole front rank of the British

ML The assailants, recoiling for a moment,
again advanced, and were met by a second
volley more effective than the first The
Americans were all marksmen, and for a few
minutes an nnremitting fire was kept np be-
tween the 2 armies, tiU the British staggered
and retreated in disorder, some of them even
to their boats. Gen. Howe's division had in
like manner moved gallantly forward, been re-
ceived at the distance of 9 rods by a sheeted
and deadly fire from the whole line of the rail
fence, and forced after a struggle into con-
fusion and a precipitate retreat The mo-
ments following this first check given by New
England husbandmen to the veteran battalions
of the mother country, were employed by the
American officers in cheering and praising the
men. Meantime Oharlestown neck, over which
recruits were hunying to the action, was raked
by an unceasing (tischarge of balls and bomb
shells from the neighboring British batteries and
ships; the village of Gharlestown, from which
so much annoyance had been experienced
in the first attack, was set on fire by shells
thrown from Oopp's hill, and its 600 wooden
edificea burst into a blaze; and while tho
thunder of artillery, the cracking of bomb
shells, the dense volumes of flame and smoke,
the crash of burning buildings, and the shouts
of the combatants, made a scene than which,
wrote Burgoyne, ^nothing ever has or ever
can be more dreadfully terrible," the British
began their second attempt to storm the re-
doubt, flring musket shots as they ascended the
hiU. The Americans reserved their fire till the
enemy was within 6 rods, and then a volley
aimed with the fatal skill of sharp-shooters did
its accustomed execution. The British, how-
ever, pressed boldly forward in the foce of a
continuous stream of fire, but staggered before
reaching the redoubt, and in spite of the re-
monstrance threats, and even blows of the
officers, again gave way, and retreated in greater
confusion than before, leaving some of thdr
dead within a few vards of the works. The
grass fence on the left was at the same time
maintained against Gen. Howe, whose division
suffered severely in loss of men and officers.
The crowd of spectators on the opposite shore
beheld with astonishment the successful stand
of raw militia against veteran regulars, and
the British soldiery in Boston regarded with
consternation the convoys of wounded which
were brought back to the town. Gen. Glinton,
who from Oopp's hiU had watehed the action,
now hurried over as a volunteer with reinforce-
ments. The terrible scene was new to the
American troops, but they answered with cheers
when Prescott cried, " If we drive them back
once more, they cannot rally again." It was
now discovered that the ammunition was nearly
exhausted, and when the engagement was re-
newed the Americans had each only from 1 to
4 charges of powder left, and not more than 60
bayonets in all. The British advanced in 8
divisionB, from the south, east^ and north-east,

HfTll Wlt-'t* I'tn^

Hm f-ffti«^ !iN^i ttt fi t^mmitrf \iftm**»llnM7 nfitl»»r IW

1
1

h
t

r
ij
11
IT

I.
ii

J, tittinai^ ik i^ari til i^v

to U<

%i;4*iir^ *u^ir<4r^ .rt ,;vt -'.i-tj,!! I^^. (■* ^ijuii vl i'n>* ''^ij 1» uju, TfL_rc t-^urc,'u vj Uit yj*^ </rj^-

BUKBEN

BUNTma

ing his BojoTxrn in the centre of Hie Boman
vorld. When, in 18S4, Niebnhr resigned his
diplomatio position, Hansen was made charg6
d*a£ElureSy and in 1827 minister of Prussia near
the holy see. When the European powers
sought to bring the affairs of Borne into order,
Bunsen elaborated for the conferences the so-
called memorandum del Maggio, He had ob-
tained from Pope Leo XII. the celebrated brief
regulating mixed marriages ; but when Gregory
XYI. succeeded Leo, a different view of the
dubject was taken at the Vatican; and then
began in Germany, Poland, and aU semi-Oatho-
lie and semi-Protestant countries, a series of
dissensions between the state and the clergy,
a contest which ended in the imprisonment of
several bishops. Bunsen, being unsuccessfbl in
his efforts to change the ooinion of the pope,
gave np hb diplomatio position in Bome in
1837, and in 1838 became Prussian minister tO
the Swiss federation. In 1841 he was sent to
England to take measures for the erection of a
Protestant bishopric in Jerusalem, and soon af-
ter was made ambassador at tlie court of St.
James. From England he several times visited
Berlin ; and in 1844 at the request of the king
of Ftussia, presented several memoirs and pro-
jects concerning the introduction into Prussia
of a representative form of government, model*
led as far as possible on the English standard.
After the outbreak in 1848 Bunsen strong-
ly favored the cause of Schleswig-Holstein
against Denmark, and published a pamphlet in
English, under the title, " Memoir on the Con-
stitutional Bights of the Duchies of Schleswig
and Holstein, presented to Viscount Palmerston
April 8, 1848.^' Hia oonvictioas, and the in-
fluence of his name, were on the side of the
efforts made by the diet in Frankfort for the
union of G^ermany under the king of Prussiai
as emperor, and he supported this move-
ment in severid pamphlets. In 1849, in the
name of Prussia, he participated in the con-
ferences at London, and protested in 1850
against the decisions of the London proto-
col, which in thename of England, France, Aus-
tria, and Busna, settled the question of Schles-
wig, as he contended, contnuy to the interests
of Germany. At the beginning of the eastern
war, Bunsen*s sympathies were with the west-
ern allies, contrary to the wUl and opinion of
the cabinet which he represented at London.
This fact, and his oi^>osition to the pietistio
turn of Uie Prussian court and government^
weakened the fiivor which for more than 20
years he hod enjoyed with the king of Prussia.
Toward 1858 he fell into disgrace, resigned his
diplomatio functions, and retired to an active
and studious private life. He established him-
self in the city of Heidelberg, whose univer-
sity, for centuries the stronghold of Protestant-
ism, was at the beginning of 1848 the focus of
moderate liberal ideas. Bunsen holds there
the position of a leader and champion of the
freedom of the Christian church; opposing
itemly all limitations of religions liberty, wheth-

er exercised by Boman or Lutheran, by the
sacerdotal or civil powers. The most recent of
his publications of this character is entitled
«*Signsof the Times" (Leipsic, 1855-'56, 3 vols.),
which was followed by " God in History," in
1857. During this period he refhsed the offer
of the citizens of Magdeburg to elect him
to the Prussian chamber of deputies.— Bun-
sen's literarv activity has been displayed in
various intellectual fields. During his residence
in Bome, in conjunction with Niebuhr, he stud-
led Boman antiquities, and made various histori-
cal researches upon the philosophy of language
and religion, and thdr influence in the world's
history. He united the study of Platens phi-
losophy with Biblical and liturgical studies, and
with researches in the history of Christianity.
In 1826, under ChampoUion, who was then at
Bome, he studied the Egyptian hieroglyphics.
As the result of these labors we have tne great
work, "Egypt's Place in Universal History*'
(Hamburg and Gdttingen, 1845-'57, 6 vols.),
a book divided into 6 parts, each compos-
ing a distinct whole. Most or his other pub-
lications bear on theologies and political
questions. Among them ^**Hippolytus and his
Times, or the Life and the Teaching of the Bo-
man Church imder the Emperors Commodus and
Alex&nder Severus'' (Leipsic, 1853, 2 vols.), is
considered one of the most eminent productions
of the present epoch in the field of theological
literature. Fr^m the press of Brockhaus, of
Leipsic, appeared in the early part of 1858 the
first semi-volume of his " Complete Bible- work
for thie Christian Community^' {VolUWidigee
Biheltoerh far die Oemeinde), This compre-
hensive work, which has engaged Chevalier
Bunsen's attention for many years, will be
brought out in 8 great divisions, the 1st di-
vision in 4, the 2d in 8 volumes, and the 8d
division in 1, altogether in 8 volumes, which
will be issued at the rate of 4 semi-volumes a
year, so as to complete the entire publication
in 4 years, from 1858 to 1862. The 1st division
will contain the translation and exposition of the
Bible, viz. : the Law, the Prophets, and other
books of the Old Testament, and the books of
the New Testament, with copious explanatory
notes accompanying the translated text. The 2d
division will be a continuation and completi<»i of
the first, under the title of ^^ Bible Texts his-
torically arranged and explained." The 3d di-
vision, under the titles, "Bible History," the
"Everlasting Kingdom of God," "life of Jesus,*'
Ac., will present a consideration of the great
events and personages of the old and new
covenants. The author states that the trans-
lation will aim at presenting a dose but im-
proved rendering of the original text, and at
producing a work which ^aU not only prove
useful to theologians and scholars, but to the
people at large.

BUNTING, a name given to several birds of
the order jpowerei, tribe conirostra^ family frin-
aillidm^ and snh-family embermna ; character-
ized by an acute conical bill, with a strught or

• iiousia

fAS

' I'l-^UJ «ij«i*

1 ' - J -- *-J

■(^

ra I..J ■» in-Ill-' ilv^l:i'_' s r-iiji+t-i nxiJ^r- .ti

iwj of ni«if9fiv

.\h^ imm Mia*

ly^jU' V *>v»^B^C V"* %.'i.C

^i^^ » inL» «**&-'- » *«*fc !% TT l*t:*# #1"*

it^t-^K UtiV %AdlPJ|f»:J

104

BU5TAN

BUOL-SCIIAUENS:ftlN

obloqny and accnsed of tie yery vices which he
had laid to his own charge, Le indignant!/ de-
fended himself and denied the truth of the
allegations. There is no good reason to believe
that his early manhood was stained with gross
impnrity, and a careful reading of his cnriona
antobiography, ^* Grace abounding to the Chief
of Sinners,^' will convince the student that he
only adopts the extravagant style of the Puri-
tans. He acknowledges a habit of profane
Bwearing, but says that he was cured of this by
a single well-timed rebuke. He appears to have
been very fond of playing at tip-cat, and dan-
cing on the village green, as well as ringing the
church bells. Ah these amusements he in time
caine to look npon as sinful, and bemoaned
as if he had committed irreparable eviL At
the age of 17 he enlisted in the parliamentary
army, but all that is known of this part of his
career is, that he was present at the siege of
Leicester, and escaped death by permitting a
fellow-soldier to take his place as a sentinel, and
thereby lose his life. Bunyan always regarded
this as a direct interposition of Providence. His
military experience was eventually reproduced
in his writings, especially in his " Holy "War,"
written after the completion of the " Pilgrim's
Progress.'' Soon after the campaign of 1645
he returned home and married one as poor as
himself. He now partook of that religious
enthusiasm which was spreading all over the
land ; and he became distressed by doubts re-
garding the safety of his soul, and suffered all
the horrors experienced by those who imagine
themselves forever shut out from the mercy of
God, and given up to the powers of hell. Dur-
ing the year which he assigns as the period of
his greatest terrors, his sufferings were extreme.
Now he would imagine that only the Jews could
be saved, and again that the Turks and not the
Christians were true believers. At last his mind
became more quiet, his soul was gradually com-
forted, and he began to preach to the poor peo-
gle of Bedford. He had been 5 years engaged
1 this occupation, when the restoration placed
power in the hands of the cavaliers, and in
common with many he was imprisoned. In
Bedford gaol, the place of his incarceration,
he remained upward of 12 years. His faith
was put to the trial many times, as he was
constantly told that if he would give up preach-
ing he should at once be set at liberty, yet he
always answered: "If you let me go to-day, I
will preach again to-morrow." Nothing could
shake his resolution, neither sneers, nor tnreats,
nor his own health, nor the condition of his
family suffering from poverty. Not being able
to work at his old trade of a tinker, he made
tagged laces to support himself, wife, and chil-
dren, one of whom nad been blind from her birth.
These laces were furnished to peddlers, and while
employed in this mechanical way, he neglected
no opportunity of preaching to the prisoners.
He had a most intimate knowledge of the Bible,
which, with Fox's " Book of Martyrs," was a
constant companion, and such hours as he could

devote to composition, were now ffl>ent in relig-
ious writing, many of his papers being against
the Quakers, whom he cordially disliked. The
misery of his family, and his own oonrage,
at last prevailed with those in power j the rigor
of his confinement was relaxed, and m 1671 he
was freed altogether. In 1678 he pubhahed the
1st part of his " Pilgrim's Progress," only one
perfect copy of which is known. To the cor-
rector of the press he is indebted for a little im-
provement in the syntax and gelling, but not a
single scene or line of that immortal work was
suggested to him by others. When he had en-
tirely completed the 1st part, he showed it to
some of his friends, and was generally annoyed
by their criticisms, they being divided in senti-
ment whether it should appear or not ; but he
finally wisely decided to publish it At first it
reached but a small class of the community, al-
though hailed by them with delight; but in the
same year a 2d edition was publiSied with great
success. From 10 to 15 editions were issued dur-
ing the author's life, and he had the satisfaction
of knowing that his work was read and re-read
by hundreds of thousands in England, Bcotland,
among the Protestants of HoU^d, tlie Hugue-
nots of France, and the settlers of New England.
In 1684 he published the 2d part of it, and
• soon afterward his ^^ Holy War," now little read.
He continued to preach without further moles-
tation, and every year made a journey to Lon-
don, where he drew together at all times a
large concourse to listen to his sermons. In the
summer of 1688 he took cold from riding in a
heavy rain after a benevolent visit to reconcile
an angry father to his son. He died at his
lodgings in Snowhill, and was buried in the
grave-yard of Bunhill-fields, London. His
great fame rests upon his " Pilgrim's Progress."
Of this the editions have been almost innu-
merable, as well as its imitations. Yet fascinat-
ing as it is to the young and old, learned and un-
learned alike, for full 100 years it was cherished
by the lowly and obscure before its merits were
appreciated by the great. No estimate can be
formed of the good it has accomplished, or the
number of pilgrims its examples have cheered
and sustained in their journey through life.
The story of Christian, his despair and struffgles,
his escape from his neighbors Pliable and Ob^
stinate, his contempt for the counsels of Mr.
Worldly Wiseman, who dwelt in the town of
Carnal Policy and went to church in Morality,
his meetings at the wicket-gate and the house
Beautiful, his dreadful fight with ApoUyon, his
passage through the valley of the Shadow of
beath, and, in truth, the whole of his trium-
phant pilgrimage, will ever charm the reader,
from one gifted with the world-wide genius of
Bacon, to the humblest rustic, *^ never heard of
half a mile from homo." — ^Robebt, the last male
lineal descendant of John Bunyan, bom in 1775,
died at Lincolin, England, Nov. 27, 1856.

BUOL-SCHAUENSTEIN, Kabl FBBDiNAin>,
count, an Austrian statesman, born May 17,
1797, has been successively ambassador at btutt-

mmr* ^ .t9f.w^ A«b^1 '. - i1[^v»<« I i aria ji r ^ |i

BrntBAGC

^ xTfrrrL

r\T»ftMn«|»fll»l,

f ♦fmnf trf

U.V J lil» V Ui'-^J JiUI'VillUt' I ^''

.'!.^ . ,,1. ,1 fr,*rr, .1,

ffUStl

nrvtAiri

-4ilfi;>|' Ui ^ttnl^iiim t^l^*^ A^

T \ (Hf. ^.i^*i.-^.i^ nT-V-7t!FTr), im ■

\ ma t««M |f«it IJD 's>a*l^c lU ft^ tlk^- i£3t«irpi ftuiik ti4« <ir t ali i?ijumii|47t«f^ vaUiiFrf

1«6

BUBBSOK

BUBOKHABDT

hj whom li&B name is inddentallr mentioned.
A contemporary epitaph, in vhion he is mach
praised, is extant In 1608 he was one of the ac-
tors to whom, in company with William Shake-
speare, a license was granted hy James L

BUKBECK, HsNBT, an ofScer in the Ameri*
can revolution, bom in Boston, June 8, 1754,
died at New London, Oonn., Oct 2, 1848. He
joined the American army at the breaking out of
the war, and received a commission as lieutenant.
In 1777 he was made captain in a regiment of
artillery in the Massachusetts line. He was
with the army at Cambridge, was employed
near New York till the British evacuated that
city, was in the army of Pennsylvania under
Washington, and shared in the conflicts of
Brandy wine and Germantown^ in the winter's
sufferings at Valley Forge, m the perilous
retreat through New Jersey, and in the battle
of Monmouth. He retired at the dose of the
war with the brevet rank of ni^'or. Snbse-

?uently he engaged under Gen. Wayne in the
ndian wars on the western frontier, and for 4
years held command of Fort Mackinaw. In the
war of 1812 with Great Britain, he held the
rank of brevet brigadier-general.

BUBOKHAKDT, JoHAmsr Kabl, a German
astronomer, bom at Leipsio, April 80, 1773, died
in Paris, June 21, 1826. He was educated in
practical astronomy under Zach at Gotba, by
whom he was recommended in 1797 to Ldlande
at PariS| where he was appointed in 1799 ad-
junct professor in the bureau of longitudes, and
after the death of Lalande, in 1807, became
director of the observatory of the military
schooL He distinguished himself by his calcu-
lations of the orbits of comets, translated into
German the first 2 volumes of the Meeanique
eeUsU of Laplace, published many astronomi-
cal tables, and wrote valuable memoirs for the
academy of sciences.

BURCKHABDT, Johann Ludwio, a Swiss
traveller, bora at Lausanne, Nov. 24^ 1784^ died
in Cairo, Oct. 17, 1617. He was descended from
a patrician family of Basel, and after studying
at Leipsio and Gdttingen, went to England in
July, 1806, where he formed the acquaintance
of Sir Joseph Banks, and embraced the plan
which the latter suggested of exploring the in-
terior of Africa. He passed the next 2 or 8
▼ears in gaining a knowledge of the Arabio
language, and on March 2, 1809, sailed for the
Medflcffranean, arriving at Malta in April, and
there assumed the disguise of a Mohfunmedan
merchant Thence he sailed for Syria, and on
arriving on its coast Joined a caravan and forth-
with proceeded to Aleppo, where he made a
protracted stay, engaged with his Arabic studies^
and in gaining such a knowledge of the eastern
character and customs, that afterward in times
of trial and danger, when he was suspected of
being a spy^ he was enabled to pass not only as a
true but as a learned Mussulman. In July, 1810,
be left Aleppo on a journey to Palmyra, thenoe
through the country of the Hanran to Damas-
ons. He visited the fiunons minS| but was pre-

vented from at once going to the E^mraa bj
the treachery of the Arabs, although he re-
mained 6 weeks in Damascus, and went to
Lebanon, the territory of the Druses, Mount
Hermon, and other places in Syri^ He then
in a fatiguing journey of 26 days explored this
obscure countnr of the Hanran, the Huranitis of
the Bomans, nnding many vestiges of ancient
cities and Greek inscriptions, some of which
dated as far back as the reign of Trajan and
Marcus Anrelius. In Jan. 1811. he undertook
excursions into the desert toward the Euphrates,
and on one of these occasions was robbed,
stripped to the skin, and failed in accomplishing
any of the objects of his journey. In Feb. ho
again repaired to Damascus, made another
journey into the Hauran, transmitted an ac-
count of his discoveries there to England, and
on June 18 departed for the Dead sea. He
explored its eastern shores, visiting many places
Celebrated in the Old Testament, and afterward
the ruins of the city of Petra, which had not
been visited by any modem European before
himself Proceeding toward Akaba, he joined
a snudl caravan, crossed the desert of £1 Jih.
and passing a short distance to the north ^
Suez, journeyed on to Cairo. His first employ-
ment at Cairo was to draw up a detailed account
of his journey through Arabia PetrsBa ; and then
he turned his attention to an exploration of the
interior of Africa. Finding no opportunity, he
made a journey into Nubia, visiting the princi-
pal mins of the Kile ; he visited and described
tlie mi^estio temple of Aboo Sambool, which was
afterward opened by Belzoni. On March 2,
1814, he joined at Esneh a caravan of about 60
slave merchants, and after suffering innumer-
able trials and privations, he arrived on June
26 at Suakin on the Bed sea, where he took
passage for Jiddah, landing there on July 18.
His funds becoming exhausted, he determined
to make a direct application to Mehemet All,
then at Jayef, to learn whether he would accept
a bill upon Burckhardt^s correspondent at Cairo,
and order his treasurer at Jiddah to pay it. This
application was made through the pasha's Ar-
menian physician, and before the result could
be known to Burckhardt^ Mehemet Ali, acci-
dentally hearing of his condition, despatched a
messenger to him with a sum of money, request-
ing him to repair at Tayef. Burckhardt at once
obeyed the command, and on being presented
to Mehemet Ali, Burckhardt clearly perceived
that he was regarded by him as a spy of the
English government, although he was well re-
ceived by the pasha, and eventually obtained
his permission to visit Mecca during the last days
of the month of Ramadan. Accordingly, on
Sept. 7, he departed with other pilgrims for the
holy dty, and arrived at Mecca 2 days after-
ward. Thenoe he went to Jiddah to oom-
plete the purchase of his travelUnff equipments,
and returned to Mecca about the middle of
October. After witnessing the gorgeous pa-
geant and the religious services of the great pil-
grimage of Arafat^ he visited Memnai and

■

1 BUEiiesr "

' IIUUUEM

^H|

r #> »■-..«,,. 1 . . 1. _ , .... -. # . -.*,..

^^^^H

BiT^

^1 t^.

^m i^

^^H

■ 111

■ h

1 £JL^ kb iluMh ki

^m <f]>.

. - f .. .1 *. . J

■ 5

^B tFT

^H i^'

^H tn.

^^H

■

^k n^.

^1 tU:

H ^*

^^H

^H fr

^^1

^1 Qi.

^^^M

^M hi''

4f^ ^M

L-]_IM|MM

lUlfDilli

lIm« Iff*

' 1

■P

1 iiif t4^

108

BUBDETI

BUSDWAK

. wound reeeived in a dnel with Mr. Panl (who
waB also woimded and also went to the poll),
and was elected with Lord Oochrane. He con*
tinned to sit for Westminster for the next 80
Tears. In 1809 he made strong, not to say vio-
lent, speeches in the honse of commons in advo-
cacy of parliamentary reform. Early in 1810 he
presented, and forcibly supported, a petition from
his constituents in fi&vor of the same measure.
In Feb. of that year John Grale Jones, a popular
dedaimer at reform meetings in London, hav-
ing impugned tlie conduct and motives of the
house of commons, was conmiitted to New-

gate by that assembly. Immediately afterward
ir Francis Burdett addressed a letter to
his own constituents, in which he denied the
power of the hou^ of commons to imprison de-
Bnquents, and condemned their treatment of
Gale Jones. This letter was published in
Cobbett's "Political Register" on March 24,
1810, and after a warm debate (April 6) the
house of commons voted it to be "a Hbel-
lous and scandalous paper," and the apprehen-
sion of the writer was ordered. Maintain-
ing that the speaker's warrant was illegal,
he barricaded his house and was besieged for 2
davs, when the sergeant-at-arms, assisted by
police and military, forcibly entered and con-
veyed Sir Francis to the tower. Prior to this,
riots had commenced in the neighborhood of
his house, and the military had fired upon and
wounded many of the people. On the return
of the soldiers firom escortiug Sir Francis to the
tower, the mob assailed them; the soldiers fired
their carbines, and shot one man dead, beside
wounding several others. Sir Francis remained
in the tower, however, until the prorogation
of parliament in June, 1810, when his impris-
onment expired as a matter of course. He
afterward brought actions against the speaker
for having ordered his arrest with forcible en-
try into his house, against the sergeant-at-arms
for having executed the speaker's warrant, and
against the lieutenant of the tower for holding
him in custody, but was unsuoccssfuL In suc-
ceeding sessions he contended that taxation
without representation was a fraud on the public.
He also opposed the suspension of the habeas cor-
pus act, and supported Catholic emancipation.
In 1819 he was prosecuted by the attorney-gen-
eral for a letter condemning the proceedings of
the Lancashire magistrates and yeomanry at the
** Manchester massacre," and in March, 1820, a
Leicestershire jury declared this missive to be a
seditious libeL His sentence was 8 months'
imprisonment and a fine of £1,000. The bank
note which he thus paid away is still pre-
served in the bank of England, with an inscrip-
tion in Burdett's own writing that to save his
life, which further imprisonment threatened to
destroy, he submitted to be robbed. He support-
ed the cause of Queen Caroline; brought in, and
carried through tlie commons, a Catholic eman-
cipation bill; supported chancery reform ; op-
posed the com laws ; steadily adhered to Mr.
Canning during his brief premiership, in 1827;

aided Peel and Wellhigton in passiDg the Cath-
olic relief bill of 1829 ; and strennoudy support-
ed Lord Grey in the reform bill and the iboii*
tion of slavery. Aristocratio by birth, rank,
property, and connections, he became angry
with Lord Melbourne for maintaining a com-
pact, expressed or implied, with Mr. 0*Con-
nell, and even made a motion in Brookes's
dub for Melbourne's expulsion. His West-
minster constituents, after 80 years' reliance
upon him, sent him a requisition to resign
his seat in parliament He complied, again
became a candidate (though with an avowed
change in his politics), and, between distrust in
Lord Melbourne and abidixig popularity on per-
sonal grounds, was reelected, after a dose contest.
He made a tour through the north of England
in the course of that year (1887), avowing de-
cided tory opinions. At the next election he waa
returned as member for North Wiltshire, where
he had large estates, and held that seat until lua
death. At one period of his life Sir Francia
Burdett lent £1,000 to Mr. Cobbett, which sum
was never repaid, Cobbett declaring (in a letter
from Long Island in Nov. 1817) that prindple
forbade his paying money to any English sub-
ject, as he had been badly used by the English
government. — ^In person Burdett was thin, and
almost invariably wore the costume (buckskins
and top boots) of an English fox hunter. The
best portrait of him was riven by Hay ter in his
^ Passing of the Reform BilL" He waa a fluent
and earnest, rather than an eloquent speaker,
and was fond of quotations from the olasacs.
Parliamentary reform was the great purpose of
his life, and when that was granted, in 1882, he
considered all beyond that as advancing into
revolution. Napoleon stated at St. Helena that
if he had carriea out his intention of invading
England, it was his purpose, had he succeeded, to
proclaim a republic in London and establish Sir
rrancis Burdett, as a popular idol, at its head.
On the death of Mrs. Coutts (duchess of St.
Albans), his daughter, Angela Georgiana, bom
April 26, 1814, inherited her vast property,
assumed the name of her benefactor, and, as
Miss Burdett Coutts, became equally distin-
guished for her wealth and the liberal use of it.

BUEDON, WiLLiAii, an English writer on
philosophical subjects. His work, entitled
" Materials for Thinking," supplied Colton with
many of the materials of his ** Lacon." He also
published ^^ Thoughts on Politics, Morality, and
Literature." He died in 1818.

BURDWAN, a district of British India, en-
dosed by the districts of Beerbhoom, Nuddea,
Hoogly, and Bancora ; area. 2,224 sq. m. ; pop.
1,854,152. It is a rich, level country, abundant-
ly watered by the Ha^jee, Dummodah, Bhagmt-
tee, &c., but subject to inundations. The climate
is sultry but healthy. The lands are highly culti-
vated, and produce sugar, indigo, tobacco, cot-
ton, rice, potatoes, betel, &c. Sogar refining is
extensively and skilfully carried on. Coal and
iron are found in considerable quantity and ex*
ported to Calcutta, but a large part of then

OtfOSUB

VDmta

MIk il.i^iufi lu

irT^rrrr

ir fTt

^ t-^\-ffy 'if

^7C Ui'J b«lMl*^ 'if

■iC'-UJ'^ ■*> '.1 *

'^ftinvd npuQ hum

Ws fit

' 1 lilt ri>rFLUit'.fi iTfjj-

9 «|niU tUlitOllUlUj.

I Jin Si iVOfUpivif c^MU^ V%^ ii^

110

BUBOES

and oihen, with whom he formed the lomantic
Bdinbund^ and pimoed the Atady of foreign
poetrjr, both ancient and modem. There he
wrote his popular ballad Zenore^ which made
him one of the favorites of the Qerman nation.
In 1772 he obtained a small office, and his grand-
iatber now assisted him with monej ; but a part
of this was embezzled, and a series of bitter
embarrassments followed. Love and marriage
however, were the chief sources of grief and
aofferings for the poet. Three times married,
his ooi^jagai life was destroyed by romantio
passion, death, and divorce. Appointed at
66ttingen as professor without saliuy, he kbor-
ed by writing and translating to earn bread for
his children, and even the consolations of poe-
try and fame were envenomed by the severe
criticism of Schiller. Death, however, soon
gave him rest. His poetical works are distin-
guished by genial force and melodious versifica-
tion. They bear the stamp of an ardent and
passionate, but honest soul. Schiller found
them wanting in the ideal element His Lenore^
Lied, torn hrawm Mdnne, &c.. rank among the
best productions of their kind. Renowned
authors of other countries^ among others
Walter Scott and the great Polish poet Mic-
kiewicz« in his beautiful Ucucghoy have imitated
him.— -His first wife died in 1784. BOrger
married then her sister Holly, who had been
long before the object of his devoted love, and
whom he celebrated with poetical enthusiasm
in his writings. Molly died in 1766.— Elisx
BuBOXB (Maria Christine Elizabeth Hahn), the
poet's third wife, born in Stuttgart, Nov. 19,
1769, died in Frankfort-on-the-Main, Nov. 24^
1833. Fascinated with BOrger's genius, she
addressed ^ poem to him expressive of her love
and admiration. They were married in 1790,
but divorced 3 years afterward. Elise was as
brilliant as she was sentimental, became in
turns actress and improvisatrice, and wrote
aeverol dramas, a novel, and a volume of poetry.
BUEGES, Tbistam, an American statesman
and orator, bom in Rochester, Mass., Feb.
26, 1770, died in Providence, R. I., Oct. 13,
1853. His father, John Burgea, entered the
army as a lieutenant in 1775, with the inteption
of remaining in it during the war. but a severe
illness, from which he never fuUy recovered,
obliged him to resign in a few months. He
was a farmer of moderate means^ and in winter
worked at his trade as a cooper. With a large
fkmily of 3 sons and 6 daughters, and at a pe-
riod when schools, even in New England, were
few, he was unable to give his ohildren the ad-
vantages of an early education* Tristam, the
youngest of the sons, was obliged to assist his
father on the farm and in the eooper's shop. His
eldest sister taught him to read, his father in-
structed him in writing and arithmetic, and
£rom a friendly sea-captain he learned a little
navigation. When 15 years old he attended a
Bchool in the vicinky for 6 weeks, and again
the next year for 6 weeks more. This was all
the instruction he received firom others until

he reached the age of 21. But he waa a great

reader, perusing every book within his reach,
and devoting his leisure hours to composition
and other modes of self-improvement. At 21
he commenced the study of medicine, and en-
tered the academy at Wrentham, Mass., to pre-
pare for college. A severe illness soon obliged
nim to leave this situation, but his determina-
tion to acquire a liberal education could not he
repressed. He returned to the academy in the
autumn, and was again called home by the
death of his father. With ri^^d economy, and
by teaching school a few months in the winter,
he was enabled to return to Wrentham in the
spring of 1792. Here lus fine oratorical powers
were first cultivated by a course of self-disci-
pline not unlike that which the great master of
Grecian eloquence employed to remedy a de-
fect of nature. Although very fluent m con-
versation, yet whenever he rose to speak at
the school exercises he would stammer and hes-
itate to such a degree that his friends deemed
it impossible for him ever to acquire the power
of oratory. But his energy and ambition were
unconquerable. Near the village was a dense
forest, within which he found a small cleared
space, where, in solitude, he daily practised deo-
lamation, carefully studying every tone and
movement, until he had mastered his hesitation^
and acquired a natural and easv stvle of deliv-
ery. In Sept. 1793, he entered Rhode Island
college, now Brown university, at Providence,
and graduated 8 years later with the first
honors of his class. He then taught a school
in Providence for more than a year, at the same
time pursuing the study^f law, and was ad-
mitted to practise in 1799. The bar of Rhode
Island at that time was eminent for the elo-
quence and legal ability of its members. It was
a trying field for the young advocate^ and a
fitting arena for the exercise of his noblest
powers. He soon won the distinction which
legal acumen and commanding eloquence cannot
fsdl to confer. His practice became extensive.
The power of his oratory and the clearness of
his arguments were confessed by all who heard
him. In 1801 he married a daughter of Wel-
come Arnold, an opulent merchant of Provi-
dence. Mr. Burges soon .became a leader of
the federal party, and in 1811 was elected to a
seat in the state legislature. In 1815 he was
made chief Justice of the state. The triumph
of the republican party the next year removed
him from this important trust. He was shortly
afterward made professor of oratory and bellea-
lettres in Brown university, which place he
filled with great success untU his election as a
representative hi congress in 1825. He took
his seat in December of that year, and almost
inunediatelv achbved a national reputation by
his splendid speecn on the judiciary, which was
pronounced by a veteran member of the house
to be ^ one of the greatest displays of eloquence
ever heard in this hall.'' In 1827 he was re-
elected without opposition. As chairman of
the committee on military pensions he made a

BITBQLABf !^^

ill

i'<i»ttfi til

)!jir as i^CutTicUjr

.^iffcd M HciMstit ki

n :

• : 'i\:;^Ui|-^ in-i

'^i . . '

^^riiru •

hr.

i^ukito OffU'

itf^l.

ilKf *^»

J34i^jUi«JLiuj.i u^ 11 u .

■ -'- *'- »u an!

Wil^'ii 1 ■

WhUo l£

fiiloii ami |^f« !

■ J it^

MmAm

lieBlnGlr

P|3inrtl1,rrt«r|-y^ lli.ii.

. ^v^

kiF*. n.'-.i*'

. >aftUl!M

' 'flj»

L- _._ _.-. ._x

- «l»|l

:;Ti1 7r-:^% 4®*

*-.4lO «ll

:H!f

Mi:

1^0,

fati

OB^

ill

, iKttMi^ ^c4i^ IL'^ UliiJ

■111 r

*»-■

U Anwrk*,*'

It..

iLiir9im»itim

I F

*:-jiif*_i:rs.l».'«a Ui.iJ iji

irfiiiLi jiato ;

K.i4j4iinai 8i&
1^ i4d iccUil law

'1^1 ;. 1.1 ^-.niflQl,

oia ])«iaiiiS| &£ tJi«

hnditm, MhQ'

.k..^i. .*.^:.. K.. ^

^,11,, 4 IT.*H

pt:- .--

_ ,_ _ ,:^^,, ,_ J

!».. .!>-.... ,,, . ,■ .V

_. ^ _ . TTiOl

^SUML.

^gtfEUiAiDCthoal T4vilQ(n

Ilk|«|ta«)tiiffll£

m idmyt Mmmm^tL Mdiuliil

112

BUBGLABT .

BUB60S

breaking into a chnrob, because, as expMned
by Lord Ooke, the church is aomu9 maraUh
wdU Dei; so. also, according to Spelman, it
included the oreakin^ the gates or walls of
a town, which might m like manner have been
eaid to be the mansion of the garrison or oorxx)-
ration. Bat, by the English statutes now in
force, bnrglaiy is limited to the breaking into a
dwelling-house ; the breaking into a church is
also made an offence, but not under this designa-
tion. To constitute burglary it is held: 1. That
the house broken into must be a place of actual
residence ; yet, if it Ls habitually occupied, the
fact that no one was in the house at the time of
breaking into it will make no difference in the
character of the offence. An outhouse, if im-
mediately connected with the dwelling, is deem-
ed a part thereof^ so as to make the offence of
entering it the same ; and in England this rule
has been extended to bams, stables, &c., though
not under the same roof with the dwelling-
house, or contiguous, provided they are in a
common enclosure, called curtilage. So also a
room in a private house which the lodger occu-
pies as his own independent of the control of the
proprietor of the house, or a room in a college
or inns of court, is in law deemed the mansion
of the occupant, and the breaking into it would
be the same as the breaking through an outer
door. But in a hotel or boarding house, where
the apartments are under the management of
the proprietor of the house, and there is a com-
mon entrance to them, the whole constitute but
one mansion. 2. There must be an actual break-
ing, as opening a door or window ; for, if found
open, the entering thereby would not be burg-
lary. But the mere lifting the latch of a door,
or the shoving up a window which has no
fastening, would be burglarious — ^much more
the picldng of a lock or removing any fastening.
The broaMng of an inner door, when an en-
trance has been made through an open outer
door or window, would, however, be burglary ;
BO, also, knocking at a door, and upon its being
opened, rushing in with felonious intent. 8. It
must be in the night, not by day. The peculiar
criminality of the offence is the supposed dan-
ger to life. The English rule is, that if there is
daylight enough to distinguish a man's &Ge,
the entering of a house will not be burglary.
This does not include moonlight, for the offence
is not so much that it is done in the dark as at
an hour when the inmates of the house would be
nnguarded. In the state of New York, burglary
in the 1st degree is defined to be ** the break-
ing into and entering in the night time the
dwelling-house of another in which there shall
be a human being, with intent to commit some
crime." Breaking into a house in the day time,
mider circumstances that would at night have
constituted burglary in the 1st degree, is de-
clared to be a burglary in the 2d degree. So,
also, the entering by an open door or window
at night and breaking an inner door with intent
to commit a crime. Breaking into an out-
bnilding not forming a part of a dweUing-hoose,

or into a shop, warehouse, &o., with intent to
steal, is burglaxy in the 8d degree. The punish-
ment of burffhury is various in the different
states — usuoUy imprisonment in state prison
for a term of years.

BURGOMASTER (Ger. BurffertMuter, chief
of the citizens), in German and Dutch towns,
the chief executive municipal officer ; in France
called maire; in England, mayor. Burgh is
synonymous with borough; a burgess is the
holder of a tenement in a borough.

BURGONET, the upper part or ridge, above
the crown-piece or curveilliere of the ancient
helmet of the man-at-arms, upon which the
heraldic crest of the knighrs familv, or, if he
was royal, of his Idngdom, was attached, and to
which a panache of feathers was sometimes
superadded. Hence burgonet is, sometimes,
used to signify the heraldic crest itself; and, at
other times, the entire knightiy casque, so
crested. •

BURGOS, a Spanish city, and capital of the
province of the same name, formerly the cap-
ital of OldOastile. Pop. in 1852, 15,924. lU
origin is uncertain, probably not older than the
7th or 8th century. It is an irregularly built
city, in the form of an amphitheatre, on the
banks of the Arlonzon, over which there are 8
stone bridges. The environs are delightful, and
the city has an ancient and picturesque ap-
pearance. In the upper part of the town are
still shown the arch and mausoleum erected
to the memory of Gonzalez and the Cid.
The cathedral is a fine Gothic structure, and
contains the tombs of n:iany old knights and
kings. The town hall is ^o worthy of no-
tice. A court has existed here since 1835,
forming a brandi of the chancellery of Yalla-
dolid. There are a university, a college, a pub-
lic library, a theatre, a museum, and an orchie-
piscopal seminary. There are about 80 looms
employed in making woollen goods, 140 looms in
linen soods, 14 shops engaged in the manufac-
ture of saddles and bridles, 7 hat manufactories^
14 flour mills, 8 chocolate mills, a spirit manu-
factory, and a large paper mill and hardware
fiactory in the suburb of Vega. Statues of
Gonzalez, Alonso III., Enrique III., and Fer-
nando I., are on the Espolon, a charming
walk. Burgos was in former times renowned
for its great number of churches and convents,
but the church of San Bdefonso is now
a depot of artillery, San Agustin is an inn, Saa
Juan Baotista a prison ;. the feunous monastery,
Frez del Val, has been sold to a contractor for
the materials, and Trinidad and Son Francisco,
and others, are pulled down. Burgos was the
scene of an engagement, March 10, 1808, in
which Soult defeated the Spaniards. It was
also besieged twice by Wellington, and on each
occasion suffered the horrors of an assault .

BURGOS, Fbancisoo Xatisb de, a Spanish
statesman and author, bom at Motril, in Gra-
nada, Oct 22, 1778. He studied first theology,
and then law, and under Xing Joseph Bona-
parte, in 1810, was appointed sub-prefect of

^^H^ ^^^K BUBcXITKB ^H

^^I^KKi* TTo ff.^ in fVtunr fe 1^19, (TO ibr. tt* a^5t Tbj']r^'*y! fi1m»*/ h f*^irn»^T, Htf- ^H

^■t— ^ ^H

H ^^^ ^1

■ lil ^1

^H ^H

M^^B^HBTri ' ^^^^1

H ^' ^H

■ F.r H

■ l^r,. H

^H ^^H

H '^'' ^H

■ f.. H

^H ^^H

■ jiijftk h^ ^H

^ E . ■ ^M

1 ^H

1^ r ^H

^B r/i ' ^^M

^m i^. ^H

^H ^^H

^B -- ^H

^H r^i T7^ FoT, 1!r^\ih pTTirr^, ^^H

H 1^ ^H

H ^^ ^1

^B ^^1

H ^'^ ^1

^1 ^^

H. ^ 1

Bp£ 1

■ ai 1

H ^^- 1

H ^'" I

^H ^^ ™

H -^''' ^fl

^H ^" ^^1

^H n i; tbii b«twl laf iW onttrofiii^ ^V

^H l<^ i4 !if*w«99 (Cnr Um draliii^ of ■

^B li- i^inltttiaaii^fitiitm In ■

^M ? .adicnwiirtbfvlMitli ■

■ U< - 'T'^ICIF' ^M

H t^' -npi ^H

^K n' ^^H

^B ^' 1

^H "** ' ' ~" 1

^B ^^' ' I

^1 r ™

H >" ^H

H ^' ^M

^^M It- <K3iyiiiiii^ ^1

^H xii ^r]1^. ib«v ^^1

^M ^' lu ItM iW ^fl

H tr ronbfiMo4;^ ~ ^H

BX7BGUETE

BURGUNDY

duke of WeDingfeon, showing how ill prepared
England was for war and against invamon, was
addressed in 1847 to Sir John Borgojne, then
inroector-general of fortifications.

BURGUETE, a town of Spain, in the valley
of Bonoesyalles, Nayarre, memorable for the
defeat of a part of Oharlemagne^s army, nnder
Boland,in778.

BUBGUNDIAKS, or BuBQtnmn, the name
of a primitive German race, a branch of the
Goths, whose original territory lay between the
Oder and the Vistula, from which tiiey were
driven ont by the Gepidso. They settled on
the shores of the Rhine and Neckar, and in
A. D. 407, Joining the Suevi, Alani, and Yan-
dalS| who invaded the coantry, they formed part
of an army of 80,000 men, whidi, nnder the
command of King Gnndicar, penetrated into
Gaal, settling between the Aar and the Rhone,
and setting np the Bnrgnndian empire, which
lasted till A. D. 684, when King Gondemarlost
his life in tiie battle against uie Franks, who
took possession of Borgnndy. Oneof Gonde-
xnar*8 predecessors, Gnndebald, was the author
of the Zoe OundebalcUi, and a subsequent Bur-
gnndian king, Sigismund, embraoed Catholicism.
The Ohristian doctrine which first obtained
among the Burgnndians, and to which they
became converts shortly after their arrival in
Gaul, was that of the Arians. One of their
kiugs, Gnndicar, was the first who endeavored
to stem the progress of Attila ; but he, and hia
army of 10,000 men, became victims of their
bravery, and died to the last man on the battle-
field. The description of the brilliant career of
this heroic race forms one of the most remark-
able passages of the Kibdungerdied,

BURGUNDY (Fr. Baurgogne), the name
of 8 kingdoms varying somewhat in extent
and locality, of a feudal duchy, and lastly
of a French province. I. Tex fibst kingdom
ov BuBouKDT was founded about 418 by the
Bur^dians, a German nation, who, after
leavmg the country between the Oder and
the Vistula, wandered through Germany, and
finally settled in the S. £. of Gaul. These
peaceful conquerors gradually extended their
dominion all over the valleys of the Saone and
the Rhoue.'^eir possessions being bounded N.
by the Rhme, the FauciUes mountains, and a
Windinff line fiillinff in a S. E. direction to the
Loire ; £. by the Alps and the Reuss river ; W.
by the npper Loire, Arddche, and lower Rhone ;
8. by tho. Mediterranean sea. Consequently
they included the provinces of France known
afterward as Burgundy, Franche-Comt^ Lyon-
nius, the K. E. part of Languedoc, Dauphin^
and Provence, with the western parts of Switz-
erland and Savoy. About the vear 600, the
Frankish king, Clovis, impelled bv his wife
Clotilde, a Burgundian princess, desirous of
avenpig her father's death, invaded Burgundy,
and imposed a heavy tribute. Some 80 years
later, the sons of Clovis conquered the kingdom,
which, in 684. became a part of tlie Frankish
tunplre. It^ nowever, preserved its name and

national laws, and more than once had Mero-
vingian kings of its own. II. Cisjttbans and
Tbai^sjuravs Bubgundy. The Frankish do-
minion over Burgundy had lasted 8i centuries^
when the dismemberment of the Carlovingiaa
empire occurred, and Burgundy was among
the first to assert its independenoe. In 87*9, a
number of bishops and noblemen assembled for
that purpose, and conferred the crown upon the
count of Vienna, Boso, a* mild and prudent
prince, brother-in-law of Charles the oald of
France. The new king was crowned at Man*
taille by the archbishop of Lyons, and his king-
dom, from its situation in respect to France, was
called Ci^urane, and sometimes Lower, Bni^gnn->
dy, consisting of western Franche-Oorat^, s(mth*
em Savoy, Dauphin^, and Provence, with a part
of Lyonnais. A little later, Count Rudolph of
Upper Bmigundy founded a 2d kingdom of Bur-
gundy, the Tranqurane, formed of western
Switzerland to the Reuss, eastern Franohe-
Comt^ and northern Savoy. The 2 kingdoms
were united in 930, but not intecprally, nnder
the name of the kingdom of Aries, which con«
tinned for about a century. Meanwhile the
kings of Aries or Provence, as they were also
called, being unable on account of thmr WMk-
ness to contend successfully against the grow-
ing power of their nobles, were obliged to ao*
knowledge the supremacy of the German em-
perors. Consequently, on the death of Rudolph
tlL, in 1032, the emperor Conrad 11., as lord
paramount, took possession of the kingdom, so
that the S. £. part of France became one of the
provinces of the German empire. It was now
governed by imperial vicars ; but in the begin-
ning of the 14th century, the various provisoes
of which it consisted separated; some, like the
Swiss cantoncL asserting their independenoOi
others acknowledging the power of their own
feudal lords, but most of them going back to the
French kings. III. Duoht of Bubaundt, Ist
ducal house. While these kingdoms were paa»-
ing through these revolutions, the N. W. p^ of
old Burgundy had remained united to France,
and formed one of its great feudal provinces.
We find, in the 10th century, the duchy of
Burgundy belonging to Henrv, brother of Hngh
Capet, the first king of the 8d dynasty, and a Mt-
Ue kter, to the 2d son of Robert the Pious, of
France. This prince, who died in 1076, was the
head of the nrst ducal house of Burgundy,
which lasted till 1861. His Buccessors, 11 in
number, were among the 12 peers of France^
and rivalled the most powerful prinoes of
their times. They increased their family in-
heritance, especially by the annexation of
the county of Burgundy or Franche-Comt^,
one of the provinces dismembered from the
kingdom of Aries, and were beside, during
the 18th and 14ih centuries, possessors of a
kingdom and 2 principalities in the Kast.
They proved angularly constant in their loyal-
ty to the French kings. Several of them en-
gaged in crusades, especially Hugues III. and
his grandson Hugues lY., each of whom iwios

^^^ ^^^^^^^^ BBRttCKDt ?•* ^1

^^ Tit^*'') 'V n-*- r.»,i n.^ t^M^. ^-.,.^.., u«»< . ._^t, ..i^.»i,..., ,./ 1 '. .k,. —^ ■., , ^^|

H »-^ ' H

~ «'•' ■

' ^^H

^h 1^ of ^^ ^M

■B ;ti«j^ b h\ ^^M

■■ QC*I of tbl» ^B

fcbrt did T**^' ^_M

Smv^* ^^B

«!(» B4i< ^H

^^1

tsg '' ^^H

mnksiij' ^^M

hfhiM ^M

hcOt^^ ^^M

^B Jtim !^. iv< ■

■ i>r ■

■ ri. I

^H IifiMiidu ii^i ■

^m Art^k !»^i M

^ ?:-- ^fl

^^H

^ j'^' ^

■ y^ 1

■«' ■

^^H

^^I^J^r^^ t ^^1

^^^^^^Wliflb cLTetimfft. ^^H

^^^^^Hr-tf 7(r^^ir' ^^H

^^^^^^^K L'aUv«ii«i'« 4oi> r«- V

^^^^^^H|^ tnfuit'rfhn*^ vf u Hf^rt ^

^^^■Pm VI. ^M

^^^^MivQ ^^H

^^^^Bdddfif^ ^^1

^^^K? ^H

^H^^^miiiiimaiiii* '^4liiflllual «nr^ ^^H

^H nf Lb ilfalh. — Jl ^tfii* rrl Vi-n ^^H

^^^^K r4»|liyii*il MIF- ^^H

^^^K ftoAmrlV^wi ^H

^^^^Bi^ L till <mxi lim iknpMu Imh ^H

^^^K iWuitJifltiia tinier cjftlioffQltal ^H

^^^^^K^^ ... ooaU^Qd uf liU miurrlji^e wTlli ^^^H

^^^^^■b r'oH^pl» mil orlot ^^B

^^^^^■: rali£if. Ha {iiifcLi^i ^H

^V nr ' i«l timi i^rtiMM ul Uf- dC IliiiMiri 4ilJi«rU^ 1^ ^m^m v( ^i a1m» ^H

116

BURGUNDY

and limbotnv, and obtahied by traatioe tlw
ooontiee dT Hainaxdt, Hdland, Zealand, and
Friedand, as well aa the daohjr of Luxembourg.
By these aoqaisitiona he became a more power-
fdl sovereign than hia socerain the nng of
I^nuioe himself: and certainly, if he had
wished it^ eonld We a«nmed the title of king
and asserted hia entire independenoe. Bat he
was satisfied with the oonsdonsness of his
power, and, doring the 48 years of hia reign, he
had the mtifioation ci seeing Bargandy the
most wealthy, prosperoos, and trsnqaU of all
the statas of ifnrope. He died in 1467; and
the grief for hia loss was inoreased by the dread
which the character of his saocessor inspired. —
CHABLsa TH8 BoLD, who, ss oouit do ChaTO-
lais, was noted for his rashness, pride, obstina-
cy, and cruelty, more signally manifested the
same qualities as soon as he became duke of
Bui^ndy, and his entire career was but a suo-
oession of daring follies and rash eooentridties
that finally brought him to destruotion. An-
other misfortune was that he had to deal with
the cunning and unscrupulous Louis XL This
shrewd prince knew too well how to incite the
ftary of that mad bull, as he used to call his
cousin of Burgundy. The whole life of Oharlea
was but an open or secret conflict agiunst Louis.
The latter was instrumental in the rebellion of
■CTeral cities in the Low Oountries, which the
duke soon reduced and severely punished. Li
reveuffe he entered the 'league of the public
weal," which had been formed against Louis
XL by some discontented French princes, and
forced him into a disadvantageous treaty at
Oonflans. The king, however, did not discon-
tinue his intriguee, and the powerful city of
li^ge rebelled for the second time. Just at
that moment, Louis, escorted by a feeble com-
pany of his personal retainers, was paying a
visit to Obarles at P4ronne; on the intelfigeDce
of the new revolt of Li6ge, the duke kept his
sovereign a prisoner, and swore that he woidd
take his life. The crafty Louis succeeded part-
ly in soothing his anger, but could only regain
his liberty by submitting to the terms of peace
dictated by the duke. The most mortifying
condition of his liberation was that he should
march in person against the insurgents, and
thus aid his vassal in suppressing a revolt which
he had himself secretly instigated. MesnwhUet.
Charles, who aspired to the royal dignity, and
wished to obtain it from the emperor Frederic
m., had become vicar of the empire in Alsatia.
The haughty governor appointed by him over
that province encroached upon the rights of
cities, then the allies of the independent Swiss.
These, fearing for their own safety, Vntered
into an intimate alliance with Louis, and the
young Ren4 IL of LorraincL whom Charles had
deprived of hia duchy, ana soon an important
war broke out Charles assembled a splendid
army, consisting of 86,000 veteran sdldiers, ao»
companied by the most formidable train of
artillery that had yet been brought into the
fi«ld| and invaded Switzerland. He first be-

sieged GnmaoQ, the garrison of which he or-
derod to be hanged, in spite of the terms of
capitulatioD. The intelligence ci this cruelty
roused a desire of vengeance amcmg the moun-
taineers who had flown to arms: thev soon en-
countered the advanced guard of the auln, who
was carelessly marching through the mountain
defiles, and laiMng the war cry of ^Gransonl
OransonI " they charged t^ Burgnn^ans with
the utmost intrepidity. Re b^iant oavahy
of the duke could not withstand the attack of
the Swiss pikemen, and commenced a retreat
which was at length converted into a precipi-
tate flight. A panic dispersed the whole army
of Charles, which left to the victors the richest
booty that had been gained in war for several
centuries. This defeat, which took place
March 8, 1476. inspired Charles with sndi

Slef and rage that for weeks he was in a state
rdering on insanity. At last he resumed his
wonted spirits, and with unpsralleled eagerness
he attended to«the recruiting of his army.
Neither treasures nor efforts were spared to
make it stronger than ever. The diue even
had recourse to threats and violence to bring
in soldiers from all his provinces; he more-
over hired auxiliaries from France, Italy, and
Eng^d. At last his troops were readV, and
he marched from Lausanne toward Morat,
which the Swiss had fortified, and in the vicin-
ity of which their volunteers were slowl^ as-
sembling. The town resisted with the utmost
energy, and gave time to the Swiss to gather
all then: forces. They then advanced to its re-
liei^ and took a formidable position. The heed-
less Charles rushed to attack them, June S2,
but was soon obliged to desist His troopsi
assailed bv a tempest of rain which i^)UKd
their powder and relaxed their bowstrings, be-
gan to retire : when the Swiss pursued them
with such ardor that the Burgunaian army was
completely routed, and Charles himself nxnsed
to flight This second defeat was the death-
blow to his power. The states of Bummdy,
Flsnders, and Brabant refused to srant mm the
enormous sums which he demanded to raise a
8d armv, while the duchy of Lorraine, incited
by Rene, attempted to resume its independence.
Charles, however, by exhausting his last re-
sources, succeeded in procuring some troops,
and went to lay siege to Nancy. Ben^ wno
had secured the ci^ with a fldthful garri-
son, proceeded to the Swiss cantons to solicit
aid against their common enemy. Nsnpy, by
a lengthened resbtanoe, gave Ren6 time to
accomplish his desien. On Jan. 4^ 1477, he
reappeared before Nancy at the head of the
Swiss confederates, attacked the Buigundiana,
and being helped by the treason of Oampo-
Basso^ an Italian fiivorite of the duke, won the
day. Charles himself was slain in a somewhat
mysterious manner, and his body was found,
after 2 days' search, lyinff in a rivulet covered
with ice, and disfigured by wounds, some of
which had every appearance of being inflicted
by aasassina. The death of Charles the Bold

^^V BtUGCFDY WI5ZS

atmuL ur ^1

^^r ^Mti llk^ «.-t)i^ iif *1<lu TtiTrvrmni-cf] rtr.<"r:iri(|iin

K>7ii tti a^ tiiTsm Ivwi |flA|fe|Mi|aY VYtk A»d i.**(i* ^^B

.flHr ^1

, •whip

: B

ta -

^^ Uxiaij.^t mi ij

m tfiffio ^ r

nr-* '--Hsv^'ii*.

^^^

;in»|jer» Cr

c[4m b ' ^H

^_ U A i , ;. jciMim*-- 'T»

^^B

^B provhoM of tlo

%^tr«»th. ^B

'i<'j LhLiu' ^^H

■ V

^ ^ Ifl^ttM III

\fr«i si^lpfnf '

; 1

^1 tr r, UttliiiCr;

^^LvftJ '■• '. Wh\*^» ..Mi >..^---*»W LiM^^^l *ii-

1 B

^^F^' _. . liVM \n^S TS>"^. IktiKrtB Ftviftc^

wimi, -viik tlo tfH^Knt

1 '

j:j;*vrri'tl i-r liuft.-.v], mi i ] ■

^^^JU4^■ . B

W ;'

todrv, 1

^^ U^tir^^. l_.i iJiUN:j-iiii %vt\> uij iiivr.riLr wisfl

whkSi arc . 1 ■

Of Lottln JtVL «i4 of HfttioWo, OmMK &

oriU!«« ' 1

irhlUi wkHS )iii« isntiT ?- - - t,.. i. :a ,r.-

.'-■> *^iloQ§ ifvtxlL^ i jkilcj^4iL.*(ri.'i^ iliu lk*uk-^ r*^ift ^M

10 d»4 bet ;(t(»waiii

It T*u»fc4k ^Tp-rr* TiTfi -..• mill I'i lifti'Ti* ^1

l^iiily ana BMltfulei

■ >'

mWIIII T^') WM A i%l fl

^H -rrn- T^^tu^ prffll.

doillta Ufifl i tr.mfoimi B
tMOL 4fl< r^tite^nnm ^B
rjym^ ^r: i^t rii iJj^ L ^B

■ f ..ik. TU

ft<an>' ':bi*^t tJir i ■

^B I yli«i»l miti« t li»e i*iili

Riocjnii ,{fuKiJ|{v* . B

^ !■- V . - ^^A

■OfHfiai^ luuj [i^j^Ji wcra Otfl(Tbr»t€(t lu Out ^^M

f!: 1

r%pteis5t«lIon iif tlieagi otrviatmbs on ciuia;i* ^^|

•r\' 'Ji 1 ■ ii.t\ A^iiur^ fctj4

ii>> V * Eeml li tumAllj^uiid bi ociti ^H

•tatii^ aj flticf^i wUnb

r- 1^ na|ir%s«iii (kadi u n Jtramojr. ^H

!• -■-- ■ -"..

Tifi' iiiun-tijii' T]«. i*f ntrLniti rrtmlDAlf wm hi%t4t^ ^^B

« Wt by

ot)o4 hv difj dcnldl of ftajoftiLl nyi% and tiicin B

^H ' ^ ?t^la

wmt ^\mm both lU Ai^MfUi uid Hp^rtA into B

H V HHtu

wlijf Ji l]»o hii/Skm of Aiieli ceiniliiald irierv CfUitr^ fl

^B « :vi?oi]>9

Iq t^ Olditl Itnltii Cf l7'«< nKHilIIr d^n n< yjL.na ^fl

■ 1 .i«aiip<i^'

^B t^ itt|dl| UMBO

ffiifwiiiiri)^ tnsrM Otcr ^B

hmm 010 iTM uf lilt Oifti^bo iNm wIj^i ««» ^B

118

BUBIAL

burned. Under the empire burning became cns-
tomarr, nntil it was sabverted by the gradual
Bpreaa of Christianity, and at the end of the
4th centnry it had again fallen into general
disnse. The faneral ritea varied not only with
the wealth of the deceased, bat someirhat^ too,
in different periods of the commonwealth. In
the latter days of the repnblio and under the
earlier emperors, the corpse of the man of
wealth was washed, anointed with oil, and per-
fumed by the slaves of the undertakers, who,
from residing near the temple of Venus libi-
tina, where all things necessary for funerals
were sold, were termed libitinariL A coin
was placed in the mouth of the corpse to pay
its ferriage into Hades, and the body, dressea in
the best robes it had possessed when living, was
placed with its feet toward the door in the ves-
tibule of the house. If the deceased had re-
ceived an honorary crown, it was placed upo^
its head, the couch was often strewn with
flowers, and a branch of cypress placed before
the door. It was usual to set aside a sum in
the will for the funeral expenses ; if this had
not been don& the heir provided for them ac-
cording to the extent of the inheritance ;
when there were a number of heirs, the ex-
penses were assessed upon them according to
their respective shares. The funeral took
place at night. The procession was headed
by musicians; these were followed by hired
mourners, who lamented and sang the funeral
song ; after these came the freedmen of the
deceased, sometimes amounting to a con-
siderable number, wearing the cap of liberty.
Immediately preceding the corpse were persons
bearing waxen masks representing the ancestry
of the deceased ; the corpse itself, placed upon
a couch, was commonly borne by the freedmen
or by the immediate relatives; the family follow-
ed after — ^the men, contrary to usual custom,
with their heads covered, the women with
their heads bare^ their hair dishevelled, and
often beating their breasts and uttering pierc-
ing cries. If warranted by the rank of the
deceased, the procession passed through the
forum, and an oration was there pronounced
over the body. Finally, the corpse, with the
couch upon which it was borne, was placed upon
the funeral pyre, built commonly in the form
of an altar, with four equal sides. The nearest
xelative, with averted iaco^ kindled the pyre^
and perfumes, oils, articles of food, ornaments,
and clothing were fremiently thrown on while
it was being consum^. When the pile was
burned down, the embers were extinguished
with wine, the bones and ashes carefblly col-
lected by the nearest of kin, sprinkled with
perfumes, and placed in an urn. The urns were
of various forms and materials, and were buried
in sepulchres common to those of the same
family. After a funeral the mourning and sacri-
fices were continued for nine days, though by
the women mourning was sometimes worn for
a year on the death of a husband or father.
As the Ohristian religion gradually obtained the

ascendenqy, a corresponding change took place
in the mode of disposing ^ the dead; bodies
were no longer burned but interred, and the
offices of the church were substituted for the
rites of paganism. — ^At a very early period it
became customary to bury the dead in the im-
mediate neighborhood of the churches, in
grounds consecrated for the purpose. As the
churches were always surrounded by a vacant

r« of greater or less extent, for a long time
practice was unattended b^ any evil effects :
but in towns, as the population inoreased and
intermenta became more numerous, the burial
grounds often became entirely too small for the
necessities of the public ; under such circum-
stances, the accumulation of bodies in a limited
space led, at each new burial, to scenes shocking
to the feelings of the community, while the
disengagement of gases resulting firom their de-
composition proved deleterious to the general
health. In London, in some of the poorer dis-
tricts, the soil of the churchyards was raised 2,
8, or even 4 feet in a few years, and in the im-
mediate neighborhood of such burial ground^
epidemic diseases were both more common and
more fiettal. Within 80 years there bad been
interred in a space not exceeding 818 acres.
1,500,000 bodies. (^^ Report on a general
Scheme of Extramural Sepulture," by the gen-
eral board of health, London, 1850.) Beside the
contamination of the atmosphere in the imme-
diate neighborhood of burial grounds, accidents
have occurred from the carbonic acid, given off
in them during decomposition, breaking into the
cellars of buildings in the neighborhood. Thb
occurred several times in the cellars of houses
in the immediate vicinity of the cemetery of the
innocents at Paris, between the years 1774 and
1780. — ^The period it takes for the body to decay
after inhumation varies greatly according to the
climate, the nature of the soil, and the covering
in whicn it is enveloped. Orfila and Lesueur in
their experiments found nothing but the skele-
tons left of bodies that had been buried 14^ 15,
and 18 months ; this period was, however, unn-
suidly short. Low, damp grounds, particularly
when they are percolated by water, hasten de-
composition; ary, high, and weU-ventilated
ones, on the contrary, retard it. When numer-
ous burials, within a comparatively ^ort period,
have occurred in a limited ^ace, the earth be-
comes saturated with the products of decompo-
sition to such a degree as to be incapable of
further absorbing them; decomposition under
such circumstances is retarded, and its products
escape directiy into the atmosphere. On being
left undbturbed for a few years, the earth re-
covers its previous powers of absorption. —
BiTBYiNa AuvE. The facts that persons have
occasionally presented all the ordinary signs of
death, yet have afterward revived, and that
others have undoubtedly been buried as dead
who were still living, have repeatedly drawn the
attention of both mdividuals and governments
to the means necessary to guard against so terri-
ble an occurrence. Winalow, the celebrated

^^V Dmiui ^H

1 DOUONT llil

nnn*rm\^, U ^H li^ hsre ^er-a tififf nrfirTr

4
'1

6:. .
L, r •

T
1

-Ik
*

.,1
■ J

1
t
1
1

ifilirvalii*

:iW!rt*<^Kftfwbo

a^i" I-

lafplintM,

bi»4tG iflav L 1. rr o^k*i*i !i

■ «ny *j I'an-i, « i^u. . l

yet ll^ iiiii»i Kr^Vti« axd '

1 uJW ^ ft U'k*liLi¥r. ;

*., K. ,-. „ .» Ir. *<.

^n-.vai*, tlid WJi^ "f--- ■ ii.

hj iliA fimnft^ut i

i>jiimi>atUii37 t^ u- .i. .

t J

Ok dtililirir/ la modflnt u- ari^m

fr^Mi. ,'4i ar^itf»i!T3^ irJiirJi ■ IHa*-

1 . . r

uHiAj', f*'t»ui4 111 r

t..,. r-

♦tJlfffltiuQ. if |»L ir

i:^ liia appoat^ il»* 1 1

n- ,,■■ . llM'lklii; tLIi

4i/umt«fri»d4«:i' ' '■* "

r titmrtiUbtt^ W

rdcmBDolj coUfi J 1

'1 hiit)^

•M-LifCrtJtd

mbo«ilki»«»u wriutr. ^ -^ -' «>>«.. ,. ^^^

? .1 «iiill4iiftt

iBod ia fWi^ Get, i^ |«ir

'., ''i'*- lil^iLj

!)«li«»i)t4i mft&ilbt u.^. .._._:». ^.„i^ fiir

f I'

knowkikA iiMdi «f ctr ehii»r dlMlDfoktiBd Wau

L ^ . ,: ■ i y

Iti 173 II Ij- i^iLDfvilta FarK wfcwsi^ in •»*&-

iDHtji^y 4

lb 3 femthem Im i^sigoa ia

Kid a *pr.'

tJiifl H^ UfntlM «f fCe*

fMSi^ ■ ■.*«.%n Tia^f? t'fMin

' rbJsfiir r i iQliMrpcoS pqblioiitiinui.

! ■ ■

1 -JI'tHJiib

ifipiUptoi

#101, «iid Oovdliiil d« Fom^ len

iLoi 11,0 Lii^i4t<,4i laiJUiiH wM iOAOAl oo m^roi.

UUcrnM^ij^

120

BUBEX

BT7B10V L A eoiin<7 of Kortib Oarollna,
abounding in heantiful monntain scenery. It is
traversed hj the Bine Ridge near its N. W. bor-
der. The soil is very fertile in some places, and
produces excellent pasturage. Indian com,
wheat, oats, hay, cattle and swine, are the staples.
The productions in 1B60 were 282,237 hnshels
of Indian com, 16,013 of wheat, 36,969 of oats,
and 1,200 tons of hay. There were 6 com and
flour mills, 2 tanneries, 28 churches, and 960
pupils attending public schools. Value of real
estate in 1867, $^94,898. It was organized in
1777, and named in honor of the statesman and
orator £dmund Burke. Area, 460 sq. m. Fop.
in 1860, 7,772, of whom 2,132 were slaves.
Capital, Morgantown. II. AcountyofGeorgia,
oigan]2ed in 1777. separated from South Caroli-
na bv Savannah n ver. The Ogeechee forms its
eouthem boundary. It has a somewhat hilly sur*
&ce and a fertile soiL In 1860 Burke county
produced 19,176 bales of cotton, a cropexceeded
in no county of the state except Houston. Dur-
ing the same year it yielded 643,608 bushels of
com, 28,260 bushels of oats, and 111,232 bush-
els of sweet potatoes. The value of land in
1866 waa $2,817,660. limestone, buhrstone,
gypsum, agate, chalcedony, and jasper are the
principal mineral productions. Trade is greatly
facilitated by the central railroad, which inter-
sects the county, and by the Savannah river,
which is' navigable along its borders. Area,
1,040 sq. m. Pop. in 1866, 16,260, of whom
10^993 are slaves. Capital, Waynesborough.

BUBKE, MDASTjBy an American Judge and
politician, bora in Galway, Ireland, in 1743,
died in Charleston, S. C, March 80, 1802. He
was educated at St. Omer's for a priest, vidted
the West Indies, oame thence to South Carolina
near the commencement of the revolutionary
war, and served as a volunteer in the patriot
army. He was a lawyer by profesdon, and in
1778 was appointed Judge of tne supreme court
of the newly organized state. When Charleston
fell in 1780, he again joined the army, but re-
Bumed his Judicial ofSce in 1782. He was op-
posed to the federal constitution because he
feared consolidated power, was several times a
U. S. senator, and wrote a famous pamphlet
agidnst the aristocratic features of the society
of the Cindnnati, which was subsequently trans-
lated by IGrabeau, and used with great effect
by him during the French revolution. He be-
oame chancellor of South Carolina a short time
before his death. Judge Burke was distin-
guished for his wit ; but he was also an upright
and earnest republican, and possessed varied ao-
complishments.

BUEEE, Edmitnd, a British statesman, ora-
tor, and writer, bom in Dublin, Jan. 1, 1780,
^ed at Beaconsfield. July 9, 1797. He receiv-
ed the radiments of nis education at Casfletown
Boche, was afterward put under the tuition
of a learned Quaker at Ballitore, in the county
of EildarcLand entered Trinity college (Dublin)
In 1744. live vears were spent there in the dili-
gent study of the classics^ metaphysicsi rhetoric,

and history. After taking his baohetor's de-
gree (1749), he made an application for the pro-
fessorship of logic in the university of Glas-
gow, which was unsuccessful. His principal
taste, at that period, was for metaphysics, and
he projected a refutation of the systems of
Berkeley and Locke, which he .does not appear
to have completed. It mav be inferred from
the aouteness displayed in his subsequent writ-
ings that, if he had carried out his purpose, he
would have ridden a pretty successfdl tilt
against those masters of the ring. Meantime,
he had entered his name in the middle temple
at London, and in 1760 proceeded thither to be-
gin the study of the law. It is commonly rep-
resented that Burke went i^ to London as a
needy adventurer, dependent upon his pen for
support, and willing to take any occupation that
might befall him ; but the more authentic ao-
oounts show that his fi^er was then an attorney
in large practice, who made the amplest allow-
ance for his support (See preface, by his exec-
utors, to the ** Observations on the Conduct of
the Minority in the Session of 1793,'' a pam-
phlet not contained in the usual editions of his
works.) He was, moreover, of excellent fami-
ly, by his mother's side ; she being the great
niece of Miss Ellen Nagle, who married Sylva-
nus Spenser, the eldest son of the poet. little
is known of his law studies or of hb life in Lon-
don, except that he wrote for the periodicals
and newspapers on politics, and in 1766 was
offered some place under government in
America, which he was deterrMl from accept-
ing by the opposition of his father. His first
separate literary production was '^A Yindi-
oation of Natural Society," purporting to be by
'' a late noble writer '' in which he imitated the
style and manner of Lord Bolingbroke with re-
markable adroitness; so much so that many
competent critics, such as Warburton and
Chesterfield, are said to have taken it for an
anthentio work. Had they oonsidered it doee-
ly. however, thev must have discovered in it
tokens of a brilliancy of imagination and of a
vehement natural eloquence, to which Boling-
broke nevar attained. It appeared in 1766,
and is worthy of note as well for the light
which it throws upon the tendency of his
speculations at that time, as for its uncomnuHi
vigor and beauty of composition. Burke waa
then in his 27ih year; yet, a few months later, wo
find Imn publishing his ^* Philosophical Inquuy
into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and
Beautiful," a treatase which for many years oo-
onpied a first rank in the asthetio literature of
England, although it is now superseded by th«
profounds researches of the continental writers
The same year he went to Bath for his health,
where he married a Miss Nugent, the daughter
ofadistantrektive, Dr. Christopher Nugent. Oa
his return to London, in April, 1767, he is
supposed to have published "An Account of the
European Settlements in America," 2 vols.,
although that work is not included in the com-
mon ecutions of his writings. The fiiot of his

^^v

ttHICITOBWlKE ^^^^ m ^1

^B i^iifiWti f# *^ *- - M •

It,- _j'Tl

- — tjiTTi^^iiii iidT»nof-^ "' ^-* - T * -t , ^H

^M ^%mi oMiM

rw»n| •« ti ^'til ^^B

^^H

^1 w^ >.^ ci/ ft

■ r^ ,r>.-ii

^B uii

^H m

^^B

■ ".^

^^B

■ !i>'

^H if; '-.t^iUJlL? ti-i' tMia infciJO

^^1

^1 LI J ! iiwn, badb tu

> !ii«f«ry

telotot ^H

K|^

. f, ,, _ i;

^^^n

^^1

^B w'>'

^^B

Ml:

^H fiurr^u' 1

^^B

^B oftha I

^^B

^B IW {Bir

•rt ifctk^J'J- l|.4t- *i.si ^^^H

■^ a^efiiiff.

rcb^ioidii 1

^^^|£r»i^ , ..^ ».-, ,..,^

-— f Uw)v..i„ 1

^^^^K^r LlatUtlifc QJ lOPlitbr.

i.Im^^f in ^'t- ^M

^^^^^Bf^. laiXlL*IJr«t_ A Im.'KilJl-

■

j.lk4

v<^

III

jliit'j,' ^.^i.i-

^^B

Oie Bi«klii.

^^M

eT''— - '

LTllilliLUL ^^B

Pt :

lllBI(«t B

Ui .

vi.ii.nij"if ^,^_ ^^^B

k .^

rBd^«cul ^M

ji af

r ./ Urn ■

■ try

lOC^

^LsL*

li^iij-

Uir. ,

^■■iuti^ Afed tl^ f

^B wroU ^ A ft^iiy^r Afwi

noto4u:k •»» ii^ti^iuiy till u rri4ri«47u; Jut-
' <TnffU¥»^ftf rtf fill cjiTNtr, T'j* tlr**arinj.

I^ MnfL^r ''

■ ■ i ponrin '' . iT^ai,

, vjffjtiafi^ r^iy-

irj liAi

ljiu£l«r*|^^rM ul Uva iOCim ; btlt. n ^ .f jm ;i»;^iijf h

.tjImi

AS tfllCdcaitIt teiOf ooiiii«^iat, &a iKcunknoo ^B

Lf '

oof

•-3l?v

ito

tifUid ^^.'.1.. .M^L wa& nmrv lomr ^^1

^K^

tliOtof [«jrma«iori jfifc liotlui'a tlf»^ ^H

.l^.i^M*

t.' .i^{li^ui«iyiii a [

|iitmbai» mftlmMlf luisma yi tiwa oaiilAiaioiiL W4 ^H

122

BURKS

Biay judge of the worth of it, when it is stated
that he effected, in that department alone, an
annual saving of £47,000. On the death of the
marqnis of Rockingham, Bnrke retired for a
time ; hnt the minigtr jr of the dnke of Portland,
in 1788, restored him to his former place.
With that year hegan his labors on East
Indian affairs, with his yolnminona reports
on the administration of justice hi Bengal,
and other provinces; and for 6 years, to
May 7, 1769, he may be said to have lived in
India, so deeply was he absorbed in the
investigations and trials which arose ont
of the subject It was during this interval
that he conducted the fiunous impeach-
ment of Hastings, in which he raised his
reputation as an orator to its highest
dignity and glory. Yet the arduous labors of
the India business were but the prelude to other
exertions, which rendered the closing years of his
life the most memorable in his history. The
great French revolution had broken out, and
Burke, with an audacity that almost equals that
of the ancient king who sought to curb the
risings of the sea, undertook to check, the
spread of its doctrines and spirit. In 1790 his
" Reflections on the Revolution of France *' ap-
peared, and 80,000 copies were sold almost
on the day of its publication. It was a
magnificent outburst of mingled logic, wrath,
and imagination, which aroused a thousand
pens in answer, and filled the world with his
name. The extremely conservative sentiments
of it. which appeared to rebuke every form of
popular discontent and resistance of tyranny,
led to an open rupture between Burke and Fox,
who was then the leader of the whigs in the
house of commons. The scene of their sepa*
ration is described by contemporary writers as
the most affecting in the annals of politics, and
we cannot even now read the speeches on the
ion without emotion. Burke thereafter
itood almost alone in his politics, yet his tongue
ii^d his pen were incessantly engaged in the
di^'Ussion of the themes whidi filled his heart.
HisN" Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs,"
July.'x 1791f ^^ *' Letters to Sir Hercules Lang-
ri8he,'^U792, his ^' Thonirhta on French Affairs."

the activity *
ness of hh 2eaL But on June 20. 1794,
he retired frCfp the house of commons rorever,
conceiving thSf he had played his part, and
conscious of the ^approaches of age. In August
of the same yei^, the death of his only son,
Richard Burke, infi^icted upon him a terrible
blow, yet he retaineid his cheerfulness and ac-
tivity. In 1795 h^ received a pension of
£1,200 from the civil 'Ijat, and soon after an-
other of £2,500 from ffi^ H per cent. fond.
In his retirement, how>ever, his pen was
still busy, and in a " Letter .^o a Noble Lord,"
1796, he showed aH his original splendor and
nerve. The same year, also, he pobfished '* Two
Letten on the Proposal for a Regi^de Peace."

Among his latest cares was the foundation of a*
school for the children of French emigrants.
He died in the 68th year of his age, preeerr-
ing his fiiculties to the last, and caudng to
be read to him, on his death-bed, the b^uti*
ful essay of Addison, in the *^ Spectator," oa
the immortality of the soul. — ^Anuable in pri-
vate life, exemplary in all his relations;, of
unexampled powers of conversation, and
munificently accomplished in the various walks
of philosophy, science, politics, history, and
literature, he had endeared himself to a large
circle of friends, as much by the beauty <^
his ohamoter as by the prodigious capaoitieB
of his intellect. Burke justly readied by
the mere force of his abinties the most el»-
vated positions of statesmanship ; as an orator, he
stands at the head of British eloqnenoe; hk
writings, distinguished by 'imperial imaginar
tion " and a mighty sweep of logic, are stiu the
study of rhetoricians, after the interest of their
subjects has mainly passed away ; and he leaves
to posterity a name unspotted by any vice or
weakness. Under such circumstances, even they
who cannot coincide with his political theories,
are glad to acknowledge his genius, and to admire
the uniform probity cf his conduct. Americans,
especially, will long continue to cheriiQi his
memory, because of the useful and magnanimous
services he rendered their fathers in the dark
days which preceded their emancipation. — ^A
new history of his life and times, by Thomas Mao-
knight, was commenced in London, 1858, 2 vols.
BURKE, Sir Johk BsmrABD, an English gen-
ealogist, bom in London in 1814. His fauier,
the late Mr. John Burke, who died in 1848, was
cadet of an ancient family in Ireland, and be-
came attached, as reporter and editor, to the
London press. He originated many literary
speculations, among others the ^'Standard
Novels," a series of republications, at a tenth of
the ori^nal price, with new introductions
by the authors, and illustrations by able
artists. He was the founder and first editor

?atterly assisted by his 2 sons) of ^^Burkc^s
eerage and Baronetage," long established as the
most complete and accurate of its class, and so
popular tiiat a new edition is annually ex-
hausted. This work is said to have been <»ie
of the most remunerative of the numerous pub-
lications of the late Mr. Henry Cdlbum. of Lon-
don. In May, 1857, the copyright of this work
was sold for a large sum, dthongh burdened
with the payment of £400 per annum to which-
ever of Mr, Burke's sons should edit the " Peer-
age," as long as it continued to be published.
Mr, Burke also brought out the ''Extmct Peer-
ageJ" in 1 vol. 8vo, and the '* (General Armory
or England, Scotland, and Ireland," and the
"History of the Landed Gentnr."— Shr J. Ber-
nard Burke, called to the Engnsh bar at the
Middle Temple, in 1889, succeeded him as editor
of the " Peerage," and has also brought out re-
vised and extended editions of his other works.
BURKE, John Doly, author of one of the
best histories of Virginia, bom in Ireland, edu-

Boau

BcncuLEios

^.^.MP* rjni,L%i ii.A-inL-.iri,

:i"*', r.r TI<iWTnt3iiPij^i.i

Biif«,ijii h

i'
lir

or iKiMihO hAb w

V-

lluitJtA'IJ, lU IV-rL

€

ID«U£,1'

— --- i-- i - --i

i)ia a ptif lolar oaoiiDiiDliify ifii

iTilv o^iiU'

pi
rj-'

Sir,

J *'■ II' i.«, ^ VI ■'■"J'

I. :.-^r^i J if Ls •

:7!U1 to itspr

•> wt^- la

»<«Ti*« ^iW«te*l* tt**Ul itUf4»iitl4» 4iM Miilf^ |««WM||% Ik^ UmJmf &t;rV4U4l m L

BUBLEI0H

AeeoBtomed to thread Ms waj tkrougli the wttes
of diplomaoT, Borleigh was alwajs well inform-
ed of the plots whidi were contmiuJlT in pro^
gress or contrivance against the queen's person
or the peace of the coontrj. His sagaoit j and
ooolneas outwitted them all. Bnrlei^'s publio
life is the rdgn of Queen Elizabeth. The bril-
liant Leicester, the eallant Essex, the chiyalrous
and polished Balei^po, were the personal favor-
ites of the queen. Burleigh alone held the
hehn of the English vessel of state. His private
life was oahn and undisturbed, his personal
habits quiet and frugaL His thrift sometimea
approached meanness or avarice, but he was
Bot the less honest and upright in his publio
dealings. He was twice married; in earlv
life to a sister of Sir John Gheke, who died,
leaving one son, Thomas, afterward earl of
Exeter ; his second wife was Mildred, by whom
he had Kobert^ his associate and successor,
afterward earl of Salisbury, and two daughters.
He survived his second wife by only a few
years, and died ftdl of age and honors.

BUBLEIGH, William Hshby, an American
poet bom at Woodstock, Oonn.^ Feb. 2, 1812.
Bred on a farm, at 16 he became apprentice to
a clothier, then to a village printer, both of
whom he abandoned in disgust. He continued,
however, to labor in variooa places as Journey-
man printer, and finally as editor. In the lat-
ter capacity he has had charge of the '^ Literary
Journal" at Schenectady, the "Christian
Witness," at Fittsburg, and the "Washing-
ton Banner,'^ in which papers, and in others, he
has communicated many short poems to the
publia A collection of them was publi^ed in
1840. Kr. Burleigh has also taken an active
part in various religious and social move-
ments.

BUKLESON, a central county of Texas,
bounded on the N. by Brazos river, drained by
8 forks of the Tegua, one of the tributaries of
the Brazos, and oomprisbg an area of 1,026
sq. m. The surface is moderately uneven; the
soil of the lowlands is a sandy loam, in many

g laces very productive ; that of the uplands
I lighter. Timber Ib abundant, about } of tJie
county being covered with red and post oak.
The staples are grain, cotton, sugar, and live
stock. In 1850 the productions amounted to
1,010 bales of cotton, 10 hogsheads of sugar,
70,000 bushels of Indian corn, 8,620 of sweet
potatoes, and 17,280 pounds of butter. There
were 4 churclgli, and 115 pupils attending pub-
lic schools. In 1857 there were 80,742 head of
cattle, valued at $130,000, and 2,854 horses,
valued at $121,100. The value of real estate
was $687,660, and the aggregate value of all tax-
able property, $1,802,706. Formed fh>m Milan
county in 1846. Oapital, OaldweU. The county
was named in honor of Gen. Edward Burleson,
▼ice-president of the republic of Texas. Pop.
in 1856, 4,079, of whom 1,842 were slaves; slave
pop. in 1867, 1,348.

BURLINGTON, a central county of New
Jersey, extending entirely across the atate^ and

Delai

BUBLINGTOK

ig between the Atiantic on the S.'E:, and tho
Delaware river on the N. W. The surface is
level. The soil near the river is remarkably
fertile; in other localities it is sandy. Pine
woods are found in various parts of the county.
Bog iron ore is abundant, and in the western
portion are frequently found, Imbedded in marl,
petrified vegetables, and animal reUcs, sudi aa
shells, bones, &c. Oom. wheat^ potatoes, hay,
and butter, are the staples. In 1850 the pro-
ductions were 152,869 bushels of wheat, 888,011
of Indian com, 159,898 of oats, 41,788 tons of
hay (the gre^st quantity produced by any
county of the state), 688,860 pounds of butter,
and 48,781 of wool. There were 80 com and
flour mills, 2 cotton factories, 2 woollen factories^
7 founderies, 4 glass manufactories, 2 paper mills.
62 sawmills, 8 newspaper offices. 88 churches, and
6,771 pupils attending public scnools. The 0am-
den and Amboy railroad traverses the county.
This county was organized in 1694, and named
from Bridlington ^mmonly pronounced Bur-
lington), a town in England. Area, 600 sq. m.
Pop. in 1855, 46,442. Oapital, Mount Holly.

BURLINGTON, the name of several towns
and cities of the United States. L A city, port
of entry, and the capital of Ohittenden co., Vt,
situated on a bay of its own name on tbe £.
shore of Lake Ohamplain. Poo. in 1854, 8,900.
Its harbor is the best on the lake, beinx easy oi
access from N. and S., protected from W. winds
by a breakwater 900 feet long, and having a
lighthouse erected in 1826 on Juniper island, at
the mouth of the bay. It is the largest place
in the state, and in beauty of scenery and loca-
tion is scarcely surpassed in New England. The
ground on wmch it is built rises gradually from
the shore to a height of 281 feet, the summit com-
manding one of the finest views in the United
States. Looking west the eye passes over
the city, with its straight avenues, its pleasanft
dwellings surrounded by trees and gardens, and
its elegant public buildings ; over the lake, here
10 miles wide, dotted with islands, and furrowed
by many vessels, to the Adirondac mountuns,
which lUt their peaks more than 5,000 feet above
the water. Eastward lies the broad expanse of
fertile land bounded by some of the loftiest of the
Green mountains. On the N. is seen the Winooski
or Onion river, with themanu&oturiDgvilli^^of
Winooski, connected with the city by a brid^
and partiy comprised in Burlington township.
The university of Vermont, compriang 4 large
buildings, founded in 1791, and endowed by the
state with 29,000 acres of land, the annual rev-
enue from wluch is $2,500, occupies the highest
ground in the city. It has now (1858) 7 profes-
sors, 98 students, and a library of 13,000 volumes.
Oonnected with it is a medical schooL The other
edifices of most note are 8 churches, a court-
house, and a jaiL several of which fkce a central
public square. There are 17 schools, an academy,
2 female seminaries, 8 newspaper offices, 5 banln^
a custom-house and marine hospital built in 1857,
a brewery, a grist mill, and 8 saw-mills. The
meroantUe bmneas amounts to abont$l,600,000

BCJElJKGTnN

'44»%

,H^ Or.

fciftii^wi III Mm^^mto^

,..,,.jjji.' trorlEx, «qj1 pnlt&p ndbofilj wh^.. ....

.-4
^E»i| &U ' IV fty|i«p'fKiPC^ of

"JCV V\M^UA-«%^U»3 4«(^i^HkA#ii>M ||4Ufe4 ^b^ai^ *v^

t iJilKnmei, aod 1 Gmmis retitmied efeiintli^.

111 Q adtixiU fejud^ «£^d otbt^n juift La

r '•■ - - ..-I i*r^ 0,1 ih,^ iffitteni r^

, ft idtnUibeig ImUP^

tititliy "a ^mideHet. 1 i^ mill, H fici%*fiAddsi9
l^Tf<*ftTfT1^ i*/iAJ fidt!^ in the vkiiui^ lOlW iSSlBllil

4ji lici^iUk ojciiilcat, Uoaro April SC " ^" V " 4

' * \u hfttiu^ t*r I bit GoUm* tl; 9

sa 4^mm Mid ili«i «4rtvtura 3

126

BUBICAH

these exhibited be erected many buildings, of
-which the best known are his own villas at
Cheswick and at Lanesborongh in Torkshire.
the front of Borlington honse (lately pnrohased
by government for scientific societies, Ac.)* the
dormitory at Westminster school, mansions for
several noblemen, Ms friends, the reparation of
St Paulas chnrcn, Oovent garden (by Inigo
Jones), and the assembly room at York, which
is his best work. He was the friend of Pope,
who eulogized him in h\a '* Fourth Epistle/^

BIJBMAH, or thx Kingdom ot Ava, an
extensive state in the S. E. of Ana, beyond
the Ganges, formerly mndi larger thiua at

E resent. Its former limits were between
it O"* and 2T* K^ ranging upward of 1,000
miles in length, and over 600 in breadth. At
present the Burmese territory reaches from lat.
ir 25' to 28° 16' K, and from long. 98* 2' to
lOO"" 40' £. ; oomprisizi^ a roace measuring 540
miles in length from IT. to »., and 420 miles in
breadth, and having an area of about 200,000
sq. m. It is bounded on the W. by the prov-
ince of Aracan, surrendered to the British by
the Burmese treaty of 1826, and by the petty
states of Tiperah, Munnipoor, and Assam, from
which countries it is separated by high moun«
tain ridges; on the S. lies the newly iicquired
British province of Pegu, on the N. npper Assain
and Thibet, and on the £. COiina. The popuk-
tioiL according to CaptHenry Tnle^ does not ex«
ceed 8,000,000.— Since the cession of Pegu to t^e
British, Burmah has neither alluvial plains nor
a seaboard, its southern frontier being at least
200 miles from themouthsof the Irrawaddy, and
the oountnr rising mdually from this frontier
to the north. For about 800 miles it is elevated,
and bejK)nd that it is rugged and mountainous.
This territonr is watered py three great streams,
the Irrawaddy, its tributary the Khyen-dwem,
and the Salwin. These rivers have their
sources in the northern chain of mountains, and
run in a southerlv course to the Indian ocean.
— ^Though Barman has been robbed of its most
fertile territory, that whidi remains is far from
unproductive. The forests abound in valuable
timber, among which teak, used for ship build-
ing, holds a prominent place. Almost every
description of timber known in India is found
also in Burmah. Stick lac of excellent quali-
ty, and varnish used in the manufacture of
lacquered ware, are produced* Ava, the capi-
tal, is supplied with superior teak from a forest
at 15 days* distance. Agriculture and horticul-
ture are everywhere in a remarkably backward
state ; and were it not for the wealUi of the
soil and the congeniality of the oUmate, the
atate would be very poor. Fruits are not cul-
tivated at all, and the crops are managed with
little skill. Of garden vegetablea, the onion and
the capsicum are the most generally cultivated.
Yams and sweet potatoes are also found, togeth-
er with inconsiderable quantities of melons,
cucumbers, and egg-plants. The young shoots
of bamboo, wild asparagus, and the succulent
roots oi various aquatic plants, supply to the

inhabitwitB the place of cultivated garden fMtiu
Mangoes, pineapples, oranges, custard-appleay
the jack (a species of breadfruit), the papaw.
^y and the plantain (that gpreatest enemy of
civilization), are tbe omef fi*mtB, and all theas
grow with littie or no cara llie chief crc^
are rice (which is in some parts used as a cir-
culating medium), maize, millet, wheat, various
pulses, palms, sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton of
short staple, and indigo. Sugar<»ne is not
generally cultivated, and t^e art of making
sugar is scarcely known, althou^^ the plant has
been long known to the people. A chea;»|
coarse sugar is obtained from the juice of the
Palmyra palm, of which numerous groves are
found, especially south of the capital. Indigo
is so badly managed as to be entirely unfit for
earoortation. Rice in the south, and maize and
mUlet in the north, are the standard cropa.
Sesamum is universally raised for cattle. On
the northern hiUs the genuine tea-plant of China
is cultivated to considerable extent ; but, singu-
larly, the natives, instead of steeping it, as they
do the Chinese tea, eat the leaf prepared with
oil and sarlia Cotton is raised chi^y in the
dry lands of the upper provinces. — ^The dense
forests of Burmah abound in wild animals,
among which the chief are the elephant, the
one-homed rhinoceros, the tiger and leopard,
the wild hog, and several species of deer. Of
birds, the wild cock is conunon; and there are
also varieties of pheasants, partridges, and quayQa*
The domestic animals are the ox, the horae,
and the buffalo. The elephant also is used aa
a draught animal. The camel is not known.
A few goats and sheep are found, but the
breed is littie cared for. Asses are also lit-
tie used. Dogs are neglected in the Burmese
economy, but cats are numerous. Horses are
used exclusively for riding, and are rarely more
than thirteen hands high. The ox is the beast
of draught and burden in the north ; the buf-
falo in the south. — Of minerals, gold, carried
down in the sands of the mountions, is found
in the beds of the various streams. Silver
mines are wrought at Bor-twang, on the Chi-
nese frontier. The amount of gold and silver ob-
tained annuallv has been estimated to approach
$1,000,000. Iron is abundant in the eastern
nortion of Laos, but is so rudely wrought that
from 80 to 40 per cent of the metal is lost in the
process of for^^g. The petroleum pits on the
banksof the Irrawaddy produce 8,000,000 pounda
per annum. Copper, tin, lead, and antimony
are known to exist in the Laos country, but it
is doubtful if any of these metals are obtained
in considerable quantities, owing to the igpo*
ranee of the people of the methods of working
ores. The mountains near the city of Ava fbr-
nish a superior quality of limestone; fine statuary
marble is found 40 miles from the capital, on
the banks of the Irrawaddy ; amber exists so
plentifully that it sells in Ava at the low price
of $1 per pound; and nitre, natron, salt, and
coal are extensively diffused over the entire
country, though the latter is littie used* The

^V BDBiail ^^1

"^"""" "■"" 1

^^^^1

•»fti<

stirteu (n' ttui :

- «...

J[Ji_ CLTt.'. I'iil'ju

^ ■

.; ,•■ -J .J

r^i9<r9i^ ^^H

hnm U<^L ^

' rmmm

M^^^^Bk;

iiinc rrf.it

■ '^ ctf

^^m^^B^'

i^ ui

! r. .■•,' -

■ ^

A I'M., ,■

^H ff'i.^

rMUt V'

1^ rkou. - ■

msimi^ .^ .^ *- ^. ^..

fmf 4^':

po/y ftminiKM wiuh

^^V nirv! ^£!»L i

' ■ ^ T

£4ljeC ;

"^ r

li iXm hi^

l^riicttbir dbidtsl**

J'-

v^^f^iUtd

r.»V[t] lpip^!tt^H. T

uc^'j-.iiigarj4p»,faji*:

--it^W

I ■

iifitiH

♦ii'

^^M

wtdi^fwrni..^..

mn tftSdft til TflHnoJ 1

£|}M^i»^'L/<4 r>. -^Il

M uimrw?

Urtbl.^

iOmit' J :

. uf '..T

■;e oor^

- ., .,aw^

t»,.

[4-',.i ^-H-j/i,

., i;i^*^ll,TtR.

oi t*!rttl%iibfiij

H "^'^

^^I^QtKttof

♦iK^tr '^i J^Jl*- "•*o *i ^-

H tt.

.; uT fmnlt

half ihm crrm ul Hio l«s, <;ir
ii laiiltil^ivfl h^ uiA Uiiurfid* fil fn !

^^ Pljn'rf.l-, (UiL-J.

■o:i:J'jrt^ iiuiikiJ luttM km iTiljrhnl

idtl 4iKir oa ^t crtfff dmsi^ of luaili^ Itc ^Uth

t-"^"- ■•*rTiJ5t?

alioGl 9| ptir «m. iQlifffflt

own odtain Awi miiii. ITit Barm

r 1 JIS ill 00 |i«r ei^t not iimisii.

'^tltsQffiMl ■Aitf eCiv, llmi*,

, *c.

of ]|I« tEidOrvt, 1)!f fctttli? &i |L(

^ 'J

*jfl<ai^

•^^ IT

riwroflUyr IS

!■ I

jiiidiiii/tfio«(iisi

UtUi (^thii rRHiF rr.iv

■ r

'i£»^ UdiMt fcqturtt4

tJ'li** I

P !;•

-. Hi* f^TVnot*! c»f

rft*'#v i

^^^^1

128

BUBMAH

BUBMANN

oonqilexloii, ooazM, lank, liiaxk hafr^ abnndanti
and more beard than their neighbors, the Siam-
ese. M%}or Allen, in a memoir to the East India
govemment, gives them credit for frankness, a
strong sense of the ridicnloas, conrnderable
readiness of resource, little patriotism, bat mnoh
love of home and family ; comparatiyelj little
pr^ddice against strangers, and a readiness to
acquire the knowledge of new arts, if not at-
tended with too much mental exertion. They
are sharp traders, and have a good deal of a
certain Mnd of enterprise ; are temperate, but
have small powers of endurance; nave more
canning than courage; though not blood-
thhrsty by nature, have borne phlegmatically
the cruelties of their various kings ; and without
being naturally liars and cheats, are yet great
bramurts and treacherous. — ^The Burmese are
Buddhists by fiuth, and have kept the ceremo-
nies of their relifl^on freer from intermixture with
other religions t£an elsewhere in India and China.
The Burmese Buddhists avoid, to some extent,
the picture worship practised in Olmuu and
their monks are more than usually faithful to
thdr vows of poverty and celibacy. Toward
the dose of the last century, the Burman state
religion was divided by 2 sects, or offshoots
from the ancient fiEuth. The first of these en*
tertained a belief dmOar in some respects to
pantheism, believing that the godhead is dif-
fused over and through all the world and its
creatures, but that it appears in its highest
stages of development in the Buddhists them*
selves. The other rejects entirely the doctrine
of the metempsychosis, and the picture wor-
ship and cloister system of the Buddhists;
considers death as the portal to an everksting
happiness or misery, according to the conduct
of the deceased, and worships one supreme and
pirit (Ifat), The present

devotee to his fEuth. has
ready publicly burned 14 of these heretics, both
parties of whom are alike outlawed. They
are, nevertheless, according to Oapt Yule, very
numerous, but worship in secret — ^The early
history of Burmah is but little known. The
empire attained its acme of power in the 11th
century, when the capital was in Pegu. About
the beginning of the 16th century the state was
split into several minor and independent gov-
enunents, which made war upon each other ;
and in 1564, when the IdngTshen-byoo Myayen
took Ava, he had subdued to himself all the
▼alley of the Irrawaddy, and had even sulgect-
•d 8iam. After various changes, Alompra, the
founder of the present dynasty (who died in
1760), once more raised &e empire to some*
thing like its former extent and power. Since
then the British have taken firom it its most
fertile and valuable provinces. — ^The govern-
ment of Bormah is a pure despotism, the king,
one of whose titles is lord of life and death, dis-
pensing imprisonment, fines, torture, or death,
at his supreme will. The details c« the gov-
ernment are carried out by the hlwot-dau, or
cooncU of state^ whose presidiog officer is tba

pe-nondnated heir-apparent to the tfarona, or
]f tbere is no heir named, then a prince of the
blood royaL In ordinary times the council is
composed of 4 ministers, who have, however,
no distinct departments, but act wherever
chance directs. They form also a high court
of appeal, before whom suits are brought for
final a^udication ; and in their individual capa-
city, they have power to give Judgment on casea
wMch are not brought up to the collective coun-
ciL As they retain 10 per cent, of the property
in suit for the costs of the judgment, they de-
rive very handsome incomes from this source.
From this and other peculiarities of the Bur*
mese government, it is easily seen that justice
is rarely dealt out to the people. Every office-
holder is at the same time a plunderer; Uie
judges are venal, the police powerless, robbers
and thieves abound, life ana property are in*
secure, and every inducement to progress is
wanting. Near the capital the power of the
king is fearful and oppressive. It decreases
with distance, so that in the more distant
provinces the people pav but little heed to
the behests of the lord of the white ele-
phant, elect their own governors, who are
ratified by the king, and pay but sli^t trib-
ute to the government Indeed, the proT*
inces bordering on Ghina display the curioua
spectacle of a people living contentedly un-
der two governments, the Ohinese and Bur-
mese taking a like part in the ratification
of the rulers of these localities, but, wisely,
generally settling on the same men. Not-
withstanding various British embassies have
visited Burmah, and although miasionaiy ope-
rations have been carried on there more
successfully than elsewhere in Aoa, the in-
terior of Burmah is yet a complete terra
incognita, on which modem geographers and
map-makers have ventured some wild guesses^
but concerning which they know very fittie
in detail — (See ^ Narrative of the ^fission sent
by the Governor-General of India, to the Gourt
of Ava^ 1855," by Capt. Henry Tule. Lonp
don, 1858.)

BURMANN, the name of aDutch fiunOy dis-
tinguished for learning. — ^Fbakcisoub, bom at
Leyden in 1628, died in 1679, was the son of a
Protestant minister who had been driven frt>m
France. He officiated as professor of theology,
and became known to fame by his writings, es-
pecially by his commentaries on the Old Testa-
ment.— ^Fbtbb, his eldest son, born at Utrecht^
June 26, 1668, died in Leyden, March 81, 1741^
studied under GrsDvius and Gronoviua, received
his diploma of doctor at law in 1688, travelled
extensively abroad, gained distinction in the
practice of his profession, and successively offi-
ciated as professor of eloquence, history, Greek,
and politics, at Utrecht, and subsequenUy at
Leyden, where he was twice rector of the nni-
versity, and where he finally became profeasor
of the history of the United Provinces and of
poetry, and keeper of the university library.
^ editions of Latin dassica and of the works of

130

SUBNET

geographical society gave him its gold medal
and a brilliant reception. William IV. specially
thanked him for his services. On returning to
India, in 1886, he undertook a mission to Hy-
derabad to prevent the necessity of a war with
8inde, and succeeded. He obtiuned permis-
sion from the ameers to survey the Indus, and a
pledge that the practice of robbing stranded
vessels shotdd cease. In 1836-^7 he was sent
to Dost Mohammed, at Gabool, on a commer-
cial mission ; but, persuaded that this prince
meditated treachery toward the Anglo-Indian
government, remonstrated, was dismissed, and
retired to Simla, whence, when it was resolved
to replace Shah Shoojah on the throne of Cabool,
he preceded the army, in charge of the com-
missariat, and while so employed received the
announcement of his having obtained the honor
of knighthood and the brevet rank of lieutenant-
colonel. In Sept 1839, on the restoration of
Shah Shoojah, Sir Alexander Bumes waa made
political resident at Gabool, with a saicuy of
£3,000 a year. In this capacity he continued
until Nov. 2, 1841, when on the outbreak of
the Gabool insurrection, he was murdered, with
his brother Lieut. Gharles Burues, and others.
After his death was published "Gabool," in
which he gave a narrative of his journey to, and
residence in, that city in the years 1836, %
and '8.

BUrwKET, a central county of Texas, formed
in 1852 from Travis, Williamson, and Bell
counties, and having an area of about 950
sq. m. It has a hilly and, in some places,
mountainous surface, about i of which is occu-
pied by a growth of oak, elm, and cedar. Mar-
ble is found in great abundance ; beds of coal
have been opened, and a few traces of gold
have also been discovered. The staples are
wheat and Indian corn. In 1857 there were 12,-
480 head of cattle, valued at $62,000, and 1,227
horses, valued at $63,100, The value of real
estate was $216,600, and the aggregate value of
all taxable property, $474,350. Gapital, Ham-
ilton. Pop. in 1856, 1,898, of whom 190 were
slaves ; slave pop. in 1857, 197.

BURNET, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, bom
in Edinburgh, Sept. 18, 1643, died in London,
March 17, 1716. He took the degree of M. A.
at Aberdeen before the age of 14, studied law
for a short time, but at the age of 18 was
licensed to preach. His sermons, from the first,
were extempore. He declined a living, as being
too young for such a charge. After visiting
Oxford, Gambridge, and London, he travel-
led in the Low Gountries and France. On his
return, in 1665, he was made a fellow of the
royal society, and soon after, accepting the liv-
ing of Saltoun, in East Lothian, was ordained by
the bishop of Edinburgh. He remained in Sal-
toun for several years, an active and useful parish
priest, and drew up a statement of the abuses
' practised by the Scottish bishops, avowing the
authorship,* for doing which Archbishop Sbarpe
proposed excommunication and deprivation.
This did not take place; the rest of the hier-

archy objected to such extreme measures. In
1669 Burnet was elected divinity professor at
Glasgow, where he continued for 4^ years,
striving to steer a middle course between the
2 parties then contending for power. The
Presbyterians feared that his moderation wonld
lead to the promotion of episcopacy, and the
Episcopalians believed that his aim was to
exempt dissenters from their persecutions. In
1669 he published his first work, ^^ A Modest
and Free Gonference between a Gonformist and
a Kon-conformist." While compiling ^^ Me-
moirs of the Dukes of Hamilton," from family
archives at Gksgow (it was not published until
1676), he had occasion to visit London, where
he is said to have refused a Scottish bishopric,
on the plea of youth. On his return, in 1671,
he married Lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter
of the earLof Gassilis {& leader of the moderate
party), and, on the day of their union, present-
ed her with a deed securing the whole of her
fortune to herself, in order to silence the impu-
tation of having married a lady much older
than himself from interested motives. In 1672
he published "A Vindication of the Authority,
Gonstitution, and Laws of the Ghurch,'' a trea-
tise much at variance with his previous opinions,
being so defensive of the doctrine of passive
obedience that it was highly approved at
court, and obtained for him the offer of a Scot-
tish archbishopric, which he declined. In 1673
appeared his "Mystery of Iniquity Unveiled,"
and in the same year, while he was in London,
he was made chaplain to Gharles II., with whom,
and also with the duke of York, he had several
private interviews; but soon after his name was
struck off the list of royal chaplains, because he
opposed the arbitrary measures of the duke of
Lauderdale. He resigned his Glasgow profes-
sorship, and removed to London, where ho
printed his " Truth of Beligion Revealed,'^ and
was appointed preacher at the Rolls chapel, and
lecturer at St. Glement^s. In 1679, taking his
stand with the Protestant party, he published
the first volume of his " History of the Refor-
mation,^' for which he received votes of thanks
from both houses of parliament, and a request
to complete it. The second volume appeared
in 1681, when he also printed "An Account of
the Life and Death of the Earl of Rochester,'^
having attended that profligate nobleman at bis
own request. Dr. Johnson says : " It is a book
the critic ought to read for its elegance, the
philosopher for its argument, and the saint for
its piety." In 1682 he published his "Life of
Sir Matthew Hale," and some minor works, and
wrote a private letter to Gharles II., re-
monstrating with him on his public misgov-
ernment and private licentiousness, and re-
minding him of the fate of his father. The king
is said to have read the letter twice, and then
thrown it in the fire, but ordered the bishopric
of Ghichester to be offered to the writer " if he
would entirely come to his interest." Burnet
declined; attended Lord William Russell on
the scaffold in 1683; was dismissed fh)m his

utmxKi-

TJ*n. in^-«i V»^(lii tu.ii 'Ir f ^.i.^..jtl'« k*t-i,Lir II, rTii Tuc-IUK !Jir>*Tu In JLr? nf n r-Nfi^-illn

l«)9 Ifiii'.

fMr M>i*nTortT>^T

t ii< Mtm |l(iilpa vl U«U^«l^r Ml* iMttl^ 4lJi*U «Sigt«V^ |iUka» iTtiOl

132

BUBITET

BURNEY

recent painters, from the Bembrandts in the
national gallery, and from several of his own
paintings. He has written several illustrated
works and manuals for artists.

BURNET, Thohas, an English writer, bom
at Croft, in Yorkshire, abont 1685, died at the
charterhouse, London, Sept. 7, 1716. As master
of the oharterhonse school, he was the first Eng-
lishman to beard James IL in his arrogation of
the dispensing power. By the oonstitntion of the
charterhonse the pensioners must take certain
oaths of allegiance and supremacy. James sent
down a candidate, Andrew Popham, for eleo-
tion to the charity, accompanying his mandate
with a dispensation irom the usual oaths,
Popham being a Roman Catholic. The candi-
date was introduced by Chancellor Jeffiiea, one
of the governors. Burnet at once denied the
king's dispensing power, and refused to receive
Popham. In this he was supported by his
patron the duke of Ormond. Jeffries stormed
and blustered, but the candidate was rejected.
After the revolution Burnet was made clerk
of the closet to William m. on the recommen-
dation of Archbishop TiUotson, whose pupil he
had formerly been. He lost the court favor,
and his hopes of preferment, by an essay in
which he treated the Mosaic account of the fall
as allegorical. His principal works were writ-
ten in Latin, of which the " Sacred Theory of
the Earth,'' once had a high reputation for eru-
dition and imaginativepower.

BURNET'S creek!, a tributary of the Wa-
bash, in the state of Indiana. It is near the
scene of the battle of Tippecanoe, fought in
Nov. 9, 1811.

BURNETT, Jomr, an English dissenting
minister, bom in Perth, Scotland, in 1790.
He was apprenticed to the craft of shoemaking,
which he abandoned before he had completed
his apprenticeship, enlisting as a private soldier
in an infantrv regiment. Here he devoted his
leisure to study during several years, and then oc-
casionally preached to a small Independent con-
gregation in Glasgow. His sermons attracted so
much attention that crowds went to hear them,
and a sufficient sum was subscribed to purchase
his discharge from the army. He was placed in
pastoral charge at Glasgow, where he con-
tinued for several y^ars. About 1824 he ac-
cepted charge of a church in Cork, where his
popularitv increased. In 1827, when visiting
London, he was drawn into a public discussion,
which lasted several days, before fashionable
audiences in the Argyle rooms, with Mr. Joseph
O'Leary, a Catholic gentleman, also from Co^,
respecting the tenets of the church of Rome.
He received a call from an Independent con-
gregation at Camberwell, in charge of which
he still continues.

BURNETT, Waldo Ibvino, M. D., an Ameri-
can naturalist and microscopist, bom in South-
boroagh, Mass., July 12, 1828, died in Boston,
July 1, 1854. He inherited his love of nature
from his father, and in early boyhood began
his study of entomology, which he continued

through life. Unwilling to sabject his faUi^
to any unnecessarv expenses, he gave up the
advantages of a collegiate education ; possessed
<^ great mental activity, he easily masteM the
usual branches of knowledge, and was espe-
cially proficient in mathematics; at a later
period he made himself fEuniliar with the
French, German, and Spanish languages. His
&ther was a physician, and under nis guidance
he commenced the study of medicine, gradu-
ated in 1849, and soon after visited Europe,
where his attention was given almost ex-
clusively to natural history and micro80O|ac ob-
servation. Pulmonary consumption now began
its course, and the remainder of Ms life was
spent in changing firom place to place, to miti-
gate, if possible, his disease. During the last 5
years of this unsettled life, he accomplished an
almost incredible amount of intellectual labor,
the results of which may be found in the ^'Pro-
ceedings" and '^ Journal of the Boston Society
of Natural History," in the '^ Memoirs of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences," in
the '' American tfoumal of Science," in the
^'Transactions of the American Medical As-
sociation for 1858," and in the ''American
Journal of Medical Sbience." Beside a great
number of minor articles, the principal
work of his life was the "Prize Essay," pub-
lished by the medical association, on "The
Cell, its Physiology, Pathology, and Philos-
ophy, as deduced from Original Observa-
tions; to which is added its History and
Criticism." He was engaged, to the end of
his brief career, in translating from the Ger-
man tiie "Comparative Anatomy of Siebold
and Stannius."

BURNET, Db. Chables, an English historian
of music, bom at Shrewsbury, April 7, 1726,
died m I^don, April 15, 1816. At the age of
18 he came under the tuition of Dr. Ame,
with whom he studied for 8 years in London.
In 1749 he was appointed organist of a church
in Fenchurch street, and in the same year pro-
duced at Drury lane 8 muacal dramas, "Robin
Hood," "Alfred," and "Queen Mab." For the
next 9 years he lived at the town of Lynn
Regis, in Norfolk, fulfilling the duties of organ-
ist, on a salary of £100, and compiling ma-
terials for his " ffistory of Music." In 1760 he
returned to London, where he brought out a
number of instrumental compositions, and fl&
adaptation of Jean Jacques Rousseau^s operetta.
Le aeoin du village. One of his most admired
works was an elaborate anthem, performed on
the occasion of receiving his degree of doctor of
music at Oxford in 1769. In the following
year, with a view of obtdning further materials
for his " History of Music," he visited the princi-

a cities of France and Italy, and in 1771 pub-
ed the result of his observations in a vol-
ume entitled "The Present State of Music in
iVance and Italy," which Dr. Johnson made
the model of his "Tour to the Hebrides."
In the succeeding year Dr. Bumey made a
similar tour through Germany and the Neth*

BUkMki

ir*T*v^riCf^ t^ '^rfl

T^QI ^C

k tlior.

I QM«f;»U£«if 111

\fr nrii

Qfif

^^ Uj^ (knilijm &C ' .

134

BUBNINQ GLASS

BURNS

lamp, ftnd in tliis tube is what may be called a
wick of silver wires, which serves the double
purpose of conveying heat down the tube to
volatilize a portion of the fluid, and also to
raise the fluid up by capillary action toward
the burner, near which it is, by the heat, con-
verted into vapor, and thus passes through the
burner like common gas. The burner is first
heated by applying a flame to it, and the gas
being once ignited, it continues to furnish, by
its combustion, sufficient heat to keep up the
supply. The lamp cannot be refilled without
unscrewing the burner, which eztingidshes the
flame, and thus prevents an explosion from
this conmion cause. By such ingenious con-
trivances the use of the material is probably
rendered as nearly safe as its nature admits.

BURNING GLASS ahd BURNING MIR-
ROR, instruments to concentrate the sun's
heat. The usual burning glass is simply a
double convex lens, which brings the rays of
solar heat to a focus at nearly Uio same point
at which it brings the rays of light. Artificial
heat cannot, in general, be brought to a focus
by a glass lens ; but a lens of rock salt will
bring heat radiating from any source to a focus.
The use of burning glasses, or burning crystal, is
alluded to by Aristophanes, and several writers
declare that Archimedes fired the Roman ships
by means of burning mirrors. In the 17th
and 18th centuries many experiments were
made with burning glasses oi immense size.
Tschirnhausen made several, some of which are
still at Paris, 88 inches in diameter. In 1774
Lavoisier and Brisson superintended the mak-
ing of a lens 4 feet in diameter, of 2 glasses
like watch crystals, with various finids between.
This is called Trudalne's lens, from the gentle-
man who bore the expense. About the year
1800, a Mr. Parker of London made a lens 8
feet in diameter, which is now at Pekin. The
heat from these large lenses is intense, and
capable of melting any stone or mineral in a
few seconds. Equal effects may be obtained
fi*om mirrors. Heat is reflected like light, and
a concave mirror brings both to a focus. About
1670 a M. Yilette of Lyons constructed several
mirrors of polished metal, from SO to 50 inches
in diameter. Tschirnhausen made one of cop-
per nearly 5 feet in diameter. Buflbn (who
was the first to suggest a lens made of severed
pieces, afterward brought to perfection by
Fresnel, and of great use in lighthouses) made
a large reflector of several hundred smaller
ones, each 6 inches by 8. With this he set fire
to wood at the distance of 210 feet, proving the
possibility, though not tiie probability, of Ar-
chimedes having thus burned the Roman fleet.
Within a few years, it having been shown that
the sun's rays have a heating power partly pro-
portioned to the heat of the place mto which
they shine, the galvanic flame of a large battery
has been made to play through the focus of a
large burning glass, and thus the most intense
heat ever witnessed has been produced, beyond
all reasonable comparison witn those tempera-

tures that can be measured by degrees. In all
these experiments the most blinding light ac-
companies the heat, which renders it somewhat
difficult to observe the effects. IMestley's
"History of Optics,'' Bossut's Bistoire det
mathimatiqueSy the ^'Memoirs of the Paris
Academy ''for 1777, and Buffon's supplement
to his "Natural History," will give further in-
formation to those who desire it.

BURNISHING, the last finish given to me-
tallic articles, which consists in polishing by
means of blunt instruments of steel, agate, cop-
per, or a dog's tooth, rubbed over their surfihi^
Vessels of round shape are turned in a lathe,
and the burnishers are then conveniently ap-
plied to them ; when of unsuitable form to be
thus polished, the work is done by hand,
and is very rapidly accomplished by an expe-
rienced workman, th& tool quickly entering into
the numerous interstices, and cleaning the sur-
face of the metal of the slight film, of impercep-
tible thickness, which obscures its brightness.

BURNOUF, EuQftNE, a French orientalist,
born in Paris, Aug. 12, 1801, died there May 28.
1852. Shortly before his death he was appointea
perpetual secretary of the academy of inscrip-
tions, of which he had been a member since 1832.
His principal work, Introduction d Vhutoire du
Boudhitmej founded on the researches of Mr.
B. H. Hodgson, was completed in 1844.

BURNS, Robert^ the great national poet of
Scotland, bom Jan. 25, 1759, died July 21,
1796. A clay-built cottage, 2 miles south of the
town of Ayr, and in the vicinity of the kirk of
Alloway and the "anld brig o' Doon," was
his birdiplace. His parents were peasants of
the poorest class, but honest, diligent, and re-
spectable. They were eager for the moral and
intellectual improvement of their offspring, and
lost no opportunity for supplying them with the
rudiments of education. Kober^ in the intervid
of driving the plough, and other farm work,
soon made himself a master of English. His
chief reading books were the Bible, Mason's
Collection of Prose and Verse, the "Life of Han-
nibal, " and the history of Sir William Wallace.
Later in life he attempted to learn French and
Latin, without much success; but when the
** Spectator," Shakespeare, Pope, and particularly
the poems of Allan Ramsay, were ^ut into his
hands, he. devour€|^ them with avidity. His
first attempt in verse, after the family had re-
moved to Lochlea, was made toward his 16th
year. " A bonnie, sweet, sonsie lass," as he says
in a letter to Moore, " who was coupled with him
in the labors of the hay-harvest," awoke his
early inspiration; and thus he began, as he con-
tinued, his literary career in poetry and in love.
Robert and his brother Gilbert were employed
by their father, as regular day-laborers, at £7 per
annum, until Robert's 19th year, when he went
to the school of Kirkoswald, to learn mensu-
ration and surveying. As it was situated on a
smuggling coast, he fell in there with the bold
characters of the contraband trade, which en-
larged his knowledge of human nature, if it did

■

^^ tvornr:

H r

^H t.

^^1 1

^^^^H
^^^1

^H ii

^^H 1'-

% TrsTr-;T71i

^H 1

1
I.

, o^ii w >.

iW iititw U 4

ui^il^aii-^c. f-if ^^^r? '>*'

'■J. O "*MMr 1

136

BUBNS AND BOALDS

mood.^' In the Bimple, the naive, the sweet, he
is scarcely more distiDgoished than he is in the
grotesque, the wild, and even the terrible. His
^' Tarn 0^ bhanter " displays a narrative ability of
the first order, while his '* Jolly Beggars" is
filled with dramatic power. But his peculiar
strength was the lyrical, and his songs, infinite
in number as they are matchless in emotional
gash and tenderness, will be the delight of the
human heart so long as the warm blood rushes
through it, or the tongue is able to articulate.
The American poet Halleck has done the am-
plest justice to the genius of Bums of any of
his 3andred, and but reechoes the universal
judgment of criticism, when he says:

Therb liaye been loftier themes than his,

And longer aorolla, and loader lyres,
And lays lit np with poesy^s

Purer and ooller fires ;
Yet read the names that know nol death,

Few nobler ones than Bums are there^
And few have won a greener wreath

Than that which bUidB his haii:

As A man, Bums was generous to a fSault ; inde-
pendent and scorning meanness ; exquisitely en-
tertaining in conversation ; and, though at times
wild and reckless, with a deep and mighty under-
current of religions feeling in his soul. — ^Bobebt,
son of the foreeoing, bom at Mauchline, county
of Ayr, Scotland, in Sept. 1786, died in
Dumfries, May 14, 1857. He was an accom-
plished scholar, an enthusiastic student of the
Gaelic language, a proficient in music, and of
some poetical ability.

BURNS AND SCALDS. Bums are pro-
duced by heated solids, or by the flames of
some combustible substance, solid, liquid, or
gaseous ; scalds are produced by heated steam
or liquid. The worst bums which occur com-
monly arise from i^e explosion of gunpowder or
iofiammable gases, or from the dresses of children
or of females catching fire ; the worst scalds,
from accidents in breweries, manufactories, lab-
oratories, and steamboats. The severity of the
accident depends mmly on the intensity of the
heat of the burning body, tog:ether with the ex-
tent of surface and the vitality of the parts in-
volved in the injury. The immediate effect of
scalds is generally less violent than that of
bums. Fluids, noticing capable of acquiring
80 high a degree of temperature as some solids,
cannot act with the same violence on a given
point; but, fiowing about with great facility,
their effects often become more serious by
extending to a ver^ large surface of the
body. A bum which utterly and instan-
taneously destroys the part it touches may
be free from dangerous complications if the
ii^jured part be circumscribed within a small
compass ; while a scald apparently much less
severe in its immediate efi&cts, being more or
less diffused, is always attended with different
degrees of injury in different parts of its course,
and may be very serious in its results, although
apparently less violent in its first effects on any
given part. The extent of the surface involved,
the depth of the ixyory, the vitality and the

sensibility of the parts affected, must all be duly-
weighed in estimating the severity and the
dimger of an accident in any given case of bum
or scald. In ordinary bums and scalds the
immediate seat of ii^ury is the skin or the exter-
nal surface, one of the most vital parts of the
frame. The skin is a highly organized mem*
brane, endowed with the most acute sendbility.
Burns and scalds^ therefore, are more dangerous
in proportion to the amount of surface involved
than in proportion to the depths attfuned in
a limited extent, for the outer layers are the
most highly organized and senutive parts of the
cutaneous system. The outermost of all, how->
ever, being a mere coat of homy varnish, is the
least sensitive ; and where the injury is slight
and altogether superficial, though extensive, the
mischief is but trifling at firist, and may be
easily remedied, although nnpleasant complica*
tions may ensue if the superficial iigury is
neglected, and the parts beneath are long ex*
posed to the action of the air, which causes
iiritation, pain, and infiammation. The physi-
ological obstmction long continued, and the
shock to the whole nervous svstem, being more
than the vital forces of the organism can
withstand, no treatment can prevent a fatal
termination to the sufferings of the patient in
cases of excessively severe bums and scalds;
but the worst cases might often be avoided by
a little knowledge and self-possession on the
part of the sufferer at the time of the accident,
and a fatal contingency be transformed into a
temporary injury. Everybody should, there-
fore, have some knowledge of the best course
to pursue in case of such an accident happening
either to themselves or to others near thooi at
the time. — ^Where the body is enveloped in
flames, from the clothes being on fire, the first
thing to be done is to lie down on the floor and
roll the carpet or a rug, or any cloth or garment,
closely round the body, so as to exclude the air
from the burning dress, and thus put out the
flame. Or, lie down at once and roll the body
over the burning clothes, calling to some one
near to throw a blanket or a cloth of any sort,
wet or dry, or water, over you as you lie
on the floor, stifling the burning dothes be-
tween your body and the ground. And if
the clothes of a child or a grown person near
you should take fire, pursue the same method.
The upright position is the worst, being favor-
able to the spread of the flames, and allowing
them to reach the upper and most vital portions
of the body, trunk, head, face, ^nd neck. Fright
causes children to run screaming to and fro for
help, and this increases the currents of sur*
rounding air, and helps tlie flame to spread
more rapidly. The body should be quickly en-
veloped cft^ly, in a wet or a dry garment or
a blanket, a curtain, or table cloth, or any
thing which may be at hand ; the nuun thing
being to extinguish the flames by shutting
out the air, which gives them life, and without
which they cannot be. There ia no danger in
the operation, because the moment the names

^^^■^1

^^M

^^^^1

^ m

^^1

^^^^1

^^1

^1 t

!■

^^H • •

^^M

■ ^

B ''

■1

■ r:

H "

■ p.

H "'

!•-

. ,„.ii^3i;i»ij ii;. ij.".i ■'1'^ *

•

^^^^J

140

BUBBOWB

BUBTOH

cellor, as second in command, in Ins ^ojBg^ to
discoYor a north-east passage in 1558. uree
years later he had ohief oommand of another
expedition, equipped with the same object. He
doubled Cape North, touched at Nova Zembl%
discovered the island Waigatz, and reached lat.
70^ 80' N., a higher point than had before been
reached bj any navigator. He then turned to
the east, designing to explore the river Obi ; but
the icei the length of the nights, and the severe
cold, obliged him to give up his purpose. He
returned to England, and published an account
of his observations. He was the first who ob-
served the gradual declination of the magnetio
needle

BUEBOWS, WnuAH, a lieutenant in the
U. S. navy, entered the service in Jan. 1800,
and thougn a man of great eccentricity of char*
acter, was always distinguished for his gallantry
and high bearing as an officer. On Bept. 14,
1818, while in command of the Enterprise brig
of 14 18-pound carronades, he fell in with, and
captured, off Portland, Me., H. B. M. brig Boxer,
of 12 gunsj after a most gallant action. An
awkward cu*cum8tance occurred to the enemy
on this occasion. After he had hailed to say
that he had surrendered, he added that his
colors could not be struck until the Enterprise
ceased her fire, as they were '' nailed aloft.*'
Both commanders were killed in this action.
The Enterprise took her prize into Portland,
where these 2 gallant officers were buried side
by side with the honors of war. Lieut. Bur-
rows fell at the age of 80.

BUESOHENSOHAETEN (from Burtehe, a
youth, a student), German students' secret asso-
ciations, founded in 1815 by that portion of the
students of Jena who had taken a part in the
German war of independence. The object of
the association was to regulate the social habita
of the students, and to foster a spirit of nation-
ality. Tubingen, Heidelberg, HoUe, and Gies-
sen followed the example in 1816-'17. The
German war of independence, which had prin-
cipally brought about this fermentation among
the students, not having produced those politi-
cal reforms which they had anticipated, the
students or Burschen of Jena resolved to con-
voke a general BurschenBchaft^ihQ object of
which should be to connect the scattered asso-
ciations into one national band of brotherhood,
by the annual election of a presiding committee.
On Oct. 18, 1817, representetives of almost
all Gorman universities met accordingly at
the Wartburg festival, and in Oct. 1818, the
members of 14 universities affain assembled, and
adopted a constitution, to which dl the umver-
sities gave their assent in April, 1819, with the
exception of Gottingen, Landshut, and those of
Austria. Among the members of the Jena Bur-
sdienschaft was the student Sand, who had
taken a prominent part iu the convocation
of the students at the Wartburg. When the
dramatist Eotzebue was assassinated by Sand,
on account of his opposition to the Burschen-
schaften, the German princes became alarmed,

and on Sq>t. 20, 1819, a ccmference took place
at Oarlsbad, which decreed the suppressioQ of
the associations. The students, however, baf-
fled the designs of the government. The
only ohange which the interdiction wronght
was to make the Bursohenschaften meet in
secret instead of in public as before, and the
secrecy, far from hindering their object, only
tended to forward it. In 1827 the original
project of a German national Burschensdiafk
was taken up again, but intenial dissensicma
defeated the success of the plan. Two parties
formed themselves, the Oirmanen^ who were
practical politicians and determined reformers,
and the Arminen^ composed of more ideal pa-
triots, who saw not so much good in vi^dent
political changes, as in the general development
of national newer by perfecting their own indfe
vidual moral and mental nature. In 1827, at
Bamberg, and in Sept. 1831, at Frankfort, the
2 conflicting parties came together, and the
Armineny although in a numerical minority,
succumbed to the more energetio Germanen^
At a general meeting which took place at Td*
bingen, Dec. 25, 1832, a revolution was openly
resolved upon, and the students were all invited
to stand by the national German Bursohenschaft,
which had taken up its head-quarters atFrank-
fort-on-the-Main. This dedaration was followed
by the revolutionary attempt at Frankfort, in
June, 1838, in which 1,867 students were impli*
cated, and which led to the aitest of studento all
over Germany. Although the police measures
for the suppression of the secret political sode-
ties have since been stringent the Bursohen-
schaften exist to this day, though under different
names. ^ During the revolution of 1848, the
only studento who became implicated, happened
to be those of Vienna, who had never before
joined the Bursohenschaften.

BURSLEM, a parish and market town of
Staffordshire, England. It is the principal
town in the important district called **The Pot-
teries,'' on the Birmingham and Liverpool nul-
way, and contains a number of large factories,
dwelling-houses, villas, churches, and several
public buildings. Even in the 17th century it
was the chief place in England for the nroduo-
tion of earthenwares, at first of a rude and hom^
ly kind, but afterward brought to great perfec-
tion by Josiah Wedgewood, who was bom at
Burslem in 1730. Pop. in 1851, 16,984.

BUBTON, Asa, an American divine, bom at
Preston, now Griswold, Conn., in 1762, died at
Thetford, Vt., Anril 23, 1836. He graduated
at Dartmouth college in 1777. and was ordained
at Thetford in 1779 over a church of 16 mem*
hers, to which during the more than half oen«
tury of his pastorate there were admitted, 490
members. Id. theology he maintuned what was
termed the taste scheme^ in opposition to the ex-
ercise scheme of Emmons. He published a
volume of essays, and several sermons and
discourses.

BUBTON, John Hill, a Scottish author, bom
in 1807, assisted Dr. (now Sir John) Bowring

ainnt»ir

HUBTOH-CTC^^f-TO^JfT ffl

1^ ^ — '

41' 1

1>
II)

t#i^ ftl.y* . -.11. .«>Lt-«, ..} :iI^,«. ^,/ 1..t.4« ,>- tl.-^^.'^t.H !.«<., I *. .A. iV- ''M'r^- /^ '•^I'l

iowfi pf

uvfen 111
-,t^ till.

^ n 0 Momift c^r 0i» ftbtmjri iMi^tudiug %t^ i

142

BUBTSCHEID

seyeral hamleta, to an ancestor of the marquis
of Anglesey, the present lord of the manor,
who l£ence deriyes the right of appointing a
high steward, deputy steward, and bailiff for
the government of the town. The bailiff acts
as jostice of t^e peace, head of police, and coro-
ner, and has th^ general r^^ation of the town,
except as to paving and lighting, which are
managed by a board of conmiissionerB. During
the contest between Edward II. and his barons,
in 1822, the insurgents, led by the earl of Lan-
caster, took possession of this place, and for 8
days defended the bridge against the royalists.
The latter finally crossed by a ford, and Lan-
caster, having set fire to the town (March 10),
retreated into Yorkshire.

BURTSOHEID, or Boboettr, a town of
Bhenish Prussia, is almost a continuation of the
city of Aiz la Chapelle. It has 6,050 inhabi-
tants, and contains several manufactories, be-
side some celebrated sulphur springs and bath%
whose temperature is from 106"* to 155° F.

BUEWHA, a negro town in the kingdom of
Bomoo, central A&ica. It is situated on Lake
Tchad, and covers an extent equal to 8 sq. m.
Being defended by a wall 18 or 14 feet high,
and surrounded by a dry ditch, it may be con-
sidered, with reference to the military practices
of that country, a place of some strength. Pop.
6,000 or 6,000.

BURY, a parish, parliamentary borough, and
manu&cturing town of England, county of
Lancaster, between the Boche ana the Irwell,
198 miles N. W. of London, by the north-
western railway, and 8 miles K. W. of Man-
chester, with which city it communicates by
railway and canaL Pop. of borough in 1851,
81,262. It is an ancient town, but its impor-
tance, as well as its neat appearance, is of mod-
em date. Since 1846 the streets have been
paved and widened, gas and water introduced,
sewers constructed, and many handsome build-
ings erected. The principal edifices are the
parish church, with a beautiful tower and
spire, 8 other churches, several chapels, 8
newsrooms, a mechanics' institution, 8 libraries,
a* model barrack, and a savings bank. There
are many excellent schools^ including a free
grammar-school, founded by the Bev. Bog-
er Kay in 1776, and having an income from
endowment of £480 per annum. It has 2
exhibitions of from £80 to £85 each, to the
colleges of St. John's, Cambridge, and Brazen-
nose, Oxford. The manufacture of woollen was
a prominent branch of industry here in the
reign of Edward III., but has now given way in
great degree to that of cotton, which is exten-
sively prosecuted in all its branches. Several
important improvements in the manufacture
originated here, and among others that of em-
ploying various colors in weaving one piece
of cloth. The first Sir Bobert Peel estab-
lished his extensive print works on the Ir-
well, near this town ; and at his residence,
Chamber hall, in the immediate vicinity, his
son, the celebrated statesman, was bom« Bury

BUBY BT. EDMUND'S

also contains several bleaching and dyeing e»-
tablishments, paper mills, logwood-grinding
mills, and iron founderies. It is governed by
the county magistrates, who hold petty sea-
sions twice a week. The liverpool, Bolton,
Wigan, and Bury, and tiie East Lancashire
railways, pass through it. There are extennve
coal mines in the vicinity.

BURY, Hekbi Blazb, baron de, a French
author and critic, bom at Avignon, May 19,
1818. He made his first literary venture wiUi
a poem entitled Le iouper ehes U eommandeur^
published in 1889 in the £evu6 deg deuxmomdeK
To that periodical he contributed for many
years upon political and social questions. He
wrote for it also many poems and critical essays
upon Germany and its literature, some of them
under the pseudon3^ of Hans Werner. Ho
published a complete translation of Faust in
1844, which has passed through numerona
editions. He soon after published an essay, en-
titled Ecrwains et poites cPAUemagne. He
resided for several years in Germany, and was
intimate in the famous literary society of
Weimar. He afterward travelled in Italy, and
in 1850 published a political essay, Sur V6ra7i4
et Vltalie pendant let eampagnes ae Badetzhy ;
and he was the first to suggest a union of the 3
branches of the house of Bourbon. — ^His wife,
Mabib Pauline Bose Stuabt, of an ancient
Scotch family, was educated in France, and has
written many tales and critical essays both in
English and French. Amotig these are the
Essai sur Lord Byron, and the novels "2t£ildred
Vernon," and "Falkenberg."

BURY ST. EDMUND'S, a parliamentary and
municipal borough and market town of Eng-
land, in the county of Suffolk, on the Lark& 26
miles N. W. of Ipswich, and 94 miles N. K of
London by railway, and Y2 miles byroad. Pop.
in 1851, 13,900. It is well built, supplied
with gas and water, and has clean, paved, and
regular streets. It comprises 2 wards, is gov*
erned by a mayor, 6 aldermen, and IS coun*
cillors, and is the seat of the county assizes,
general, quarter, and petty sessions, and other
courts. Its pubMo buildings and institutions
are numerous -and interesting. It has 8
handsome churches, one of which, built aboat
1430, and remarkable for its beautiM carv*
ed roo^ contains a marble slab erected to the
memory of Karv, queen of France, and after-
ward duchess of Suffolk, daughter of Henry YIL
of England. Another of uie churches has a
belfry 80 feet high, which was originally a grand
portal to the churchyard, and is regarded as one
of the finest specimens of its claee of ancient
Korman architecture in existence. The Boman
Catholics, and various dissenting denominations^
have chapels. Schools are numerous, and some
of them of high repute. Among the latter ara
a free grammar-school, founded oy Edward YI.,
and having an income from endowment of more
than £600 a vear, a cemmercial school for 150
•boys, national schools, &c Of nearly 100 ahna-
houses and similar institutions in Bury, the

DFP-AD

tvlVirJTi!<n

Itx.M r^*i\m^U'l Urti.

'"ilCin^i- ^1*1**1 fA.r«t, iiR,! i»if>-

lis

1.1
1, '

ffht^lrr^.'

t.4 04 A arrev 4iijai4uutnMii l» lil»

. uiru '111

4wvi t;^^ .^uk>^ ^t^^ii*

% ^4 ;i^|H4i#l«4 4fV^<>t. ji.li vi' 1^ JLi4vPMj^44^ ^t Ui«

144

BU9EMBAUH

BUBHIKE

TmirexBify of Gdttingei^ and in 1760 paator of
tbe German Lutheran chnrch at St. Peters-
borg. In 1765 he removed to Berlin. His most
Important work is his " Universal Geography/*
which made its first appearance in 1754. That
part of it in which he describes the countries
and nations of Europe, was translated into Eng-
lish, and published m Londozl in 6 vols, 4to, in
1762.

BUSEMBAIM, Hebicakn, a German Boman
OathoUo theologian, bom at Nottelen, in West-
phalia, in 1600, died in M&nster, Jan. 81, 1668.
He was a Jesuit, and in his Medulla Theologim
MoraUs (which passed through 50 editions), he
carried the doctrine of the temporal supremacy
of the popes to such a height, that the seculior
tribunals in almost every European state were
unanimous in pronouncing condemnation on his
work, and committLng it to the flames.

BUSH, in mechanics, the name given to the
piece of hard metal, usually brass, fitted into a
plumber-block, in which the Journal turns. It
is sometimes termed the pillow, and the blocks,
pillow-blocks. The guide of a sliding-rod is
also termed a bush. — ^Bushing a gmi or can-
non is inserting a small cylinder of refractory
metal, as platinum, in the touch-hole.

BUSH, GicoBGB, an American theological
writer, bom at Norwich, Vt., Jane 13, 1796.
He gx^uated at Dartmouth college in 1818,
studied at Princeton theological seminary, re-
ceived ordination in the Presbyterian church,
and was for 4 years a missionary in Indiana.
He devoted himself especially to biblical learn-
ing, was elected in 1881 professor of Hebrew
and oriental literature in the university of the
city of New York, published in 1882 a " life
of Mohammed," and in 1833 an elaborate
" Treatise on the Millennium," in which he re-
gards the millennial age as the period during
which Christianity triumphed over Roman pa-
ganism. About the same time he compiled from
tourists, archaeologists, and commentators, a
volume of "Scriptural Illnstrations," published
in 1885 a Hebrew grammar, and in 1840 began
the issue of a series of learned and ingenious
commentaries on the Old Testament He edited
in 1844 the "Hierophant," a monthly magazine,
in which appeared striking articles from his
pen on the nature of the prophetic symbols. In
the same year he published his " Anastasis," in
which he opposed that view of the resurrection
which implies a physical reco^^^tracUon of the
body. This work attracted much attention,
and he answered the many attacks which were
made upon it in a treatise entitled the ^ Be-
surrection of Christ" In 1845 he connected
himself with the Swedenborgian church, trans-
lated from the Latin the diary of Swedenborg,
and has since that time, in numerous addresses,
and short treatises, and as editor of the " New
Church Repository," labored to develop and
maintain the principles of that philosopher. In
1847 he published a work on the higher phenom-
ena of Mesmerism, which he deems a confir-
mation of the tmths of Swedenboig's revelations.

Personally, Prof. Bush is disHngoished for his
simple manners, and the geniality and kindness
of his dun^osition.

BUSHEL, a*i English measure of 8 gallons,
divided into 4 pecks, used for dry materials, as
grain, fruit, coal, &o. The gallon, which by act of

Sarliament of Geo. lY ., c. 74, § 7, is defined to
etermine its capacity, must contain 10 11^
avoirdupois of distilled water, weighed in ur,
at the temperature of 62'' F., the barometer
being at 80 inches ; or to contmn 277.274 onbio
inches. The so-called . imperial bn^el, then,
must contain 2,218.192 cubic inches. But tf the
goods measured are of a kind usudly heaped, as
potatoes, coal, A«., it was prescribed, that the
capadty, including the raised conei should be
2,815 cubic inches. This rule was al}oliBhed by
act of parliament of William IV. The Win-
chester oushel was the standard before the im-
perial from the time of Henry YH. (act of
1 697). Its capacity was 2, 1 60.42 cubic inches ;
its dimensions 18^ inches internal diameter, and
depth 8 inches. Heaped, the cone was to be
not less than 6 inches high, making with a true
cone its contents, 2,747.70 cubic ^ches. — ^The
bushel of the state of New York contains 80 lbs.
of pure water at its maximum density, or 2,-
211.84 cubic inches.

BUSHIKE, or Aboo-Shehb, a seaport town of
Persia, in the province of Ears, situated on the
N. E. coast of the Persian gul^ at the northern
extremity of a peninsula, to the north and east
of w^ich is the bay. The climate is extremely
hot and unhealthy, producing various kinds of
disease, especially of the eyes. In 1881 the
plague made a fearful havoc among the popu-
lation, which; from 20,000 in previous years,
has dwindled down to 5,000 or 6,000 in 1868.
Beside many huts of palmwood outside of the
gates, there are about 400 white stone houses in
tiie town, which present rather an agreeable ^>-
pearance from a distance; and tibe badgirs,
or ventilators, raised over the houses (chiefly
for the comfort of the ladies)^ to the height of
100 feet, contribute to enhance this impres-
sion. The narrow streets, however, of which
there are not less than about 800, are in a miser-
able condition. There are few handsome build-
ings in the town excepting the East India com-
pany's factory and the sheik's palace. — ^Bnshire
IS the great commercial emporium of Persia.
Its merchants carry on an extensive trade with
East India, Russia, and Turkey, and supply al-
most all Persia with goods. The prindpal im-
ports from India are indigo, sugars, and spices.
The steel of India is preferred to that of other
countries, and used for the manufacture of
sabres. Tin is imported .from Banca, and
cofiee chiefiy from Mocha. Manu&ctnred
goods are imported from England and con-
tinental Europe, a British consukr reindent hav-
ing long been maintained at Bushire, owing to
the requirements of the increasing commercial
intercourse. Many goods sent from Europe to
India are thence exported to Bushire. The ex-
ports are raw silk, sheep's and goats' wool.

^^V BOflQlf AflHI Tuvva

Wm ^M

^^^ lniffMlB i\m\,A A«.ll •Jl.%«i* k-^tft .t.r^k.~4> «■.**.

n.n t:^* VI '. ir.*.»L«*l

.^ i.i« A. «. ^ .iiu«. ^^1

■

^^^^^BS|^ 1 .

^^^pSTt^r^^ i^ IK leao] ii£ 'i^ ^^

tmr r

^^^^^ft|^a£ tiii.'

I.fU.-

^^^1

^^^^^^Kai 'tEndiirj

^^^^H T i Aibcur,

,. „

^^1

^^^^^K r\nm y%io Ui«

fltTl''' "

^^B^pr^Ti

^^H

^B }.' m% ^rM^h^,

^^^^^^■h mi.\t^"i

.(lUMt* ^H

^^^^k ^M msK%h

v^Vn^i ^^1

^^^^^^H^^dT f t'

iMliit ^M

t9 mMi ^^B

^^^^^fc.

nanticfa i*'

i.jMirtt#OtM ^^H

^^^^Ki

W tti^ ^ '

- t!^.frnT*o ta ^^H

^^^^^^■t

^^^^m

DkeiL- ^H

sji'i rt'ii'-

^^^^^^^^fc_~

luiHtlllW '

^^^1

iteteof

^^^^Pmp^PSiAnoi'Wtf.il/itiL^^ L!:i>

rfiiMjua il

^^H

^^B»witf

■kTd irli*

^Hiar^ la In* xm i74<

eciiiioctt.

■

^^^0L4I]d ^f^l fot

Iwi l&ittn#l

-H J

^^^■1 iiffie aOt^a^tiHl Ur ili^

kia boi ^M

^^^^ftiwil of 0«miiiefi:ii ti^

rf llie ^H

^^K^ - /.. 'ofi^c ti-

■

^^^K^ ^xKao&u n

^^H

^^^^^t'

..iri(U*cCinY>

^^1

^^^^Kf

tioaiviiti

^^^1^'

ui'i-iiLi, ironi prr-

^^^H

fi-jr

'il«Mi,bohiiCC(airr

^^1

HHK^ ^tf VUuroii 6' I

^^^^^^J|D<) r>.^f.».ir.l Tr.

,.:-. :• diiopiiao Ofi

^^^1

^^■c

74WD&M C*r 1llllt»» t

^^1

140

BUSEIK

BUSTAMEKTE

titled the ^Nerthern Iron f an addrees (m reli-
gions music ; one on '* Politios the Law of God ; ^
an oration on the fathers of New England ; a
historical disconrse on the "Age of Homespun ;**
and a speech for Connecticut^ delivered before
the legislature.*-Dr. Bushnell is a person of ner-
vous temperament and sensitive organization.
Rather a poet than a logician, his works are
remarkable for graphic and dramatic en>re88ion.
delicate and acute mental peroeptionf beautafui
analogies, and great metaphorio power, mingled
with trenchant satire, exquisite pathos, and a
vein of genuine practiced sense uiat exists in
eo6peration with a brilliant Imagination and
sympathetic emotional traits, rendering him an
eloquent preacher, and a man who attracts and
retains personal regard in an uncommon degree ;
though the want of strict argumentative force
and the overstrained use of analogy in his
writings detract something from his reputation
as a theologian and polemic. — ^During a year's
absence in Europe, after visiting Rome, Dr.
Bushnell wrote a letter to the pope, from Lon-
don, April 2, 1846, which was published in the
papers of the day, and in which he commends
to the notice of his Holiness certain alleged de-
fects in his spiritual and secular administra-
tion.

BUSKIN, a kind of boot-leg, covering the
outer garment so as to protect the leg. The
English men of letters use this word to trans-
late the Latin eothumtUy or high-heeled shoe,
which the ancient actors used on the stage to
give them the appearance of height

BUSS, Franz Josbpb, a German statesman,
bom at Zell in 1803. He studied snccesnvely
philology, medicine, and Jurisprudence, and since
1836 has been professor of law and political
economy at Freiburg. He first made himself
known by translations from other languages.
In 1837 he began to engage actively in politicS|
and was elected to the 2d chamber of Baden.
At first an extreme liberal, he soon renounced
democracy, and appeared as the champion of
nltramontane ideas. In 1848 he was made a
member of the German national assembly. To
make the Oathc^o church entirely independent
of the state is the object for which he has heea
and is yet unweariedly active.

BUSSERUT-GUNGE, a small town of Oude,
British India, on the road fipom Oawnpore to
Lucknow, fortdfled by a wall, a wet ditch, a
tower commanding the gateway, and various
other works. It was the scene of 8 brilliant
but indecisive victories over the sepoys, gained
by Gen. Havelock and a handful of British,
while endeavoring to relieve Lucknow, July 29,
Aug. 5, and Aug. 11, 1867.

BUIBSET, BsirjAiciN, a merchant of Boston,
bom in Oanton, Mass., March, 1, 1767, died in
Boxbury, Jan. 18, 1842. He was a soldier in
the revolutionary war, became a silversmith in
Dedham, afterward a merchant in Boston,
where he acquired a large property, which he
bequeathed, with a beautifm estate at Jamaica
Pli^ after the decease of certain relativee^ to

Harvard college, fbr the establishment of an
agricultural school, and the support of the law
and divinity schools of that college.

BUST, in sculpture, the figure of a human
being truncated below the tnreast. Theetym^-
ogy of the word is not satislSAOtorily explamed,
but it is of Latin origin. The bust includes the
head, ahoulders, breort, and arms truncated just
below the shoulders. It goierally stands on a
pedestal. Among the ancients tibe boat of a
person was taken, when now his portrait would
be painted or his daguerreotype made.

BUSTAMENTE, Akastasio, a president of
Mexico, bom in Guadalajara, in 1782, died at
San Miguel de Allende, in 1861. At the age of
21 he received a diploma as doctor of medicine,
began practice in San Luis Potosi, and soon
after became family physician to Gen. CaUeja,
viceroy of Mexico. When the revolution of
1810 broke out^ he abandoned a lucrative prac-
tice to enter on a military career as lieutenant
of a regiment organized by Oalleja, called the
'' faithful lancers of Potosi.*' He fought in be-
half of the Spanish government against the
Mexican leaders, Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama,
and Abasolo, and participated in the disastrous
battle of Oalderon ; but, disgusted at length
with the craelties of Gallia and his assod-
ates, he joined the patriots and served in the
republican ranks, when, Feb. 24, 1821, Itur*
bide pronounced against the Spanish govern-
ment. Bustamente was one of the first to sus-
tain him, and to urge the plan of independ-
ence proposed by him. Iturbide promoted him
firom colonel of the regular line to the rank of
general of division, and appointed him com-
mandant general of the interior provinces, which
office he held, participating in nearly all the pub-
lic affidrs of the state, till he was called to the
vibe-presidency of the republic, Dec. 81, 1829.
He took part against the president Guerrero^
and in Dec. 1830, Santa Anna having headed a
revolution called the *' plan of Jalapa," he was
oharged with the executive power which he
retained till Aug. 14, 1832. For the success of his
government he was much indebted to his min-
ister, Don Lucas Alaman. Being succeeded in
the presidency by Pedraza, he took command
of the army, and was soon after overthrown
by Santa Anna, and by him banished. He
visited France, where he attracted much at-
tention, and is said to have pursued his med-
ical studies. Upon the outbreak of the Tex-
an revolution in 1836 he returned to Mexico,
and in 1837 was again elected to the presidency,
which he held, excepting a short interval in
1839, till 1841, when he was again over-
thrown and banished by Santa Axina under
the *^plan of Jalisco." He fied to Eur<^>e, and
resided for some time in Genoa, but upon the
M of Santa Anna in 1846, agam returned to
Mexico, and gave his services to his country in
many offices till his death. Bustamente waa
one of the most honorable of the public men of
Meaco, and the republic waa prosperoua under
his administratioa.

^^^^^m BUBTABO

pnNBMHUIi 147 ^J

vncn^JM ^fX Id »fj<i.4iL »^.«iifl# Jk^iMtfci.*j«) ^m* ^^^H

^^^^^^^Hftb^p T^

tM l^twl'^aA^^^ ^fl

^^^^^^^^^Kr

tiutil i:,tVl« {u ^^^M

IP ft^lr-'

II ^'

m.i^ik% vi %^ia» 14,. <iif lU UU «iiiG£ Ujo btfM | ^H

BUTOHER-BIBD

BUTE

of an inoh. The plmnage is soft and blended ;
long briBtlefl at the base of the bill ; winos of
ordinary length, 4th qnill the largest ; tail long,
straight, graduated, of 12 ronnded feathers;
loral space, behind the eye, wings and tail,
brownish black; Iris hazel; upper parts light
ash-gray, tinged with pale blue ; a wnite streak
over eye; lower parts grayidi white^ tinged
with brown on the fore part of breast, and
with faint, nndnlating, dusky bars ; base of the
primaries white, the secondaries and their cov-
erts tipped with the same; in the female the
Lead and hind neck are tinged with brown,
and the lower part has more numerous bars.
It is common m the middle and northern
atates for the greater part of the year, retiring
northward to breed; according to Audubon, it
is not found along the coast of the southern
states, the Z. luaovicianut, Linn., taking its
place. The nest is built of dry grass, leaves,
and moss, in the fork of a bush or low tree;
the eggs are 5 or 6 in number, of a dull cinere-
ous blue color, spotted and streaked at the
larger end with yellowish brown ; the time of
incubation is 15 days. It frequents woody and
bushy places, where it sits perched on a branch
oontinuallv Jerking its tail ; its flight is undu-
lating and rapid; it is most commonly seen
single, or in pairs, and is wary and hard to ap-
proach. It feeds on insects, especially grass-
hoppers and crickets ; but it also attacl^ and
kills small birds, which it tears apart and
swallows in large pieces; it pitches downward
like a hawk, with closed wings, on the back of
its victim, whidi it instanUy strikes in the
head, tearing open its skull. In confinement it
eats eagerly pieces of fresh beet It haa the
singular propensity of impaling insects and
small biras on points of twigs and thorns, prob-
ably for convenience in devouring them, though
in many instances this habit seems to be wanton
cruelty, as the bird leaves them to decay. The
Bev. Mr. Peabody remarks: "This practice of
gathering what he does not want, and keeping
it till it can be of no use to him, is regarded as
an unaccountable mystery in a bird, while in
man the same proceeding is considered natural
and wise." It is so bold that it often enters
apartments where pet birds are kept, and at-
tempts to seize them from the cages ; several have
been canoht in this manner. It imitates the notes
of other birds in distress, and when they flock
around to see what is the matter, it pounces into
the midst, and rarely fails to secure one. It will
pursue birds on the wing, and even small quad-
rupeds and liaards. Audubon is of opinion
that this bird is the same as the Z. excubitor^
Linn., but more recent authorities consider
them distinct. The European bird, or great
cinereous shrike, is rare in England; it is
sometimes trained in Russia for catching small
birds, rats, and mice, which, like its American
congener, it fixes to a thorn and tears to pieces
with its oiU ; it possessea the same propenaty
for fixing its food in confinement^ according to
Belby; it is also called batcher-bird. The L*

lud&9ieianiiUy linn., is a native of the south-
em states, being confined chiefly to Florida,
Georgia, and the Oarolinas. This is called the
loggerhead shrike, and abounds on the rioe
plantations, where it does good service in do*
stroying field-mice, large grubs, and insecta,
pouncing upon them like a hawk. In all the
Dutcher4>irii the legs and daws are weak, and
are never used in tearing their prey ; this ia
effected by Iheir powerful bill, and in thia they
differ from the true birds of prey, which strike
and tear with their talons.

BUTE, an island of Scotland, in the frith of
Clyde, about 16 miles long, from 8 to 6 milea
wide ; area, 60 sq. m. ; pop. 9,499. The aor-
face in the nortliem parts is rugged and moon-
tainous : the central and southern portions are
undulatmg and tolerably fertile. The tempera-
ture is mud and equable, and the island is much
resorted to by invalids. There are 8 amall
lakes. Fad, Ascog, and Quein. The town of
Bothsay is pleasantlv situated on the £. ooast^
and Hountstuart; the seat of the marquis of
Bute, the chief proprietor, is near it.

BUTE, John Btuabt, earl of. born in Scot-
land in 1718, died in London, March 10, 1792.
In his 10th year he succeeded to his father's
title and estates. He was educated at Eton;
and in Feb., 1787, he was elected one of the 16
representative peers of Scotland, and in the same
year was appointed one of the lords commi»-
sioners of police in Scotland. In Aug. 1786,
he married the only daughter of Lady Mary
Wortley Montagu. In 1750 he was appoint-
ed lord of the bedchamber to Frederic, prince
of Wales, eldest son of George 11. On the death
of his royal patron, in March, 1761, the widow-
ed princess of Wales honored him with so
muon confidence and friendship, that (although
Lord Bute lived happily with his wife, who had
a large family) it was whispered that their
friendship was far too dose and intimate. He
obtained a great influence, also, over the youth-
ful prince of Wales, who, when elevated to Uie
throne, in 1760, as George III., distinguished
him particularly as his favorite, admitting him
to the privy council, appointing him groom of
the stole, and from that time consultmg him
on all the principal affairs of state. In
March, 1761, Lord Bute was made one of the
secretaries of state. His wife was created a
British peeress in her own right, as Baroness
Mountstuart. In the following October, Wil-
liam Pitt (the elder), finding his powers, as
nominid head of the administration, weakened
by the vast infinence of the new secretary, re-
tted from the cabinet ; and in May, 1762, when
the duke of Newcastie also resigned. Lord Bate
succeeded him as prime minister. With con-
aiderable ambition and inconsiderable abilitiea,
Lord Bute was now in an office for which he
was ill adapted. Unpopularity gathered around
his head. The attack was pointed by John
Wilkes and Churchill, the poet, who assuled
him because he was a Scotcnma|i, and thereby-
only embodied the ruling idea among the peo-

antiSii

All

-T T-

f_ « f. i»* V,

Uo m ai^fUlttT^ Iwoiiittr wili

tUbl

*V4. -

'^-'1 W*t rLC

r^i,*?.

£a$:i<L be '.

:ii.iiie«9Qiiljrtif ^' -— ^

L. ..! a-:

rt.A in 1

U .■

lai

Tl]i*m* IP trp^ -. "

1% 1 iie>vi|ii|>

160

BUTLER

Kobfle and Girard railroad. lit. A aotitli-
westem conntj of Xentac^, intersected by
Green river, which is here narigable by
6teamboatS| and having an area of 500 sq. m.
The face of the county is uneven and the
soil moderately fertOe. Ooltivation is bestowed
principally upon oom, oats, and tobacco. Live
stock is also reared. The productions in 1850
were 289,774 bushels of Lidian corn, 40,840
Of oats, and 207,819 pounds of tobacco. There
were 9 corn and flour mills, 1 saw mill, 18
churches, and 818 pupils attending publio
schools. Yalue of real estate in 1855, $611,-
539. Pop. in 1850, 5,756, of whom 681 were
slaves. Capital, Morgantown. lY. A south-
western county of Ohio, bordering on Indiana,
and having an area of 455 sq. m. It is gener-
ally level, fertile, and remarkably productive.
The crop of Indian corn in 1850 exceeded
that of any other county in the state except
Boss; there were 2,737,784 bushels raised,
beside 291,782 of wheat, 344,517 of oats,
and 10,494 tons of hay. An excellent species
of limestone for building purposes underlies the
county. Water-power is abundant, and the
transportation of the agricultural products is
greatly facilitated by the Miami canal and rail-
roads from Cincinnati to Dayton, and Bich-.
nond, Indiana, which pass through the county.
Pop. in 1850,30,789. Capital, Hamilton. A
number of interesting monuments of the aborigi-
nal inhabitants have been discovered in this
county, chiefly on the banks of the Great and
Little Miami rivers. Some of them are works
of defence consisting of earthen ramparts from
4 to 9 feet high, thrown around the brows of
hills, enclosing from 16 to 95 acres of ground,
and entered by gateways protected by intri-
cately arranged embankments; others appear
to be traces of sacred enclosures, and of others
it is difficult to coigecture the deagn. They have
been fully described by Messrs. Bquier and
Davis in their '^Monuments of the Mississippi
Valley." V. A south-eastern county of Mis-
souri, bordering on Arkansas, and having an
area of 560 sq. m. The surface is level or mod-
erately hiUy, and the soil suited to the growth
of Indian corn, wheat, and oats^^hich together
with cattle form the staples. The productions
in 1850 were 2,887 bushels of wheat, 55,800 '
of Indian com, 8,058 of oats, and 1,558 pounds
of wool. There were 4 churches, and 91 pupils
attending publio schools. The county was
named in honor of William O. Butler, of Ken-
tucky. Pop. in 1856, 2,152, of whom 48 were
slaves. In 1850 there were 53 slaves, and
1,563 free inhabitants. YI. A newly erected
north-eastern county of Iowa, consisting mainly
of uncultivated nrairie land, drained by several
branches of Red Cedar river; area, 576 sq. m.
In 1856 it produced 723 tons of hay, 5,409
bushels of wneat, 6,906 of oats, 53,605 of Indian
com, and 7,711 of potatoes. Capital, Clarks-
ville. Pop. in 1856, 2,141.

BUTLER, Ajlban, an English Catholic biog«-
rapher, bom at Appletree, Northampton-

sliire, in 1710, ^ed at 6t. Omer, in IVanoei in
1773. Having become a clergyman of thQ
Catholic church, he was ohaplain for some
lime to the duke of Norfolk. He sabseqnentl j
became president of the college of St. Omer,
in France. He wrote several works, of whidi
the best known is the ^^ Lives of the Fathers^
Martyrs, and other principal Saints." This has
been translated into many modem langnagea*

BUTLER, Ain>Bxw Piokems, U. S. senator
from South Carolina, 5th son of Gen. William
Butler, bom in Edgefield district, S. C, Not.
17, 1796, died near Edgefield court-house, May
25,*1857. He graduated at Soutii Carolina col*
lege in 1817, and was admitted to the bar in 1819.
As a lawyer he practised in the circuit courts of
Edgefield, BamwelL Oranfleburg, Lexington,
and Newberry, and here laid the foundation ox
his reputation, not simply as a sound lawyer
and eloquent pleader, but for good sense, po&ti-
cal foresight, and a lively, companionable humor.
In 1824 he was elected to the legislature as the
representative of his native district In 1887
he was one of the committee U^ the legislature
who prepared the articles of impeachment and
conducted the prosecution against Judge Jamesi,
a veteran of the revolution, diarged with in-
competence and drunkenness. In 1829 he mar-
ried Susan Ann, daughter of Col. Sldred Sim-
kins, of Edgefield; but she died prematurely,
only a few months after marriaffe. In 1881, a
period marked by the apprehended collision of
South Carolina with the federal government^
on the nullification issue, he was elected colo-
nel of a regiment of cavalry. In 1888, still a
member or the legislature, he was made a
Judge of the courts of general eeedons and com-
mon pleas. Subsequently, when a change was
made in the judiciary system, he was trans-
ferred to the supreme bench of the state, where
he continued until 1846, when he was elected a
senator in congress. Soon after taking his
seat in this body, he was appointed chairman
of the judiciary committee. One of his earliest
speedies was against making Col. Benton lieu-
tenant-general of the army. He made 2 others
upon a call for supplies to support the war against
Mexico. His report upon the fugitive slave
law was maintidned by an eUborate effort upon
the floor. His speech upon the Pacific railrofid
has been preserved in pamphlet form. By re-
quest he defended President Pierce's veto of
Miss Dix's bill, appropriatii]^ publio lands
ibr a lunatic asylum. The Kansas question, the
action of the naval retiring board, the abolition
question, and all others afiTecting the peculiar in-
terests of South Carolina, and the general wel-
fare of the south, engaged him in frequent
debate, in which he always took a conn>icaoiis
part. His last speech was in reply to Mr. Sum-
ner, and in defence of South Carolina. His
speeches and reports well merit the examination
of the student who seeks to understand the preg^
nant period of our political history between 1846
!md 1857. Judge Bntier, himself, lived mostly
a publio life during all this period. He had snr-

fcil rifciirl* (Jl, I'll* fjTTii •f^r.L rlTkilr.'T, ?il,*4.'^i. <Vi,*tn i» -if m" .i»ii.irit r . uXl.iT* W&a ^jiLi'iMf ^i.

. ir,^ fir. "

ifniiff, Iw meitiiilft hlglk iiiociasiiKi »f ibn war, |Mervaiif fnnciu) Bui-

152

BUIUEB

tor 6,000 acrw of land in OuMidA, «nd a penrioQ

of £600 a year.

BUTLER, Joseph, an English theologian and
moralist^ bom at Wantage, in Berkshire, Maj
18, 1692, died in Bath, Jnne 16, 1762. He was
edacated in the Presbyterian oommonion, and
early gave proo£i of an extraordinary aotitnde
for abstruse speculation. In 1718 he addressed
a series of letters to Dr. Clarke stating 2 objeo-
tiona to the reasoning in his '^ Demonstration of
the Being and Attributes of God." The saga-
city displayed by his correspondent was such
that Dr. Clarke published the letters with his
replies to them in the subsequent editions of his
work. About this time Butler adopted Episco-
pal views, and with the reluctant permission
of his father entered the university of Oxford
in 1714^ and was soon after admitted into holy
orders. On the united recommendation of his
college friend Edward Talbot and of Dr. Clarke
he was appointed preacher at the Rolls in 1718,
and in 1726 was promoted to the wealthy but
sednded rectory of Stanhope. Before leaving
the Rolls he published a collection of 16 ser-
mons, which reveal his metaphysical rather than
elo<}uent cast of mind, and are admirable for
fheir logical symmetxy. The first 8 of them are
upon human nature, which he survevs as an
organic system or constitution, and finds its law
or ruling principle in the supremacy of con-
science. Though he combats those moralists
who make self-interest the only motive of action,
and affirms the anthorityof the moral fiftculty over
both the passions and affections of the sou, and
the acts of life, yet he does not pronounce upon
the nature of conscience, does not venture to
designate it by a constant name, and it is difficult
to say whether he regarded it as a power of
sentiment or of reason. After 7 years of retire-
ment at Stanhope, he was appointed chi^lain
to Lord Chancellor Talbot, and in 1786 became
clerk of the closet to Queen Caroline, who
sought to adorn her court by the presence of
divines as well as statesmen. In that year he
published his '* Analogy of Religion, l^atural
and Revealed, to the Constitution and Ooxune of
Nature." This work, though but a commentary
on a pregnant passage of Origen, and though its
argument has but a narrow compass, is yet one
of the most profound and original theological
studies in the language. It is designed nei-
ther positively to establish religion nor di-
rectiy to answer objections to it, but only
to prove that the principal preconceived
objections which are raised against Chris-
tianity may also be raised agunst the struo-
ture of the universe and the course of nature.
By presenting parallel difficulties in admit-
ting the divine authorship of nature and of
the Christian revelation, he does not demon-
strate the latter, which can only be done by
positive evidence, but he destroyed the prima
facie advantage which the deist of Uie 18th
oentury had assumed in discussion with Chris-
tians. His argument does not pretend to estab-
lish the truth of Christianity, bat is irresistible

in removing the abterior obstmctions to a con-
sideration of its evidences. This work, the
fruit of many years^ reflection, is composed in
a most compressed and ungraceful style. Sir
James Hacbntosh says that no other thinker
so great was ever so poor a writer. In 1788
Dr. Bntier was made bishop of BristoLwhence
he was promoted in 1760 to the see of Durham.
A charge which he delivered to the clergy of
the latter diocese^ upon the importance of cero-
monial worship as subservient to^ the reality
and power of religion, and the circumstance
tiiat he introduced mto his chapel a white mar-
ble cross, gave rise to a report, contradicted br
his nearest friends, that he had secretiy joined,
and that he died in, the Roman Catholio com-
muuion. His death occurred while on a visit
to Bath in hope of recovering his heslth, whioh
had rapidly declined^ and he was buried in the
cathedral of Bristol, where 2 monuments are
erected to his memory. Dr. Bntier is described
as having possessed a pale, thin, placid faoe,
and white hair hanging gracefully upon his
shoulders. He was never married. Among
his few eccentricities was a custom of walk-
ing for hours in his garden during the darkest
nights of the year. His character and writings
were highly estimated by Hume and Lord
Karnes, who both sought an introduction to
him; which, however, he declined, ^*on the
score of his natural diffidence and reserve, his
being unaccustomed to oral controversy, and
his -fear that the cause of truth might thence
suffer from the unskilf olness of its advocate.**

BUTLER, Col. Pibbos M., governor of South
Carolina, son of Gen. William Butier, bom in
Edgefield district, S. C. April 11, 1798, killed
in the battie of Churubusco, Aug. 20, 1847.
After completing his school education he be-
came tempOTsrily a clerk to his elder brother,
€h9orge. When Hr. Calhoun was secretary of
war, jButier was appointed to a lieutenantcy in
the 7th infantry. He attsdned the rank of
captain, and served in that grade for some
vears. However, on his marriage, he resigned
his commission, and was made cashier of tho
bank of the state, at Columbia, of which he
snbsequentiy became the president. He re-
signed the office to accept a lieutenant-ooloners
commission under the state, in the Seminole
war in Florida, in the dragoon regiment of CoL
Goodwid! Upon his return from Florida he
was elected governor. On the expiration of
lus term of office he accepted the appointment
from the U. S. government of agent for the
Cherokees, west of the Mississippi; was re-
moved from this office by Mr. Polk, who, how-
ever, appointed him to treat with the Comanche
Indians. On his return to Washington to ^ve
an account of his mission, he received advices
that he had been elected colonel of the Palmet-
to regiment of South Carolina, just then raised
for volunteer service in the Mexican war. He
at once accepted the appointment, and hurried
home to his command. The rest of his career
is that of the Palmetto regiment It took part

^^^^^^^ BPTLE&

I !

IT.

..* 1.

It* ■fTl.'if^>'>r T.O, (ati ^* , i#l.< <*|i it^ ^^^^^1

D-

1 i

■ '

•Own

^^ t«ltW, 111 1.

1^^

■ ^

I >

^1
1

1 -'' ^

154

BXmJSR

engaged in tihe battle of Btono, and served
in the fiimoiu eorps of FulanJ, until the
death of the latter, at the 8i€«e of Savannah,
^Borganized his legion. The rail of Charleston
soon followed the disastrons defeat of the Amer-
icans and French before Savannah, and the
militia was temporarily dispersed, while the
continental forces were in captivity. Bnt
with the first rising of the partisan leaders of
Carolina^ William Bntler Joined the troops un-
der Gen. Pickens. Snbseqnently, he served
with Lee, nnder Greene, at the siege of IHnetx-
Six, and was detached on several separate ser-
vices, involving the necessity of eqnal celerity,
conrage, and vi^ilimce. It was on one of these
expeditions, while nnder the command of Gen.
Henderson, that Butler first met the lady,Beheth«
land Foote Moore, whom be snbseqnently made
bis wife. After Greeners defeat at Ninety-Six,
Butler joined the legion of Lee for a season, but
soon took the field as a partisan, served tor a
while with Pickens, and at length rose to a
command of mounted rangers. At Dean^s
Swamp, associating his command with that of
Oapt. Michael Watson, they were severely
bandied in. a fight with a superior force of loy-
alists. Watson fell, and Butler took tiie com-
mand, continued to fight against the greatest
odds, and only escaped massacre by the timely
arrival of a reenfoicement from Orangeburg.
In another sharp struggle with a similar enemy,
upon the Edisto, when Judge Ryan, the mt
in command, was shot down, BuUer assumed
the lead and succeeded in driving the foe across
the river. While in command of the rangers,
nnder Pickens, he bad frequent conflicts witn
the notorious Bill Cunningham, one of the
most reckless and desperate of all the loyalists.
In the fall of 1T81, near Carradine's ford, they
had one of these sharp passages, which was
rather a duel than a battle, and enlivened by
many carious incidents. Butler, goaded by
personal enmity, pursued Cunningham for miles
with a vindictive spirit folly equal to his own.
It was a prolonged running fight of several
hours, frequently renewed. Butler served
thus to the dose of the war. was a fiEivorite of
Pickens, and usually employed in services
which called for audacious enterprise and rapid
movement In 1T84 he married Behethland
Moore. Soon after he was nominated as brig-
adier-general by Pickens, who then held the
rank of mt^or-generaL Pickens reigning in
1796, the legislature elected Butler to that dig*
nity. In 1800 he was elected to congress, in
opposition to Robert Goodloe Harper. He took
his seat in 1801, and served till 180Ci, when be was
appointed chairman of the committee of inves-
tigation in the case of Wilkinson, ohamd with
complicity in the Burr conspiracy. Wilkinson
making some offensive remark touching a
'^prosecuting militia general," Butler resigned
bis place as chairman, and sent Wilkinson a
message. The result was a much friendlier
temper on the part of the latter. A mi\}or-
general of militia at home, Butler declined the

commisrion of a brigadier in the regular service,
which was tendered him by Madison. In 1813
he rengned his seat in congress, in order to
make way for Mr. Calhoun. In 1814 he waa
called, by a very complimentary order from
Qor» Allston, to take command of the forces
of South Carolina, which state was tiien sup-
posed to be in danger of British invasion. He
repaired to Charleston for this purpose, but the
menaced danger passed ofiE^ and the blow sub-
sequently fell on New Orleans. Butler retired
at the dose of the war, and resumed the duties
of his farm. In the interval between our two
wars with Great Britain, he was elected a
member of the convention of 1787, in Cbarlea-
ton, to consider the adoption of the federal
constitution, and, along with Gen. Sumter and
others, voted agiunst it. He was subsequently
a member of the convention which framed tiie
present constitution of the state ; was for some
time a member of the legislature ; was aheriff
(then an officer of high distinction) in 1794;
and at one time served as a magistrate. He
was large and handsome of person, 6 feet high,
a bold rider, with a great passion for horses,
active, eager, and determined. He was re-
markable for the fearless independence of hia
character. He sought the turi* with pleasure^
ran famous horses, kept none but blooded ani-
mals, and made his own sons break his colt%
even at the peril of their neoka. Tradition pre-
serves sundry remarkable stories of his own
dare-devil horsemanship. He had numerous
children. Two of his sons, James and George,
died the same month and year with himsdf.
James was sheriff of Edgefield district, and a
colonel of cavalry. George was a lawyer, but,
during the war of 1812, served as mijor in
the regolar army. William was a. physician,
and served as surgeon at the battle of New
Orleans; he was also, for a single term, a
member of congress. Frank died as colonel of
the Saluda regiment

BUTLER, WnxiAK Aixxzr, a living Ameri-
can lawyer and poet^ bom in Albany, N. T., in
1825. He graduated at the New York univer-
sity in 1848, studied his profession in the office
of his father, Hon. B. F. Butier, travelled in
Europe from 1846 to 1848, and since his return
has been actively engaged in the practice of
the law in New York city. He published
an academic poem, entitled the '^ Future^**
in 1846, and bias contributed many papers in
prose and verse to the *^ Democratic Keview,^
the "Art-Union Bulletin." and the "literary
World." In 1850 he published a volume of the
character of "Bqjected Addresses," entitied
**Bamum^s Parnassus," and in 1857 the poem of
''Nothing to Wear," which passed through
numerous editions, and was followed bv many
imitations. A new poem by Mr. Butler, en-
titled " Two IGllions" was issued in the sum-
mer of 1868.

BUTLER, WoLiAH Orlando, an American
general, bom in 1T98, in Jessamine co., Ky.,
whither his father, Peicivnl Butier, a native of

BCTHCT

Btrmtfj

\ir-i

->.. ^- ^ .^

.1^-1 ^iltTi ! _^ .,*|_*sf, tfil^t

v>.

li:

<U| iTiM 4lt^fs^W Uj liiC <^U%L^{i >

3i^i.i. li rMH\ f!ti-'1

tnurteii to ri

IQ f«fiiul fednimiim ia nHik cu It, Tiu

166

BUTTEB

&te it ; bnt the Greeks regarded it as a wonder-
Ibl kind of food. It appears to have served as
an ointment, and to have been in very general
nse for this purpose among the different nations
of Europe. It is related by Plataroh that a
certain Spartan lady visiting Berenice, the wife
of DejotaraS) the former smelt so strongly of
sweet ointment, and the latter of butter, Uiat
neither could endure the other. Dioscorides
describe how butter is made by agitating the
fattest milk, as that of the sheep ; and Galen
treats of the comparative qualities of that made
from the milk of different animals ; but none of
these early writers make any mention of its
being used except as an ointment in the bath,
or as a medicine, by any other people than the
IHiraoians and uie ancient Germans. Cheese
appears to have come into general use as food
long before butter, and to &is day among the
nations of southern Europe the latter article is
sold by the apothecaries as a medicine, its place
as an element of food being occupied, as it al-
ways has been, by vegetable oils. — ^Milk consists
of > whey or serous matter, in which the caseine
or cheese is held in solution, and with which
the butter globules are mechanically mixed.
When thoroughly separated from the other sub-
stances, these globules form the solid butter, but
there is always more or less water intermixed,
and some caseous matter also, which by its fer-
mentation induces the rancidity in butter long
kept. Dr. Thomson found a sample of the best
butter to consist of water 12.79, butter oil 86.27,
and caseine or curd 0.94. The butter oil is
soluble in ether, and the caseine is not. The
proportions of the ingredients may hence be
ascertained by making this solution after the
water has been expelled at a temperature of
212° ; but if other ingredients are present, they
must be estimated by other processes ; thus salt
is determined from the amount of ash left by a
weighed portion of the butter after incinera-
tion. Butter oil is a substance of very compli-
cated composition, in which no less than 6 dif-
ferent organic acids are detected, and a sweet
sirup called glycerine, with whicn these acids
are combined. Bromels found in 100 parts of
butter 68 parts of margarine, and 80 of buty-
roleine— -compounds of margario and butyro-
leic acids with glycerine. The remainder was
glycerine divided among butyric, caproio, oap-
sylic, and caprio acids. When milk or cream
(which most abounds in the flat globules) is agi-
tated, as in the process of churning, these
globules are in part broken up and run together,
forming at last a mass of butter. No chemical
change is involved in this, though the ingredi-
ents of the milk are thus made to separate in
part from each other. The product is obtained
from sweet cream, or from cream that has be-
come sour, and as the latter yields it more
readily, it is usually preferred for churning.
Milk has the disadvantage of requiring a large
quantity to be made use of to produce a sm^
amount of butter; and the residue, called
buttermilk, involves a considerable loss^ unless

in localities where this finds a more profitable
use than to be fed to swine. Still the largest
quantity of butter may be obtained from the
entire milk. The temperature at which the
process is conducted is found to have an im-
portant effect upon the result, not only in the
time required to separate the butter, but
also in its quality. The most suitable tern-
persture is found to be from 60"" to 65** F.^
the lower degree being the best for oreami
and the higher for milk. During the prooesa
the temperature rises three or four degreeo.
The process requires some experience in order
to conduct it at the most advantageous rate : if
butter made from cream is more than an hour
in forming, it is apt to be strong-tasted ; and if
made in less than three-quarters of this time, it
is soft. The vessel used for this operation is
called a chum, and is made in a variety of forma,
some of which are described in the article
Chubn. They are usually preferred of wood;
but of whatever material they may be, the most
particular attention is required to keep them, as
well as the other utensils employed, in a perfect
state of cleanliness. Even the making of butter
by persons whose hands are liable to be moist
by perspiration is oljected to ; and in all cases, in
a well-kept dairy, meal, instead of soap, should be
used for washing the hands. The purity of butter
is so easily affected, that even the place in which
it is made should be free firom all bad odor&
When formed in the chum, it is removed to a
small tub, and then worked by kneading it with
the hands, with the free use of cold water for
thoroughly washing it. Littie snades are some-
tunes in .part substituted for the hands. By this
operation and beating it with the hands, the
buttermilk is, or shomd be, entirely separated.
If any remains, the caseine and sugar contained in
it are subject to decomposition, the former be-
coming putrescent, and the latter changing into
acetic acid, thus spoiling the butter. If in-
tended to be kept a Ions time, it may bo
preserved after the method practised in India
and in some parts of Europe. It is dissolved
by heat into oil, by which the water it contains
is removed ; straining the oil, the caseine is left
in the cloth ; then being put up in tight bottiea
it becomes solid, and is subject to no fdrther
change. This is the substance called ghee in
India. In this conntry and in England another
process is adopted for its preservation. To the
butter fresh from the diurn a quantity of fine
salt, amounting to an ounce to the pound, is add-
ed and thoroughly incorporated with it. This
is effected to the best advantage bv working in
one-half one day and the remainder the next.
Oommon salt contains, beside the pure chloride
of sodium, soluble compounds of lime and
magnesia; these impurities it is desirable to
remove, which may be done by saturating
the whole with water sufficient to dissolve
them, but not any considerable quantity of
the pure salt, pouring off the liquid, and
straining and drying the remainder in a oleaa
doth, in Irelaod a mixture of one part ang-

^^ BtrrCEK lUEE ^B

™ nmxrm.T ut ■

■

u,mp '-*—

-;*..l *^r. -.^ »t.^ t^ -♦ ^U U

A»*.M.^ /..*,?!;... *.* .-;-,.. ft, \r.. ct«. K.-«. ...

OBiA ^'

^^^p

Hlfti^*' •

^^B

%■-

^^^B

^^B

^^H

»[

■

I" '

^^1

^^^^1

*« 1

■ . AJUJ C.L

■

tluUR d poomi-

fnrrm.^ iz itii.-^.:-^^

■

■
1

r. ■

1.1

■

.'.J [.Jii>. no f-k-.u,.

^^B

Ci. ;

'•. Qtimkir, toidi

^^^H

x^j^ i;=x; i^iat ^i-'' '^ -'

^^1

goDamUto flnti' 1

^^B

t.-*^

^^»_. .-...■- ^.. ..^,. .-rl-

»i«ijiil lbi» di^i, .

l*^ 1^

^u\M ifiuim \M l^Q y

t^if^ ar;iui«^ thr

itJtfir.

cuDnlftbl tif 7 u-tiitrtL

:u^{^

Mim^lug I

\rd^4„

tXTt^ «ilrd^, 1 • ■ • -^

i. dim] iIk* frl

I^^H

■

t.imiinf tl»« :!

Ir '

^ "^ fJ>© tWTfie-

:FIT, Um pcrpQliir niiiii» nf •rrwal

11, 'kan^nJ*

6l»iiiiM- !■ :

'' ■ ' k^Hinj4gm, Wi*

lin^liLrtiinm u tiiii^«itci| ll^ MJ*'''

rliii«b, liAfjjigi

*J'

^ i_„ ■ . -»l.-i-iTt> liirfiTi! .'jjiii'^ fr, n\ VkMHi

^^1

"kpu

I(mi trichr^

^^H

*J-

m«r^^ tiiH . ,

tJ<

^ni lU* firmpijiiu immij f liio

158

BUTTEBFLT

firee, and open into the stomach bj 2 ezceetoiy

ducts; the tubes contain cells, disposed in rows,
filled with very fine granules of a dark or
brownish color; on the rupture of the cells,
their contents pass into the stomach and digee-
tive canal, and are either evacuated with the
fiBceSy or separately as a troubled liquid ; it is
well kuown that they emit a considerable
quantity of urine, when bursting from their
pupa envelope. The two sexes are distinct,
and the rumments of the sexual organs eidst
in the youngest larvsd. though their development
takes place princip«diy durinff the pupa state;
the females lay their eggs, which are numerous
and varying in form according to the iq>ecies,
npon such vegetable substances as the ]arv» are
to feed upon; the time at which the eggs ar-
rive at maturity coincides with the end of the
pupa state, so that the sexes are ready to unite
eoon after they leave this state; this aict accom-
plished, both sexes soon perish; the spermatic
particles are filiform and very active. The
wijK;s are membranous and VeinedL and cov-
ered with an immense number of beautiful
scales, Varying in size, shape, and coloratipn,
implanted by a small pedicle resembling the
stem of a feather. An idea of the immense
number and exceeding minuteness of these
wing^scales may be formed from the fact that
Leeuwenhoeck counted 400,000 on the small
silk- worm moth ; in a piece of modem mosaic
work there may be nearly 900 separate pieces
in an inch square, while the same extent of sur-
face on a butterfly's wing may contain from
100,000 to 900,000; sudb is the wonderful
superiority of nature's works to the finest spe-
cimens of human art The life of the butterfly
is a continued series of changes from the time
of its leaving the egg till it becomes a perfect
insect. As soon as the caterpillar is hatched it
begins to eat eagerly, and increases rapidly in
size during this larva state, changing its skin
several times; before each change it ceases to
eat, remains motionless, and sometimes attaches
itself by a slight web to the under surface of a
leaf; it gets rid of the old skin bv various con-
tractions of the whole body, which separate
the dry and shriveled covering on the back,
the insect escaping in the course of a few
nunutes ; sometimes the internal lining of the
alimentary canal, from the mouth to the ex-
tremity of tlie body, comes away with the
skin,* the latter takes place most frequenUy
when the larva is about to change into a pupa,
and often proves fatal. When the full-grown
caterpillar is ready to assume the pnpa, nymph,
or chrysalis state (for these are synonymous),
it ceases to eat, evacuates the intestines, and
suspends its contracted body to the under sur-
face of some object, either by its legs, head
downward, or by a little rope of silk ; a^ re-
maining suspended several hours, it changes its
skin for the last time in the manner above al-
luded to; the legs, antennse, and wings are ex*
tended along the bod^, and the whole is
strengthened by the drymg of the traDsparent

finid wluch ftoOitated the aeparaden of the skill*
In the pupa state the insect does not eat, and
remains perfectly quiet ; the pupa oi the lepi-
doptera is called '* obtected," becSuiae the future
limbs are seen on the outside of the case. The
duration of the butterflv in the pupa state de-
pends much on external circumstances ; if this
condition happen in the hot period of summer,
the perfect insect may appear in 8 or 9 days ;
it may be prolonged to 2 or 8 weeks, and mi^^
even exist during the whole winter; daring
this state the insect is in a condition like that
of the hibematins animals, re^iraticm and cir-
culation being reduced to their minimum in the
first part of its confinement, but becoming ao>
tive toward the dose. At the proper time the
pupa case is burst open, and tne perfect but-
temy suspends itself with its new winga bang*
ing downward; after these have become devd-
oped fully by active respiration and circulation,
the insect remains at rest a short time until the
external covering becomes hardened, forming
the dermo-skeleton; it is then the perfect but-
terfly, which sips the honey from the flowers,
reproduces, and dies. — ^The butterflies, properly
so called, fly only during the day, and at rest
usually hold their wings erect; the antAnTyg
are terminated by a little dub, or are filiform in a
few genera ; they are the only lepidoptera, a few
moths excepted, in which the lower wings do
not have a rigid bristle or fringe to retain the
upper pair ; tibeir caterpillars have always 16
feet, and the chrysalis is naked, attached by the
tail, and in general angular. linnffius com-
prised all the butterflies under the genus jx^i/to^
but Laf reille divided them into two sections,
as follows: Section 1 contains all those which
have a single pair of spines on the posterior ex-
tremity of the tibisB, the wings perpendicular
when at rest, and the antennso usually dub-
shaped at the end, but sometimes flliform ; this
includes the genera papUio and hetperia ruraiii
of Fabridus, and is itself divided as follows:
Ist, those in which the 8d articulation of the
lower palpi is sometimes almost wanting, at
others distinct^ but as wdl covered with scales
as the precedmg one, and the hooks of the
tarsi very apparent; some of them are 6-
footed, all the feet formed for walking, and
nearly the same in both sexes, and their
chrysalis in addition to the common posterior
attachment is fixed by a silken thread across
the body, or enclosed occasionally in a lai^e
cocoon, and the central partition cdl of the
under wings is dosed underneath; in the 4-
footed species the chrysalis is simply attadied
by the tail; the caterpillars are elongated
and almost cylindrical; 2d, those in whidi
the lower palpi have 8 distinct joints, of which
the last is nearly naked or with much fewer
scales than the preceding one, the hooks of
the tarsi very small and s<»rcdy projecting, and
the discoidal cell of the under wings open be-
hind ; the caterpillars are oval, or formed like
the sow-buff; the chrysalis shorty contracted,
smooth, and attached by a silken thread across

smoatsvt

liie &'

iJiir tv
tJi«V L

rvri4«hv.. AlMlilg il-

^ n&d 111!

, ao^J mi^jnari fii&***yitti*. li**> *' Jiin»yf

^ r^^iiM, Itoik »fi

,- ,..d

. jUi« wlih

160

BUTTESFLY

white, eq;>eoia]]y in the ea^oe angle of the
npper winss ; body black, with numerous white
dots on the trunk; the larva is ringed with
black and white, with 3 slender processes on
the anterior and 2 on the posterior part of the
body ; the chrysalis is of a delicate green color,
with golden dots ; it feeds on different spe-
cies of (uclepiaa, and is i^undant in the middle
and southern states. In the genus argynnii
(Latr.), the anterior feet are short and feeble, the
under surface of the lower wings is often deco-
rated with silvery and opaline spots, or yellow
ones upon a fulvous ground, and the upper
surface varied with red or orange, with spots
or lines of black or brown ; the caterpillars are
beset with spines. In England, where there
are several species, these butterflies are called
fiitillaries. The A. Diana (Cramer), of the
southern states, though not one of the hand-
somest of the genus, is yet pretty from the con-
trast of the blackish and pale orange of its up-
per surface, and from the slender silvery lines
of the under surface of the lower wings ; its
general color above is a dark brown, with a
very broad fulvous exterior margin, with a few
blackish spots and nervures. The genus meli-
taa was separated from the last by Fabricins,
and is distinguished prindpally by the yellow
spots and checkered appearance of the under
surfiuse of the lower wings, and by the larva,
which is pubescent, with sniall fleshy tubercles
on the body, which is not armed with spines.
The M. myrina (Oramer) is a pretty little spe-
cies found from Massachusetts to Florida, some-
what resembling the M. ulene of Europe ; the
wines are fulvous, with black spots and undu-
lated lines ; below there are more than 80 sil-
very spots, and an eye-like spot near the base
of the Inferior ones. In the genus vaneua
(Fabr.), the knobs of the antennao are short and
broad; the palpi are long, curving, and con-
tiguous, and form a kind of beak ; the wings
are jagged or tailed on the posterior edges; the
under side of the lower wings is often marked
with a golden or silvery chiu'aoter in the mid-
dle ; the caterpillars are armed with numerous
spines, often live in company, and do not con-
ceal themselves under a web or within a folded
leaf ; the head of the chrysalis has 2 horn-like
elevations and a prominence on the back re-
sembling a nose, presenting rather a grotesque
appearance ; in both sexes the anterior pair of
feet are short and very hairy, and the 2 poste-
rior pairs with double nails. Here belong the
tortoise-shell butterfly ( F. wrtica, Linn.), and
the following 8 other British spedes: the
" Oamberwell beauty " ( F. antiopa, Linn.), witii
angular wings of a deep purplish black, with
a yellowish or whitish band on the posterior
edge, and a row of bluespots above ; the ** pea-
oock's-eye'^ (F. /o, lann.), reddish fulvous
above, with a large eye-iike spot on each
wing, on the upper reddish surrounded by a
yellowish cirde^ the under blackish surround-
ed by a gray circle, with some bluish spots^ and
under the wings blackish; and the *^ painted

lady '* (F. eardu% God., more properly plaoed
by Mr. Stephens in the genus eynthia), with
wings red i^ve, varied with black and whitSL
underneath marbled with gray, yellow, and
brown, with 6 eye-like bimsh spots on thdr
edges. The following American spedes aro
worthy of mention: The antiopa butterfly (V,
antiopa, Linn.), occurring, as has been seen, also
in Europe ; this butterfly passes the winter in
some shdtered place in a partially torpid state;
great numbers are sometimes seen crowded to-
gether in bams, apparently lifeless, with the
wings doubled together over the bade, bafe
quickly becoming active on exposure to heat ; it
comes out very early in spring, often before the
snow is off the ground, and may be seen roorting^
with torn and faded wings, early in March in
sheltered spots; the caterpillars despoil the
poplar, willow^ and elm of their foliage, on
which they are found in great numbers early in
June ; they are black, with minute white dots,
and a row of 8 brick-red spots on the top of
tiie back ; being nearly 2 inches long, and armed
with spines, th^ were formerly supposed to
be capable of inflicting dangerous wounds ; the
first brood is produced in June, and a second in
August, which become perfect insects before
winter. The semicolon butterfly ( F. intarro-
gatianUf Fabr.) has the wings on the upper side
tawny orange, with brown and blads spots ;
lower wings generally black above, beneath
reddish, or marbled with light and dark brown,
and a pale golden semicolon on the middle^
whence the name ; the wings expand from 2i to
2 J inches, while thoso of the preceding are firom
8 to 8^ inches ; it appears in May, and again in
August, and is seen till the middle of October
in sunny places; the caterpillars live on the
American elm and linden trees, and on<fehe bop-
vine, to which they are very destructive ; the
spiny caterpillars are favorite receptad^ for
the eggs of thepteromalus vanessa, a tany chal-
ddian paradtic insect of the. order hymenopUra^
which destroys great numbers of the chrysalida
in whose bodies the littie maggots come to matn-
rity. Smaller species are the V, comma (Harris),
and F. progne (Fabr.), which are mudi alike,
expanding from 2 to 2^ inches, above of a tawny
orangei the fore wings bordered and spotted
with black, the hind wings blackish posteriorly,
with 2 black spots in the middle, and a row of
bright orange K>ots before the hind margio, the
under side marbled with light and dark streaksi
with a silvenr comma in the former spedes,
and a silvery L in the latter, on the middle of the
hind wings; the caterpillars are very much
alike, being pale yellow, with a reddish head,
white spinea tipped with black, and a row of 4
rusty spots on each nde of the body ; they are
found on the American elm in August. The
genus nyn^hdlii (Latr.), or t^MUura (Fabr.X
oontains some very large and beautiful spedes;
the anterior feet are useless for locomotion,
and the abdomen is received in a groove
formed by the dilatation of the lower wings ;
the* caterpillars are less spiny than in the

lit rrKKFTA ^^^ Mf ^H

,11 lir*in^i1TAJ ifWfu-T.I

Hi* fHirr^ 1

ai^ ft^vi'^f, - ^^H

■ l:'

^^H

^H a ,

^^H

^B I.

^^1

^^H

^H i<.

^^H

^H «t

^^H

^H c-

^^H

^H .^

^^^

^H L

^^1

^H r> '

^^1

^^m r

^^H

^m ai

;4i4ii£ 4t, ^H

^1 ^''

.-jVnf w ^^1

^^H

^H ^!

^^H

^M ^*

^^1

^^H

M t

■ ''

H u.-

^^M

■ 11.

^^M

^1 ^

^^^M

H ^^

^^M

H '-

^^M

H *''-

^^H

■ t

W r;

^^H

Ul*4 M.

diilko

'.n^gt hi ^H

(liO fSL4^^

. iinfi^ ikl ^H

H ^*'

^H fLi:

^^1

^H ^

^^H

H ^]'.

^H 171^1

^^H

H ^^ "

H ^

^H i#i

^^H

^^B II

^^^M

^1 ^''

^^H

^^^#mW wli^J

!, Siui

■ i.

162

BUTTEKIOLC

BUTTON

ing oaterpinar; in the obiyBalis we hare pre-
Bented to us the darkness and stillness of the
tomb ; and in the bntterflj^ we recognize a new*
bom existence of the spirit, freed from the im-*
perfections of the earthly and finite, and re-
joicing in the pleasures of immortality.
' BUTTERMILK, the liquid which remains
after separating the butter from milk by
ohnming. It consists of the thin portion of
the milk with tiie caseine or curd intermixed
and some butter oiL When cream is used
for churning, the buttermilk is much richer
than if the entire milk is employed, and does
not so readily sour. Sweet buttermilk is
much esteemed by many as a pleasant and nn-
tritious drink. In Scotland it is brought into
the cities for sale like other milk. It is used to
Bome extent in the preparation of a very good
quality of bread.

BUTTERS, in chemistry, the name riven by
the alchemists to certain salts, generally chlo-
rides of the metals, which have the consistency
of butter, such as butters of arsenic, antimony,
tin, &c The name is still retained in some of
the pharmacopQBias. In vegetable chemistry
it is applied to fixed oils extracted from vegeta-
ble products, which at common temperatures
concrete and become solid* Such are the oils
of the nutmeg, cocoa, &o.

BUTTE8, a village of Switzerland, canton of
Keufch&tel. Situated in a narrow valley, and
surrounded by high mountains, its position is
such that during many months of the year its
inhabitants never see the sun. Pop. 1,200.

6UTTISH0LZ, a village and parish of Switz-
erland, canton of Lucerne. In its vicinity is a
remarkable mound called Englanderhabel, or
"Englishman's hillock." It is tlie grave of 8,000
Englishmen, followers of Enguerrand de Couoy,
son-in-law of Edward lU. and earl of Bed-
ford. This nobleman, in the course of a quar-
rel with Leopold of Austria, began to devastate
the Swiss cantons, when he was defeated by
the peasants near Buttisholz, and a large num-
ber of his troops cut to pieces (1375).

BUTTMANN, Phiupp Kabl, a German phi-
lologist, bom at Frankfort-on-the-Main, Dec 7,
1764, died in Berlin, June 21, 1829. He fin-
iriied his education at GOttingen, and in 1788
was appointed assistant lihrarian to the king of
Prussia, but was constrained to turn schoolmas-
ter in order to supply the deficiencies of his sal-
ary. Experiencing tiie want of a good element-
ary Greek grammar, he published, in 1792, a
small one of his own composition, which during
his lifetime went through 20 editions. In 1808,
when the new university was opened in Berlin,
he was appointed one of its first professors. He
BUbeequentiy published an etymological and an
intermediate Greek grammar. The latter has
been translated into English by Prof. Robinson,
and the elementary grammar by Mr. Edward
Everett

BUTTON, an article used for the fbstening
of clothing and for ornament. Bottons may be
divided into S dassea^ those with shanks or

loops for fiistening them to garments, and those
without. The manufacture of these useftd ar-
ticles involves various processes, some of them
very interesting, and varying according to the
materials used. These are metal bom, shell,
glass, mother-of-pearl, Jet, and whalebone, be-
side the woven stufb which are employed for
covering button moulds. Birminffham is the
most noted place in the world for the manufac-
ture of buttons. In this country it is extenslTe-
ly carried on in Waterbury, Oonn., and in
Easthampton, Mass. The prindnal manufiu>-
tories in the latter place were established about
1849 by Samuel Williston and Go., who bad
previously owned similar establiuiments in
Haydenville, in the same state. They give
employment to 250 hands, consume annually
$75,000 worth of stock, and produce firom
$175,000 to $200,000 worth of Duttons. Re-
centiy an excellent button has been made in
New Brunswick from India-rubber. In the
manufacture of gilt buttons, brass containing
very litUe zinc is used. This is fiimisbed to
the button-maker in strips, out of which the
disks are cut by a machine. This process is eo
rapid that one person can prepare about 12
gross in an hour. The preparingof the shanks
is a distinct branch of trade. They are made
of brass wire, a coil of it being put into a ma-
chine, in which one end is pushed forward
gradually to a pair of shears, and the wire is
cut off in smaU pieces. It is then bent^ and
being compressed between the jaws of a vice,
forms an eye. A small hammer next strikes
the two ends, flattening them, and rendering
the shank ready for use. The labor of fasten-
ing these to the button is performed by women.
When properly adjusted, a little solder and
rosin are applied to the spot where the two
come in contact, which melts on being heat-
ed, and on cooling firmly unites them. Hie
buttons, after thorough cleansing, are now
ready for being ornamented, either silvered or
gilded, as may be desired. If the former, a
mixture of silver in solution, salt, and cream of
tartar, with some other ingredients, must be
stirred together, and the buttons washed with
this preparation. For gilding, mat care is
necessary. An amalgam of goldleaf and mer-
cury is used. Tills is gently heated, poured into
cold water, and then strained through wash-lea-
ther to remove the excess of mercury. The por-
tion left in the leather is dissolved in dilute niteie
acid, and applied to the buttons, (See Gubino.)
To so great a degree of refinement was ti^ia art
carried in Birmingham, that three pennyworth
of gold was made to cover a gross of iMittona.
The thickness of the precious metal oonld not
hence have exceeded the rnVrr ^^ <^ ^<^- T^
next process is to free them from all the mercury
by heat. For this purpose they are thrown into
a wire cage within a furnace constructed in such
a manner that the mercurial vapor is conducted
into a vessel containing water, in which it is
condensed. This is termed drying off. Bur-
nishing oompletee the work. Aa the &ahion of

^^^^^^^V Bf^TIOM

iinxiiilirrrE^ Ml ^1

■l.*^. ¥• n*!? H^- TTTt^ ,^*ii--.t>*1 ri TiL*oa-. ^^B

H t'v^

^H . t^cein

■ U^

^H o»^

1^^ Qi h frr^'i At*ikir,.'

^^H

fHoto, ikn n^

^^H

iLr^ lit tiMdi buij

^^H

r Hiiift. TV.,, i.,fnr

.ijtaof ^ ntiTifil**.^ <>^ .». LU. ^M

i^K

<t' IfT 1^ ■

« .liS'%3- ^^B

^^^1

iim f»i' > tdJHVitfil iinMigow

9U«?r|k ^H

11 j^j- ^.,. f..,.-. T..-.^

^^^1

^B Ihofst-

^^1

1^ Mr. :,:4

ia^. ^M

■ ">

'^i 4«i* «jli V

- Jt|Yi[*^-*it^ H

^^^^^B^U«

' iMkii^u iot^m^* I

V^"

kft^nuill ft*f ^^M

i, .

1. »

'>'

1^ ^> >

^H iu4.''.i'.4

'^K scni-'^'

■ ill

<i D^r i bt ■

■ . V.TTT14-

• ■ •/;.4i'^ W"" H

n ^^

tc» Ji t«i4f(* ol bmtta acmubi ftjtfi«a2i^ ■

bCc

Um fkM of tial£l4L Ta my» iJia bu ■

':¥i -1- Ui,

UTROJ fM Irijt^yir*, tW fUi^r euatc^ t ■

^_ L>^ i;Liil *%

I't bii dttfttn^^i^ bf/uiM t^t- #*?»*! rw t ■

^k^M^M'i

•*c^ tliito MMiftdcL&i' UiiteiirifJitril^ ■

^^^^^^Vii:

P^ttiBiSf tJiedk); ; jmtuU Til* ■

^^^^^^^Bf

nmWi icffi > " i-tti ; inii (if tbff mmMf ■

^^^^^^^K

ftmu^Sud LP * 1, toUii 1^ ^iiiaiio. ■

^^^^^^H '

Bl'XP '' mwcw Wtmci^ *^"'"* ■

^^^^^■rt

n iiii«>i lirniuifl 4iMci' ■

^^^^^^Bji

*^ - _. ^^oniiBdil, iiioA ,i :^ -^, ^J

^^^^^^^B^r

«*tii»o (W Lobtla ia IMitNila, ^H

^^^^^^^Hh

J L^ wvi tulva&uiifMitiit ti# €uiii ^H

^^^^^^Hl^

Uftoff mxl i& a mil infti-mtfcc ftfiw' whieh hm V

BUXTON

was made general, and in the next year oon-
daoted with sncoefls the campaign against the
Swedes. He commanded a division of the army
in the war against Poland, was in the storming
of Praga under Snwarof^ was soon after ap*
pointed to the administration of Poland, and
still later to the position of military governor
of St Petersbni^. He was for a short time in
disgrace and retired to Germany, but was re-
stored to his offices upon the death of Paul I.
At Austerlitz he commanded the left wing of
the Bussians, and in 1808 led a successful ex-
pedition against the Swedes.

BUXTON (Lat. BucMtenum), a market town
and fashionable watering place of England, in
the parish of Bakewell, Derbyshire, situated in
a defep valley, 81 miles W. K W. of Derby and
160 N. N. W. of London. Pop. in 1851, 1,235. It
consists of a new and an old town, the former
of which is the best built and contains the most
interesting edifices. Its chief architectural
beauty is the orescent, a range of buildings in
the Grecian style erected by the 6th duke of
Devonshire, in 1779-^86. They comprise hotels,
a ball-room, a library, lodging houses, a bank,
arcade, promenade, and a long range of stables
with a covered riding gallery 160 yards rotind.
Near by is the ** OldHaU" (now an inn), where
Mary, queen of Scots, once had her residence.
It was built by the earl of Shrewsbury, to whom
the custody of the nnfortunate queen was in-
trusted by Elizabeth. The parish ohurch is a
modem edifice of great beauty. There are also
several chapels, 2 schools, and fine public walks.
The chief attraction of Buxton, however, is its
mineral waters. They are celebrated for their
medicinal virtues, particularly in cases of gout,
rhenmatism, and diseases of the digestive organs.
They are saline, sulphurous, and charged with
nitrogen. Their temperature is lower than tb at
ef the Bath waters, being about 100^ F., and one
of the wells has a double pump by which either
hot or cold water may be obtained within a dis-
tance of a few inches from each other. There
is also a chalybeate spring behind the crescent.
Baths, both public and private, are numerous,
and there is a charitable subscription fnnd,
called the "' bath charity,^' by which from 1,000
to 1,200 poor invalids are annually maintamed
for one month while using the waters. The fash-
ionable season extends from June to October,
and the town is then visited by from 12,000 to
14,000 persons. The vicinity abounds in charm-
ing scenery and has many natural curiosities.
Half a mile distant is a large and remarkable
stalactitic cavern called Poolers Hole, and not
&r off is the Diamond hill, so named from a
profbsion of crystals found in its soil which
are sometimes mgnified by the name of Buxton
diamonds. The inhabitants are engaged chiefly
in Ume-buming and the manufacture of alabas-
ter, spar, and other ornaments.

BUXTON, Jkdediah, an English mental cal-
culator, bom sBt Elmton, Derbyshire, in 1705,
died in 1775. He could not write, but pos-
la great facility in performing mental arith-

metical calcnlationa. He seemed nnaUe to con-
sider any thing save with respect to the number
of its constituent parts. He heard a sermon,
bnt remembered nothing of it except the exact
number of words it contained, which he bad
counted. If the size of an object were named,
he would instantly declare how many hairs^-
breadths it contained. If an interval oi time
were stated, he would as rapidly state the num-
ber of minutes and seconds it was composed o£
He scarcely had a system of calculation, as, firom
his own obscure explanation, his method was
clumsy and circuitous, though the operation
was extremely swift. He walked to London to
have a sight of the king, and was examined
by the royal society, who asked him: ^^In a
body whose 3 sides are, respectively, 23,146,769
yards, 6,642,732 yards, ana 64,965 yards, how
many cubical eighths of an inch are there ?" His
reply, calculated at once without one figure hav-
ing been written down, was found to be correct
When taken to see Garrick perform Richard IIL,
he amused himself by counting the number of
words spoken, and how many each performer
uttered respectively. Except with respect to
this mastery of numbers, his intellect was mnch
inferior to that of ordinary men.

BUXTON, Sib Thomas Powell, a British
legislator and philanthropist, born at Castle
Hedingham, Essex, April 1, 1786, died at his
residence near Aylsham, Feb. 19, 1845. He re-
ceived his education at Donnybrook, and sul^e-
quently at Trinity college, Dublin. At the age
of 21 he married Miss Gurney ; by this marriage
he became brother-in-law to Airs. Elizabeth Fry.
In 1808 he became a clerk, in 1811 a partner,
and soon after principal manager of the brew-
ery of Truman, Hanbury, and Co., of London.
Locally connected with the manufacturing dis-
trict of Spitalfields, the suffermgs of the poor
inhabitants were so apparent to him that, in 181 6,
he took an active part in a public meeting, by
which £44,000 was collected for their i^ief.
Prison discipline also interested him, and, in
conjunction with Mrs. Frv and Mr. Hoare, his
brother-in-law, he personally examined into the
state of British prisons, and published the
result of his inquiry. From this came the prison
discipline society, which led to the removal of
many of the evils pointed out. From 1818 to
1837, when he was defeated by Mr. ViUiers, Mr.
Buxton was member of parliament for Wey-
mouth. For this period of nearly 20 years^ he
was constant in his attendance, and a frequent
speaker. Prison discipline, the amelioration of
the criminal law, the suppression of lotteries,
the abolition of Hindoo widow-burning, and
the abolition of slavery, were subjects on which
he was always earnest, and sometimes, from
that earnestness, almost eloquent He cordially
codperated with Mr. WUberforoe on the anti-
slavery question, and succeeded him as recogniz-
ed parliamentary leader of the party ; Brougham,
Lushington, Macaulay, Mackintosh, and other
able liberals, strongly supporting him. He was
a member of the legislature which, in 1833,

■

^^nrnn^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l bcks4m» ^?ff ^^^H

i:. .

■1

i '
t

5 ■
I.
t]
>'■
\ ,
f
I

1 '

1
1

■

1 1.
1

■

n|-o lite H

■

¥•

.hfVi*to'1^' T ■

« .1

■

ti'

ft eii*r«!s|»oi' ^1

...^.; talked Ihite ftH..L-^ ^ .-.....«. ^.i^,. J ■

Ita

111 liOlh, U 1«IT- ri¥^*K or ItftT^iTf ia [ H

JJllI W^koT. ait4 ttiliilrrir^Mtntiirikik r ,...._., H

■

' >tii itiM)i!i ' H

t
1

^ lm*^Jir ■ ^^B

166

BUZZARD'S BAT

B7LES

and snakes, us well as the joimg of game, both
wioffed and far-bearing, among which the j make
sad havoo, all the varieties of this sub-family,
except the lOssissippi kite, which has, as re«
marked above^ the hiffh-soaring and sweeping
flight of the falcons, closely resemble the owls.
These birds must on no account be confounded
with the American yoltures, of which there
are 2 species found in the United States, the
eatharUs av/ra^ or turkey buzzard, as it is
erroneously called, and the eathartei atratw^
or carrion crow, as it is misnamed in the South.
These birds are pure vultures, having the bare
fleshy necks and carrion habits of that most
' disgusting class of birds, and do not bear the
most remote resemblance, in figure, flight, or
habits, much less in structural characteristics,
to the family of buzzards, with which, through
an almost universal blunder of nomenclatare,
they have been, it is to be feared, irrevocably
ooxdbunded.

BUZZARD'S BAY, on the S. coast of Mas-
sachusetts, 80 miles long by a mean width of
7^ contains the harbors of New Bedford, Fair
Haven, Rochester, and Wareham. It is sheltered
from the ocean, and separated from the Vine-
yard sound, by the Elizabeth islands.

BTLES, Mather, a minister of Boston, of
oonsiderable note in the last century, and of a
good deal of local and traditionary interest in
his native place to this day, bom in 1706, died
in 1788. He graduated at Harvard college in
1725, and, embracing the profession of the minis-
try, was ordained over the church in HoUis
street^ in Boston, in the year 1788, and obtained
a distinguished position among the contempo-
rary clergy. He was learned after the manner of
those times, and was more addicted to literary
recreations, and had a keener relish of the later
humanities, than was then common among the
members of his profession. To his reputation
for solid learning and theological research he
probably owed the degree of doctor of divini-
ty, which was bestowed upon him by the
university of Aberdeen in 1765. At that time
these distinctions, now so common, were rarely
enjoyed bv American divines. As a proof of his
recognized excellence in polite letters, we may
accept the fact that he was the correspondent
of some of the chief poets and authors of Eng-
land. Letters from Pope and Swift were
amouff the relics of his life which were pre-
served with pious care by his 2 daughters, who
lived to amextreme old age. He was himself
a votary of the muses in a small way, and a
volume of his miscellaneous poems was pub-
lished in 1744. He gave an earlv expression, too,
to tJbe loyalty which distinguished his character
through life, in a poem on the death of Qeorge
L and the succession of his son, in 1727, when
he was but 21 years of age. He also tempered
the bereavement which Governor Belcher
had suffered in the loss of his wife in 1784, by
such consolation as an elegiac epistle could
convey. It is not likely, however, that his
name would have been preeerved to this time,

bad his reputation depended on the merits of
his poetical effusions. The cheerful flow of his
spirits, and frank gayety of his conversation,
seem to have been something out of the com-
mon way, and to have left an enduring mark on
the memories of that generation. His piety
was tinctured with no asceticism. He was not
one who refrained ^ when God sent a cheerful
hour,^* and the lively sallies of his sprightly im-
agination, always kept within the limits of de-
corum, were restrained by no fear of injuring
his personal or clerical dignity. Many of his
sayings are still preserved in the popular mind,
and probably many more are browed upon
him to which he had no claim. They do not
often rise above the dignity of the paranofnaua
or pun; but they have had the effect of amus-
ing his contemporaries and making his name
remembered. That his vivacious temperament,
however, was not the effect of specific levity m
character, was proved bv the personal sacrifices
he submitted to rather than be false to his ideas
of public duty. During the heat and tunnoH
of the times preceding the revolution, sad
the political agitations, of which Boston was
then the centre, he maintained his allegiance to
the British crown witli unfaltering fidelity.
However mistaken his ideas on this subject mav
now be esteemed, no one can doubt the sinceri-
ty of his loyalty, nor the hi^ sense of duty
under which he acted. After naving been hap-
pily united with his parish for more than 80
years, his connection with it was dissolved in
1776, he being then 70 years of age, on account
of his political opinions, and his utteranoe of
them in the pulpit by prayers for the king and
royal fiumly. The next year he was denounced
in town meeting as an enemy to the country,
and subsequently arrested, held to bail, tried,
and condemned to imprisonment in a guard-ship,
and to subsequent exile. This sentence was
afterward commuted, probably through the
respect felt for his spirit and a kindly recollec-
tion of his humor, to confinement in his own
house. This was carried into effect, and he was
detiuned a prisoner in his house, with a sentinel
before the door. This severity was soon relaxed
for a while, and afterward renewed. One of the
stories told of him is, that wishing to have an
errand done at a distance, he asked the sentry
to undertake it The man objected on the
ground that he could not leave the door un-
guarded; on which the doctor volunteered to
be his substitute, and accordingly was seen by
some one in authority, in powdered wig and
cocked hat, with a musket on hisshoulder, walk-
ing up and down before his house, keeping
gimrd over himself. His release from custody
soon followed, on which occasion, alluding to
these changes of treatment, he said that he nad
been ^'gu^ed, regarded, and disreffarded.^'
Dr. Byles was of tbe Oongregational order,
which formed the staple of the ecclesiastical
establishment of New England. Like most of
his faith, remembering the persecutions which
hadl^ a hereditary grudge against the church

BTHU

&YBOIC

. .I.r.>^< fj *k.* .1^

f-<

t'li

Ivl

.iT-'i 1?*H I' I

if"

it IhTxtd VThl'

EL ■

(.►

jr *. . I i».i I

httwui^io

.,A iln..-.\*

Hi.

tlii:'

b^. :■

>.<

»i

«)!> . ■

rn'i 1^

Jri-

■ I ;-JLt<.'. ..

^, iic4 I

a^-,. - .V

-.1 ^ ... ;jf

wwr ttgrn^L

lapoi^fUii

^iLlf.l ?!mi

H, Byoir.

ilCR^ASaSlt Iff ft '

r Iv

B^-:.. .:.v. ., ^^. ..,. -

oiti per. uoil ba^jxig U

l^y %k • 'Mint yi *ll*Tv

.-uiu ilk lOOi^ wliCTT^

DBtnbor of tiMUt iuatriinitiit^ Ai&f
wwt ft ipctwr aod n i»*io*lulittti doci ,
ioreiiEioii Qt ihlM kttor b ftttriboKi % <

168

BYRON

BYBON

Kenan, near Manchester, in 1091, died in tlie
latter citj Sept 28, 1768. His literary repnta*
tion depends upon bis pastoral of '^Oolin and
Phosbe,'' whioh appeared in No. 603 of the
'* Spectator,^^ beginning^ *' My time, O je nrases,
was happilr spent." He was a graduate of
Trinity oollege, Cambridge^ a member of the
royal society, studied medidne for some time in
France, bad bis property withheld from him by
bis relatives on contraeting a marriage of which
they did not ai>proTe, and eked out for several
years a precarious existence as a short-band
writer, until an estate devolved on him by the
death of bis brother. His works were pub-
lished in Manchester in 1773, in 2 vols. 8vo, and
a new edition, with an anonymous sketch of
bis life, appeared at Leeds in 1814.

BYRON, G£0BOB GoBDOK NoBL, Iprd, an Eng-
lish poet^ bom in London, Jan. 22, 1788, died
at Missolonghi, Greece, April 10, 1824. His
fktber's family traced its origin back to the
times of William the Oonqueror, being descend-
ed firom the ancient Norman family of Biron.
On biB mother's side be was related to the
roval family of Scotland. His grandfather,
John Byron, was a British admiral. His father,
Capt Byron, who led a life of such dissipation,
that be obtained the name of Orazy Jack
Byron, died abroad a few years after the
birth of bis son, after having deserted Byron's
mother (Catharine Gordon^ whose wealth be
bad squandered in such a degree as to make it
necessary for her to retire with her son to the
neighborhood of Aberdeen. He received the
first rudiments of education at Aberdeen, and bis
mother phiced him afterward in the school of
Dr. Glennie at Dulwich. The death of bis great>-
unde brought him into possession of the title
and the family-seat, Newstead abbey, in the
county of Nottingham, and be was placed under
the wardship of the earl of Carlisle, and sent
under his direction, first in 1801, to Harrow,
where the late Sir Robert Peel was among bis
classmates, and subsequently, in 1805, to Cam-
bridge, where he rebelled against the authority
of the university, and where poetnr became bia
chief study. In bis 19th year, on leaving Cam-
bridge, be came out with bis first public effort,
>* Hours of Idleness,^ which was severely bim-
dled by the *' Edinburgh Review." In 1809 the
poet hurled against bis adverse critics a canstio
satire, which, under the title of ^^Engli^ Bsjrda
and Scotch Reviewers," produced a strong sen-
sation at the time, although Byron himself re-
gretted its publication afterward. In 1809 he
published " Imitations and Translations from the
Ancient and Modem Classics, togetiier with
Original Poems." While still at Harrow be fell
desperatelv in love with Miss Chaworth, whose
fither bad been killed by Byron^s great-uncle
in a duel; but the lady married Mr. Musters,
one of her older admirers. This exasperated
the poet, and to drown bis sorrow be plunged
into dissipation. For some time be lived a
life of revelry, and delighted in aquatic sports
and kindred exercises, but from dancing he was

excluded by his lameness, an infirmity wbich
was to him a constant source iji mortification.
His health, wbich was always delicate, suffered
from bis mode of life ; bis fortune, too, be-
came deranged, while, above all, bis restless
disposition allowed him no repose. He took
to politics for variety's sake, and having reached
bis 21st year in 1809 be was entitled to his
seat in the bouse of lords, but bis reputaticm
bad already sunk to so low an ebb that he found
not one single peer ready to introduce bim, ac-
cording to the custom of that assembly, and he
bad to perform the ceremony himself. He took
bis seat on the opposition benches, and during
his brief presence in the bouse he made speeches
in behalf of the Roman Catholics and of the
riotous weavers of Birmingham, wbich evinced
but little talent for parliamentary oratory. He
left England in 1809, and in companv with his
friend Mr. J. C. Hobbouse (now Lord Brough-
ton), visited P<ntugal, Spain, and Greeoe^
and gave a picturesque description of his
travels in bis ^'Childe Harold," which ap-
peared in 1812. It was during this journey that
ne swam across the Hellespont. On bis return
to England be attracted much attention in
society. His high descent, bis interesting coun-
tenance, bis chivalric bearing, bis literary fame,
the romance of bis travels, combined to sur-
round bim with a prestige which fSascinated the
imagination of poetical ladies, who wore rib-
bons in bis honor, while even more vigorous
intellects felt disposed to pay homage to his
genius. The enthusiasm rose high. Bis most
servile admirers turned their collars down after
bis fashion, and Byron collars, knots, ties, came
into fashion. Yet the whole nature of the man
was so totally at war with English ideas of con-
ventionality and propriety, that the conservative
and prosuo portion of society kept aloof from
bim as they would from some fantastic re-
former, while church people shunned bim as
they would a cannibal. In the public mind
be was personally identified with bis poetical
creations, which, indeed, aU bore more or less
striking resemblance to himself. In rapid
succession appeared the '^ Giaour," the " Bnde
of Abydos,'*^ the "Corsair," "Lara," "Pari-
sina," the "Siege of Corinth," bis "Ode to
Napoleon," and various other effusions. On
Jan. 2, 1815, he married Miss J^banke Noel, a
lady of considerable attainments, but as steadily
governed by the dictates of common sense and
of propriety, as be was wildly tossed about
by tne unpulses of passion and imagination. He
was separated from her in the subsequent year,
after she had borne bim a daughter, the Ada
whom he loved poetically with the glowing
devotion of bis vehement nature. His separa-
tion from bis wife produced a great sensation,
the odium of which chiefiy fell upon Lord By-
ron, who in 1816 left England for the last time,
with the determination of never returning.
Involved in pecuniary difficulties, and with a
heart bleeding fh)m a thousand imaginaiy and
real wounds, byron presented at that time a

■

Tr\-

t^^l^^^H

^^^^^^^^^Bf 4

^H *"

^^^^^K*

^^1 ri

^^^^^^^P

^^R

■ IT^

H '^

^1 *'

■ )

H ><

H "

H *>

fbvt« wa* ^^H

H '^

PTf—i^ifi' ^^^1

H >'

■ '^

^B r

H )...

^F t.

H ^

^H It'

■ I-

^^^1

^1 '-

H t-

■ i^

^^ f.i

h ''

^1 b.'

H :>!

^^H

H 1..

^^1

^F "■

1. »' ^^^^H

I fVHWAl 1 ^H

. — p.

. ._ .... ' ^^^1

ft voir rape r ^^1

H 1^'

< * UohiKd

|Niiiri« dim i# ra bo b hir own ^^1

H '^

Knjr!^^!,

ti%M, .a*nl n «T-TTTf^ T^Lti tias n; ^^1

^H I).

ti^bii

O'A ^CiM^ A niiiUl^ttK^t ^»'h ^^H

H d.

«i*lilu

^1 11'

. Tfiiir

'^^^

--Afi&d'ltL'

frvvjih^Nilj^ ■■jiiAfii1t\i»*if«jf *u j»lauiutUji^M*«il lui^ ^^^|

170

BYEON

B YZAimiirE EMPIBS

terprises.— Hon. AuousxA. Ada, obIj oWd of
Lord and Lady Byron— ^^Ada, sole daughter
of my house and heart"— bom Deo. 10, 1815,
married, July 8, 1885, William King, earl of
Lovelace, died Kot. 27, 1863. Ada inherit-
ed the resdesa disposition of her&ther; and
although of good natural abilities, of a mathe-
matics torn of mind, and excelling particularly
as a chess player, she deHsrhted in epeonlating
in railway shares and on the tort The insolv*-
ency of tiie attorney whom she employed dis-
closed the oiroomstanoes to her hnsband, who
paid all her liabilities; but the unpleasantness
which grew out of the disoorery preyed upon
her mind, and accelerated her death.

BYRON, John, a British admiral, grand-
fhther of Lord Byron, bom Not. 8, 1728, died
April 10, 1786. Wlule still yery young he
accompanied Anson in his voyage of discovery
round the world, and was wrecked on the Pa-
cific coast, and conducted by the Indians to
Chiloe, where he remained tiU 1744. He was
nicknamed by the sailors ^' Foul-Weather Jack,''
on account of the many hardships he had en-
dured. In 1768 he commanded 8 ships of the
line, and distinguished himself in the war against
France. Subsequentiy he was employed by
George III. on an exploring voyage between the
Cape of Qood Hope and the southem part of
America. After touching at Madeira and the
Gape Yerd islands, he proceeded to Rio de
Janeiro, and then sailed to the southern part
of the Atlantic ocean, visited the Falkland
islands, where he met Bougainville, who was
founding a colony there, and subsequently di-
rected his course northward to the island of
Masafuero. Thence, sailing westward, he dis-
covered the isles of Disappointment and King
George's island, and directing his course north-
ward, discovered 2 more islands, which he call-
ed Danger and Byron's islands. Sailing by the
Carolines into tiie Chinese seas, he passed
through the straits of Banca to Batavia, and in
Hay, 1766, arrived in England. In 1769 he was
appointed governor of Newfoundland. In 1778
he watched the movements of an armament sent
out by France to assist the Americans. In July,
1779, he fought off Grenada an indecisive en-
gagement with the commander of that French
armament, Count d'Estaing, and on his return
to England, withdrew from active service.

B YSSUS (Gr. fiwrtrei), a Scripture word vari-
ously translated fine Unen and silk, and supposed
by some to have been cotton, and by some the
asbestns fabric. There appear to have been 2

Suite different qualities of the byssns; one,
tie finest, used for the habit of the priests,
and the other for that of the Levites. As now
used, the term is applied to the hairy-like fila-
ments that proceed from the base of the foot of
oertain molluscous animals, as the pinna and the
mussel, and which serve, by being attached at the
other extremity to rooks and other substances,
to hold the animal in its place, and at the same
time to allow it some motion. The name was
also applied to a variety of obaoure filttnentona

plants that are now generally supposed to be the
young shoots of different meoies of fmm.

BTSTBOEK JoHAK Niklas, a Swedish
sculptor, bom Dec 18, 1788, at Philippstadi,
in the province of Wermeland, excels chiefly in
the busts of women and children. In 1816, the
king of Sweden, whose statue he had executed,
presented him witii a house and a studio, and
gave him oonnnissions for the statues of a great
number of Swedish sovereigns, some of which
adorn the public squares of Stockholm, others
the royal palace. For the last 80 yean he htB
ofllciated as professor at the Stockholm academy*

BYTOWN (name changed to Ottawa in
1854), the capital of Carleton co., Canada West
It is situated on the Ottawa river, and connect-
ed bv raihroad with Prescott, and bv the Ridean
oanid with Kingston. It is divided into an up-
per and a lower town, and contains a hospltiu,
a nunnery, 4 branch banks, a telegn^h com-
pany, 7 insurance agencies, printing offices,
mctories, machme shops, founderies, gas works,
and about 60 stores. Five newspapers are pnb-
lished here, and the town is one of the most
flourishing in Canada West The value of as-
sessed property in 1866 was $8,800,000. A
large teade, chiefly in lumber, is carried on by
means of the river and canal. At the western
extremity of the city are the celebrated Chan-
didre Falls, spanned by a suspension bridge,
which unites Upper wiUi Lower Canada. 1&
town was designated by the home government,
in 1868, as the future permaftent capital of Can-
ada. Pop. 10,000.

BYZANTINE EMPIBE, called also the
Boman empire of the East, the Eastern
empire, and the Greek emphre. On the
death of Theodosius the Great, A« D. 805,
the division of the great Boman empire into
East and West beosme permanent The east-
em portion, with Constantinople, the ancteat
Byzantium, for its capital, was bequeathed to
the elder son Arcadius, with whom the line of
Byzantine emperors properly commences. The
Byzantine empire beginning A. D. 896, ended
A. D. 1468, with the Mohammedan conqneet
of Constantinople. The Eastem empire at its
inceDtionconsistcA of 2 prefectures, namely: 1,
the Orient^ including 6 dioceses, Oriena (properX
Egypt, Asia, Pontus, and Thrace, and embrMans
all the Asiatic regions toward the Euphrates and
independent Armenia, and the AMcan coast west
of i^ypt to the great Syrds; 2, the prefecture
of Illyricum, with the two dioceses of Mace-
donia and Dacia. embracing the countries of the
lower Danube, the whole of ancient Macedonia,
Hellas, Crete, and the islands of the JSmaa.
In the Crimea, the Byzantines occupied the
cities of Theodoeia, Chersonesus, near Sebasto>
pol, Eupatoria, and Dandaoa. The line of de-
marcation between the empires of the East and
the West was the Dannbe, from a little above
Pesth down to where it receives the Drinus,
and a line drawn A*om the townof Scodra,now
Scutari, on the Adriatic, toward tiie great
Syrtia off the coast of Cyxenaioa in Africa.

■

^^^^^^ iiWAxrmE £wrii5E ^^^^^^^^^^^|

H p..'

••^ ,,- -

^^H

iii*nQ ■

^m '■

U^firr ^1

■ A^tUUai Ui«l i ^^1

■ '

h,<i viiit^Mvnf ^H

1^-

lUlsKI ly tMi* iJlLr'Mi[V,

■ ^

^!«<ftMiisiriftS) P^iikc

»ird«, nhiMt f^iixtea wv Itfttui> . ^H

H ^*

- T .. .1 - i .u ,

H "-^

H ^''

H ~

i&t^i«f< diiiT«aof^ [i9^i in tho k^ ■

H '•

J^tttEtiMi* Thii I'-'Ii? «jf ''>n T^T7. ^ , ■

H '

,l'

11^ hM» bees 1. ■

H ^

>.'

mnubf ihujarbi- ■

H '

g-ta

rjii3W»(irae fifcci1iiu!i nl' lituys i:-- ^ ■

H '-

r^t»ll*

'wLiii^ iKiW <i<vq«>rir.) B (^nfT.'r!^ ■ ^^H

H "

' !-

ihta ^iipeiMr iti^ ^^1

H ^'

..1

tim la titiiiuU^ u: ^^M

H "-'

cmnmiUlm fWriul mvu. ^^|

H ^^

'i.

Tbo M<iCM)f»UTji£o iiimmst ^H

H ^

|jI«^ !. '^ '^ift coemkf |r'.>rtirnr. ^^M

H ^'

c^ptUJ lyiwl, Uid akiiit ■

^ ?^

' > fjMi-i* oiiwnji*;' nf

pbc^ ID Alli«iii wir» abot op tj lmr«riil oon- ■

rkiii^ ^amt* too
^..uiH Ifeo YuiibH lll>a

«j

tt^iuj. Hb lOfittvur w«i tlii ir f -^ tp1i«fi* ■

w.'t^foil from tlitf k|^»mli(i«a:i ,„ ^ ^^ "f ■

^U '

'o n-^hih■naiil^ lli-'lf rilli^r-i.

H >'

' . frljiot, mill \%i A»*/if« t1iL<!4r<w tT^i ^B

H '

■ ;

ptvrW' ^^H

P ^

t'ninii:-. ^^H

^1 i

^^H

^^^^^ ^— ' WF-

172

BTZAHmNE EMPIBE

the throne of Persia, after that potentate ha4
been driven away by his subjects, and made an
advantageous peace with hiin. His aimy mu-
tinied as he was marching against the Avars,
who had ineremed the tribute payable to them
by treaty. The soldiery elected Phocas as his
successor, and the *^ green" faction of the
metropolis rose and murdered Mauritius and
his sons. Phocas reigned 602-610. The peo-
ple grew weary of his tyrannical rule^ and
called to their aid the governor of the imperial
pnefeoture of Africa. The governor sent his
son, Heraditts, who took Constantinople, and
Phocas was torn in pieces by the mnltitude.
HeracUus was made emperor ^610-641). The
Persians conquered from him D>Tia, Palestine,
and Asia Minor, and pressed him so hard that
he thought of leaving Constantinople forever,
and making Carthage his capitoL From this
step he was dissuaded by the patriarch, and
between 622 and 627 he had recovered
all, indnding the holy cross which Siroes,
the Persian monarch, had taken as booty
ftom Jerusalem. In 626, the Avars made an
unsuccessful attack upon Constantinople. From
this time forth we hear noUiing more of the
wars between the Byzantine empire and the
Persian monarchy. The Arabs now appear aa
the most formidable foe of the Qreeks. The
Saracens conquered the country bordering on
the Euphrates, Syria, Judiea, and all the Byzan-
tine possessions in Africa, 685-641. The By-
zantines were weakened by their intestine re-
ligious controversy about Monothelitism, or the
one will of Christ In Servia and Croatia a
number of Slavonic kingdoms arose, which soon
threw off all dependence upon the empire.
Constantino IIL, son of the preceding, died
soon; his step-brother, Heracleonas, lost his
throne by an insurrection, and was banished.
Constans II. became emperor (642-668). In his
reign the empire lost Cyprus and Rhodes (650)
to the Saracens, and suffered defeat at the
hands of the Lombards in southern Italy. Con-
stans became the victim of a conspiracy at
Syracuse, in Sicily, where he was endeavoring
to protect the coasts and islands of the Mediter-
ranean from the Saracens. He published the
TVp^ ^^ odict intended to quiet the contro-
versy between the orthodox and the Monothe-
lites. Pope Martin I. condemned tiie edict,
and was thrown into prison by the eastern em-
peror. He was succeeded by his son, Constan*
tine IV., Pogonatus (668-686). In 672 the
Moslems besieged Constantinople by sea for
the space of 6 months. They were forced to
retire by the terrible Greek fire, whidi set their
vessels in a blaze. They repeated the attempt
seven years in succession, with the like result.
On the other hand, the government was com-

edlled to pay tribute to the Bulgarians, who
ad conquered and founded a kingdom in an-
dent McBsia. Justinian U., Bhinotmetus, or
shorn nose, succeeded his father (685-711). His
tyranny brought about an insurrection which
cost him his nose and ears and an exile to the

Crimea. During his exile, Leontins and Tibe-
rius III., two generals, reigned. Justinian re-
turned and was assassinated. With him the race
of HeradiuB became extinct Pbilippious Bar-
danes, his general, succeeded him ; next came
Anastasius II., whose troofM mutinied as be was
leading them against Soliman. He resigned bis
authority and took refuge in a doister. Leo
in., the Isaurian, reigned 717-741. He beat
back the Arabs from Constantinople, but not
until after they had ravaged Thrace. The
image controversy now beeame violent Leo
sided with the innovators, and ordered the re-
moval, and afterward the destruction, of all
images in the churches. This Iconodasm roused
the island population of the Cyclades to revolt^
but Leo repressed the sedition. This position
of Leo weakened the Byzantine power in Itidy,
and the year 728 saw the last of the exarchate
of Bavenna. His son Constantino V. succeeded
(741-775). He was as much of an Iconoclast
as his father, and a more fortunate generaL
Hie dislike between him and the monks was
mutual. He shut up many of the monasteries
and convents, because he alleged that the inmatfis
were sluggards and corrupted the i>eople. He
reconquered from the Arabs a* part of Syria
and Armenia, and destroyed their fleet off
Cyprus. In 759 he drove out of the Pelopon-
nesus 200,000 Slavonians, and wound up his
successful career by victories over the Bulga-
rians. Leo lY., Chazar, son of the preceding,
reigned 775-780. — ^The boundaries of the em-
pire were well mmntained agdnst numerous
foes. Constantino YI. succeeded under the
guardianship of his mother Irene. She was an
image-woruiipper, and aa<iembled the second
council of Nice, whereat 870 bishops condemn-
ed the Iconoclasts. Eventually she put out her
son^s eyes (797), and reigned in his stead. She
now desired to many the new emperor of the
West, Charlemagne ; but this idea of reuniting
the EjEustem and Western empires was so repog-
nantto the popular opinion, that an insurreodon
took place which ended in her dethronement
(802). Nicephorus, the high treasurer, was pro-
ckdmed emperor. He made a treaty with
Charlemagne, which constituted the free ter-
ritory of Venice as the lunit of the 2 empires^
became tributary to Haroun al Bashid, and fell
in an engagement against the Bulgarians (811).
To him succeeded Stauracius and Midiad L
They fouffht unhappily against the Bulgariana.
Leo v., the Armenian, a reputable general, suc-
ceeded (818). Ounnus, king of the Bulganan^
devastated Thrace, took Adrianople, and laid
siege to Constantinople, when a sudden death
surprised him. Leo then drove the barbarians
back and forced them to a 80 years' truce. He
ruled ably, but his dislike to the use of images
raised up enemies and cost him his life (820).
Michael H., the Stammerer, reigned 820-629.
In 824 the Saracens in Spain took away from
the empire the island of Crete, and in 827 the
Aglabate Saracens seized Sicily. The same
reign witnessed the loss of Dalmatia to the

BV?a^T!Ki£

Bn' ?^H ^r» •. Th p witMz -»t>IK r • 1

hr !fir*^t a^TLa r!*nr.ai, ThH nTn"? rif fT -»!»''

II
1

(1
ti
X

I]
tJ
tL_

In,' !■ .

fr .. •

Infill; Urt'Lt i«*a3 fu^iiLorxd incii

u i f^v »Qicgu<i4iim^M ^1 ILUMfiiMl^Oac

174

BTZAXnifB XICFIBE

power, and the daagen that ihreftton«d all
Christendom therefrom, now drew the attention
of western Earope to this oomplioation of af«
fairs. The Turks had invaded Bithynia, and
Alexis called the courts of the west to his aid.
Pope Urban II. authorized the preaching of the
first crusade. The first host of crusaders left
an unfavorable impression upon the Byzantines.
With the second a treaty was concluded. Alexia
was to furnish a number of troops, and the
crusaders were to hold the provinces recon«
quered from the Moslems as fieft of the ein-
pire. Neither party kept faith. Bohemond,
prince of Antiocn, laid siege to Dyrrachinm, but
shortly afterward concluded a peace with the
emperor. His son, Joannes Comnenus, suc-
ceeded him (111 8-'48). He fought victorloualy
against the Se^ook Turks in 1120, and recon*
quered many towns. He defeated the Petche*
negnes, who had crossed the Danube, and the
Hungarians. In 1131 he recaptured lesser Ar«
menia. He was succeeded by his son, Manuel
Comnenus (1148-'80). He was victorious over
the sultan of Iconium, and over Raymond of
Toulouse, the Christian prince of Antioch. In
1147 a new armv of crusaders arrived at Con-
stantinople, to the consternation of the inhabi-
tants. In 1143 Manuel conauered the island
of Corfu from the king of Sicily, in retaliation
for an invasion of Greece by the latter. Be-
tween 1180 and 1188, reigned Alexis Comnen^
us U., son of the preceding, and Andronicus
Comnenus. Andronicus was the last of the
ComnenL Isaac U., Angelus (118d-'95). In
his reign the king of Sicily undertook the con-
quest of the Byzantine empire, but waa even-
tually beaten back by Isaac. The Bulgarians
recovered their independence (1186). He was
dethroned by Alexis III. (1196-1203^. Isaac's
son, Alexis the Young, supplicated the aid
of the crusaders, then assembled at Venice,
and obtained it in return for a promise to
pay 200,000 marks of silver. The crusaders
captured Constantinople, July 18, 1203, and
restored Isaac, who with his son was put to
death the next year. The crusaders again cap-
tured the city, April 9, 1204, and a short
period of confusion ensued, during which a
number of persons were emperors for a few
months or days. The Latin empire of Romania
was established (1204-'61), and Count Baldwin
of Flanders elected first emperor. The Euro-
pean possessions of the empire were divided into
4 parts: 1. The imperial domain, including one-
fourth part of the city of Constantinople (the
other 8 parts beingdivided between the French
and Venetians). Thrace, some castles on the
Asiatic coast, the islands at the mouth of the
Hellespont^ and the suzerainty over the feudal
dependencies of the empire. 8. The kingdom of
Thessalonica was carved out for Boniface, mar-
quis of Montferrat, which included Macedonia
and a part of Greece. 8. The republic of St.
Mark's obtained the coast lands of the Adriatic
and the ^ocean, a portion of the Morea, many
of the Cydades and Sporades, the isUnds of

Crete and Nearopont, and the terrltoiy oi
Gallipoli on the Thracian Chersonese. 4.
Many other fie& were given to French knight^
of which the principal were the duchy of
Athena and BoBotia, and the principality of
Achaia and the Morea. The Greek empire
still survived in Asia Minor. Theodore Las-
oaris, who had been elected emperor by the sen-
ate in Constantinople, established his capital at
NicfiM, whence the Greek empire of Nictea re-
ceived its name. It consisted of Bithynia,
Mysia, Ionia, and part of Lydia. On the south-
eastern shores of the Black sea, from Binope to
the river Phasis, the Grand Comnenian em-
pire of Trebizond arose. The Conmenisa
Srinoes, Alexis and David, declared their in-
ependence at the &11 of the old Byzantine em-
pire, and one of their successors assumed the
imperiaT title. In Epims and ^Btolia Theodore
Ai^lus established a Greek prindpality. Re-
turning to the history of the principal fragmwts
of the Byzantine ^pire, we nnd that the
Greeks called in the aid of Joannes, king of the
Bulgarians, who defeated Baldwin and took
him prisoner. Henry, brother of Baldwin,
succeeded him (120&-U6). He fought with
ec^ual success against Lascaris, emperor of
Nicffia, and brought the king of the Bol-
ffarians to terms. He gave honors and of-
fices of trust to the Byzantines, and protected
them against the oppressions of the Latin
clergy. Peter do Courtenay succeeded him
a216-'21). Hewas captured by Theodore, in-
aependent prince of Epims. in a vain attempt
to take Dyrrachinm for the Venetians^ His
younger son, Robert, succeeded him (1221- 28).
During his reign, Joannes Vatatzes, the Greek
emperor of Nicsoa, and Theodore, the prince of
Epirus, reduced the territory of the Latin emper-
ors of Romania almost to the peninsula on which
Constantinople stands. John de Brienne, titu-
lar king of Jerusalem, next took the reins of
power as regent for Baldwin II. (1228-'37).
The Bulgarians made an alliance with the em-
peror of Nicsaa and threatened the existence
of the Latin empire. John de Brienne saved
Constantinople, and the allies turned their
arms against each other. Baldwin 11. then
reigned nniuded (1237-^61^. He implored
men, arms, and money of the potentates and
nations of the West, but they made no adequate
response to his entreatiea. The consequence
was that Michael PalsDologus, emperor of
Xic»a, with the help of the Genoese navy,
which was driven to the Greek alliance by
hatred of Venice, obtained possession of Con-
stantinople, July 25, 1261. The Genoese were
rewarded by liberal mercantile privileges. The
Latin empire of Romania now vanished, al-
though many of the Latin principalities, such
as the duchy of Athens, survived until the final
downfall of the restored Byzantine empire
in the 15th century. With Michael PalsD-
ologus (1261^82^ commenced the dynasty of
the PaliBologi, which endui^ until the Turkish
conquest By his endeavors to reunite the

BfXAMTiKis mrxm

ITS

> nan tiP.^ •

flip. nvir.%iiii*ic. v.

Bn'--'* ^.^ t« -T.-

l>
t>

«-■

a'. . .

mt-

, For

ufil of

Ml WllW •1(7 «•»«* PutPUfU «*' #mi*iin *****

t tlm ftfli

ij ji^ir-^vffffiitiiM in tliji

of ptAic, til wbicli mj(H* fbOBd •dmltUoo* mxim
M Ilia picJi— '^ ^- flwielfeiMriM i^5^

, • • ■ TK«

.-ii#iir*ttfc;i*

176 BYZANTINE HISTORIANS

BYZANTIDM

body-gaard of the emperors began ia the lOUi
century to be composed of Germans, Saxons,
and Northmen. The latter were called Yarings,
The commandant of the fleet was the megat
dux, — ^Tbe original sources of Byzantine history
are the Byzantine historians themselves, who
wrote in corrupt or later Greek. Only a few
of these have been translated into any of the
modem languages. Of the authorities in the
modern tongues, we cite Le Beau, Eistoire du
Bos Empire^ also translated into German;
Zinkeisen, Cfesehiehte Grieehenlands ; Fallme-
rayer, Gesehichte des KaUerthums Trapetunt;
Gibbon's ** Decline and Fall of the Boman
Empire;" Finley's "History of Greece and
Byzantium" (London, 1854), the most recent
and best authority in the English language on
this period ; and for the Latin settlement in the
East, Buchon^s Histoire de$ eonqttetes et de
Vetablisietnent dea Francis dans les itats de
rancienne Gr^ (Paris, 1846). Du Gauge's work
in Latin, Historia Byzantina (Paris, 1680), was,
before Gibbon's work, the only authority general-
ly consulted. An interesting new work on the
Byzantine empire, is Muralt's Ewai de chrano-
graphic Byzantine (St. Petersburg, 1855).

BYZANTINE HISTORLAN^S, a series of lit-
tle read but important lower Greek authors,
who wrote between A. D. 893 and 1468, the
era of the capture of Constantinople by the
Turks. Of tiiese, Procopius is the best known,
and is the only one who has been translated in-
to English. Anna Gomnena, daughter of the
emperor Alexis I., who wrote a history of her
father's reign in 15 books, is also well known.
A collection of the most important of them was
made and published at the expense of Louis
XIV., in 36 volumes (Paris, 1648-1711). The
title of this work is Corpus Scriptorum His-
torim Byzantinm, The Greek text is accom-
panied with a Latin translation and notes. The
editors of this work were the Jesuits Labb^
and Haltrait, P6tau and Poussines, the Domin-
icans Goar and Oombefis, Prof. FabrottL
Charles du Cange. Allacd, the librarian of
the Vatican, Banauri, librarian at Florence,
Boivin, the royal librarian at Paris, and
Bouilliaud, a madiematician. Another edi-
tion, with additions, was published at Venice
in 23 volumes, 1729-83. Some, not indnd-
ed in either collection, have been published
separately since. Niebuhr entertained a high
opinion of the value of the Byzantine histori-
ans in a general history of mankind, and pro-
jected a new edition of them, which was com-
menced in 1828, under the tide Corpus ScripUh
ram Historvjs Byzantines^ Editio emendatior et
eopiosior (Bonn). This edition has been in pro-
gress of publication continuously since that time^
and is not yet completed. Bekker, the two Din-
dorfs, Schonen, Helnecke, and Lachmann, are
the principal editors.

BYZANTIUM, a city on the shores of the
Bosporus, founded by ancient Greek colonists
on a part of the site of the modem Constanti-
nople« It was ori^nally settled by a band of

Megarian colonists, 658 B» C, but it was de-
stroyed by Otanes, the Persian satrap, in the time
of Darius Hystaspes. After the defeat of the Per-
sians at Platsaa (479 B. C), Pausanias, the general
of the confederate Greeks, re-colonized it with a
body of Dorians -and lonians. From this het-
erogeneous constitution endless dilutes arose,
and Spartan and Athenian parties always exist-
ed within the walls. The fine harbor and ad-
vantageous position soon made it of great com-
merci^ importance. It obtained possession of
the corn traffic between the shores of the Eux-
ine and Greece and Egypt, and its fisheries were
so abundant as to procure for the harbor of
Byzantium the name of the Golden Horn. It
remained under the regency of the Lacedemoni-
ans until Cimon captured it for the Athenians.
It soon returned to its original aUe^ance. Al-
cibiades, the Athenian, got possession of it by
the aid of the Athenian party within the city,
408 B.C.; but it was retaken by Lysander, the La-
cedsBmonian, 405. Xenophon, with the remnant
of his 10,000 men, passed through it on his
way homeward. In 890 B. C. Thrasybulos ex-
pelled the pro-Lacedsemonian oligarchy, and es-
tablished tine power of the democracy. Byzan-
tium put itself at the head of a league oonast-
ing of Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and Caria, wi^ a
view of throwing off the Athenian suprem-
acy. This they effected, and Byzantium re-
mained for a space entirely independent. As
the commercial importance of Athens declined,
that of Byzantium was augmented. When, how-
ever, Philip of Kacedon besieged it, it retnmed
to its Athenian allegiance, and called upon the
parent city for succor. Owing to the anti-Mace-
donian eloouence of Demosthenes, the aid was
f ranted. Phocion, the Athenian, compelled
hllip to raise the siege. The gratefod Byzan-
. tines erected a monument in honor of the event,
and granted the rights of Byzantine citizenship
to the Athenians. During uie progress oi this
siege, the citv was saved from capture by sur-
prise, by a flash of light which illumined the
northern horizon and betrayed the proximity of
the besiegers. A crescent was stamped on the By-
zantine coins in honor of this miraculous event,
and when the Turks took Constantinople in the
15th century, they adopted this municipal sym-
bol as their own natioiud device. In tne reign
of Alexander the Great, Byzantium acknowl-
edged the Macedonian supremacv. In the dis-
sensions of Alexander's generals^ Byzantium
sided vnth Antigonus against Polysperchon, and
with Lysimachus against Seleucus. It was at
this period much exposed to the incursions of
the Thradans, Scythian^ and other barbarians
on the land side. The GkiuIb made it pay heavy
tribute, which caused the citizens to retaliate
upon the commerce of the world, by levying a toll
upon all vessels passing through the Bosporus.
This tax brought them into a war with the isl-
and of Rhodes, 221 B. C. Attains, king of Per-
gamus, sided with the Byzantines ; Prusia& king
of Bithynia, with tiie Rhodians. The latter
were sacoessful, and commerce remdned onbur-

BYZlimiJU

^^^^^^ ^1

^^^V j.<

'--* *!"--

,,_, __. -. 1

_•». - ^ n __^ _ r .-* n^<l* ,.Tn ^^^^|

^^V V

1
1

.■ifut»y^t»u ^^B

^H »!'■

■

■r

--. - „

-a; ^H

■

178

OAABA

OABANIS

nate languages; thna collum (Lat.), SaU (Ger.),
Jialter (Eng.). In French the phonetic soften-
ins of the O.is traceable in the word KttroluSj
tiUthe 9 th century, then Carolus, and afterward
Charles; and the comparatively modem use of
the cedilla records the farther progress of the
change. 0 is also interchanged with some
other letters beside the Q and K with which it
is cognate; as withP in jpepo, eoquo, cook;
eolumba, palumba; while jpr0a:(e8)mi/« has sup-
pluQted propsimns^ bat not prope and propiuB,
The phenomenon of the disappearance of 0
occurs in %aeramentum (Lat.), serment (Fr.);
lacrima (Lat.), larme (Fr.) ; and in many other
cases for purposes of euphony. As a numeral,
0 signifies 100, GO 200, and so on. It was used
among the lAtins to stand for Csssar, Gains,
Gassius, centumy and eondemno ; and on accoimt
of the last use it is called litera trUtU by Gicero.
QQ stood for calumnioB catua or concilium c^it ;
eo88. for conxules ; Gl. for Claudius ; 0. Y . for
(7i»i^um Fm;andG.B.for (7ivui?omaniM. An
Italian G stands for canto. In French, a single
0 stamped on money marks it as the issue of
l^e mint of Gaen, and QQ as the issue of the
mint of Besan^n. — G, in music, the name of
one of the notes of the scale. It is the tone
with which the so-called natural scale begins,
and was designated by Guide ui^ a name sub-
sequently changed to (20 by the Italians. G is
considered the key note, and its pitch is regu-
lated by tuning forks. It is also a character
used for the si^ification of time.

GAABA, or ^aaba, properly a quadrangu-
lar structure, applied particularly to a celebrated
temple at Mecca. According to Mussulman tra-
dition, the first Gaaba was built by the angels
on the model of the pavilion which surrounds
the throne of the Most High ; the second was
buUt by Adam, with whom it was removed to
the skies, where it still exists in a right line
above the Gaaba of Mecca; the third was built
by Seth, but perished in the deluge ; the fourtk
which now exists, was built by Abraham and
Ishmael. The name is specially given to a small
cubical oratory in the temple in the centre of a
large space surrounded by galleries. This is the
point toward which the prayers of all Mussul-
mans are directed. On one of its sides is In-
wrought the famous oval black stone, believed
to be one of the precious stones of paradise, and
to have been brought by the angel Gabriel to
Abraham, when he was constructing the Gaaba.
At first of a dazzling whiteness, it has grieved
and wept so long for the sins of the human race
that it became gradually opaque, and at length
absolutely bladk. It is an object of profound
veneration to the pilgrims who resort to the
sacred city. This inner Gaaba is surrounded
with a veU of black silk, and is opened but 8
times a year. The temple of the Gaaba is older
than the time of Mohammed, previous to whom
it was the Arab'pantheon, and contained aU the
idols of the nation.

GABAL (Fr. cdbale\ a word signifying club
or association, imported into the £ngli£ lan-

guage after the restoration. The ministers of
Charles 11. of England, whose names were
GlifEbrd, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and
Lauderdale, were called by some opposition wit
the cabal ministry, as the initials of their names,
ranged in the order given above^ form the word
cabal.

GABALA. This word is of Hebrew origin,
and dgnifies reception, and in Hebrew Uteratnre
it designates the religious and philosophical doc-
trines which the Jews say Moses received by di-
vine communication on Mount Sinai, and wnidi
he afterward delivered traditionally to Joshua,
and Joshua handed down in the same manner
to the 70 elders. This system of doctrines was
also called Masora (traoition), because it was
given or transferred. It was not allowed to be
written, that is, in ^e form of direct statement.
It is supposed, however, to be enigmaticaUy
embodied in all the Old Testament or Jewish
scriptures, especially in the Pentateuch. So
highly do some comparatively modem writers
(as Henry More) value the traditional science,
which is supposed to underlie the Penta-
teuch, that they pronounce the latter a foolish
and melancholy conceit, unless there be some
key by which a higher but secret meaning may
be extracted from it. Cabala is also used to de-
signate a period in the progressive development
of Jewish literature, whidi conunenced about
A. D. 800 ; also to designate a sort of divining
by means of passages of Scripture, but this is a
corruption of the term, and constitutes no part
of the Jewish idea of the Cabala.

CABALLERO, Ferhin Agosto, a Spanish
statesman, born July 7, 1800, at Barajas de
Melo, in tne province of Guenca. He first set-
tled as an advocate in Madrid, but on the sub-
version of the constitution in 1824, he retir^
to Estremadura until the death of Ferdinand
Vn. in 1883, after which he edited the Boletin
del ComerciOy which was suppressed, but reap-
peared under the new name of the Eeo del
Comercio, He was elected to the cortes, where
he was a leading member of the opposition to
the ministry of Martinez de la Rosa. Soon
after he was a supporter of Mendizabal, and
favored aU the innovations attempted by that
minister, especially the suppression of convents.
He was a member of the constitutional conven-
tion in 1837.

GABANIS, PiBBRB Jean Geosob, a French
physician and philosopher, bom at Gosnac, in
the department of Gharente Inf6rieure, June
6, 1757, died at Rueil, near Paris, May 6, 1808.
He was the son of the barrister Jean Baptiste
Gabanis de Salagnao, who married a very rich
lady, and became an eminent agriculturist.
Having left the bar to superintend the culture
of his wife^s extensive domains, the father be-
came intimate with Turgot, the economist., who
was then the administrator of Limoges, and
afterward became the celebrated minister of
Louis XVI. The son, though very intelligent,
was a wayward student, and made but little
progress in his early studies at Brives. At the

180

OABBAGE

0ABBA6E PALM

produoed gold in the early part of the present
oentnry ; bat its wealth now is ohiefly in live
Btock, gnin^ cotton, and tobaooo. In 1850 it
produced 418,820 bushels of Indian com, 70,946
of wheat, 2,844 bales of oottom and 408 lbs. of
tobacco. It had 14 com and floor mills, 8 saw
mills, 1 woollen and 1 cotton foctory, 7 tanner-
ies, 21 churches^ 8 academies^ and 2,619 pupils
attending public schools. Value of real estate
in 1856, $694,898. The conntj was formed in
1792, and named in honor of Stephen Cabarrus,
ipeaker of the house of commons of North Caro-
Ima. Capital, Conoord.

OABBAGE, a plant belong^p; to the botanical
order erueifercB^ and genus 5msnca,the order com-
prehending also the scuryj-grass, pepper-grass,
mustard, cress, radish, and turnip, ana the genua
including also the caiUiflower, broccoli, borecole
or sprouts, rape, colza, savoj, and kohl-rabi.
The Mras8ica oleraeea^ from which all the forms
of cabbage spriug, is found growing wild on
rocky shores and oli£& in England, with no ap-
pearance of a head. The cultirated cabbage is
considered by some a monstrosity ; but its va-
rieties are well marked^ distinct, and easily
perpetuated, where care is taken to secure sudi
oonditdona as will continue their exact habits.
The cabbage is a biennial ; the seed being sown
produces a full-grown plant the first season,
and the next season sends out shoots 1^ to 2
feet long, which bear small globular seeds in a
great number of pods. The whole plant then
perishes. The large, solid heads of cabbage, now
so familiar to all, were produoed from the wild
plant by gradual improvement in soils, manures,
and cultivation. To repeat them annually it is
necessary to observe 2 points: 1. None but
those heads presenting the best type of the va-
riety should be saved for seed ; they must be
taken up with the roots before frost sets in. the
Txseless outside leaves removed, and set in a
cool, dark cellar, with the roots imbedded in
soil, and packed as closely as possible. In
spring they are set out about 2 X 2^ feet
apart in good garden soil, and no seed saved
except from the most vigorous stalks. 2. They
must not produce seeds near other plants seed-
ing at the same time, which belong to the
same tribe, such as cauliflower, turnip, broccoli,
&c.. as they will mix through their flowers, the
seed producing mongrel varieties. Much disap-
pointment is experienced from using seeds care-
lessly produced by seed-growers to sdL There are
many very valuable varieties of cabbage, some
suited to particular localities. For earlv use, early
York is an old flAvorite, some preferring the
early flat Battersea. Coming next in succession,
a new cabbage, Winningstadt, is excellent, heads
compact, growth rapid. About New York, the
late Bergen, flat Dutch| and best varieties of
dramhead cabbages are preferred for late 8ort&
Three crops are secured in a season: seeds of
early and late sorts are sown in a moderate hot
bed in March, for the latitude of New York
city, kept slightly moistened, with plentyof air
at all times when the temperature is not too

low. The plants are dusted with dry wood
ashes, pulverized lime, or a little Scotdi snuff,
to keep off the fly — ^which is a small bhick in-
sect, a great pest— thinned to an inch apart, and
kept fi^ from weeds. When the beds ontside
are dry and warm enough, the plants are re-
moved during a cloudy day, or in the aftemooo,
and the early sorts set with a dibble, 14 to 18
inches, the later ones 20 to 22 indies apart each
way, watered, and allowed to take root before
disturbing the soil about them. If the weather
continues dry, the plants should be watered 9
or 8 evenings in succession. This planting
gives the earliest cabbages, and sununer cal^
bages, which come between the eariy and late
crops. For a late crop the seeds are sown in
an open bed, thinly, in drills 6 to 9 inches
apart, in May, and transplanted from June 10 to
July 1, in straight rows, 22 to 27 inches asunder
each way. The cabbage is a rank feeder, and an
exhaustive crop. The soil should be a deep,
rich loam, not only containing plenty of vege-
table matter, but a full supply of potash, soda,
and lime. A dressing of common salt, at the
rate of 10 bushels per acre, will not only bene-
flt the cabbage crop, but kill grabs and worms,
which destroy the young plants rapidly. Coarse
manures should not be applied the same sea-
son the cabbage crop is to be grown. Hog-
pen manure must not come near the cab-
oage crop, as it disfigures the roots, and
destroys the plant. Composts of muck, wood
ashes, lime, salt and common yard manures,
well decomposed, may be used in liu^ quanti-
ties if well incorporated with the soil Guano,
dug deeply under, is good in all but very light
sandy and gravelly soils. A flrst-rate' super-
phosphate of lime, with \ its weight of gnano
mixed with it, is one of the best manures for an
old garden soil, or one which has always rec^ved
conmion manures. This compound may be
dissolved in water, and be f^ely used to water
feeble plants, or dug in about them with a hoe.
As soon as young plants have taken root in the
new bed, they should be hoed, the oftener the
better, till the leaves shade the soiL In its
younger stages, the cabbage must &ed largely
on carbonic acid,^ Ac, by its roots; but as it
increases in size, it uses the leaves more exten-
rively — whence tne necessity of early and fre-
quent hoeings. Some growers on Long Island,
and in New Jersey, who supply New York
market, produce from 20,000 to 100,000 eadi
annually, which bring from 2 to 18 cents per
head, according to size and season ; a &ir price
in summer and autumn is about 6 cents. The
fields are prepared by deep and subsoil ploughing,
and are neavily manured, the horse hoe and
subsoil lifter being used by the most skilful,
while at greater expense of manual labor the
old style of culture is still kept up.

CABBAGE PALM {arua oleracea), the high-
est of the American palms, often attaining an
elevation of 160 feet, with a trunk of not more
than 6 inches in diameter. It is found abun-
dantly in ^e West Indiesi and is very distinot

■

CAfflUi ^^

■

OABi^ lil ^H

^^^^^I^L

^ v.a nia^^ r* -- ^

^-t.^n.^. -pk.-., ..A^--.-,-fl||^^ ^^H

■ iMf^

th#^)f.

1-^1. ■

^^m
^^m

f..,,,. »k.

1. ^H

! iC Oi^.

■■f

HOCLci

^^ ifidkiiao*^

.-. _uJ

PNIM,

' 1

^1 e.si47 iw

* c^tm «0i|

■

^B flour ttifti:

-ii-it^ nflk

^H 4Ubu!^'

-flnnsi leloiftr th9 V»dltifrni^

t ;

^^H

^v ■■ - ' ' ■-■ ■ '*■' ■ lawsi

^^1

S 1fc^«

» 1

^H "

i.M,.z:. i>- i.v^vn-i.. ,wu;** iv^

T^T- m Tri^r nil rfiTT'.Ttiani*L. biira

^^1

b9tii% ITd.,

H :'

^^1

, *^tt*f -

*■

■

^^H

. ItiUlAili'^ iWUir&HlM&iU^Vi i) ■

r'^. 9

vLi^ ■
Tooty ■

'. u\< ca it- ■

w%( tob« ■

. - . t «4 ittym all tlit^ar ^^

^? d«jiH All Ilia f nit oatlni ■
^Hl, f&ml poiir Rrt' l'^i:iii^1it ■

( iriiCt o4 .4*.»»,i«Hi

knm^jm^

^^tH]m, ^ ■

■ '

I iHi w«i fipun

WM Mtv

■:-!5t fi^l ' -1 ■

■ -

li^yforotli^ir

m^yfiil •If^aiM bt *^^ Au4 ^ lUWAH ■

ArfbibAiill

vymaoau

mmHtiU XL^ li« uk ■

^^f

"'riftodtil

et^al mlki

fm iKnm Cjiirua nlisi. t»d mam ■

^^1

, But

mon <irk&

iTnnsltt

irrttori bam allen»ptoa io mm tlw aricniAl ■

H i

?t.H

nnd d/i^di^fll oenuDoeifft la Urn mmmm |

mJQPtm,

. . *» ^fl

■ •

gable;

a ctntnir nrpi; pt cMsl Th« Dun* ^H

«iV M<^-

1li«nf Ilt4

TCBTs b<»Q apPl W k* «}mi40r jriiiua ^^M

rilttDddoYni

^^H

-T. ^i |f«i-

tftOOU

fm^i^^ 1

me^ w cbxu Ut« ttoCrKOoa i^f Ui> ^^H

182

GABLE

bora, but most generally they serve to oonnect
ships with their anchors. The greatest im«
provement ever made in the mooring of ves-
sels is the substitution of the chun cable for
the hempen one, which has been effected dur-
ing the last 50 years. A chain is much less
bulky and much more pliable than a hempen
cable of the same strength ; it is consequently
stored in much less space, and is handled
more easily. On account of its great bulk, a
hempen cable loses much of its weight in tiie
water, and consequently assumes a position
much less curved than a chain. The great
curvature of a chain makes it yield and play as
if it were elastic when the vessel gives sudden
jerks, and thus the strain upon a chain from
this cause is never so great as upon a hempen
cable. On a rocky bottom a chain will simply
be polished bright by attrition, where a hemp-
en cable would be cut in a few minutes. TThen
the bottom is strewn with heavy stones, or
with projecting points of rocks, round which
the cable windi itself during the various evo-
lutions of the ship caused by winds and tides,
a hempen cable is often cut. or at least greatly
injured, while a chain cable does not suffer in the
least, on account of its power of resisting side
strain, as will be explained hereafter. On
board vessels, the cables are named after the
anchor they are used with. The largest is
called the sheet-anchor cable, and is used at
sea ; the next in size is the stream-anchor ca-
ble, and is used in rivers. Gables are made of
various lengths, according to their size and to
the service they are intended for. A cable's
length is a measure of distances used by sail-
ors, and is equal to 120 fathoms. — Hempen
Gables are large ropes of the kind denomina-
ted cable-laid. The fibres of hemp are first
twisted into yam; a number of yams are
twisted together into a strand ; 8 or 4 strands
are twisted into a rope denominated plain-laid ;
8 or 4 ropes, used as strands, are twisted to-
gether to make the cable. The strands of a
cable are consequently formed themselves of
strands. The twist is reversed at each succes-
sive operation ; that is, the yarn is formed by
twisting the fibres from right to left ; the yams
are twisted together from left to right, &c
It is customary to designate the size of a hempen
cable by the length of its circumference, and
that of a chain cable by the diameter of the
rod of which the links are made. The largest
usual size of cable is 24 inches circumference;
it wel^s 1 cwt. per fathom, is made of 8,000
threads, is equal in strength to a chain 2^ inch-
es diameter, and is tested to carry safely 80
tons. Hemp in its natural state is stronger
than when wet or tarred ; nevertheless, it is
advantageous to tar the cordage which is to be
used at sea, as tar protects it against water,
which would weaken, and ultimately rot it.
It is obvious that the process of tarrinff after
the cable is made is imperfect, and simply bet-
ter than nothing, as the tar does not reach the
core ; the true way is to tar the yams of which

the ropes are made.--GHA.iNGABUDB. The plan
of substituting chains for cordage for holding
anchors was patented in England in 1808 by
Mr. Slater, a naval surgeon. Want of capit^
prevented him from demonstrating by experi-
ments the value of his invention. In the year
1811, Gapt Brown, of the Penelope, 400 tons
burden, made a voyage of 4 months to the
West Indies, using a chain cable with twisted
linkai The success was complete. During the
following years several vessels were saved by
their iron cables, and thenceforward the change
from hemp to iron proceeded uninterraptedly^
till, at the present time, it would be difilcult to
find a ship without a chain cable on board.
The form of links adopted by Gapt. Brown was
most imperfect ; several other shapes were snc-
oessively tried, till the best form was found and
patented in England by Bronton. The general
shape of Bronton^s link is that of an ellipse.
The inside curve, at each extremity of its long
axis, is of the same curvature as the rods used
to make the chain. In this manner there is
just room enough for the next link, and no
more. Across the link in the direction of the
small axis is a cast-iron stay enlarged at its
extremity, with a small projecting point in the
centre of each end, which entera the link and
keeps the stay in its place. From the extremi-
ties of the stay to the curve at each end. the
rod forming the link is perfectly straight.
When a cable chain with links of this con-
stmction is pulled upon, it resists twice as
much as the rod of which it is made, and does
not stretch more than a straight rod. If an
obstacle is opposed to the side of the chain,
the link or links acted upon may assume 2 dif-
ferent positions : the link may rest against the
obstacle by its side, the axis of the stay being
perpendicular to the face of the obstacle ; in
this position the link is strongest, as all its
parts brace each other to prevent the bending
of any — or the link may rest flat against the
obstacle ; in this position it is very weak, but
this cannot happen if the obstacle is large, as
in such case the next links would rest first
against it by their sides, and if the obstacle is
small, it is pressed between the sides or the
back bones of the 2 next links, which close
upon it and cmshit to pieces. The links wear
out much faster by their friction against each
other, than by any other cause ; and experience
has taught that the ends where the friction is
greatest should be of rod iron of a larger diam-
eter than that of the sides. In consequence,
the rods are manufactured with swellings at the
places which are to form the ends. Several
simple machines are used to manufacture chain
cables; the successive operations are as fol-
lows : 1, heating the round bars of iron red-
hot ; 2, cutting them of the required length,
but wiUi opposite bevels ; 8, bending the rods
around an eUiptio mandrel ; one end is placed
against the siae of a vertical mandrel, and held
there by a vice attached to the last, and a lever
provided with a projecting ym extending out-

QAELT

r\nnot

iid

k»« »'llt \ « ll«U«l

F»r- t'iA. r;f Iv ,tt

VtiliirLLjii kij

liip cu<]»t4i is iiali««ltl/. I'oj^

Ui* i^'iV *My UUdlL ij J*\KAii £ll'l %h:J^\'^*J !a>_H" •'• <tn^i',^ .(*in/ i >_ri/ y^ l.jnaiUI

184

OABOOL

CABOT

Cabool was once the name of a powerful king*
dom, which reached almost from the shores of
the Caspian sea to the vicinity of Delhi, and
from the Oxos to the Persian gnlf.-— Cabool, the
oapital of the ahoYe-described province, and of
the Dooranee empire as long as it existed, is
in lat 84'' 80', long. GQ*' 6', on the Cabool river,
immediately above its confluence with the
Loghnr. The city is about 8 miles in circum-
ference, and is but indifferently fortified, being
merely defended on the western side by a line
of weak ramparts extending from one to the
other of those ranges of hills which almost
surround the plain wherein Cabool stands. The
houses are built of sun-dried bricks and wood,
and are in general from 2 to 8 stories high.
Four spacious bazaars, erected by the celebrated
Ali Murdan Khan, once adorned the centre of
the city, but in 1842 the British utterly de-
stroyed them. The citadel, styled Bala Kissar,
or Upper Fort, occupies an eminence in tlie
eastern quarter, and contains the governor's
palace. The mosques and other public edifices
exhibit no architectural beauties. Cabool has
but one college, and even that is fast going to
ruin. The serais, or public inns for strangers,
are numerous, but neither elegant nor conve-
nient. The baths are abominable, both because
of their filthiness, and because of the offensive
smell proceeding f^om the fuel which is used in
heating them. The city is abundantly supplied
with water for every domestic and industrial
purpose by the river Cabool, which is here
(Broflsed by 8 bridges ; one, a substantial struc-
ture of brick and stone ; another, a frail fabric
of wood, over which even the foot-passenger
cannot pass in safety ; a third, which spans &e
river toward the west, is strongly fortified and
Jealously guarded by armed sentinels. The
climate of Cabool, from its proximity to the
great Himalayan range and from its elevation
above the level of the sea, is severe in the win-
ter season, which begins early in October, and
lasts till the end of March. During tills period
the opulent citizens seldom leave their houses,
passing the tedious time within doors in as
agreeable a manner as possible. In the sum-
mer season, however, when the climate of their
city is as healtliful as it is delightful, they in-
demnify themselves to some extent for their
hibernal imprisonment, by living almost entire-
ly in the open air. — Cabool is a city of consider-
able antiquity. As early as the 7th century of
our era it was the residence of a Hindoo prince,
and in after times it was for a short penod the
metropolis of the emperor Baber. In 1789
it was taken by Nadir Shah, and annexed to
his dominions. On the death of Nadir Bhah,
Ahmed Shah Abdallah seized on it, and in 1774
his son and successor, Hmour, made it the
capital of the Dooranee empire. After the
downfall of Mahmood, the last of the Dooranee
dynasty, Dost Mohammed Khan took possession
of Cabool and its territory, and maintained him-
self there till 1889, when the British marched
an army into the country, under pretence of

placing Shah Shooja, the brother of Mahmood,
on the throne of his ancestors, and occupied
the city. On Nov. 2, 1841, however, liieir
occupation was suddenly terminated by an out-
break on the part of the inhabitants, which re-
sulted in the massacre of the whole Briti^
force with the exception of 1 European and 4
or 6 sepoys, who had the good fortune to escape,
and a few persons of ruik that were spared for
the sake of the ransom which might be obtain-
ed for them. Gen. Pollock subsequently ad-
vanced toward Cabool and was joined by the
forces under Qen. Nott; the English army re-
occupied the town in Sept. 1842, liberated the
prisoners, and avenged the outrage by destroying
the principal public edifices of the offending city.
This achieveo, the British retired, and left Dost
Mohammed to resume his sway over it. Sub-
sequently overtures were made by the ruler of
Cabool, and an alliance was conduded, March
80, 1855. Pop. about 70,000.

CABOT, Gbobob, U. S. senator from Massar
chusetts, was bom in Salem, Essex oo., in Deo.
1751, died in Boston, April 18, 1823. At an
early age he went to sea and rapidly rose to
command, and made some voya^ as master of
a ship, diligently employing all his leisure in
well-selected reading. His extraordinary qual-
ities were soon recognized. When 25 years old
he was a member of a provincial congress which
met at Concord, in Massachusetts, and there he
displayed much wisdom in preventing certain
measures by which it was hoped to control the
price of merchandise. At that time the science
of political economy was almost wholly un-
known, but he had already grasped its leading
principles. As a member of the state conven-
tion which, in 1788, adopted the federal consti-
tution, he maintained a high position; and,
being immediately afterward sent from Massa-
chusetts to the senate of the United States, he
won not only general respect, but the especial
confidence of Washington and Hamilton. His
knowledge of commerce and of the laws and
methods of trade, greatly assisted Hamilton in
maturing his admirable system of public finance.
In 1798 he was offered an appointment as sec-
retary of the navy ; he refused it and renounced
all public life, but was afterward sometimes
urged to take office with an importunity he
could not resist. From an early age he was
accustomed to guide others by his calm and
accurate judgment, his power of bringing with-
in consideration all the facts and reasons which
were of the essence of a question and them
only, and his capacity of escaping from other
men's excitement, even when his interest in any
matter was not less than theirs. The same
qualities were applied to public questions with
the same happy results. And thus, although
he had no desire for public life, and all experi-
ence of it only strengthened his love of retire-
ment, he was obliged to yield in some instances
to the conviction that important exigencies
called upon him to do what no other man could
do so well* He never shrank either from labor

fir

^'
it
•>'

At".

11 .

ill

tiJ

r.i' It ijui

•(w7«it ATtlrfi-^ iSU iii«mM lii^ tii,Hjyf«lli i4ie ii# aa ^IJ^UUMtirtn. T^4^ 4iiii ^^¥*t Uito #til4«^#

186

OABOT

oonntry of the diflcoverer of the North Ameri-
can continent can be ascertained. The author-
ities respecting John Cabot are, the Venetian
archives ; the patent granted him in 1496 ; the
license in 1498 ; a letter dated Aug. 28, 1497,
from Lorenzo Pasqualigo, a merchant at Lon-
don, to his brothers at Venice ; and the legend
on the map of Sebastian Oabot, cited in Hak-
Injij giving June 24, 1497, as the date of the
discovery of the continent. In 1566, there
was at Oxford a copy of Sebastian Oabot's map
on which the date of the legend was 1494.
Another copy with the same date has lately
been discovered in Germany; but the legend
is not by Sebastian Cabot himself and the ori-
pnsl charter of 1496, the letter of Pasqualigo
m 1497, and the license of 1498, combine to
prove the date 1494 to be an error. The bet-
ter knowledge of the career of John Cabot is
particularly due to the researches of an accom-
plished English scholar, Rawdon Brown.

CABOT, Sebastian, son of the preceding, a
oosmographer, and the discoverer of the coast
line of the United States as far south as the Chesa-
peake. The time and the place of his birth are un-
certain. Eden says, ^^ Sebastian Cabotte tould me
that he was borne in Bristowe, and that at four
yeare old he was carried with his father to
Venice ;" but Contarini, the Venetian ambas-
sador at the court of Charles V., relates in his
diary that Sebastian Cabot informed him he
was born in Venice, but bred in England ; and
this is confirmed by the denization of John
Cabot at Venice, in 1476, after a residence
tliere of 15 years. The time of Sebastian^s
birth seems to have been not earlier than 1475,
nor later than 1477. There is no sufficient rea-
son to doubt tliat he accompanied his father
in the voyage which discovered America. In
Kay, 1493, he, without his father, led forth 2
ships and a large company of English volun-
teers from Bristol, in search of a short north-
western passage to China and Japan. He
sailed so far to the north, that in the early part
of July, the light of day was almost contmu-
ous. Finding the sea full of icebergs, he
turned more to the south, and arrived at land
which most persons believe to have been New-
foundland. Pursuing his search, he reached
the main land of North America, landed in
several places, and saw natives clad in the
skins of beasts, and making use of copper. He
proceeded as far souUi as the latitude of the
straits of Gibraltar, and as far west as the
longitude of Cuba. His object had been to
find a passage to the rich continent of Asia,
and though he discovered an immense territot^
under a temperate sky, his voyage was consid-
ered a failure. Vasco da Gama had reached
India by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and
filled the world with his fame. The discov-
eries of the Cabots were so little valued, that
the family suffered the patent granting them
the exclusive privilege of trade to be lost.
On the death of Henry VII., Sebastian Cabot
was invited from England by Ferdinand of

Spun, fJEither-in-law of Henry VIH., and was
appointed one of the council for the New In-
dies. In 1518 he was named pilot mi\jor of
Spain; in April, 1524, he attended the con-
gress assembled at Badajoz to decide on the
conflicting claims of Spain and Portugal to the
Moluccas. All the while, and during his whole
life, the great object of his ambition was the
discovery of a direct passage to Asia. Having
in early life failed to find one by the north-
west, in 1526 he conunanded an expedition
sent out in search of a south-western passage.
In this pursuit, in 1527 he entered the river La
Plata. Bemaining in those regions for sevend
years, he discovered Paraguay. He did not
pass round the continent at the south, but, re-
turning to Spdn, reached Seville near the end
of July, 1530. In the first year of the reign
of Edward VI., on Oct. 9, 1547, the privy
council issued a warrant " for the transporting
of one Shabot, a pilot, to come out of Hispain
to serve and inhabit in England ;^' and he came
at the summons in 1548, with his mind still
bent on finding a short passage to the Indies.
On Jan. 6, 1549, the king gave him a pension
of 250 marks, or £166 13«. 4d,^ " in considera-
tion of good and acceptable service done and to
be done " by him. On Jan. 19, 1550, the em-
peror Charles V. applied for his return, but
without result. His influence was observable
in inspiring confidence and enterprise among
the merchants of England ; and in March,
1551, *^ Sebastian Cabote, the great seaman,^*
received from the king a special reward of
£200. The patent granted to the family by
Henry VII. m 1496 having been lost, he ob-
tained of Edward VI. a copy of it from the
rolls, and prepared to prosecute a new voyage
of discovery, still in search of a passage to the
Indies. In 1553, a company of merchants, of
which he was the president, sought to find it
by way of the north-east, expecting to turn the
north cape of Norway, and sail southerly to
China. One of the 2 ships was frozen up in
a Lapland harbor, and all the persons on board
perished with cold ; the other discovered
Archangel, and opened a commerce between
England and Kussia. On Sept. 9, 1563, soon
after the accession of Queen Mary, the empe-
ror Charles V., through his ambassador, again
and very earnestly made request that Sebastian
Cabot should be sent back to his service; of
BO much importance did he seem even then in
his great old age. But Cabot refused to leave
England. — A new company was formed for dis-
covery on Feb. 23, 1556, of which he was a
partner and the president. On Monday, April
27, 1556. accompanied by divers centlemen
and gentlewomen, he went on board the pin-
nace the Serch Thrift, which was on the eve
of sdling, and distributed most liberal alms ;
then going on shore, he and his friends gave a
banquet to the ship's company, and for very
joy at the forwardness of the intended discov-
ery, the octogenarian cosmographer entered
into the dance himself. At parting, he com-

OABOTVILLE

CABRERA

187

mended the ship's company to the governance
of Almighty God. On May 27, 1557, he re-
signed hi3 pension, and on the 29th of the same
month he received a new grant of it under a
different form. These are the last authentic
notices of Sebastian Cabot, one of the most
remarkable men of his age. "Where he died is
not certain, though it was probably in Lon-
don ; the precise time of his death is also un-
known, and no one can tell his burial-place.—
The best work on Sebastian Cabot is the me-
moir by Richard Biddle, but further materials
have been contributed by Rawdon Brown, and
by Varnhagen in his Jlistoria do Brazil. One
of his maps has lately been found in Ger-
many, and has been published by Jomard at
Paris in the Monuments de la giographie. In
preparing the present article, some unpublished
manuscri])ts have also been used,

CABOTVILLE. See CmcoPEB.

CABRA (anc. ^gabrum\ a Spanish town in
the province of Cordova. Excellent wine,
grain, and fruit, are produced in its vicinity.
There are manufactories of cloth and linen, and
a great annual fair is held in September. The
town contains a fine Gothic cathedral, a Do-
minican convent, a college, a hospital, schools,
a theatre, and famous mineral si)rings. The
grotto of Jarcas and other curiosities attract
tlie attention of the geologist. Pop. 11,576. —
The name is common to several small Spanish
towns, a village of Central Africa, one of the
Nicobar islands, and a small river in Brazil.

CABRAL, An'tonio Beknabdo da. Costa.
See Costa-Oabbal.

CABRAL, Fraxcisco, a Portuguese mission-
ary, born in 1628, at Covilbao. died April 16,
IGOO, at Goa. At the age of 26 years he was
appointed professor of philosophy and theology
at Goa, and superintendent of the Jesuit schools
in India, He proceeded thence to Japan, where
he etlected the conversion of a large number of
the inhabitants, including 2 of the princes with
their families. He also had direction of the
missions in China, and shared in the toils and
self-devotion of the missionaries. He returned
to Goa, and held for 88 years the office of supe-
rior of the Roman Catholic educational establish-
ment in that place.

CABRAL, Pedro Alvarez dk, the principal
discoverer of Brazil, born in Portugal in the
latter part of the 15th century, died about 1526.
King Emanuel, animated by the discovery of
America and of the Cape of Good Hope, de-
termined to fit out a new and magnificent com-
mercial expedition to Calicut, composed of 13
Vessels richly laden, and manned by the most
experienced and bravest sailors of the time.
Cabral was appointed commander-in-chief, and
under him served many mariners whose names
had already acquired celebrity. After passing
beyond the Canaries, the fleet took a westerly
direction, and whatever may have been the mo-
tive of the course, the result was the more com-
plete discovery of Brazil (the country having
been first discovered in the preceding January,

by Pincon, a companion of Columbus), of which
on April 24, 1500, Cabral took possession in the
name of his king. He now steered for India,
the special object of his mission, but soon lost
in a tempest half of his fleet. "With the re-
mainder he kept his way and landed first at
Mozambique, and afterward at Calicut, and
succeeded there, after a series of negotiations
with the Indian princes, in establishing a fac-
tory. He returned to Lisbon July 31, 1501,
having the 6 ships which remained of his fleet
laden with the riches of the East ; but aftor
this there is no further mention of him in the
Spanish annals.

CABRERA (anc. Cnpraria\ one of the Ba-
learic islands in the Mediterranean, in the prov-
ince and 8. of Majorca. It is used by the fc?pan-
ish government, to which the ishmd belongs, as
a place of exile, has a fort, and a small harbor.
Cabrera is also the name of several villages and
a river of Spain.

CABRERA, Ramox, count de Morella, duko
de la Victoria, a prominent Carlist general,
born at Tortosa, in Catalonia, Aug. 31, 1810,
in the middle walks of life, brought up for
the clerical profession, for which, however,
he was unfitted by his love of pleasure and dis-
sipation. When, after the death of Ferdinand
VII., civil war broke out between the partisims
of his brother Don Carlos and those of tlie
present queen Isabel II., the priests became the
most zealous champions of Don Carlos, and
their enthusiasm acted so powerfully upon the
impetuous spirit of young Cabrera, that he
joined in 1833 a small band of guerillas. He
fought with singular ferocity, which rose to
fury, when, Feb. 16, 1836, upon the order of
tlie queen and of Mina, Gen. Kogueras put to
death Cabrera's aged mother and his 8 help-
less sisters. Cabrera took vengeance upon all
the Christinists who fell into his hands. His
enemies treated him like a wild animal, and
hunted him, after he had laid w^aste Aragon,
Valencia, and Andalusia, from one place to
another, until exhausted, wounded, miserable in
body and spirit, he only escaped from their
hands by taking refuge in the house of a priest
in the village of Almagon. As soon as he had
recovered his health, he resumed his attacks
upon the Christinists, and after a temporary de-
feat at Torre Blanca, eventually took Morella.
Hence in 1838 Don Carlos created him count
de Morella, and at the same time lieutenant-
general, and in this capacity Cabrera continued
to fight for the cause of the pretender, and "or
what he considered the cause of the priesthood
and the church, until 1840, when he was com-
pelled to flee to Paris. By order of Louis
Philippe he was arrested and consigned to the
fortress of Ham, but was soon set free. In 1841,
he took up his residencxj at Lyons, and remained
there passive until 1845, when he opposed the
abdication of Don Carlos in favor of the count of
Montemolin, with whom, however, he was, not-
withstanding this political opposition, on inti-
mate social terms, and whom, in Sept. 1846, he

188

OAOAPON

OAOHET

aooompanied to LondoD, in the hope that the
Bpanish marriage qnestion would offer a good
opportunity to dispose the oonrt of St. James
fjEivorabljr for the cause of the Oarlists. He
also resumed his agitation in Catalonia, Valen-
cia, and Aragon, but he was as little iinooe8»-
ful in Spain as in England. There was not
the least chance for any rising on behalf of
the count of Montemolin nntil 1848, when
the French revolution filled Cabrera with the
most sanguine expectations; which, howeyer,
were doomed to disappointment, as on his
arrival in Catalonia he was but indifferently
received, and on Jan. 27, 1849, he was severely
wounded at Pasteral, altnough he succeeded in
making good his escape to France. He was
again arrested, and again set free in August of
the same year, when he took np his abode in
London. Here he married a rich English wo-
man, a Miss Marianne Catharine Richards, who
had conceived an enthusiastic attachment for
the forlorn cause of the Spanish Carlists and for
their representative. In July, 1850, he pro-
ceeded to Naples, in order to turn to the
benefit of the count of Montemolin the dif-
ferences existing between the Spanish and Nea-
politan cabinets, but at the beginning of 1851
he was expelled from Naples, and since then
has alternately resided in England and France.

CACAPON (often pronounced Capon), or
Gbsat Caoapon, a river of Virginia, about 140
miles long. Rising in the Alleghany mountains,
it traverses Hardy, Hampshire, and Morgan
counties, and falls into the Potomac about 4
miles W. of Bath or Berkley springs. The
Little Cocapon fiows through Hampshire coun-
ty, a few miles west of the river just described^
and also enters the Potomac.

CAOCIA, GnoLiELMO, an Italian painter,
bom at Montabone in 1568, died in 1625,
more commonly known by the name of Mon-
calvo, from the place of his education. He was
one of the best fresco-painters of his century.
Many of his works remain in galleries in the
northern part of Italy, among which may be
mentionea his masterpiece in oil, the '^ Descent
from the Cross," and his "Glory of Angels."
He founded the convent of the Ursulines at
Moncalvo, where 6 of his daughters took the
veil, two of whom are remarkable as being
among the few women ever known to have
been billed in fresco-painting.

C ACERES, the ancient Cacilia Castra^ a city
of Spain, capital of a province, and on a river of
the same name, about 175 miles S. W. from Mad-
rid. It was founded by Q. Csacilius MetelluB in
142 B. C, and contains some fine monuments and
curious Roman and Moorish antiquities. The
new part of the town surrounds the old, and
contains 1 handsome principal square, which is
a favorite resort of the inhabitants. It has
manufactures of cloth and earthenware, and
considerable commerce. Pop. 12,051. It was
taken from the Moors by Alfonso VIII. in 1142.
They recaptured it, and it was finally taken
firom them by Ferdinand IL of Leon in 1184^

OACHAR, Katsohas, or Haibciibo, a dis-
trict of British India, in the preudency of
Bengal, bounded N. bv Assam, S. by Inde*
pendent Tiperah, and lying between lat 24**
18' and 25<> 50' N., long. 92<* 24' and 93* 28'
£. Length from N. to S. 110 miles; breadth,
65 miles; area, 4,000 square miles; popula*
tion, 60,000. It comprises 2 divisionsp--Caohar
proper, or S. Caclior, and Dharmapoor, or N.
Cacnar. It is a mountainous, well-wooded,
and abundantly watered district, traversed
from £. to W. by the Barak, a river navigable
during most of the year, and by several small
streams, down which timber, bamboo, and
canes are floated. Travelling is attended with
more than common difficulties, owing to the
small number of roads, the frequently impaa-
sable state of the Jungles and mountain path-
ways, and the inundations prevailing from June
to November. The moisture arising from heavy
periodical rains renders the climate cooler than
that of Calcutta^ but deadly to Europeans.
Vegetation is rapid and luxuriant The tanked
grass and thick woods shelter vast numbers of
elephants, bufialoes, wild deer, and tigers; and
so formidable are the latter, that a large reward
has been offered bv government for their de-
struction. The pnncinal crops ore rice, sogar,
coffee, and cotton. The exports are salt, tim*
her, cotton, wax, silk, and iron ore. The in-
habitants resemble the Chinese in appearance,
are robust, and fairer than the Bengalese. —
Cachar was invaded by the Burmese in 1774,
and was shortly afterward compelled to pay
tribute to them. During the administration of
the rajah Govind Chunder, who monnted the
throne in 1810, it excited the cupidity of the
neighboring state of Cassay, and for 5 or 6
years was the arena of incessant contentions
among the several princes of that nation. One
of the latter finally obtained the mastery, ex*
pelleCthe rightful r%jah, and was in turn dis-
possessed by the Burmese, after which the Brit-
ish put an end to the strife by occupying the
country, and restoring Govind Chunder to his
throne in 1824. A portion of the territory
which resisted his authority was made over to
its de facto ruler, and has once lapsed to the
East India company. The rest was divided
between the British and the nyah of Cassay,
on the death of Govind Chunder without heirs
in 1880.

CACHET, Lkttsbs sb, one of the most oon*
venient devices of despotism in France before
the revolution. They were sunply sealed letters
from the king^ countersigned by a secretary of
state, by virtue of which a man was arrested,
taken to a prison, and put out of the way, with*
out any Judgment or appeal Formerlv, under
the name of lettre$ elou%^ they were maae use of
occasionally to send imperative orders to a
court, as a means of delaying the course of
Justice ; but in the 17th century their use was
extended. They were obtained by any one
having influence with the king or his minis-
tera, and persona were imprisoned, aometimM

OACnOCii-^

QAmmkiMi

i«0

fir! Cf*d!t, ■ , . .
ifjfM of Low*"

I!-}LiJI "LI -Vl [

4* \rrirnTrA n ^tiqi/i..^ .^mci m.-u-r.. Tn ,T,r:li

.■>.l

<2«Dii«lt«ifi iUei>iii«|Miiij Uit:

^QHt

jLt l/itlmii

i:^ »«tjwimai* of

Adi'-:

■ ^ i 4i1*^'i Cl £1 *ii4!i^^' h^tUU il^i^iAl

' ' -^- ' ,...,.....,

Vftil 111 A

h.'

eIjh hlWltlvL"

mudL tdL«t«£»nd tit 6l» ^kleb ^fn bitu a iilth ffi|iia»i4jw« iMi w«it|

190

CADAHOSTO

CADIZ

UruditoB a la Violeta^ was a satire on snperfioial
learning. He also directed the early genius of
Helendez Yaldez. so that it was said that of all
his works Melendez was the best

OADAMOSTO, or Oa Da Mosto, Linoi, an
Italian navigator, bom in Venice in 1432, died
aboat 1480. Before he was 22 he had made
several voyages in the Mediterranean and At-
lantio. In 1454, daring a voyage to the
Netherlands, his vessel was constrained by bad
weather to pnt in at Oape St. Vincent, in For*
tagal, where Prince Henry, the heir apparent
to the crown of that kingdom, then chanced to
be sojonming. This prince propoang to the
yoang Venetian that he shoald undertake a
voyage of discovery to the islands and coast of
Africa, he suled March 22, 1455, from Lagos ;
visited Madeira, the Canaries, Capes Blanco and
Verd, the Senegal and the Gambia. In the
following year he sailed along the African coast
as &r as a river to which he gave the name of
San Dominico. On his return to Venice he
wrote an account of his 2 voyages, first publish-
ed in 1507.

CADARI, a sect of Mohammedans, who
denied fatalism and asserted the freedom of the
will. The founder of the sect suffered martyr-
dom.

CADDO, a pariah of Louisiana, bordering on
Texas and Arkansas ; area, 1,200 sq. m. Ked
river and the Great Raft form its eastern boun-
dary. During 8 months of the year the river
is navigable as far as Shreveport, the capital
The surface of the parish is undulating, and is
partly occupied by »oda and Caddo lakes, which
communicate with Bed river and with each
other, and are navigable by steamboats. In
1855 the productions were 11,616 bales of cot-
ton, and 859,675 bushels of Indian com ; value
of real estate, $1,880,780; pop. 9,798, of whom
5,681 were slaves.

CADDOES, an Indian tribe who once occu-

5ied the region immediately north of the present
ezas line. They have been reduced to less
than 800 souls, and forced to take refuge among
the Comanches.

CADE, Jonir, the Jack Cade of Shakespeare,
an Irish rebel, died July 11, 1450. Early
obliged to flee from Ireland, he took refuge in
France. In 1450 he passed over to England
at the moment of great popular dissatisfao-
tion with the ministers of Henry VI. He at
once pretended to be a relative of the duke
of York, assumed the name of Mortimer, rais-
ed the standard of rebellion in Kent, May 8,
and very soon found himself at the head of
20,000 men. He advanced to Blackheath, and
interchanaed notes with King Henry, to whom
he made known the grie& of his companions.
He defeated the royal troops which were sent
against him, and entering London July 1, im-
mediately caused the execution of 2 of the
offensive ministers. At first he kept his army
under rigorous discipline, but after a few days'
residence in the capital their propensity to
plunder could no longer be restraineo, and they

pillaged someof the finest houses. Thiaaiouaed
the citizens against them, and on the night of
July 5 Cade met witii his first defeat A
promise of pardon now dispersed most of his
followers, and finding his force no longer suf-
ficient for resistance he took to flight, but was
overtaken and killed.

CADELL, BoBBBT, a Scotch bookseller, and
the publisher of the later works of Sir Walter
Scott, died at Edinburgh, Jan. 20, 1849. In the
fiiilure of Mr. Constable, his first publisheri
Scott was involved to the amount of more than
£100,000, and Cadell immediately purchased
the printed stock of Scott's books, motiopo*
lized the copyrights, and by various improve-
ments in their style of publication increased
the interest of the reading community, and the
amount and profits of the sales. His talents
as a publisher, joined with the vigor of Soott's
genius, enabled the latter to meet all his heavy
obligations, and to preserve to his family the
domain of Abbotsford. At the dea^ of Scott
£80,000 was still wanting to secure this result,
and this amount was advanced by Cadell, who
asked no other secarity than the profits whidi
would accrue from Sir Walter's copyrights.

CADENCE, in music, a pause at the end of
an air, which is followed by an eztemporane*
ous efiusion by the performer. — ^In reading or
speaking, the fall of the voice. In such exer-
cises a key-note is generally taken spontaneous-
ly, and the fall of the voice below this is a
osdenoe.

CADES, GiiTssppB, an Italian painter, bom at
Bome in 1750, died there in 1800. He could
reproduce the style of any great master with
such accuracy as to deceive the most sldlfnl
connoisseurs; which dangerous gift, however,
he always exercised in the most honorable
manner.

CADET (Fr.), the younger or youngest
brother ; also, a person who serves in the ex*
pectation of a commission in the army, but who
receives ^y, while a volunteer serves gratni'*
tously. The name cadet is also applied to
students in military and naval academies, as,
for instance, to those of West Point and An-
napolis.

CADET DE VAUX, AiSTorra Axexib Fran-
gois, a French apothecary and chemist, born in
Paris, Jan. 13, 1748, died June 29, 1828. He
was the inventor of the galactometer, or instra-
ment for ascertiuning tlie quality of milk.

CADI (Arabic, Kaid<m% an inferior judge
among Mohammedan nations. The name la
generaUy applied to functionaries in a village
or small town, whUe the superior judges in a
province or a city are called mollah or moula.
The Mohammedans deriving their law from the
Koran, the cadis and all other magistrates form,
part of the higher clergy.

CADIZ, a city and province of Spain in
Andalusia ; pop. of the province, about 800,000 ;
of the city, in 1857, 61,844. The town is situ-
ated on the S. W. coast, on the rocky extremity
of a small tongue of land prqjecting from the

vMitz ^^^^^^^^ aADMSini iM ^m

^^f f i.

1... f^-/-^. ^

^Kr^

^■l*

ijhtm^^f»m ^^M

J-

^^^^^^^^■^T^

•

'^Bv*

^ ftiid til. ^1
^ 0%totuiw ^H

192

OADMIUU

CADMUS

from some of the oree of zino« It ]b nowhere
met with in a native state, nor as a distinct
ore, except as tiie sulphuret, and this is
found at only one locality, which is Renfrew-
fihire, Scotland, where it was discovered by
Lord Greenock, and for him named Greenock-
ite. It consists of sulphur 22.8, and cadmium
77.7. Its colors are honey and orange yellow.
It is nearly transparent, double refractive. Its
hardness is 8 — 3.5 ; its specific gravity, 4.8 ; its
crystals, short hexagonal prisms. The metal
was discovered in 1817, by Stromeyer, in some
ores of zinc of upper Silesia. These ores con-
tain 1 or 2, and sometimes 10 per cent of cad-
mium. Its presence is recognized bv the red-
dish color of its oxide deposited before the
blowpipe upon charcoal, zinc alone leaving a
white coating. Cadmium bears a strong re-
eemblance to tin in some of its properties, as in
color and lustre. It is a little harder, and re-

2uires to melt it a temperature, according to
)aniell, of SGO^', while tin melts at 442^ It is
ductile, so that it may be drawn out into fine
wire or beaten into very thin leaves. Its
density when melted is 8.6 ; when hammered,
8.69. It volatilizes a little above its melting
point, hence subliming more easily than zinc,
taking fire and burning with a thick smoke of
brownish or yellow color vnthout smelL When
bent it gives, like tin, a crackling sound. It is
susceptible of a beautiful polish, and marks
paper like lead. At ordinary temperatures it
IS unaltered, even in moist air ; after a long
period a thin grayish pellicle of oxide forms
upon its surface and protects it from fhrther
cnange. It dissolves in nitric, sulphuric, and
hydrochloric acids a little less readily than
zinc. The chemical equivalent of cadmium is
66; its symbol, Cd. Only one oxide of the
metal is known, the composition of which is
cadmium 87.45, oxygen 12.55 ; it is formed
by heating the meted in contact with the air,
and in calcining the nitrate or the carbonate of
cadmium. The salts are in general soluble and
take crystallized forms. They have no color,
but possess a nauseous taste and act as emetics.
The sulphuret, precipitated by sulphuretted hy-
drogen, makes a beautiful and brilliant yellowish
red pigment, which is very permanent. If alum
is added to uie solution, the precipitate will be
obtained mingled with alumina. The sulphate
is obtained by dissolving the carbonate or the
metal itself in dilute sulphuric acid, a little
nitric acid being added. It is a salt of similar
properties to those of sulphate of zinc, but
much more powerful. It is used in medicine
as a valuable remedy in the treatment of syph-
ilis, rheumatism, and gout ; and in diseases of
the eyes it is found of great service as an as-
tringent and stimulant, and is particularly ben-
eficial in the removal of spedra and opacities of
the cornea. — Cadmium is obtained in a met^o
state from compounds containing it by precipi-
tating with a current of sulphuretted hydrogen
gas from its strongly add solutions. Zinc, <»d«
mium, and copper, if present, are thrown down

as snlphnrets. These ar^ redissolved in nitro-
muriatic acid; the metals are precipitated by
carbonate of potash or soda ; the precipitate is
then digested with carbonate of ammonia, whidi
rediasolves all the copper and zinc. The insoluble
remainder is then washed with water, chained
with carbonate of ammonia, and afterward with
pure water. It is then calcined, and the oxide
IS reduced to a metallic state by mixing it witii
lampblack and carefully heating it. Oadminzn
may also be obtained by predpitating it from
its solutions by meana of strips of zinc or iron ;
but it is then always necessary to rediaaolve and
purify it, to obtain it fr^e from zinc and copper.
In preparing cadmium in a large way, in work-
ing the zino ores by the process adopted m
Silesia, the cadmium, more volatile than the
zinc, separates entirely from the ore during the
first 4 hours of its distillation. This collects as
a yellowish brown oxide, and is found mixed
with the white oxide of zinc, which separates
in the early part of the process. The browner
parts of these sublimations are collected and
mixed with i their weight of coke. They are
then heated at a moderate temperature in a
mufiSe, which is furnished with a sheet-iron
neck, kept constantly cool by a current of air.
The zinc that comes over first condenses in the
upper part of the neck, and the cadmium, which
is more volatile, is deposited aa a yellowish
oxide further from the muffle. The escape of
the very volatile cadmium vapor is prevented
by a wooden stopple in the extremity of the
•neck, through which a very small opening onlj
is made for allowing some gas to esct^e. The
oxide of cadnuum, thus obtained separate from
the oxide of zinc, is mixed with pulverized
charcoal and introduced into a cast-iron retort^
which is moderately heated. The metal vola-
tilizes and condenses in little drops in the cod
neck of the trough. It is then remelted with
a little resin and cast in moulds of sand into
small cylindrical bars. This is a x>erqni5ite of
the master founder, and is worth $6 per lb.
It still contains a small proportion of zinc, from
which it may be separated in the wet way.
The production of cadmium at the great zinc
works of upper Bilesia has amounted for some
time past to only about 1,100 lbs. per annum.
If it were not for its rarity and high price, it
might be employed to advantage for the same
purposes as tin.

CADMUS, a mythological king of Thebes,
son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, and brother
of Europe, who is said to have introduced
into Hellas the 16 simple letters of the Greek
alphabet He left his native country in seardi
of his sister Europe, who had been borne ofiT by
Jupiter. On making inquiry of the Delphic
oracle as to what state he should diooee for
settlement, he was advised to follow a hdfer
which would meet him. Cadmns found her in
Phocis and followed her into Bceoda, where
she sank down on the spot which Cadmus
called Cadmea, and which became the citadel
of Thebes. He sent some of his company to

^^^^^^^^ DlDu L

■

^^ cjwwt ^1

1) yfj^ iJ^T^^1rt. iHiiT*>> Q r(»*i ^^^H

^^^^^^^K (11 ^^ au|

^^^^^■p7rc. . T

^^^^K

^^^^Vi'

^^H

' Uitt ut o^iul^ ^^H

^^^^^^■4
^^^^^^^^^^^P '^

^^^^bhL^v

^^B mr

^4i M^VHin Hi ^^I

niilfbnxiii|ip«r ^H

Vrlii«!l

104

CSXJUU

kr ooat u eomposed of tiie usoal oironlar fibres,
nod of longitadinal fibres forming 8 bands some-
what shorter than the cncam, and therefore
corrugating it into folds ; the mncoos membrane
has many maoons follicles, few villosities and
no proper wUoul<BeMnicente$ ; the q>pendiz has
the same stmctore as the ciecam. The small
intestine is not simply continnons with the
larger, bat opens into it at right angles to its axia»
and at some distanoe from its commenoement ;
this arrangement leayes a portion of the inte»»
tine in the form of a pouch (henoe the name
eaeum), anatomically below the ileo-CfBcslyalve,
but physiologically or in the coarse of the food,
aboTe it ; there is no definite limit between the
oncom and the ascending colon. From its sit-
uation and strnctare the cascnm is susceptible
of considerable dilatation ; in its natural condi-
tion the muscular contraction of its fibres is
sufficient to close the lips of the yal7e, and to
shut off all communication with the ileum ; the
office of this yalve is eyidentiy to prevent the
regurgitation of the digested matters into the
small intestine, at the same time that it allows
a free passage in the opposite direction; from
its projection inward, the greater the disposU
tion of the contained matters to pass backward
the closer would the lips of the yalve shut, ex-
cept in the rare cases where the small and large
intestines should be folly distended from an ob-
struction below the yalye. The use of the cse-
cum is evidentiy that of a receptacle in which
the digested matters may be delayed before
passing into the colon, for the finid extraction
of any remaining nutrient materials ; its shape,
size, and direction adapt it for this, and com*
parative anatomy goes to proye it; in carnivora,
whose food is fully digested in the upper por-
tion of the alimentary canal, the cscum is
yery small ; while in the herbivora, whose yeg-
etable diet requires a longer digestion by a much
dower process, this organ is largely developed ;
it is probably true that a habitual vegetable
diet in man causes the enlargement of the co-
ounL The use of tiie vermitbrm appendage is
unknown; it is generally considered homolo-
gous with tiie c89oal appendages found iu tiie
lower animals, especially in birds ; foreign bod-
ies as seeds and shot| are sometimes caught in
this appendage, where they may excite inflam-
mation and perforation, causing fiital peritonitis.
When the product of aigestion reaches tiie can
cum, it generally contains littie more than innu-
tritions, and insoluble and excrementitious com-
pounds ; the contents of the canal from alkaline
now become acid; by some it is supposed that the
add is secreted by the numerous glands of the part
for the more complete solution of any remaining
indigested albuminous matters ; this was the opin-
ion of Tiedemann and Gmelin, and of 8chultz,
who believed that in the caacum a second di-
gestion is accomplished, in a measure propor-
tioned to the activity and completeness of the
stomachal digestion; and this view was con-
firmed by the large size of this organ in
herbivora, in which digestion is very far from

being finished hi the stomach; but ftam the
experiments of Blondlot it would seem that the
la^io acid of the ciBcum b rather the product
of the transformation of saccharine subsUmceSy
Bubservienti nevertiieless, to the complete diges-
tion of albuminous matters. In the inverte-
brates, as in the cephalopoda, the intestine often
has cflocal append^ses, secreting a fluid, which
have been regarded as a rudimentary pancreas.
—-Fishes have no csBcum, but sometimes oecal
appendages high up ; in frogs and toads there
is a C83cum into which the small intestine opens
laterally, with or without a valve; in soma
ophidians the large intestine is divided into
pouches, the upper of which is comparable to a
ciBCum ; in the crocodile there is no cawnniy
but a valve between the small and lai^
intestine; both are generally present in tur-
ties.— Birds, without naving a proper caacum,
have usually 2 cascal appendages near the com-
mencement of the large intestine ; ^ese vary in
aze from mere rudiments in the goose to pro-
cesses 8 feet long in some gallinaceous birds ;
sometimes there is only one, as in the inverte-
brates and lower vertebrates. — In mammals
the csocum is usually large in proportion to
the vegetable nature of their food; in the
carnivora it is very small; in the insectivora,
cheiroptera, and in hibernating animals gener-
ally, it is absent ; in the edentata it is usually
wanting, but there are o»cal appendages open-
ing into the conflnes of the small and large
intestines, which are not very distinct ; in xn-
minants, pachyderms, and sollpeds, the csocum
may be said to be enormous, being 2i feet long
in the horse, and 8 times as capacious as the
stomach ; and, in the Gape hyrax, provided with
2 additional csscal appendages ; in some rodents
it is very large and subdivided by circular folds^
and in the beaver is 2 feet long ; in the carniv-
orous marsupials it is wanting; in the insectivo-
rous small ; and in the herbivorous 2 or 8 times
as long as the body, and the wombat is said
to have also a vermiform appendix; in the
omithorhynchus a small c»cum separates the
small from the large intestine; in the herbivo-
rous cetacea the csdcum is present, in the car-
nivorous generally absent; m the quadrumana
the csscum exists, and in the apes there is a
well-developed appendix. The situation and
physiological office of the ceecum render it
liable to many diseases ; its mucous membrane
is subject to acute and chronic inflammation, to
ulceration, to perforation ; its size and extensi-
bility make it a favorite part for the lodgment
of hardened fnces in cases of dyspepsia, con-
stipation, and loss of tone in its coats; it is a
common locality for the imprisonment of gases^
especially in typhoid fever, m which disease the
gargling movement of air and fluids in the
right iUao region is characteristic in certain
stages. Inflamnu&tion of the appendix and its
possible consequences have been alluded to;
with this exception, its presence or absence
seems to be of no consequence; it is occasion-
ally wanting, or transformed into a solid cord.

€AHI? ^^I^^^B

^^^^r^-.-

>!iTfnt^T>^ imJ llim ^^H

^M h

^ItirikM h€m\^ Wi W ^^H

^^^m

LuB ilJt*^»i*

^^H

^H ^'

^^H

';- -•

III lii*- ^^^H

^H A •

f^l llB>iryt DhumI^ ^H

^^H

^H ^^'-

r^^,..H ^^H

; ^M

^H i\

^^^M

1 ^'^

^H r

^^1

^H t^.

^B ti

^H f

^^1

^H f'

ll'-l

J-rt^ U^^l ^^H

^H &•'

,4rid

iioibiMd, ^H

^H fi'

■ r.* f"

u 1^ ^^^H

^H 11

^^M

fifrpilftf^tJt^

, -^ ^^m

^B >

^^^M

^H ^

^^H

^H It.-

' ' CvHUv 4jC ^^H

^M t).

-'ifv^ TIni ^^H

^H C'

\rujvt:r ^^H

^H c

d#{«fmi] ^^H

^^B i.

' TMH't" 1*1 W JtH'tl

"vtotaml T» 3MIIIC >riii 6^ i ^^^|

^^1

ok^«adtOtb«

krmmm hMtt W*ii Of^ ^^B

^H h-

vhiuh

^1 r

,Ji r,f

t^'4i(,«iJ iif" T>rH'''ihi«.<r-M ,lir f^ r*Fili1ii^ liKT^urt*. fv^a* ^^^H

,1 VtbuQiUf Ml luUCMSdH i«ii|l«r,i»b(l

»•" i itunii ii:^ ^^1

^^1 ^*

^H r

•fi> ^^H

^H *^'

jinrl^in£>tMl 4U 6 Fniadl ^^H

^H 1"^

^H %v

i.|ijLtMr jrjiji ^jKi-^.T y r*(VTC

ICfWU* Jl in uk-'.' Ltir:.>u^ v>r V'|i> tttOfudkl^ ^^^|

^H rl

u* tl><> ci66^« imz^ AfffftfiUi^

turv of An),"(^rti irt^iTf^ |^rc3^l tirmihiit9 of ABt ^^H

^^H

|gt]^ Jl},. , .^ .. .4^1^^1-y^ J^^ ^^H

^H ''

tuim i fill «tM9» ^^B

• ..Tin;!?, OiK [-^►'►f**^ ^JULS /t-ot^

•Ad luiiidteg im^' ir BTO?nL» ' %^n3 ^H

^H 1^

fnr.^t* Mt* ill-? Tk. :.. uf fl--:i:r.,?iu>tl^ ^H

^^B ^

T)i« ^H

^^B n^

^^^^^^^^PP^* ' '

^^^^^VK'*-'

iftjr^ rifi; i,]u Li:

^^^H

H df«i^.

oJiurdlM*, doU

196

CAEN STONE

0.£SALPINUB

Alen^on is prqfeoted. A canal, ooimeoting
Oaenwith the ooean, which cost $1,800,000,
was completed in Aug. 1857. The port ad-
mits vessels of 150 to 200 tons. In 1854 Oaen
owned 92 Tessels, of an aggregate tonnage of
7,546, and a steamer of 43 tons. The en-
trances of foreign vessels amounted to 1,874 in
1858, 82,118 tonnage, and the clearances to
1,089, 61,646 tonnage. Malherbe, Auber, the
composer, and other eminent persons, were
bom here, and Bean Bmmmell and Boorrienne,
Napoleon^s secretary, both died here in the
same hospital for lunatics.

OAEN STONE, a soft cream-colored or light
yellow sandstone, which is quarried near the
above-described city. The stone, from its soft
shade and even grain, and the ease with which
it is worked, is highly esteemed for building
purposes. It is exported in large quantities^
and some of it finds its wav to this country.
The Nassau Bank in New York city is built of it.

OAEB OABADOO, or Okaxxxx Hnx, an
eminence near the confluence of the rivers
Clun andTeond, in ShropsHre, England, at the
top of which traces of the camp in which Garac-
taous was besieged by theBoman general Osto-
rius are still vbible.

OAERLEON, a market town of Honmouth-
ahire, England, 162 miles from London,
possesses much antiquarian interest. It is bo-
lieved to have been the capital of Wales, and
was an archbishopric soon after the introduc-
tion of Ohristianity in Britain. It was a Roman
station (Isea Silurum), A space of ground
which has received the name of Arthur's Bound
Table, is believed to have been a Roman am-
phitheatre. There are also remains of an an-
cient castle, and various antiques have been
found. A building has been erected as a
museum of antiquities. There are places of
worship for the Wesleyans, Primitive Method-
ists and Baptists, and the parish church has a
tower of early English style. Pop. 1,281 .

OAERMARTHENSHIRE, or Oaruabtbxn-
amsBj a county of South Wales, Great Britdn,
contams 947 sq. m. ; pop. 1 10,682. It is a moun-
tain district, the highest hill being 2,596 feet high.
The principal river is the Towy, a stream of great
resort for beautiful scenery and angling. An-
other river, the Tai^ is also dear to ex-
cursionists. They are small streams, not over
50 miles in length. — ^Iron, lead, coal, and
limestone are the chief mineral productions.
Gaermarthenshire was the scene of the final
struggle for Welsh independence under Uewel-
hiLlastof the princes. The disturbed state of the
Welsh marches for many years compelled the
erection of baronial castles, of which there are
many remains in various degrees of preserva-
tion.— ^The chief town of the county is Oaer-
marthen, a parliamentary borough. 245 miles
from London by rail. It is beau^ully situated
on the Towy, a few miles from the bav of Oaer-
marthen. The town is irregiidarly built and
the streets narrow, but the inequities of the
site give an air of pioturesqueness to the

place. There aresome ancient remains about the
town and in the neighborhood. Steele the au-
thor was buried in the parish church of St.
Peter. Oeneral Picton, one of the heroes of
the Peninsular war, and Lord Nott, the Indian
general, were bom here. Oaermarthen possesses
a grammar-school, a Presbyterian seminary, a
South Wales training college, national British
and infant schools, an infirmaiy, and a literary
and scientific institution. The inhabitants are
occupied in tin works and iron founderies; and
fishinff, chiefly of salmon and sewin, is carried on
with drag-nets in coracles, a kind of small boats
known to the ancient Britons. An active
coasting trade is carried on with BristoL Hie
principal exports are timber, marble, bricks,
slates, lead ore, bark, grain, eggs, and butter.
Pop. 10,624.

CAERNARVON, Oabnabvow, or Caskab-
voNSHiBB, a county in the northern part of
Wales, boxmded on the W. and N. by Caernar-
von bay and the Henai strait. It has an area
of 579 BO. m., and its population in 1851 was
87,870. The surface is mountainous, and is
traversed by some of the loftiest ranges in Brit-
un. One-half of the land is barren, bnt the
valleys produce oats and barley. The rearing
of cattle and sheep affords employment to
many of the inhabitants, and there are mines
of copper, lead, slate, and coal, which are work-
ed with some proflt. The county is divided
into 10 hundreds and 71 parishes. — Casbhax-
VON, or Cabnabvon, the capital of the above
county, is a parliamentary and municipal b<»>
ough and seaport town, on the E. side of the
Menai stnat. The town is defended by a wall
and surrounded by suburbs of double its extent,
within the limits of. which are numerous hsjid-
some villas, bathing establishment, and a ter-
race walk along the strait, termmating in a
pier. In the vicinity are also the seats of the
marquis of Anglesea, Lord Newborough, Lord
Boston, &c., and the site of the ancient Roman
station of Segontium. At the W. end of the
town stands a magnificent castle, buUt by order
of Edward L; over the principal gateway is a
statue of its founder. The castle and yard to-
gether occupy a space one mile in circuit In
a part of the edifice called the ^ eagle tower,*'
Edward II., the first Anglo-Norman prince of
Wales, was bom. Caernarvon has a harbor
which will admit vessels of 400 tons burden,
but its trade is chiefiy carried on by small craft
and by steamers running to Liverpool. Slate
and coal, the former brought by railway from
quarries ten miles distant, are the principal
exports. Pop. in 1851, 8,674.

Ci£SALPINnS, AxDBBAs (Ain>ssA Cbsal-
piKo), an Italian physiologist, bom at Arezzo,
in Italy, in 1519, died Feb. 28, 1608. In his
youth he numifested little inclination for study,
and still less for the approved scholastic methods
of it, and received frequent chastisement fW>m
his masters. A change of discipline, however,
an appeal to his ambition and an indulgence to
bis mdependence, called forth the pow^s of

0JS8ALPIKU8

CAESAR

197

his genias. He rose above bis fellows, and
soon discomfited his teachers in discassions
which he raised upon matters in eyery branch
of learning. He is first mentioned in pnblio
life as a professor of botany in the nniversity
of Pisa. He was subsequently made chief phy-
sician to Clement VIL, and lived during
the remainder of his life at Rome. He pub-
lished works npon botany, mineralogy, medi-
cine, and the highest questions of philosophy.
In his first publication, entitled Speculum Artia
Mediem HypocraUcum^ his knowledge of the
system of the circulation of the blocd is stated
in the dearest manner. The following passage
is taken fTt>m the second chapter of its first
book : " For in animals we see that the nu-
triment is carried through the veins to the heart
as to a laboratory, and its last perfection being
there attained, it is driven by the spirit which
is begotten in the heart through the arteries
and distributed to the whole body." The sys-
tem accepted since the time of Harvey could
hardly be more definitely or accurately stated.
Similar passages are found in other of his
writings. His philosophical speculations are
contained mainly in his Qucestionea Feripa^
teticcB, This work had great success, especially
after it had been violently attacked by Parker,
archdeacon of Canterbury, and after a Frenchman
named Taurel had gone through with what he
called the alpine task of refuting it. The philoso-
phy of Cassalpinus was scholastic Aristotelian-
ism, with a leaning toward some of the methods
and doctrines of the later transcendental or abso-
lute systems. He reduces the world to the
simplicity of two only substances, Gk)d and
matter, and he makes all finite intelligences, all
human, angelic, and demoniac souls, to belong to
the latter element. Two things are remarkable
about his system: 1, the boldness of specula-
tion, unparaJleled in his age, with which he seeks
a purely scientific view of the universe ; and
S, its entirely materialistio character, which
must be attributed, at least in part, to the spir-
it of the time in which he lived. Most kindred
philosophic efforts in more modem times, that
of Spinoza for instance, have been founded
on a more spiritual principle. — But more
important than either his anticipation of Har-
vey's discovery, or his speculative opinions,
were his botanical labors. He was styled by
LinnsBus the first orthodox or systematic bota-
nist, and his work on plants was a hand-book to
linnsBus in all his classifications. Botany in
the time of Caasalpinus was the popular witch-
craft: as a science, it consisted in a mass of
erudition about the imaginary but marvellous
virtues of plants. Crosalpinna sought success-
fully to transfer it from the realm of magic to
that of science. He proposed the basis of clas-
sification npon which the whole system of Lin-
nsBus rests, namely, the distinction of plants in
their parts of fructification. He even, to con-
siderable extent, carried out the principle of the
system practically, and defined many classes
and orders as they remain in the lannaaan ar«

rangement. Cffisalpinns lived quietly to an
old age at Rome, submitting all his specn*
lations to the supremacy of the church, and
presenting in his life an example of every
virtue.

CiSSAB was the name of several members
of a Koman patrician family, of the JuUa ffena,
who traced their origin from lulus, son of
^neas. Hade glorious by Julius Cassar, it was
assumed by his adopted son, Augustus Octavi-
anus, and handed down to Tiberius, Caligula,
Claudius, Nero, who were, either by adoption
or by female descent, still members of the same
family, and retained as a name of dignity by
their successors of other families. When Ha-
drian shared his throne with ^lius^Tems, he
dignified him by the title of Csesar, which was,
after the division by Diocletian, that of the sec-
ond persons or reigning princes of the empire,
chosen by the August!. It is the origin of the
German Kaiser (emperor), and the Russian czar.

C^SAR, Caius Jultos, of whom no one
writes without quoting the line of Shakespeare^

Tho foremost nuui of all thU world,

was bom precisely 100 B. C, and lived 66
years. The month in which he was bom
(Quintilia) was named July (Julius) aiter him,
and the 12th day of that month was his birth-
day. His father, of the same name, was of
pratorian rank, and his mother belonged to
the family of Aurelius Cotta. From the earli-
est age Caius Julius gave evidence of the most
extraordinary endowments. He was quick to
learn, of wonderful memory, the liveliest im-
agination, and indefatigable diligence. In his
17th year, having been married to one Cos-
Butia, he procured a divorce in order to
marry Cornelia, a daughter of Cinna, then a
leader of the democratic party. His annt
Julia had previously married Marius, another
great democratic chief; and thus by a double-
connection Coisar was brought npon the popu-
lar side. Sylla was the master-spirit of the
patricians or aristocrats, and, discerning the
superiority of the young Csesar, sought to de-
tach him from the party he had adopted, by per-
suading him to repudiate his wife. Cassar, with
a spirit which showed the intrepidity of his
character, refused to take the advice of the all*
powerful Sylla, whereby he incurred his resent-
ment. Sylla stripped him of his wife's dowry,
of the fortune he had inherited, and of the
oflSce of flamen dialis (priest of Jupiter) which
he held. Ca)sar deemed it advisable, in this
emergency, to quit Rome, and escaping the satel-
lites of Sylla, who tracked him in his flight, he
took refage with Nicoraedes, king of Bithynia,
in Asia Minor. Suetonius, who was a garru-
lous court-gossip, tells some scandalous stories
of CsBsar's licentious relations with Nicomedes,
which only a vulgar mind could repeat or be-
lieve. Municius Thermus was then prstor in
Asia, and procured Cassar to conduct a siege
of Mytilene which he did with remarkaUe
energy and success, although but 22 years of

188

GiSBAB

age. Thd death of Sylla allowed him to retam
to Rome, where he mdioted Dolabella for ez-
tortion ia Haoedonia ; but the senate, which
was the jniy, saved its friend and partisan. In
the attempt of Emilias Lepidns to overthrow
the senatorial oligarohy, however, he did not
take part, having sagacity enough, doabtless^ to
see that the time had not yet come. Beside,
the credit he had gained as an orator in the
case of Dolabella pnt him on the design of cid«
tivating eloquence, for which purpose he set out
for Rhodes, to receive the instructions of Molo,
who, a year or two before, was Oicero*s teach-
er. On the way thither he was captured by a
band of Cilioian pirates, who detained him 88
days. Tl^ asked a ransom of 80 talents (over
$80,000), which he laughed at, saying that if
tiiey knew who he was they would demand 50.
He consented to pay it, but told them that if
he ever caught them afterward, he would cruci-
fy every mother*s eoa of them. Arrived at the
island of Delos, he was aet on shore, and paid
the ransom ; but he immediately organized a
small fleet, sailed in pursuit of them, came up
with and captured them, and taking them to
land, reported their case to the Roman pro-
oonanl. But while that magistrate was con-
sidering what was to be done, Oessar remem-
bered his threat, and executed the whole gang.
He then went to his lessons. — ^In the year 74 B.
0., hearing that he had been chosen one of the
pontifices, he returned to Rome, and for a
while led a life of pleasure, some say of gross
debaucheiy, winning the good opinion of the
people by his affiible manners, and a careless,
open-handed generosity. In 69 B. 0. he was
chosen a milituy tribune, and 67 B. 0. a quios*
tor, in which office he delivered a panegyrio
on his aunt Julia, the wife of Marius, and he
also caused the bust of Harius to be carried in
procession, for the first time since the dictator-
ship of Sylla. While he was quasstor he also
served in Spain, rather distinguishing himscdf
by his military capacity. In 66 B. 0. he was
elected adile, and this office, being connected
with the puUio entertainments, gave him an
opportuni^ to display his taste for magnifi-
oence. He raised statues to Marius, enlmed
the theatres, and gave splendid games and fea*
tivals. He came out of it sevcural millions of
dollars in debt J)urin^ his sddileship, 68 B. 0.,
the conspiracy of Oatilme was discovered, and
G»sar was suspected of complicity in it; but
he had probably too much gooa sense to involve
himself in so desperate and cra^ an under-
taking ; the objects and importance of which,
moreover, have been greatiy exaggerated by
Oicero. When the matter came up in the sen-
ate, a year later, he effectually quashed such
tales. He defenaed the conspirators, however,
firom the punishment of death, holding that it
would be wiser to scatter them, and keep them
nnder strict guard. At the same time ne was
aspiring to the place of pontifex maximus, one
of considerable influence and emolument. Cat-
iduB, an opposing candidate, offered to pay hia

debts if he would withdraw, but Ossar replied
that he would borrow more money than that if
it were necessary to his suocees. On the day of
election he remarked to his mother that thai
day would see him either the chief priest of
Rome or a dead man. He was elected, getting
more votes from the tribes of his opponents than,
they did themselves. The next year he be-
came prstor, and, on laying down that office,
was transferred, as was the custom, to the

government of a province. He selected Spain :
ut before he departed, his creditors seized
him, and his friend Orassus had to become his
security to the amount of nearly $5,000,000.
He achieved not a little military- success in
Spain in a cruel war against the native tribea,
and then hurried back to run for the consul-
ship, the first office of the republic He was
chosen, and administered the government with
nnexampled vigor. His colleague was Bibuliu,
who attempted in the outset to check him in
his objects, but in a short time Bibulus was so
completely outmanaged that the Roman wits
used to say that the two consuls were Juliua
and 0»sar. He restrained the unconstitutional
powers of the senate, procured the passage of a
law for the distribution of lands among ^a
poorer classes, gained the favor of the eqaea-
trian order by releasing it from an oppressive
contract, and made himself an immense favor-
ite with the people. It was then that he
fbrmed his coalition with the great Pompey
and the immensely rich Orsssus which is known
as the triumvirate. — ^At the dose of his term,
he was given the government of Cisalpine Gaul,
with Blyricum, for 6 years; and the senate,
the more effectually to get him out of the way,
added Transalpine Ghiul (France) to the diarge,
69 B. G. This opened a new career to Oaosar;
he had hitherto served in civil employments
chiefiy, but was now to engage in a labor which
would test his military talents. The Romans
were asked to settle the disputes of the Gallio
tribes, warring among each other for the ascend-
ency, and also to help them repulse the Suevi
(Germans), who were beginning to invade and
lord it over the country. Cassar took the mat-
ter in hand, drove off the Germans, quelled
several revolts of the Gallic tribes, and finally
determined the subjection of the province. In
8 years of bloody and brilliant struggles, during
which bu term was prolonged for another 6
years, he reduced the whole of Gaul, crossed
the Rhine twice, and landed, the first of
the Romans, twice in Britiun. Pompey. his
great rival, now procured a law recaUing
Oaosar, who refused to obey, and was threat-
ened with being declared the enemy of
the repubho. The tribunes of the people re^
fused to oonfirm the decrees, when the senate,
treating their negative with contempt, outlawed
Oeosar, and directed the consuls '^ to provide for
the s^ety of the republic" The tribunes re-
paired to GsBsar, who had now by means of their
accession got the law on his side, and he imme-
diately passed the Rubicon, a amall atnuun

c,»^ ^l^^l

r*?i*TiTi** frrOTi :1^> f:

irrT-'TU-.ir

&• Till ^nr^l-.r Mi^if^^ 111' **»TiT, ti? t' ^^1

^^^HH|^!i

■ 1 1 TL r

1
1

■
1

^^^H

■

^M kM

^M Mufl

^M iftfi ^k^p^

^^1

^H FMiWirT

^^H

,^--— 'k A. .• (vilVi^i fLt^a 1

^H f] '

^ n<> T ^(DiiMliui cuji "ft ■

^^M tf> u»

' - ntrryiUiri, ■

^1 IftU^

nU/iJ. tW ■

""'-mi4p» H

^H sii4«

u4aa ■

^^H llAlir.

' rlr** H

'-«!

^4 IllfliU

1 ^

■'tn

Ssf:? r^t-

^H ps^m^ u* ^

"'• (i.'<

L'.l !

^^M wi^ Ni ^*tie'*^ ti(«v r

^^H

^H «^<Ui'>.^^M

li« BfiiAG^atje iMsii I

^^H

'lUtr« nK*ty* tt^^'^^TTT

tjr w ^ - 1 # filra ^ ** fk'Tr./>Mii r mun," ■

^^H

i ]i«m1.— Ilia pv r^yiii ■

^^1

fNiiU;

^^^^H

^^^f L'x.''-^r It -21L1 I

J- nfii L' Ik." 'J? 4^1 "a-L

iijiii-ii;,i? ^ nik QLJ Lvi^ki^ woA ftfb^^ltffi ^^

^H ||ii|rti^>f]# b(>

xaifn^n 3HUio«&)r7 b

r^oOit^r liAcJ : HdoaUiliki in iiv^M ■

^H wtUi luonstf

.n . ■

- Ki*.L P-.T.-— nf,t.i 1,:,,

.^ i.^>. 1. i.H i^.ni .^'.^'j^.« ^ydi iJtuir H

^H pmr^^n ti

1 M MaoMi ■

ilTtl^^ limn ■

^^^^WTi^^

^.^^luulifll tc i»'rjiir-ii Ui^

L^-litifii:£>rr,

j^jyiui Mi'l LUJLU^L^ MMLfimiMlB. ■

200

CfiSAB

OiESAREAN OPERATION

espedally tHe latter ; so mnoh so tliat Napoleon
oonsoled himself at St. Helena by studyiDg the
marches and exploits of this great commander.
His style is noted for its simpHoity, natnralness,
and parity, for which qualities nothing in the
Latin language can be compared to it. Csdsar's
yeracity has been called in qnestion by Asinins
Polllo (Snetonins, 66), and by seyeral writers
afterward; Schneider, particularly, advances
tiie opinion that the object of his first work was
political, to give the public a favorable idea of
his talents, and to confound the plans of his
enemies who were 'attempting to destroy his
popularity ; and of the second to appease the
anger of the partisans of Pompey, who con-
sidered him the support of all true patriots.
This opinion has been very ingeniously main-
tained, but the greatest difficulty is to reconcile
it with the simplicity of Casar's style. Ososar
is mentioned in terms of unqualified praise by
Cicero in his ** Brutus.^' Tacitus also, in
his '^ Germania,'* calls him summits auetorum
dwu8 Julius^ auctor here, as frequently in the
classics, meaning " historian/* The genuineness
of these "' Commentaries *' has also been ques-
tioned. Julius Celsus, at Constantinople, publish-
ed an abstract of C»sar's Commentaries, from
which arose the report that he was the original
author ; it is without foundation, as there is a

Srevious Greek translation of Ctesar by Planu-
es. Many think, and with reason, that Cffisar
wrote a diary ; Servius has a passage which is
not in our copies, under the title of *^£pheme-
ris," and Plutarch has one under the same title
which has come down to us, showing that some
thing of the kind was written by him. He left
some orations, letters, apophthegms, a treatise
on Analogy, Anticato, &c., all of which are lost,
except the letters which are preserved in the
works of Cicero. The supposed author of the
8th book, and also of the additions to the civil
war, is Aulus Hirtius, a legatus of CsBsar,
who died 1 year after him at Mutina (nowMo-
dena), where both the consuls Hirtius and Pan-
sa were slain. It has been thought that Hirtius
wrote the BeUum SUpanicum^ but the style
shows it to be the work of a different hand.
The ancients had something very nearly resem-
bling our newspapers, in what were called octo/
they originatea during the consulship of Cssar,
59 B. C, who first published the proceedings of
the senate ; these were continued until the time
of Augustus, whose policy forbid the publication
of these proceedings, although a private regbter
was kept; he allowed, however, the public acts
of the people to be published. There have been
many eiditions of Casar ^s works ; the editio prit^
e^ was published at Rome in 1469, being, there-
fore, among the earliest of printed books ; a
good edition is that of Oudendorp, Stuttgart,
1822; and of Herzog, Leipsic, 1831-*34.— The
ancient authorities for the life of Cissar
are the biographies by Suetonius and Plu-
tarch, the letters and orations of Cicero, and
the histories of Dion Cassius, Appian, and Yel-
leius Pateroulus.

OiBSAR, Sib Julius, an English civilian,
born at Tottenham in 1557, died April 28, 1686.
He was educated at Oxford, and studied in the
university of Paris, where, in 1581, he received
the degree of D. C. L. He was appointed to
high offices nnder Queen Elizabeth, and under
James I. was knighted, made chancellor of the
exchequer, member of nis majesty's privy coun-
cil, and master of the rolls. Under Charles L
also he was privy councillor.

C^SABEA, a ruined and desolate coast town
of Palestine. Its waUs, market places, and
churches are still partially standing, though
greatly decayed. This town was founded bv
old Syrian kings, but was enlarged, fortified,
and adorned widi splendid buildings, just before
tiie Christian era, by Herod the Great, who
gave to it its present name^ in honor of Augus-
tus. It is memorable in the apostolic travela
of Peter and Paul, became under the Romans
the capital of its province and the residence of
the Boman proconsul, and received new favors
from Vespasian and Titus. It was taken in
685 by the Saracens.

CiESAREAN, or Cbsabkan, OPERATION,
the taking of a child from the womb by ontr
tins, so called from Julius C»sar, who was
said to have come into the world in this way.
This operation was first performed on women
who died in childbirth before the child wasbOTn,
and as a means of saving the life of the infant,
which would otherwise have been lost, as well
as that of the mother. After the publication of
the work of Eucharius Roslein, at Worms, in
1518 ("The Rose Garden for Midwives and Preg-
nant Women"), and the improvements in obste-
tric science made by Vesalius in Padua, 1548,
the Cesarean operation was not only performed
in all such cases, but was commanded by law, as
a means of saving the life of the child. In 1581
Francis Rousset, a surgeon in Paris, pnblished
a treatise^ in which he gave proofe of the pos-
sibility 01 safely performing the Cessarean opertkr
tion on the living mother, in cases of malforma-
tion aAd impossible natural delivery. He also
first gave the present name to this operati<«,
which from that time forward has often been
performed on the living mother with complete
success, though not invariably. — ^When from
any cause the antero-posterior diameter of the
superior strait of the pelvis, or the transverse
diameter of the lower strait, is not more than 1-^
inch, the head of the child cannot pass, and
there is no possibility of delivery per vioi natUF'
rales. It then becomes necessary, if the chfld
be living, to resort to the Cassarean operation
as the only means of delivery. Dr. ChurchUl,
who is one of the highest authorities on this
question, states '*that in cases where the pa-
tient cannot be delivered by any other means,
and when, consequently, both mother and chila
would inevitably die, a chance of saving the
lives of both is afforded by the Cadsarean sec-
tion.'* In this operation the walls of the abdo-
men are carefully opened in front of the uterus,
which is also opened, and the child is taken di-

oMiro luenjt

.1.- ^^.^ |1.. .*..*.|. !». L,

..)l^.^.ri,. »1

C^ArFftAULI

71 V .' I )=.«. i-Li..n \t

Tin-

ftil

tvri OAFFWESt « w^i

iiftiT

<lfMi

i»t^*«i)«tfil

■■• tLA a:<k J"j J- • .

rgii portion or

Hfl ijiiiipwii *7 liMii'if , u nf}*rv*wiWi| vliii^l^ iini ^rt** ^^ ti<i«««i cpi«iuiili IW)^ lit^

202

CAFFRISTAK

CAGAYAN

bjT the raising of catUe and hnnting. Their
argiculttlre is attended to hj the women. They
have no notion of a Supreme Being, but are
devout believers in witchcraft and spirits, and
the shades of their ancestors. A Oaffre swears
by the spirit of his ancestor. Their charm-
doctors, rain-makers, and prophets exercise
great power. They circnmoLse the boys at the
age of 12 or li, and abhor, the flesh of swine
and all fish except shell-fish. Ohristianity has
not made much way among them, although
missionary stations have been planted there for
40 years. The great stumbling-block is the
Christian doctrine of monogamy. Their huts
are hemispherical, thatched with straw and
plastered with cow-dong. There is no chim-
ney; the fire-place is in the centre. They
preserve their millet in pits dug in the ground.
The men often go totally naked. The Oaffires
are divided into 4 tribes: 1, the Amakosa,
who border upon the British settlements ,* the
Cafire war of 1847 resulted in stripping them
of the greater part of their territory; 2, the
Amatemba or Tambookis, whose westernmost
territories border on the back territory of the
colony toward the sources of the Great Key ;
8, the Amponda or Mambookis, and 4, the
Zoolah or Zooloo, who inhabit the northern
portion of Caffraria and extend far inland.
Their territory has been much diminished by
the British and Dutch settlers. Their native
weapons were dubs and javelins, but they have
learned the use of firearms from their enemies,
and are very formidable opponents in mountain
and bush warfare. — ^British Caffraria extends
from the Keiskamato the Great Key river, and
is divided into the counties of Northumber-
land, York, Sussex, Middlesex, Cambridge, Lin-
coln, and Bedford. The capital is King William
town on the Buffalo. The principal forts are
Wellington and Cox. The Cafl&e population of
this territory has been partially won over to civ-
ilization. The importation of arms, gunpowder,
and spirituous liquors among them is striotiy for-
bidden. The territory was finally annexed Dec.
28, 1847. The climate of Caffraria is healthy and
well adapted to the European constitution. The
country is beautifully wooded, risins in terraces
from south to north, and is watered by several
rivers. The aloe, the gum-tree, and the plantain
abound; lions, elephants, hippopotami, and
rhinoceroses are to be found, but are becoming
rare.

CAFFRISTAN", or Kafihibtaw, a region amid
the Hindoo Koosh mountains of Asia, between
lat as*' and 86° N. and long. 69^ 20' and 71''
20' £. The country consists mainly of snowy
mountains and sterile hilly districts, but has
also a few small and fertile valleys, which

E reduce abundance of corn and fruits. The
ouses are built on or rather in the slopes
of hills, and placed one above another, so
that the roof of the lower house forms a path-
way to the one above it. Caffiistan receiv-
ed its name, which means '^the land of the
infidels," from the circumstance that the oc-

irovince of Lujson in the
:o, the largest and least

oupants of this region could never be con*
verted to the Mohanmiedan fiuth. They are
described as a fine and handsome race. In
government they have no common chief^ but
each tribe obeys a leader of its own, and they
are all united only in hatred to the Mohammeil-
ans. No Cafir is deemed worthy of honor
till he has killed a Mussulman. In religion
they are said to acknowledge one supreme God,
but they also give worship to numerous inter-
cessoriia idols. Their language resembles the
Sanscrit, and is spoken with considerable variar
tions of dialect in the different valleys.

CAFTAN, the national garment of the Per^
nana and Turks. It is a loose, flowing robe,
generally whl^e, and ornamented with in-
wrought flowers.

CAGAYAN, a
Philippine archi

productive division of the island. It extenda
from Cape St Vincent, the northern extremity
of the island, in lat 18° 40', to 17^ 10' N. ; and
from the Pacific ocean, its eastern boundary,
to the Sierra Madre range of mountains, which
bounds it on the west, the distance is about 75
miles; area 9,102 sq. m. ; pop. in 1849, exduave
of wild races, 85,889. The large river, called
Cagayan, Sallo, and Aparri, at diifferent pointa^
by the natives, but named the T^o or Tagua
by the Spaniards, fiows through this province
from south to north. This river is navigable
by vessels drawing not more than 18 feet of
water, for a distance of 75 miles. At its moath,
on the left buik, is situated the town of Aparri,
having about 7.000 inhabitants. There is a
good harbor at this place, which affords shelter
to the numerous fishing fleets, which find prof-
itable occupation in Balingtang straits, and in
the vicinity of the Babuyanes group oi islands.
The waters of the Cagayan Tagus are famoua
for the great abundance of g^od fish which
they contain. Indeed, the land is leaa produe-
tive than the water ; the soil of Cagayan, which
is exposed to a humid and stormy climate, pro-
duces only maize for food, and some indigo and
tobacco for exportation; but it affords excel-
lent pasture for hardy breeds of horses and
cattle, which are in cousidwable demimd at
Manila and in the southern portions of the island*
This rigid soil and ungenial atmosphere are also
favorable to the development of the most ener-
getic and intelligent of the PhUippine brown
races. The bravest soldiers in the Spanish
East Indian armies are obtained from this prov-
ince; and those active and skilful sailora, so
much in demand by East India merchantmen,
and commonly known as *^ Manila men," as they
are generally shipped at Manila, nearly all come
from Cagayan. The Spaniards ^ve the natave
Cagayans a high reputation for honeety ; and
Catholic priests, in their accounts of misnons in
this province, represent in glowing langoage
the frank and truthful nature of the inhabi-
tants. Beside this dominant, and most numer-
ous brown race, there are to be found in the
rocky fastnesses of the Caravallos and Sierra

QA/iAXAxeoeajoo

CAfitUSl

»a

icL l>::i v^-an )<h.-i f*l .iiOiiT^t^^kTti: moli^ i

lUm, uf .-r*.V,-i 1ti Ti,,.^ V^Im

*^ ^fv». ji HijLr^o

rhr Af^I ^

» Sfid lib

11414

iniristf iidn: j\M dtHMt 0«U'^ iau«

^ ^»* ^i^itu4 tbfeii M^ tfU«t*r iin^i mum Xy^U^tvUM oj^iil h^^IJ W^jii^ Mt* |fVi%

204

OAGUABI

OAQUOSTRO

among that illastrions trio who made the school
of Venice famous long after the art had begun
to decline in other parts of Italy. The work
which first brought him into notice was the
story of Esther, painted on the ceilings of the
church of St. Sebastian, under which the artist
lies buried, and which, from the number of his
works to be found in it, is an appropriate mon-
ument of his cenius. The subject was calcula-
ted to exhibit his lively invention and talent for
depicting ornamental accessories, and thence-
forth the Venetians were never tired of emplov-
ing an artist who could minister so acceptably
to their luxurious and splendid tastes. A jour-
ney to Rome in the suite of the Venetian am-
bassador, Grimani, enabled him to study the
works of Raphael and the elder masters, whose
severe simplicity, however, could not divert him
from the style he had already adopted. His
history after his return to Venice is a record
of great works executed, of which a prodigious
number, some of almost colossal dimensions,
left his studio. He was amiable, accomplished,
and pious, and above all, was distinguished for
the generous profusion with which he distribu-
ted his paintings among churches and convents.
He would seldom take from them more than
the price of his canvas and colors, and for his
great picture of the marriage in Oana, painted
for the refectory of the convent of San Giorgio
Maggiore, received, it is said, the insignificant
sum of 90 ducats. — "So painter ever more fre- .
quently violated the proprieties of chronology
and costume, or more openly disregpurded fact
and probability; and none, perhaps, has so
magnificentiy redeemed his errors. In his pio-
ture of the family of Darius brought before
Alexander, formerly in the Pisani ^dlery, but
recently purchased for the British national
gallery at an outiay of £14^000, the men are
Venetian soldiers, senators, ana citizens, the
women are Venetian ladies^ the architecture is
of the ornate 16th century style, and the cos-
tume of the same period. In the ^^ Rape of £u-
ropa," now at Vienna, Europa is a noble Vene-
tian dome, sumptuously attired, and her attend-
ants are modem maids of honor. But the
celebrated picture of the marriage in Oana, 80
feet by 20, now in the Louvre, is one of the best
specimens of his representations of festive meet-
ings, on which his reputation principally rests.
There are 8 other festival pictures on a similar
scale with the marriage in Oana, and quite as
well executed, although not perhaps so well
known : Christ entertained by Levi, now in the
academv of Venice ; the supper in the house of
Simon the Pharisee, with Mary Magdalene wash-
ing the feet of Ohrist, now in the Durazzo pal-
ace at Genoa; and the supper at Emmaus. Of
his more purely religious subjects, the 8 pictures
representing the death of St. Sebastian, in the
church of that name in Venice, are among the
finest for color and composition he ever paint-
ed. His scriptural, mythological and allegori-
cal pictures are almost innumerable, and many
excellent specimens are to be found at Milan

and in the Lonvre. Of his allegorical snbjeeta,
his Venice crowned by fame, on the ceiling of
the Maggior Oonsiglio hall, is an a^irable
specimen.

OAGLIOSTRO. Albsbafdbo, oonnt an Ital-
ian adventurer, wnose real name was GiufisppB
BalsaicOj born June 2, 1748, in Palermo, died,
after havmg swindled and mystified persona of
all nations, and been condemned hv the inqnisi-
tioD at Rome, in the dungeons of Fort San Leon
in the duchy of Urbino, in 1795. Goethe bore
evidence to the honorable poverty of his family,
whom he visited and assisted during his stay at
Palermo. The fiiture Oagliostro made his debnt
in 1758, when he ran away from the fleminary,
where he had been placed by his guardians,
who brought him back and sent nim to a
convent at Oartagiore. Here he insinuated
himself into the good favor of an apothecary,
who initiated him into some of the mysteries of
his craft, but had to dismiss him on account of
the vicious propensities which belcmged to his
temperament, and which, on his return to
Palermo, degenerated into the most infamoQa
habits. By 1769 he had succeeded in establL^-
ing for himself all over Sicily the reputation of
a most dangerous, but at the same time ci
an exceedingly shrewd fellow. Sicily became
too hot for him, and he made his exit in a charao-
teristio manner by obtaining money from a
confiding goldsmith, under the pretence of help-
ing him to a treasure. With this money he set
about travelling, in company with a strange
being of whom nobody ever knew whence he
came. One of the great means with which
Oagliostro played upon the public credulity was
to surround himself with the most impenetra-
ble panoply of mystery, and in this respect his
travelling companion, whom he baptized by the
mystic name of Alhotas, was of great service. In
travelling, his policy was to assume a different
name and character in every different oonn-
try, now appearing as a necromancer, then as a
nobleman, s^ain as a naturalist, or as a learned
physician, while the daily exercise of old tricks
and the concoction of new ones imparted an
inexhaustible elasticity to his inventive genius.
With Alhotas, he explored Greece, ^clgypt,
Turkey, and Arabia. At Medina he was the
guest of a distinguished mufti. He beoame a
great favorite with the sherif of Mecca. His
smattering of medical science operated like a
talisman. His audacity grew with his socoess.
In 1770 he honored the grand master of Um
knights of Malta with a visit, and introduced
himself as the count AlessandLro de Oaglioetrow
a name which he invented for this speoiai
occasion, and which he preserved on account
of its euphony. His subsequent brilliant career
was due to this lucky interview, as the com-
mander of the knights of Malta supplied him
with letters of introduction^ which, crowning
the adventurer's long-cherished plans, gave him,
for the first time, access to the Italian nobility.
Fearing, however, that this reconunendation
would not be sufficient, after his arrival at

■

oAatw&nm

^^^ CAUHOU ^H

T-ii-

1^. • 11 &f"

■Irjl q. l-^ j;iitifii1 iri

CiLfJ- ^^1

■

!■■

i.n

^^H

■

^^^

■

^^H

■

^^H

■

^^H

^^^H

life ud 1' ^B

t" •

,..,, .. ..- ^-'k

^^^H

'vvvt ttael

^^M

rinU ciV:

'!/> '

f uj\o i:i '

miiiipld^

iirnti^li i<

^^H

trr'--' ^■

.«.-

: ,] . ^ . 1. ■ ^ H

^^^B

■

Siim^i 1

■

|,„

tii ■

■

i-Viiirmiii,

■

-^7. r<?[tr-

■

ir'

',^11^ Ui i,\u H

^VP<*T, 1* ^^H

. .Lii*j'4 ^^H

■

miB4 i 1 ^^1

■

f^--T'

'-*'^ '^ *.'-"--- *-^'*- ' . .,,,M. ^^M

■

UfA ^^ ^^1

■

' Annoci^: .. ^^1

■

£l'

1 wiHia, wlik ^^1

y^-iii Ki hTriLi' ^^^1

oinlerki ^^H

-lied ^m

i*>,iiif4;, j*r-i urrb i-.l 1 .4:iLul d. ^^M

^^g

-^j li9 At OiOiXf Wi^Jtt ti> t'i of UU . ^^1

(i>

■

•

'i'»i(ppuii - ^H

^^1

nlJiia IL ^H

- ^B

^^H

.'.ui hit ^H

nyoor n ^^H

^^1

XT, of r* *|ir[)£>yi. ^H

^^B

%- '

d^r ui. .«tTja« fti: ^H

flltMUfltl

1 ib^m

i^ ytMi^i lu ihu

.^J

206

OAHAWBA

OAILLl;

stndy of astronomy. Afterward he lired at
Verona, where his honse became a sort of ob-
servatorj, nntU 1797, when the French invaaon
made him leave the city. He taught astronomy
at Modena for a time, and finally retnmed to
Verona. He was the author of a work on as-
tronomy, and of another on trigonometry.

CAUAWBA, a river of Alabama, rises in
Jefferson oo., and after passing through a rioh
coal region, joins the Alabama at Cahawb%
in Dallas co. It is navigable by small boats for
100 miles. — Oahawba village, Alabama, is the
capital of Dallas co. It is situated on the Ala-
bama river, near the mouth of the Cahawba.
contains several churches, printing offices, ana
a land office, and is the snipping point for the
cotton produced in the neighborfaoK>d.

OAHEN, Samttxl, a French Hebraist, bom at
Metz, Aug. 4, 1796. He received a good edu-
cation, which he improved by assiduous indus-
try in after life. Intended by his parents for a*
rabbi, he was, at the age of 14, sent to Mentz
to e^joy the instructions of the rabbi of that
city. He edited the Archives IsraeliteSj com-
pleted a translation of the Bible in 1851, and
has published many works intended to illus-
trate the Hebrew language.

OAHORS, the chief town of the department
of Lot, France, on the right bank of the river
of that name, which forms here a wide bend so
as to enclose the town on 8 sides, 60 miles N.
of Toulouse. Its narrow and crooked streets^
as well as various remains, are evidence of its
antiquity. Vestiges of a Boman amphitheatre,
aqueduct, and portico, are still to be seen here.
Of the 8 bridges on the Lot, one, probably built
in the 14th century, is surmounted by 8 towers^
to defend the approach to the town. The cap-
ture of Cahors in 1580 was one of the most
brilliant exploits of Henri FV., then king of
Navarre ; after surprising one of the gates, he
had to fight for 5 days and nights in succession
before gaining full possession of it. Cahors is
the Stat of a bishopHI, the occupant of which
during the middle ages held the title of county
and wore a sword and gauntlets, which he de-
posited on the altar when he said mass. The
cathedral of Cahors is a fine edifice. Among
the public institutions are a theological semi-
nary, a public library, a lyceum, im agricultu-
ral society, &o, Clement Marot, the poet,
and Murat, king of Naples, were bom here.
The university, which was founded in the
14th century, but suppressed after the revo-
lution of 1789, had the famous jurist Cigas as
one of its professors, and among its pupils
was Fen^lon, whose statue is placed in f^ont
of the college on the Foss6 promenade. In
the middle ages Cahors was one of the most
important emporiums of the money-changers
of southern France, who were called Gaonini,
There are some numu&otures of doth and other
woollen stuffs ; a considerable trade in wines,
leaf tobacco, brandies, and truffles is carried on.
Pop. in 1856, 13,676.

CADO^HAS, the high priest of the Jews, to

whom Jesus was sent by Annas, before whom
he was first brought in his betrayal by Jo-
das. The mention of Annas and Cuaphaa as
both holding the office of high priest at the
time of the trial of Jesus^ has given some difll-
culty to Biblical readers, who know thatL ao*
cording to the Mosaic system, there could be
but one high priest at a time. But it must be
remembered that the Jewish people were in
a state of subjection to the Roman power, and
held their religious forms not in the integritf
of the Mosaic statotes, but arbitrarily modified
at the pleasure of the Roman governor of Jn-
dea, at least since the accession of Herod. This
arbitrary power was exercised by the snoceseivo
Roman governors so freely as to change the high
priest's office from hand to hand almost yearly.
But as, according to Jewish notions, the saered-
ness of the high priest was not so readily trans-
missible from one person to another, he who
had once held the office of high priest was ev«r
after spoken of with the same reverenoe as
though he had not been divested of this dignity.
Hence, when out of regard to his age, and also
his relationship as fiither-in-law of Oaiaphas^
Jesus was first brought to Annas, he sends him
in turn, as arrested on a dvil criminal charge^
to Caiaphas, the only high priest who had any
jurisdiction in the case. Cfdaphas was the im-
mediate successor of Simon, the son of Oamith,
and came to the pontifical honors about A. D.
27 or 28, firom which he was deposed after 9
years, and succeeded by Jonathan.

CAIOOS, or Oatoos, or Thb Ektb, 4 of the
Bahama islands, called Great, Little, and North
Keys, and Providence Island, on a bank of
the Atlantic. Some islets and rocks are gener-
ally included with them under the name of
Cflicos. The Great Key is 80 miles long.

CATTiLK, NiooLAs Loms db la. See La
Oahue.

CAILL£, Ren£, a French traveller, bom
Sept. 19, 1799, at Maaz6, died nearParu, May
17, 1838. His imagination became fired by
reading the adventures of Robinson Crusoe,
and his attention turned to the exploration
of Africa. At the aj^ of 16 he embarked for
SenegaL After having passed some time at
Guadeloune, he returned in 1818 to St. Louis
and joined the caravan which Partarriea oon>
ducted through Gjolc^ and Foota to Bondoo,
where he joined Major Gray, the leader of the
English exploring expedition, who was detained
at the latter place. This expedition, however,
did not prove successftil, and CaU16, after re-
cruiting his strength in France, returned in
1824 to Senegal, determined to reach Timbuo-
too by his own exertions. Baron Bogu*, the
French governor of Senegal, helpsd him to a
small supply of merchandise, and Oaill^ having
adopted the Arabian dress and assumed the •
religion of the country, joined a caravan as ped*
dler of goods. After many vicissitodes and
adventures, he set out from Kakoudy, April
19, 1827, and following a south-eastern direo-
tion he passed Inanke, Fontah-Gjalo, Baleya,

■

mmjsn:

■

g4IBA 2<|7 ^^

-J i^T y-,...,j.^.> i.^ *K^ /•..-#'

A*i «f**:w'^. <

^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hr r

f si! iff**. A «^t'

1 JUJ llil nrj-

int. rU.f. L!.

TOO tAirR HiBi b Tom 0<miM pfw ^H

■

-It-,

tir

Li"

-liLU 111 ilu Jl2^ .^nU ^iti c- ^^H

Uch lie t >ji-.*j ^u*^ Irofii ^^M

- In

tktt\
1

mm ^iU^uA

^4 tccfeuy.

m^^p^U^ tkmi lt*i# iAiiiif «(u **^|Mrf, y^ t« «n« ^^H

OAIRD

CAIRO

has beoome naturalized among tlie French na-
tional songs, and even during the outbreaks in
France after the revolution of 1848^ the ominous
song was occasionally heard again in the streets
ofParis.

CAIHD, James, a Scotch agriculturist, bom
at Stranraer in 1816. He was educated
in Edinburgh, became tenant-farmer on the
estate of the earl of Galloway, in Baldoon, was
brought into public notice as agricultural com-
missioner for the *^ Times " newspaper, and has
published several works on agriculture, the
most important of which are *^High Farming"
and "English Agriculture." In 1867 he was
elected to parliament for the borough of Dart-
mouth, as a supporter of Lord Pahnerston.

OAIKD, JoHK, a clergyman of the church of
Scotland, bom at Greenock in 1823. He was
educated at the university of Glasgow, licensed
to preach in 1844, and became soon after minis-
ter of a church in Edinburgh. He exchanged
this position in 1860 for a raral pastorate in
Errol. In the church of Orathy, Oct. 4, 1865,
he preached in presence of thetiueen and Prince
Albert, and the sermon, published by royal
command, and entitled *^ Religion in Oonmion
Life." attracted much attention, and was re-
published and widely read in America and on
the continent of Europe. Mr. Gaird is one of
the most eloquent preachers in Great Britain,
and his manner is aescribed as a gradual tran-
sition from simple earnestness to the most
violent yet skilful gesticulation and vocifera-
tion. He is now one of the ministers of Glas-
gow, and published in 1868 a volume of
sermons.

OAIRIBIS, or Jabitaoa, a mountain range
of Brazil, in the province of Pernambuoo. It is
800 mile long, and forms the northern boun-
dary of the basin of the Rio San Francisco.

OAIRN (Welsh, came), the name of ancient
heaps of stones in a conical form, which were
erected in Britain as sepulchral monuments in
honor of great men. The stone chests contain-
inff the urns and ashes of the deceased rest
below, and as many as 17 have been discovered
under one cairn. The Scottish Celts have a say-
ing, "I will add a stone to your cairn," which
means, I will bless and honor your memory.
In many parts of Scotland and Ireland, a heap
of stones in the form of a cairn is gradually
raised on the spot where a murder has been
committed. The country-people think it un-
lucky to pass by without wrowing a stone on
the heap.

0 Am:N GORM, a mountain of Scotland, in the
counties of Banff and Moray. It is 4,096 feet
above the sea, and during most of the year its
summit is covered with snow. Among other
minerals, it produces the topazes known as
"Cairngorm stones."

CAIRO, a town of Alexander co., Illinois,
built on a low point of land, at the junction of
the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It was found-
ed with the expectation that it would shortly
become a great commercial city for the south-

ern part of the state, and large sums of monej
were expended on it in improvements by the Il-
linois central railroad company, who owned a
great part of the land, and had here their work-
shops and the southern terminus of the road.
To protect it from inundation, levees were
erected, and a new embankment, 80 feet wide,
10 feet high, and designed to encompass the
dty, was commenced about 1867. In the sum-
mer of 1868, however, a destractive flood rose
above this work, and destroyed almost the en-
tire town. In 1867 Cairo had 8 mills, 1 iron
foundery, 2 banking-houses, 2 insurance agen-
cies, 8 newspaper offices, 1 brick-yard, 2 railroad
depots, 2 telegraph offices, 8 hotels, 6 churches,
and about 470 houses.

CAIRO (anc Coritm% a town of Piedmont,
in the division of Genoa, on the Bormida, 12
miles N. W. of Savona, and 6 miles S. of Bego.
Pop. 8,492. The French defeated the Austrians
near here in 1794.

CAIRO, the capital of Egypt, the most popu-
lous city of Africa, and, c^ter Constantinople,
oi the whole Turkish empire, is situated abofut
a mile* from the bank of the Nile, and 12 miles
above the apex of the delta of that river;
lat. 80° 2' N., long. 81** 16' E. It lies mostly
on the level plain of the Nile valley, but
the south-eastern part, including the citadel,
is built upon a spur of the Mokkatam moun-
tains. Cairo occupies a site of about 7 miles
in circumference, and presents from without
an enchanting spectad^ but within the ap-
pearance is far from being attractive. There
are about 80,000 houses in Cairo. Those of
the poor are built of mud, or of sun-baked
bricks, and are only one story in height Those
of the richer class are built of brick, wood, and
of a soft stone quarried in the neighboring Mok-
katam mountains, and are 2, and frequently 8
stories high. The streets are in a wretched
condition, unpaved and dusty. The usual
mode of conveyance is by donkeys, horses
being rarely employed, and the use of carriages
being impossible, except in a very few streeta
The principal public place, called the Esbe-
keejan. is planted with shrubs and trees^ and
crossed by walks. There are about 70 baths,
which are more cleanly than in other eastern
cities. There are also many caravansaries, or
inns, and numerous large and neat store-houses;
and the extensive bazaars, though deprived of
that magnificence which they exhibited at the
be^nning of the 16th century, still present a
goodly array of the merchandise of the East
There are many public fountains, often elabo-
rately ornamented with arabesque work, and a
great number of coffee-houses, some of which
are highly interesting during the fast of Ram-
adan, when the performances of the Earagiooa,
or Turkish Punch, take place. Bat the boast of
Cairo is its mosques, of which there are said
to be as many as 400, some of them elegant
specimens of Arabian architecture. The most
celebrated is the mosque of Saltan Hassan,
which has a magnificent entrance^' beauti-

OJJEO

n?-!

«UilUi«b

1 - JllWBj V.
flllUlftIl&

iff ini>i«si ^ It •

. iT liir riL<|: rut.

in. 1 1 1 m

viiiir vflAw Im* utt|« ttii4 il« ifa^tJ^lie^ ibo tB«irtAUiijf » Mqn^,

210

CAISSON

OAIUS

OphthBlmia is very preyalent, and the plague
oooasionallj makes terrible rayages among the
population. The mana&ctares embrace silk
and cotton fabric^ gonpowder, glass lamps,
sugar, sal ammoniac, leather, weapons, and
iron ware. Cairo is a central station of the
overland route to India, and its commerce is
considerable. The slave market is no longer
held in the city. The black slaves are kept
outside of tiie town, and the Circassian, Greek,
Georgian, and other slaves, are kept in the

{>rivate houses of the dealers. One of the most
ucrative trades of Cairo is that in precioua
stones and jewelry. The remarkable resources
d Cairo make it a favorite resort of Italian,
Greek, French, Armenian, and other commer-
cial adventurers, and of intriguers of all nations,
who are constantly found hovering round the
court of the viceroy, busy in scheming and in
endeavoring to secure some profitable Job. A
railroad connects it with Alexandria, and cara-
vans annually arrive from Darfoor, Sennaar, and
Moorzook. Every year an immense caravan
assembles in the neighborhood of Cairo to
make the pilgrimage to Mecca, and as the pil-
grims generfdly carry some goods with them
mr traffic, their departure and return is to
Cairo a considerable source of wealth. Mehe-
met All established a number of schools after
the European fashion, but his plan met with
much ^position, and had but indifferent suc-
cess. The Greeks have 2 churches in Cairo,
the Armenians 1, the Copts about 13, and the
Jews some 40 synagogues. — The city is said to
have been founded al^nt A. D. 070, by Hoaz,
an Arabian caliph from western Africa, who
gave it the name of El Kdkireh^ or the victori-
ous, in commemoration of his conquest of
Egypt This prince made Fostat his capital,
but in the 12th century the seat of govern-
ment was removed to Cairo, which henceforth
became the musr or capital, while Fostat was
called the old capital, Musr-el-Aatik. At the
beginning of the 15th century Cairo was one of
the most flourishing cities in the world, the cen
tre of commerce between Europe an^ India,
and the entrepot of the trade of Africa. In
1754 it suffered severely from an earthquake ;
in 1798 it was taken by the French, who were
however expelled by the English in 1801, and
the city has since been a dependency of Tur^
key, under the rule of the viceroy of Egypt.
The population has usually been greatly over*
estimated, and probably does not exceed 200,-
000, of wliich there are over 120,000 Moham^
medans, 60,000 Copts, and many Jews, Franks,
Greeks, and Armenians.

CAISSON, a Frendi contrivance formeriy
much used in obtaining foundations for piers.
Originally it was a roughly made strong basket,
fOled with stones, and sunk to the bottom.
Afterward strong boxes of plank, well secured
with iron bands, were used for this purpose. In
them the stones were regularly laid in masonry,
and the whole sunk t<^ther to the bottom.
The foundations of Westminster and Blaokfnar's

bridges were thus prepared ; and the French en-
^eers, with whom this was a favorite method,
mtroduced the same upon a gigantic scale in
the construction of the breakwater at Cher*
bourg. (See Bbsakwateb.) On our northern
rivers it is sometimes used by building up an en-
closure of logs on the ice in the winter, and filling
this with stones, till the whole breaks through
and sinks to the bottom. — ^The French have vari-
ous applications for the word in the military
art, all of which depend upon its signification
of box or chest. — ^In architecture, it is a sunken
panel in a flat or vaulted ceiling, or in the soffit
of a cornice.

CAISTOB, or Castob, a market town and
parish of Lincolnshire, England. It has an
ancient church which stands on the rate of
Thongceaster, a Roman station said to have
been rebuilt by Hengist on as much land as an
ox-hide cut into thongs would cover. The
grammar-school here was founded in 1630. The
manufacture of chairs of elm and ash is actively
carried on. Pop. in 1861, 2,407.

CAITHI^SS, the most northern county of
Scotland, containing an area of 618 sq. m. ; pop.
88,709. Dunnet Head, the most northerly point
of Great Britain, is in Caithness. The surf&oe
of the county is flat. It is generally moorland,
and but a small part is under cultivation. The
climate is wet and severe, not from the intense
cold, but from storms and general inclemency.
The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the fish-
eries alternated with agricultural pursuits, which
are much encouraged by the chief landowners.
The general state of the county is very primi-
tive, population being scanty and the means of
communication limited. Gaelic is still much
spoken. This remote district was formerly the
cmef commercial outlet of Scotland, from which
an active trade was carried on with northern
Eiurope. The Caithness weights and measures
were from this circumstance made the Scottish
standard by David 11. The harbor of Wick,
the principal town, is commodious, and has been
greatly improved by the expenditure of a con-
siderable sum of money. The county gives the
title of earl to the Sinclair family, and returns
one member to the house of commons.

CAIUS. I. A Roman general, son of Marcus
Agrippa and Julia, the daughter of Augustus
Cfldsar, who lived in the first century before our
era. He was adopted by Augustus, served
under Tiberius in Germany, and was sent as

?roconsul against the Arabians, Armenians, and
*arthians. He rednced Armenia and routed
Ti^ranes. He was treacherously wounded at a
private interview with an enemy, and sank earlv
and much regretted under the effects. IL A
Christian theologian and bishop of the 8d cen-
tury. His origin is uncertain, but he was a dis-
ciple of St IrensBus. He had a conference with
Procus, the leader of the Montanists, and in 210
was appointed a bishop with the commission of
preachmg to the heathen in foreign parts. He
regarded the epbtle of St. Paul to the Hebrews
as apocryphal, and was the first who wrote

19ia. aM

CTAJVlAr^

VI ^P.-* fM|

f» . •

111 1»J' 'Tl^ 11 '

■fin-

tmfffot

Uittm

Ull«^

iM^

MizyikitiK^

l4i uiMvii.'rm

•-a^idoil

^or>j &j Aiicui^

212

OALABAB

CALAIS

VL to Hangaiy, which was invaded by the
Turks. In 1524 he was recalled to Borne hj
Olement YII. On the oaptore of Bome in 1527,
being taken prisoner by the imperial troops,
tinder the command of the constable of Bonr-
boD, he had to pay 5,000 crowns as a ransom
for his liberty, which snm he was obliged to
borrow from his fHends.

OALABAB, New, the name of a river and
town in Africa, lying about 80 miles west of
Old Calabar. The river is one of the months
of the Niger, at 20 miles from the sea is 6
&thoms deep, and enters the bight of Biafira by
the same estuary as the Bonny. The town
stands on an isimd in the river about 26 miles
froih the sea, and contains upward of 800
houses. Its trade consists in slaves, ivory, and
palm oil, for which European goods are receiv-
ed in exchange.

OALABAB, Old, a country of Guinea in
"West Africa, on the Old Calabar frith, in the
bight of Biafra, at about lat. 5° N. and long.
8'' £. It is traversed by the Old Calabar and
Cross rivers, and has about 70,000 inhabi-
tants, two-thirds of whom are slaves. Its prin-
cipal towns are Duke Town and Creek Town,
the former with a population of 7,000, the latter
of 6,000. The chiefs and freemen are engaged
in tiie palm-oil trade with British merchants.
They bring the oil from the interior, and receive
in return for it English wares and manufactures.
Several missions have been established in the
country, which have met with encouraging
success.

CALABASH TBEE, (crescentia ci^eU\ is a
native of the West Indies and the continent
of America. It grows to about the height and
bulk of an apple tree, with crooked horizontal,
branches. It has wedge-shaoed leaves, pale
white flowers on the trunk and brandies, and a
roundish fruit, from a few inches to a loot in
diameter. The calabash fruit contains a pale
vellow, Juicy pulp, of an unpleasant taste, which
IB deemed a valuable remedy in several disor-
ders, both internal and eztemaL The uses to
which the fruit of the calabash tree is applied
are very numerous. It is covered with a green-
ish-yellow skin, enclosing a thin, hard, and
almost woody shell, which is employed in lieu
of various Idnds of domestic utensils, such as
bowls, cups, and goblets of every description.
These shells are so hard and close-grained that,
when filled with any fluid, they may sometimes
be put on the fire and used as kettles without
iignry. They are also cut and carved, variou»-
]y stained, and polished^ as omainental vessels.

CALABQZO, a town in the province of Cara-
cas, y enezaehk It was formerly a mere Indian
village, but has now about 5,000 inhabitants,
most of whom own large herds of cattle.

CALABBIA, the southern part of the king-
dom of Naples and of the Italian peninsula,
lying between the parallels of 22* 48' and 82"^
N. lat, and having an area of over 6,000 sq.
m. ; total pop. in 1856, 1,187,782, comprised in
8 provinces: Calabria Citra, 456,018; Calabria

Ultra n., 898,584; Calabria Ultra L 888,180.
The Apennines reach through the whole lengtii
of Calabria, forming a large irregular ridge in
the centre, with branches toward the sea in
eiUier direction. Between these mountain
branches are numerous valleys, and near the
shore extensive plains, where the vine, the
mulberry, and the olive, the orange, lemon, and
^g trees grow luxuriantly. Some of the moun-
tains produce the manna ash, fr^m which by
an incision into its bark manna is abundantly
gathered. Many of the northern valleys are
used for pasturage ; and the principal wealth of
some of the districts is invested in flocks of
sheep. Silk has been for several centuries the
principal article of manufacture ; but the in-
creased tax which has been set upon it has
diminished its amount of late. Calabrian white
and red wines are noted for their excellent
taste. The natives of Calabria are a hardy and
enduring race of men; of a passionate disposi-
tion, and mnoh addicted to playing cards.
Numerous bands of gypsies, and a dbtinct sallow
and muscular race of Amaouts, also subsist in the
country. Calabria is subject both to earthauakes
and inundations. In the middle of the 12th cen-
tury Calabria reverted to Boger H, king of
Naples and Sicily, and has since remained un-
der the sway of that monarchy, the presump-
tive heir to the Neapolitan crown bearing the
title of duke of Calabria.

CALAHOBRA, a town of Spain, in Old Cas-
tile, in the province of Logrofio, on the river
Cidacos near its junction with the Ebro. It is
old and decayed in appearance, and its houses
are generally mean ; its cathedral, in the mixed
Gothic style, and an episcopal palace, are alone
worthy of note. Calimorra is the ancient Cala-
gurris^ and is memorable as the birthplace
of Quintilian, and for its desperate but unsuo-
cessful resistance to a siege in the year 72 B O.
The remains of Boman towers and an aque-
duct may still be traced. The celebrated warm
baths of AmediUo are within a short distance
of Calahorra. Pop. in 1852, 5,990.

CALAIS, a city of Washington oo., Me.,
at the head of the tide on the St Croix, 80
miles from the sea, at the easternmost extremity
of the state, and opposite the English town of St
Stephen, the river St. Croix forming part of the
boundary between the United States and the
British possessions on our north-eastern firontier ;
lat. 45° N., long. 67* W.; pop. in 1855, 6,119.
It was incorporated under a town government in
June. 1809, and erected into a city in 1850. It
is a place of large trade in lumber, which is man-
nflactured from the extensive forests upon the
upper waters of the St. Croix. Ship-building
is also a growing branch of its trade. The tide
rises here from 20 to 28 feet Its lumber is sent
to the pons of Great Britain, the West India
islands, and to the coastwise ports of the U. S.,
going south as far as the Potomac The arri-
vals of vessels in 1857 numbered 521, and the
departures 522. The exports of sawed lumber
from the river in that year were 65^000,000

CJVUtf

SIS

•iT. mt II. jb-,>lhr.

: Um 1311

rrsi

1'
r '

t,;
1'

1^.1

tii,

f«I

•%

lb «ipcji(irt tii^ni of FMtPt*«t fl^'fffift-

i L 1 n) k, 4 4PL4

9^/^ ttJTpCttAd tH GflMl

l*irttifr
i cud fli^tfrlo^
<!.^ririii!rtttoo of

iHiry,

l,milkitilj(ii iriMdfiV ii^pn^ I4<xe46

^ 4?*i^^^iiulj^, u^i A iFmll ^itii4 iJUd «ifittifflfiimfa»Uj' iLi> iU ^iib LLfc;£;.^g4iiiti&^j-

OALAMAKOO

OALAMINS

nal, and by a branch with the northern rail-
road, both which facilities have latelr enhanced
its inland trade. Daniel O^Connell was edu-
cated in the Jesuit college here for the priest-
hood. Pigaolt-Lebran was born here, ana Lady
Hamilton, Nelson^s Emma, died here in 1816.
Pop. 11,000, comprising about 400 English.

Calamanco, a woollen stuff of a fine
gloss, and chequered in the warp, the checks
appearing on the right side. It is manufactured
in England, and extensively in the Netherlands.

OALAMANDER WOOD, the hardest and
most beautiful species of all tiie fancy woods im-
ported from Ceylon. It is so hard that edge-
tools cannot work it, and it has to be shaped
by rasps and files. It exhibits great richness
and variety of color, very different shades being
dosely intermixed, the prevailing one being
a fine chocolate. It is so expensive that it is
imported only occasionally.

CALAMBUOO, a valuable timber tree, found
alone in the northern provinces of the island of
Lu2oa For shipbuilding it is esteemed in the
Philippines as superior to the live oak, or the
teak. It resembles the latter when dressed, has
the same dark unctuous appearance, and like it
is never attacked by the omnivorous and ter-
ribly destructive white ant of the Malay archi-
peli^ Several colonial ships built of this
timber, 60 years ago, are reported to be still
seaworthy. The experiments made at the arse-
nal of Manila upon calambuco wood exhibit
great strength and elasticity. Beside ships, a
great variety of agricultural, mechanical, and
warlike instruments are made from this timber.
This name is also given in the Malay archipelago,
to a tree which produces an odoriferous wood,
the agila, or eagle wood, and aloes wood of
commerce. It is found chiefly in Siam, the
Malay peninsula, and in the northern portion
of Sumatra; but is also found in the Indian

rninsula, where it is called agharu ; and hencci
is sometimes named by the Malays, kayu-
gharu. The perfumed wood is supposed to be
a diseased tumor in the tree, arising from the
wound of a timber worm. The thickened, re-
sinous 6iq[> fonned in these tumors, is used as
an incense in all eastern countries. There is
much discrepancy in the statements of East
Indian nataralists, relative to the tree yielding
the genuine agila ; and this perfame and aloes
wood have been supposed to be the products of
different trees ; but it is the heart of the kayu-
hUambak^ or calambuco tree, which produces
the aloes wood, and in the bark the agila is
formed. The agila does not yield ite exiting
aroma until it is burned ; but tlie calambuco
or aloes diffuses its fragrance when rubbed in
the hands.

CALAME, AuxANDBS, a living Swiss land-
Boap^ainter, of Neufch4tel, who settled at an
early age in (Weva, where ne became the pupil
of Diday, and whither he returned after having
spent some time at Bome. He has produced
pictures of the most prominent scenes of the
Alps^ and in his power to render their pictur-

escpe nud^^t ^^ ^ hardly surpassed by mnj
livingpainter.

CALAMIANES, the name of a groap of isl-
ands, and province of the Philippine archipel-
ago. The group consists of the large islands :
Busuagan, Calamian, Linaoapan, Ooron, Duma-
ran, Iloe, Lutaya, Carandaga, and about 240
unimportant isUnds and islets. This group and
the northern portion of the great island of Pa-
lawan, called Paragua, constitute the province,
which is the poorest and least populous of the 35
divisions constituting the Spanish Philippines.
Area about 2,800 sq. m. ; pop. 17,820. The in-
habitants of the group and of the Spanish por-
tion of Palawan, are of the Bisay a race ; and have
been converted to Christianity by the Spanish
missionaries. Since the conversion, the improve-
ment in the condition of the ParaguanSi espe-
cially, has been most notable ; before this oiour-
rence they lived in naked savagery, like the
southern Palawons, who recogniise the dominion
of the piratical sultan of Sooloo ; at the present
day the Paraguons live in oommnnitiea, in neat
dwellings of their own construction ; they man-
ufacture their own clothing, and their agricul-
tural and mechanical implements ; they export
ratans, bees* wax. and biras* nests ; and contrib-
ute a substantial amount of revenue to the
support of the beneficent government, which
has done incomparably more to advance the
welfare of its Indian subjects, than any other
European government in theeastem hemisphere.
The Calamianes group does not partake of the
volcanic character of Luzon^ and other great
iBJands of the archipelago ; it is much less produc-
tive, subject to a hot, humid, and insalubrious
atmosphere, and the agricultural labors of the
inhabitants are greatly thwarted by the de-
structive voracity of great numbers of wild hogs,
porcupines, doer, squirrels, parrots, and other
animals and bird& This superabundance of
wild animal life prevails mostly in the islands
Busnagan and Calamian. The inhabitants are
oftentimes disposed to return to their former
sylvan life, when subsistence was so eauly pro-
cured by the chose; but their philonthr^ic
Spanish pastors encourage and aid them in ue
construction of better defences for the preserva-
tions of the fruits of their agricultural laborS|
and impress upon them the advantages of sys-
tematic labor, and the comforts of civilization
which spring from it.

CALAMINE. This name is given to 2 differ-
ent ores of zinc, one of which is the silicate,
and the other the carbonate. The most com-
mon ore worked for zinc is the anhydrous car-
bonate. It occurs crystallized in rhomboidal
forms, of vitreous lustre, and a little pearly,
of white, yellowish gray, or brown odor, semi-
transparent or opaque, in forms botryoidal, sta-
lactitio, and reniform, and in crystalfine incrus-
tations. Its hardness is 6, its specific gravity 4
to 4.45. It contains oxide of zinc 64.81, and car-
bonic add 85. 1 9. It dissolves with efferveeoeace
in adds, and is also soluble in ammonia modmte>
ly heated. It occurs in thick beds and irregular

^^ ou.aans

CAl^KT Sll

^V^'

■ r

^H fW'i-

^H dr

■ r^-

Jii'jrt^ ^^1

^H c./

T./iJf]l»t ^M

icy Ll.'U-. l! .

■ ri.-i

■ ^

■ itv

.^H

*^ 1.*

^ fl

1 i'i!

K t#»

1 F-

H %r

^K lAfnijf P«^'ii '.-rii;'

■ «ii4^*iiy.ii)t^

■?fi. wi EiiiHi^^J l*r»4if-

^H 1^^ -T-*!- '^'-' 'l^"- i •

._ *. _ t. V !■- »/^rti. J;...l ^^

H nu

^H ^i'

^^H

^H ^^'

^^1

H i»t

^^ at.

^^1

^m 4di

^^1

H lir

Udin ihiv ^H

^B 1*'^'

'^> Wf^«, ^^1

^B 7^

^^1

^B €lj-

^^H

^V #•1

^^H

H ic

H «f

^^^

■ or

^^1

^ -ait--,*,

a«u fk.

^,?S2-:-

>^|

■ '^'j

^^M

H :%. «i4i£3brrrir

^^1

H %. ^UfMrw7

fmn Mil K 7ioiiH?iio£(7rmiPl ^ ^H

■ ii. ; lua h'

lii Idb littimMldMd In ft UtmiM ^H
Til rt«!d tliii prtfpHot; til ip^l ^H
tr <r(^ snd wni b lifor ol ili« ^H

■ C. IKi^

P^ t

I^iirdimv k wAt «k«)f^ ^H

.'- ,

a l& iJm> thmua iif lib ^H

*tms uti.-:.! -

V »(}fmiaiA3 ma oQ# af ihm ^H

T oT Um «i»«tBb)/ til* ^tivlQftA. ^H

■ ^'

ItfiQMI Uf llit^lD 1 ^H

■ '^■

^ . „ , _! n^«€iiiiltliatSais of n ^H

■ <"

tflttf^QiU ^Uli t^t> rmlfiL tliB wi«i a ^H

■ '« ■ 1 1 lis biit&i9«fr, m b m^ in

lime Usewflmt ti^ il^«^ ^ra otiy 2iiv|i4» «#r ^H

21«

GALANOHA

OALASIO

oompltihilig it through the agencies and on the
plan then anggested, he retained hia ooaition;
bat when the Savoy conference £uled of any
anoh resolt, he made one more unsnoceflsfnl at-
tempt, and then, on the passage of the uniform-
ity act (1662), resigned hia Hying, having pre-
Tious]/ declined a bishopric firom the royal
favor, because of the strenuous conditions with
which the gift was accompanied. Jor the re-
mainder of his life he lived in retirement, ven-
turing to preach only on one occasion Qia. the
absence of Uie curate of the church he fre-
quented), on which occasion he gave offence to
tne royid party, and was imprisoned in New-r
gate. He was soon, however, released. The
great fire of London so affected him that it pre^
dpit^ted his death. U. EmnrND^ the granoson
of the above, bom in London in 1671, died
June 8, 1782, was educated in England and at
the university of Utrecht, where he enjoyed the
distinguished favor of many literary men. He
had the offer of a professor's chair in the uni-
versity of Edinbui^, which he decline^ and
returned to England, having favorable intro-
ductions from scholars on the continent to dis-
tinguished English divines. But Oalamy soon
determined to be a non-conformist, which de-
termination he carried out with great de<Hsion
and earnestness to the end of his life. Bende
holding various important appointments as a
non-eonformist divine, he pubnshed some works
which evince his talent and zeaL Among them
may be mentioned a continuation of the "Life
and Times of Baxter," which went through 2
editions during his lifetime, and brings the his-
tory down to the passage of the ^^ Occasional
Bill" (1718) ; a vindication of his grandfather and
several other non-conformists (1718) ; and a con-
tinuation of the lives of ejected ministers, lec-
turers, masters, &c., after the restoration (1728).

GALANOHA, Fbkt Amromo db la, a
Peruvian writer, born at Ohuquisaca toward
the end of the 16th century, died near "tiie
middle of the 17th. He was member of
an Augustine convent at lima, and in 1619
prior of his order at Truzillo. During the
earthquake which in that year devastated
that city, Oalancha displayed the greatest
firmness, and putting himself at the head of
his order, he became of great service to the
firightened inhabitants. He wrote a work
on Peru, which was published at Baroelona
in 1639, under the title of Oroniea mora-
litada del orden de San Augtutin en el Peru,
In 1663 an abridged French edition of this
work appeared at Toulouse, under the title of
Eistoire de VeglUe du Perou,

OALAKDAE, Charajt sou Ali, a Mussul-
man fanatic and samt of the Idih century.
At Delhi he became acquainted with £ha4]a
Ooutb Ouddin, and in Asia Minor he was on
terms of intimacy with Ohams Tabriz, a Persian
poet, and with MaulaviRoum, a Mussulman
mystic, the founder of the order of the Maulavi,
and the author of the poem ^* Masnavi.'' In his
youth Oalandar had devoted himself to the

study of the natural soienees; bat u, i»». «.
(to use his own expression) divine trutii had
flashed upon his mind, he threw all his booka
into the nver Jumna, and consecrated the rest
of his life to religion. After having completed
his extensive travels, he returned to his native
town, where he stood in the odor of sanctity.
Even miracles were ascribed to him, and to ^is
day devout Mussulmans make a ^Igrimage to
his grave.

OALANDSpOa, a village of Holland, on the
Korth sea. It was the scene of a victory «uned,
after great loss, by the allied British and Rus-
sian forces over the Dutch, Aug. 27, 1799.

OALAS^ Jban, a French Protestant, bom
in 1698, in Languedoc, mar^Trized March 9,
1762. He was a merchant at Toulouse, his
wife an English lady of French extraction. One
ev^ng in Oct 1761, after the funily had re-
tired from sapper, his eldest son. Marc Antoine,
a young man addicted to gamoling, and of a
gloomy disposition, was found dead at the en-
trance to his father's house. Beside the mem-
bers of Oalas's fiunily, there was at the time
no person in his house excepting K Lavaysse,
a young gentleman from Bordeaux. When
the , corpse of ^onng Galas was discovered,
the greatest excitement ensued, and the multi-
tude of Toulouse, who espedally at thai time
labored under the influence of reUgious agita-
tion, ascribed the death of the young man to
the ^ict that he had intended to become a con-
vert to the church of Bome, and that hia &mily
had murdered him in order to pp^ont his se-
cession from Protestantism. The hon<HB of
martyrdom were paid to young Galas by the
Dominican friars and other Gatholic bodies of
Toulouse. He was buried with great pomp, a
catafalque erected upon his grave, and a skeleton
pkced upon it^ with a martyr's palm in one
hand, and the act of alguration in the other.
M. Galas the fiither was sentenced to die on the
wheel by a tribunal of 18 judges, only 5 of
whom dissented fitmi the verdict. His young-
est boy, doomed to exile, fell into the hands of
the priests, who threw him into a convent,
with a view of forcing him to abjure Galvinism.
The dau^ters were imprisoned in a nunnery.
A Gatholic servant in Galea's family, and La-
vaysse, were acquitted, although there was
much ill feeling against the latter, as he was
suspected of being a missionary of the Hugue-
nots of Guienne. The wife succeeded in escap-
ing to Switxerland, where Voltaire, who then
resided at Femey, became interested in the
case; and it was due to his interference that
£lie de Beaumont and other eminent law-
yers took it in hand, and obtained a reversal of
the judgment. The Galas family were declared
innocent, and a pension of $6,000 granted to
them by Louis XV.

GALASIO, Mabio dx, an Italian Hebrew
scholar, bom 1660, in the kingdom of Naples,
died 1620, perfected his knowledge of Hebrew
while member of a Francisoui convent to anoh
an extent that he became professor at Bome^

ti%MjmamsT

OU&UYERAd

SIT

k*. 1 <.*tt »^ i A Vtk*V««y^ ^M^tMn^r ..,r>,l .It .4:^^ «^lik»F.^1^M k.p*HxV. 1 .^jh^L ^.1 1 ^^r?. .fW iM.W

llf ^(1*1 rJiY'^

(I nmsM^ nf ft r

,-.(14
-lift ^'4 h.-i'T-^ Wi:n

Mil

IWtir

!li^#r III* llfttl

, iit*t»jrr>r!-

ktlKilBllf

- ^ Hit

-'Tftlv

• Id

i>iMsUli ^.aMy y> ^ mCa, liJi^ U*;*

■0011 -^ikhjWi tiiruiMi

Ibti g)oir» NaitfiM, iiik! wtm wnSl fnftlD'
knfglili ef CXiUtnim Buioiliifft ol « ....:-: .

**jhi^ln [iHiir -iiT^Infl^ IjS 0>,j U.NKt.Ti iy>ij!fc>i#.

1 . 4 1 A, r I. > f : I i

beali

tiidvliustrciiii
: jm Jdiitt. Tilt «[«»

1^ .

tnl >

4il

I ^ )tltS

„ . ., . . VtiFmm\
. h4 i;;^,4U§ Uniliiili tf

220 OALOnLATnrG ICAOHINES

OALOmi

use. It oonnsted eflsentlally of short bamIS|
upon whose cironmfereooe the 10 figorea were
inscribed, covered hj a box, 1 figore alone of
each barrel being viable through a row of little
windows on the upper sur&se of the box.
These barrels were so connected that 10 revo-
lutions in one produced 1 revolution in the
next, the revolutions of the 1st barrel being
performed by hand to correspond with the
numbers to be added. Subtraction was per-
formed by the device recently reinvented in
this countrv (** Montreal Proceedings of the
American Association for the Advancement
of Science") of having each figure on the
wheels accompanied by a smaller figure, such
that the sum of the 2 was equal to 9. What-
ever number was added to the larse figures was,
of course, subtracted from the smaller. In 1 678
Leibnitz published a description of a machine
(MigeellaneOf tom. i., Berolm) which was much
superior to that of Pascal, but complicated in
construction and too expensive for the work
which it was capable of performing, which was
only that of arithmetical addition, subtraction,
mmtipHcation, and division. But the glory of
Pascal and Leibnitz, as inventors of calculating
machinery, has been ientircAy eclipsed by Oharles
Babbage and by Messrs. G. and £. Sohentz.
The British govemmoit began in 1621 to build
a machine under Mr. Babbage's direction. Early
in 1888 a small portion of the machine was put
together, and was found to nerform its work
with the utmost precision. In 1884 Mr. Bab-
bage commenced the design of a far more pow-
erful engine, but nothing has been done toward
its construction. These machines of Babbage
are enormously expensive, $80,000 having been
spent in the partial construction of the Ist.
They are designed for the calculation of tables
or series of numbers, such as tables of loga-
rithms, of ones, dm., and are basM upon the
&ct that if we make a netf table, consistiug of
the differences between the succesnve numbers
of the Ist table : then a 8d table, oonsistlDg of
the differences of the successive numbers of the
2d table ; then a 4th table in like manner firom
the 8d ; and so on, we shall at length generally
obtain a table in which the numbers are aU
alike. If we had then given to us the Ist
number in each of these tables^ we mighty be-
ginning with the table in which all the num-
bers were alike, get back to the original table,
by a simple process of addition. Thus, by this
princii>le of differences, the computation of all
tables is, in genera^ reduced to a process of ad-
dition. The machine prepares a stereotype plate
of the table as iuA as calculated, so that no errors
of the press can occur in publishing the result of
its labors. Mtaxj incidental b^efits arose fh>m
the invention, and among them the most curi-
ous and valuable was the contrivance of a scheme
of mechanical notation by which the connec-
tion of all parts of a machine, and the precise
action of each part, at each instant of time, may
be rendered visible on a diagram, thus enabling
the contriver of machine to devise modes <x

eoonomidng space and time by a prraer arrange-
ment of the parts of his invention. This mechan-
ical notation of Babbage (^ Philosophical Trans-
actions.'^ 1826) is fi>r an hiventor of maohineiT'
what the notation of algebra is to the stodeot ^
geometry. The machine purchased for the Dud-
ley observatory by Mr. Bathbon of Albany, at the
suggestion of Dr. B. A. €k>uld, was invented by
G. and E. Sohentz of Stockholm, and finished
in 1858. The Swedish government paid $20,-
000 as a gratuity toward its construction. The
inventors sought to attain the same ends that
Mr. Babbage had attamed, but with simpler
means. Their engine proceeds by the method
of differences, calculatmg to the 15th place of
decimals, and stamping the 8 left hand places
in lead, so as to make a stereotype mould firom
which plates can be taken by either a stereo-
type or electrotype process, ready for the
pnnting press. It can express numbers either
decimally or sexagesimally, and prints by the
side of the table the correspomuuff series of
numbers or arguments for which the table is
calculated. It has already been employed at
Albany in calculating a table of the true anom-
aly of Mars for each iVof a day. Mr. Babbage
has seen this machine and given it the most cot-
dial praise. In size it is about eoual to a boudoir
piano.—C^Edinbuigh Review," July, 1884; Bab-
bage*s ** Ninth Bridgewater Treatise;" JVi^y*
dopSdU methodique (Art. AHthmitifue^ et
JSquatian) ; *' Napier's Life," by Mark Napiw.)
OALOULI, stone-like concretions which form
in different parts of the body, often about some
undissolved particle in the fluid, which holds
the matter of the concretion in solution, and
again as a deposit upon some hard surface, as
the tartar which collects upon the teeth. In
the intestines the concretionary deposits are
sometimes mechanical agglutinations of dry
fibrous particles, as the fine down of tiie oat
ffathered about a piece of bone or stone of some
fruit, and intermixed with layers of phoqMtte
of lime. The fluids of the body may deposit
concretions in most of the vessels, organs, and
tissues. They are left by the blood in tiie arter>
ies and valves about the heart; by tiie saliva in
the mouth, in the substance of the dieek as
well as upon the teeth ; by the bile in the gall-
bladder ; they are found in the tissues of the
lungs and in the bronchial glands, and in gouty
persons under the skin, about the Joints of the
fingers and toes, &c. But theur most common
occurrence is in the kidney, bladder, and nri-
naiy passages, left by decomposition of the com-
plex fluid of these organs. Urinary calculi are
variously composed, and may be ckissed as those
which are soluble in caustic potash or soda, Bnd
thbse which are insoluble. One of the most
common of the former class is tiie uric add cal-
culus. This ingredient in urine^ when se<a«ted in
undue proportion, forms minute red crystiQs and
red sand, which are passed in a solid statei If
retained, they increase in size and produce the
disease called the stone. The ad^ if matiy
in ezcesB^ is deposited in snooessive Ujwb^

■" 1

^^^^B^ Ci

^^^^■^ iL-.. ^^

^^■ifl rtirl

^^^^tetM.l^

^^^■K(

- 1

r«^Iy4:<U " r'^ujti

i^ anvitfltl ^H

^^^^^^^^K *

11 till is n rW>rii ll^i Af tM ^B

UijiMuli!

^ttv^miiU^

^^^^H!^*

^^^^^^Bt viii^inirtr?.

•]r ii, i.'Hlir^JJ

^^^■tttensBuni IP

«iJ«imw«i

^^^^■iwpag* ^1"

air vriiifl lull \mw^B 1019 1

^^^KlaibfiiL

.►111

■

^^^BrT*irL«i«fi.'

.ii.r

liLLyflbifi.j ill. 3 T<^MajL*i flf.

' ]

■\ ♦/ it* ^

.) ■

^^^^^^^■^toi'.'

1 r^pBA ^

■

^^P^jr^L-'j'.

1 1

^■Mftdne^ Cfu.

ohjitrnt ^M

■fiLbiTa in L.- ....

ij^«*iii ^H

^^^■^ ftTfi kr««ivn OS t v

ItUIQl^ ^H

^^^^MtMttr.i. Tlht V

(idiimi- ^H

ior^'ki^: </' irimli^rcauyEkjio* ^M

^^^^^Pt

m^cT^^iTT i^iptlOQ QO¥tfri nftdi ^H

..) ekii&gCA icro ealM dlO^ ^H

^^Hn^^

r-iw tii^f dr^^rnr-!

^^^^^^^■ii

■ U;j rrrtir^j'iJ

ad fhitetkiitiv

- cjiiiijtfti Of

^ ft»d. ^H

^^^^^^Kt

h«ail»r<iii «iii

tba 110* ^H

1„»:....^. '- !j1W*4, M-k-. *rU.,..

wi^twwn ^H

Mj«lv«* iinii£ti«;

rtr^ in ltl<> ^H

. ^ ,. i T3|tt% Ih* tnlf^ml

ur^Mnm ^S

,^iU^

"■ *^"""J

OALOUTTA

new Amotion of wbiob the ^yen Amotion is the
difTerential. — The Oaloulub ov Vabiationb in-
▼estigatea the chanm prodaped by gradaaily
altering the laws of dependence "which bind the
variable quantities together. This invention of
Lagrange crowns the ailonliis of fiinotioDs, which
by means of these five branches is capable un-
der a master^s hand of tracing out very com-
plicated and intricate chains of inter-depend-
ence in every part of the domain of quantity.
And yet there is not one of these calcali that
can answer all the qaestions which the physical
sdences ask of it More powerful engines of
analysis may yet be invented bv future mathe-
maticians.— The Oaloulvs of QuATSsmoNS,
published by Sir W. R. Hamilton in 1858,
promises to do something toward supplying
this defect. By combining in one notation the
direction as weU as the length of line, he is en-
abled to express in a single symbolical sentence
an amount of geometrical truth, which in ordi-
nary analytical geometry would require at least
four sentences. No other writer has yet mas-
tered this powerftil instrument sufficiently to
use it with ease ; but the verdict of mathemati-
cians is unanimous in praise of its ingenuity, and
probable future utility. — ^The difference between
the powers of the principal calculi may be
familiarly illustrated by the cycloid, a curve
described by a nail heaa in the tire of a wheel
rolling on a straight level road. The differen-
tial caJoulus would investigate the direction in
which the nail head moves at each instant of
its motion, and show the proportion between
its rise, its fall, its horizontal motion, its motion
through space, the curvature of its real path,
and the revolution of the wheel at each instant.
The integral calculus would, from these ele-
ments, discover how far the nail head travelled
in one revolution of the wheel, how much space
is enclosed between its path and the ground,
te., &c. The calculus of variations would
oonsider the change made by the wheel rolling
over a hill; or would show how the cycloid
differs in its properties from similar curves.

CALCUTTA (Kali Ghatta, the ghaut or
landing-place of Kali, the goddess of time),
a city of Hindostan, capital of the presidency
and province of Bengal, and the metropolis of
British India, situated on the left bank of the
Hoogly, 100 miles from the sea, lat. 22"" 85' 5"
N., long. 88'' 19' %" K Its foundation is due to
Mr. Job Chamock, an agent of the East India
company, who removed the company^s factories
from the town of Hoogly to this place in 1686.
This establishment was broken up a few months
after, but was restored in 1 690. in 1700, 8 small
villages near the factories, one of which bore
the name of Calcutta, were assigned to the
British by way of return for a present made by
them to Azim, a son of Aurungzebe. They
were immediately fortified, and in compliment to
the reigning kmg of England, called Fort Wil-
liam— a name which is still retained in parlia-
mentary documents. One of these villages
occupied the site of the present European quat^

ter, another stood where the native residenoes
are now erected, and the 8d has given place
to a beautifid plain or maidan on the 8. aide
of the city, in the midst of which stands
the new citadel of Fort William. Under the
protection of the old fortress, now converted
into a oustom*house and warehouse, a town
gradually arose, which in 1707 was made tiie
seat of a presidency. In 1756 it was attacked
by 8uri(jah Dowlah, nawaub of Bengal The
garrison, composed of 170 English troops, 1,600
natives, 94 of mixed races, and a militia rsosed
among the inhabitants of 250 men, in all 2,014
soldiers, were ill prepared for such an event;
the natives soon made their escape; the govern-
or and oomnumdant, with the greater part of
the inhabitants, followed their example; and
when the enemy forced their way into the
town (June 20), only 146 men fell into their
hands. The sufferings of this littie band,
in the dungeon known as the ^^ Black Hole,"
have been described in a previous articles
rsee Black Hole). Eight months afterward,
Cnve and Watson recaptured the town;
peace was restored, valuable concessions were
obtained from the native rulers, and Calcutta
resumed its career of prosperity. In 1768
Keer Jaffier, the successor of Surajah Dowlah,
remitted the rent which the East India company
had previously paid for the tenure of the city.
— On ascending the Hoogly, the scenery, which
for many miles from the sea is dreary and unin-
viting, becomes more picturesque as one ap-
proaches Calcutta. On the left are the botanical
gardens, stocked with many varieties of indige-
nous and exotic plant8,and the Bishop's college, a
handsome Gothic edifice erected under the aus-
pices of the society for the propagation of the gos-
pd in foreign parts ; on the right is the beautiful
suburb of Garaen Reach, with its country seats
surrounded by elegant gardens. North of this
are the government dockyards ; beyond tbem
is the arsenal, and still further up the stream,
in the esplanade which forms the southern limit
of the city, rise the ramparts of Fort William,
reputed Uie strongest in India. This fort,
be^n by Clive in 1757 after the battie of PJsa-
sey, requires for defence 600 pieces of cannon
and a garrison of 9,000 men. From here the
city extends about 4 ^^^ along the river, and
has an average width of 1\ mile, and an area
of 8 miles. On the land side it is encompassed
by a spacious way called the circular road, mark-
ing the boundary of the city and of the admin-
istration of English law. Its water fi-ont is
bordered by a quay called the strand, 40 feet
above low-water mark, and 2 miles long, with
ghauts, or landings, at intervals. The appear-
ance of Calcutta from the river is magmfioent,
and seems to Justify the appellation of ^ City of
Palaces,'* so often bestowed upon it But a
closer inspection shows that although the Eu-
ropean buildings, both public and private, are
nearly all splendid and extensive, toe natives,
who occupy a distinct quarter of the town, are
surrounded by poverty and filth. Their houses

^^^^H^^^HbtrrrA

cAuxun iat> ^1

^^V frr. \in\}* rtf Ttrml, r^f ii.Tr(*,K.v^ iiM rr <t<' fliA

TtiflntW^ '.V «ft'iTTrt^ i>(i rnnttftittrtn '^ A*'--''*! ^^|

^H p<'

^^^^^^BJIIHilliii a

■

HI'

^^^^^B'
^^^^^■i'

QUKJiOtlttflM* of ili ■.iiF.f^ nil «jnr:*i 1^' ^^^|

H iMWUt

^^^

lit! ^1

CALDABA

OALDEBOlSr DB LA BABOA

1726, died in Padiia, Dec. 80, 1618. He was
profesBor of anatomy in the nniTenity of Bo-
logna, where, after a great nmnber of expari*
menta, he pnUiahed his work on the '^ Inaenai-
bility of Tendons.^* But impatient of the con-
tradictions which his views received, he left
Bologna for Padna, and sncceeded Morgagni
there. At an advanced age, and with weak
eyes, he published, with some assistance, a
series of accurate anatomical plates.

OALDABA, AsTONio, a composer, bom at
Venice in 1678, died there in 1768. At the age of
18 he wrote an opera, which was snccessfol, and
for many years thereafter devoted himself ez-
dosively to that species of composition. He was
for a while instmotor in mnsio to the emperor
Charles YI. at Vienna. He abandoned the stage
on the fiulore of his opera of " Themistodes,"
and daring the remainder of his life wrote
sacred music, which is generally pteferred
to his operas.— PouooBO, a Milanese painter,
also called Oaravagsio, lUder the name of the
place where he was bom in 1496, died in 1648.
When a poor boy he came to sedc his fortune
at Bome ; he was employed in carrying mortar
for the artists who were enga^d in fresco paint-
ing in the Vatican. The artists, who hai>pened
to be all pupils of Baphael, were strack with his
talents, and admitting him to their studios, he
made such rapid progress that Baphael selected
him to paint the Mezes to his works in the
Vatican.

OALDAS, FsAifoisoo Jos£ ds, a naturalist of
New Granada, bom at Popayan in 1770, execut-
ed by order of Morillo, 1816, on account of his
liberal political opinions. By his own unaided
efforts he mastered the rudiments of astronomy,
botany, and medicine, and constracted a barom-
eter and sextant) although he had not even
books to guide him in his studies. He accom-
panied for some time the Spanish explorer, J.
0. Mutis. Subsequently he explored the Andes
and the Magdalen liver, and in 1804 measured
the height of Ohimborazo and Tnnguragua. Af-
ter havmg been nominated director of &e obser-
vatory at Santa F6de Bogota, he began to edit
in 1807 the S&menario ds la Kuena Chranada^
which was unfortunately interrapted by his un-
timely death.

OALDAS PEBEIBA DE SOUZA, AirroNio,
a Brazilian poet, born in Bio de Janeiro in 1762,
died in 1814» His writings, which are marked
by a high moral tone, especially an ode on
'^Man in the State of Barbarism," were pub-
lished in Paris in 1821, under the title ot Poeiiaa
BogradoM e prqfafuu, with a commentary by
Gen. Stockier. At Ooimbra, where the poet had
studied, a new edition of his poetical works,
exclusive of his translations, was brought out in
1836. While at the university of Ooimbra, he
gave umbrage to the inquisition ; and on being
consiffued to a convent, he devoted himself to
the clerical profession.

OALDEB, a river of England, in Yorkshire,
West Bidmg. It rises near Burnley, on the E.
borders of Lancashire, and thence flows £. until

naahing Wakefield, where it makea abend to
the N., and joins the Aire near Oairtkfbrd, after
a course of 40 miles, for 80 of winch it is nav-
igable. It is important as a part of the trans-
portation route across the kingdom firom Liver-
pool to HnlL and is connected by canals with
Todmorden, Bochdale, Huddersfield, Goole, Hal-
i&z, and Bamsl^. — ^Another stream in Lan-
cashire, and 3 in Scotland, bear the same name.

OALDEBINO, Domuio, an Italian scholar,
bom at Torri in 1447, died in 1478. At the age
of 24 he became professor of belles-lettree and
secretary of Sixtus IV. at Borne. With Valk
and Politian he edited and published the earliest
editions of the Greek classics.

OALDEBON, SssAnir, a Spanish poet, bom
at Malaga in 1801, studied law at Granada, was
professor of poetry and rhetoric in 1822, and
then practised law; nublished in 1888 his
Foenasdel Solitario^ and in 1840 two volumes of
poetry; to the OartoB JStpanoloi in Madrid he
contributed Andalusian sketches; wrote a work
which the interests of Spain parttculariy re-
quired on administrative principles, at the in-
stance of the government ; in 1884 ne became
auditor-general of the army of the north, and in
1886 civil govemor of Lo^rofio ; in 1838, with-
drew from politics. In 1888 he publidied
ChiatianoB y Mariacoa, a noveL He is a good
Arabian scholar, and thoroughly fimuliar with
Moorish literature. He has made a ccdlection
of Caneionerat y £omaneer<f9^ which he pro-
poses to publish.

0 ALDEBON DE LA BABOA, Felsobb Ebsk-
iHx, authoress of ^^life in Mexico,'* bom at the
beginning of this century in Scotland. Her Ei-
ther, Mr. Inglis, was a grandson of OoL Gardiner,
who fell at Preston-Pans. She resided in her
youth for several years in Normandy, and then
emigrated with her mother to the United StateSi
where they established a school at Boston, in
which the daughter officiated as teacher for 6
^ears. In 1888 she married the Spanish min-
ister at Washington, Don Oalderon de la Barea,
and afterward accompanied her hu^Mmd to
Mexico. In 1848 she published her work on
Mexico, which gained for her conaderable liter-
ary reputation.

OALDEBON DE LA BABOA, Pbi»o, a
Spanish dramatist, bom in Madrid, Jan. 17,
1600, died May 25, 1681. His father was secre-
tary of the treasury under Philip H. and Phil^
HI. He received his first education fi^om the
Jesuits, and subsequentiy studied theology, phi-
losophy, and dvil and canon law at Salamanca.
While in the univexBity, at the age of 14, he
wrote his first play for the sta^ m Carro dd
Cido. In 1626 he enrolled himself as a com-
mon soldier in the army, and took an honorable
part in the military operations at Milan, and in
the Netherlands. In 1686, Oalderon was for-
mally attached to the court, as the successor of
Lope de Vega, for the purpose of writing plays
for the royal theatres. As a member of the mil-
itary order of Santiago he was called to serve
in quelling the Oatalonian rebellion in 1640. In

CAIJmiiCIK BE I.A BAKQA

iTiv ^H^t^ n ill a

7P0 y«A». Ill K

' f3{,n III \M mmB^

OxlVlfctllitii^l

. lueu bnfq>ki ^ fid Ui

tuoti ^

tr\itOK«r.'' ill* '"^J-wfy i

^ ti 1

r^Ts

' b'i locr^i ciLii-

]Hiaeiic4

poftubu

i^ %d LiLiLfv^^ urn;

10 UJ^i^

OALDERWOOD

CALDWELL

men who bknd genhv with tlie utmosfc com-
moQ lenBO. HIb oharaoter presented a rare
union of dignity and suavity, of indnstry and

OALDERWOOD, Datid, a Sootoh divine
and prominent ehampion of Presbyterianism.
bom toward the end of the 16th centary, died
in 1651. He underwent imprisonment and exile
on aoooont of his opposition to Episcopacy,
having pablished in Uolhmd, in 1628, a boolc
against that form of Chnsttanitr, under the title
of AUare Ikma$emum, He left a history of
Scotland in MS., of which 6 volimies are pre-
served in the library of the Glasgow oniversit^,
and of which a condensed summary appeared in
16T8.

CALDWELL. L A north-western county
of North Carolina^ occupied chiefly by pas-
ture lands, but producing also com and oats;
area, 460 sq. m. A portion of the surface is
mountainous, the K. W. part comprising a de-
clivity of the Blue Ridge. The productions in
1850 were 192,470 bushels of Indian com,
84,406 of oats, and 89,813 lbs. of butter. There
were 4 com and flour mills, 1 linseed oil manu-
factory, 84 churches, and 680 pupils attending
public schools. Value of real estate in 1857,
1698,819. Pop. in 1850, 6,817, of whom 1,208
were slaves. Capital, Lenoir. IL A northern
parish of Louinana, intersected by the Washita,
which is here navigable by steamboats ; area, 528
sq. m. The surface is hilly, and com and cotton
are the chief productions of the soil In 1855 it
yielded 2,957 bales of cotton, and 62,960 bushels
of Indian com. Capital, Columbia. Pop. in 1855,
8,685, of whom 1,779 were slaves. IIL A cen-
tral county of Texas, named in honor of
John Caldwell, a senator of the Texan republic ;
area, 540 sq. m. It has an undulating, well-
wooded sur&ce, and a good soil, abundantly
watered by the San Marcos river, which forms
the westem boundaiy, and by several small
creeks. In 1857 it contained 4,451 horses,
valued at $176,860, and 15,244 head of cattle,
valued at $89,180. Value of land, $758,620.
The staple productions are wheat, Indian com,
and cottcm. Pop. hi 1856, 5,469, of whom
1,881 were slaves. Capital, Lockhart.
IV. A county in the westem part of
Kentucky, bounded on the 8. W. by the
Tennessee river, and traversed by the Cumber-
land; area 700 sq. m. The surface is gener-
ally level, and the soil produces tobacco, corn,
^Iieat, and oats. There are pasture lands
scattered over the county ; iron ore is abundant,
and aviarge bed of coal has been opened in the
northern part Organized in 1809, and named
in honor o>^ a former fieutenant-govemor of the
state. The j)roductions in 1850 were 767,725
bushels of InoMan com, 89,557 of oats, 1,485,-
479 lbs. of tobaocio, and 20,649 of wool. There
were 40 com and" flour miU^ 7 saw mills, 10
distilleries, 8 large \>on works, 2 newspaper*
offices, 80 churches, sh d 670 pupils attending
pubHc schools. Value of land in 1855, $948,684.
Pop. in 1850, 18,0^ cirf whom 8,107 were

slaves. Capital Princeton. V. A nortii-
western county of Missouri, intersected by Shoal
creek, and having a flat surface and arioh aoQ;
area, 485 sq. m. It produces com, whesL
oats, cattle, and swine, and in 1860 yielded
12,784 bushels of wheat, 16,185 of Indian com,
45,740 of oats, and 18,691 lbs. of wooL
There were 2 saw mills, and 115 pupils attend-
ing public schools. Named in honor of Dr.
Caldwell, of Transylvania university, Kentucky.
Pop. in 1856, 8,626, of whom 197 were
shives. Capital, Ehigston.

CALDWELL, a post village in Warren oo.,
N. Y. It stands in the midst of a beautiftil and
picturesque r^on at the aouthem end oi Lake
Ueorge, is much visited by tourists, and con-
tains 1 or 2 large and favorite hotels. A steam-
boat plies between it and the outlet of the
lake. It contains the ruina of Fort William
Heniy, and Fort George, memorable in the
French and revolutionary wars. Pop. of the
township in 1855, 880.

CALDWELL, Chablbs, an eminent American
physician, bom in Caswell ca, K. C, Hay 14,
1772, died in Louisville, ]^., July 0, 1858. He
was the son of an Irish officer who had emigra-
ted to this countiy, andidtimately settled where
the subject of this sketch was bom. While his
parents remained in that remotedistrict, Charlea
labored under great educational disadvantages,
but after they had removed to the southern part
of the state, he made such progress in learning
that when a very young man he was qualified
to become a teacher, and took charge of a sem-
inary at a place called Snow Creek, near the
foot of the Bushy mountains, and subsequently
of the Centre institute, both in his native state.
While instmcting others, however, he did not
neglect himself; but, assiduously pursuing his
own studies, early acquired that taste for science
which he ever afterward displayed. Having
hesitated some time between the pulpit and the
bar, he at last determined to abandon both, and
to choose the profession of medicine in pI^Bfe^-
ence to either. An obscure practitioner at Salis-
bury was his first master in this profession. In
1792 he went to Philadelphia, and Joined the
medical classes of the university, which were
then sustahied by the talents and reputation
of Shippen, Wistar, and Rush. Here he ap-
plied nimself earnestly to both study and
practice, and during the yellow fever of
1798, particularly distingni&ed himself by
ability, courage, and seal. At the outbreak of
the whiskey insurrection, he was appointed snr-
geon to a brigade and accompanied it to the
neighborhood of Pittsburg, but aa aoon aa it
was announced that tlie insurrection had aab-
sided, the troops retired, and a military banquet
was given by the army at which Sureeon Cald-
well delivered an address that elicited a flatter-
ing compliment fh>m Alexander Hamilton. In
1795 he produced his first literary work, a trans-
lation of Blumenbaoh^a ^^ Eleroento of Phyriolo-
gy,"from the Latin. In 1814 he auooeeded
Kicholaa Biddle aa editor of the »Ptot Folio^"

-^ i.l _l. i

^^^^^^ <yauwii^i.

r^uwflil lit «^iSi»7«A lib GMi^ibr 1

t'
f

]

1.1
1

•

01 ■

C 1

y- Om !:

1 ^

>j Jvf^ LritiAiiv (iia«lor ^H

CALDWELL

nmgements had been made for the defence of
fhe village; and that Washington had moved
forward in person, and was stronglx posted in
the passes of the Short Hills, directly in the
rear of Sprinfffidd and commanding the ap-
proaches to Morristown. Finding it maposdble
to proceed farther, they commenced a retreat,
in which they suffered severely from the
miHtia, who took advantage of every tree and
fence which could fhmish an ambnsh. Lrritated
at tiie nnezpected and obstinate resistance
made by the Jersev troops and yeomanry, the
British began to bom the houses and pillage
ttie property of the viUagers at Oonnectiout
Farms. In one of the houses was the family of
Mr. C^dwell, whose wife had retired to a
back room, with her 2 yoimgest children— K>ne
an infant in her arms — where she was engaged
in prayer, when a musket was .discharged
through the window. Two balls struck her in
the breast, and she fell dead upon the floor. The
church was already in flames^ and the parson-
age was about to be set on fire when her corpse
was discovered by a young American officer, in
the British service, who succeeded in prevent-
ing tiie destruction of the building, ana obtain-
ed permission from the commanding officer to
remove the remains to a place of greater secu-
rity. The odium which attached to the
perpetration of this ruthless murder was so
nniversally expressed, and its effect upon the
popular mind was so injurious to the royalists,
that they insisted it was the result of a chance
shot from the cross firing of the contending
parties, while the Americans declared it to be
the deliberate act of a British soldier. There
are, however, good reasons for believing it to be
the deed of an Irishman who had been employ-
ed in the service of Mr. Oaldwell, and who, for
some reason, had conceived a violent enmity
against his employer. Upon this occaaon he
joined the enemy and accompanied them on
their retreat. Mr. Caldwell was on duty in
Washington's camp^ and, after passing a night
of anxious uncertainty, he procured a flag on
the following morning and went to Connecticut
Farms, where his worst fears were at once con-
firmed.— On June 28, Gen. Xnyphausen made
a second incursion with about 6,000 troops. On
this occasion he passed over the same route to
Springfield, where a battle was fought Though
the enemy were defeated in the principal object
of the expedition, they succeeded in burning
the village. Among the most active in the
fight waa the ohaphdn Caldwell. There Is a
tradition, well authenticated, that in the hottest
period or the action the wadding of a portion
of the Jersey infantry gave out, which fiict
beinff communicated to Caldwell^ he rode to
the Presbyterian church, and hastily collecting
the psalm and hymn booxs which were in the
builaing, he distributed them to the soldiers with
the exhortation, ^'Now put Watts into them,
boys !" The British were finally compelled to
retrace their steps, which they did with all
poadble r^>idify, followed and haraased as

before by the Jerwy militia.-— In 1T81 a com-
missariat of prisoners was established at i3iza-
bethtown, and a small vessel with the privilege
of a fiag made weekly trips between that place
and the British head-quarters at New York.
On Nov. 24 Mr. Caldwell went to the Point,
either for the purpose of receiving a lady who
was expected as a passenger, or to execute a
commission for her. finding that tiie vessel
had arrived, he went on board and soon return-
ed with a small package^ which he was carrying
toward his chaise when he was hailed by James
Morgan, the sentinel on duty, and ordered to
deliver the package for examination. He replied
that it was the property of a lady for whom it
had been placed in nis charge; and it appean
that he was renlly ignorant of its contents,
among which were the prohibited articles of
tea, mustard, and pins. The order was repeat-
ed, when Mr. Caldwell turned away and was
leaving the sentinel for the purpose, it is said,
of returning the package to the vessel, when
the soldier shot him dead upon the ^t In
compliance with the popular demand the senti-
nel was delivered to the civil authorities, and
was tried for the crime of murder at a court
held in the Presbyterian meeting-house at
Westfield, the township adjoining Elizabeth-
town. Bis defence upon the trial was that he
committed the act in obedience to orders, and
in the discharge of his duty as a sentinel. The

Ck was unavailing; he was condemned and
ged, Jon. 29, 1782. The remains of Mr. Cald-
well and of his wife w^re interred in the mve-
yard of the first Presbyterian church in Eliza-
bethtown, and a costly marble monument was
dedicated to their memory by the citiaens of
that town, on the 64th anniversary of the deatii
of the " soldier parson."

CALDWELL, Josefs, D. D., first presfident
of the university of North Carolina, was bom
at Leamington, New Jersey, April 21, 1778,
died at Chapel Hill, N. C, Jan. 27, 1886. He
was educated at Princeton college, where, in
1791, he pronounced the salutatory Latin ora-
tion. From this period till 1796 he acted as
tutor at Princeton, but then an event occurred
which laid the foundation of his future distinc-
tion and usefulness. The humble tutor was
chosen to fill the chair of principaJ professor at
the infant university of North Carolina, and
henceforward his destinies were bound up with
those of that institution. Under his tutelage
the new university grew and fionrished, and in
1804, as a proof tliat his services and devotion
were appreciated, he was made first president
by the trustees. For nearly 40 years he re-
mained in connection with the university, and
his government of it during that long period
excited the admiration of his contemporariea,
and proved the source of its present prosperity.
He it waa who chiefiy digested and arranged its
educational systems, fhimed its constitution,
and laid dovni rules of discipline for tiie con-
trol of its alumuL In 1824 Dr. Caldwell went
to Europe to aeleot books for the library, to

C3A1SD0H1A

CAIKVUAE

li*-^*- — ^:*

,A,..ii.l., -J-iif^ r»j.^* .^,.1 t J^^^ii-* L-..,i^ iV,f* T- J ,-.T Ttr»

irilo iniro tiMir lufiiA ui ii^

..f tjio »:

■'TV.

-71 « nifrt uL nusi.-rv. Midi ISL ni^j. n.* HtJ

ilAiBiiiilii^

9111 i

I !iA':i

' •JiJtrf*. itd:U:l tit «! i J^flt;if\_-

iLiT ted- ir.^ ■ * . :Ia^^ Jout^ ot»

.. -rL'iM«4 UHMO CH- 4vefw man
tiu dlDlsra 15 udbstai fnm tha mm iff
^, la by tW pot}* Cl¥illi»d imtiufit tjffuiDy
ociimdeaM die d&jr &t laBiitf bi^ i»d ooonA 1
{lifiifib of 1^ boon «i»di In iha divf . A.-li^ifi^
merv ind fuiT%iaftkn 4liw» IIm tlr mjr

t4QC of Omb, nUUfn^U I nmkM un iiMrljr i

^ ]ij« dt ilib JIIA4. luiAtioQ^ aimI tiusijr Miiitb In tbD oiteil inxm*

m^, fu^f, OA 0,0 iDiAlMiloci of tip. ^rraf^itiiid

L| trnm tltoii liaiEMtiMirU b Irtf
pttinr tiM^n i>^ til l)i«t dr> ' ' ' ' ne c<ioin)iiiil
m fwsrdtid Ijtf Mowi, th^n £a cim

iit«l»lMT of ooioifiicaotut in ^i -v , ihir «tiiMaii|
Vinifliibr die ili^# of ll»« w^k «r« fiaiiA 4i

Jeeif

rtTAfii kmiwa n^rde; tbeudfoecir

CALENDAB

eaoli day Ib consecrated correapond in character
to those to whom the days were consecrated by
the Greeks and Latins, when they adopted the
week from the East The Greeks and Komans
originally had no weeks. — ^The Greeks divided
the month into 8 equal decades, the Romans
into 8 very unequal periods. The length of the
month was suggested, as the word shows, by
the moon, which completes her changes in about
80 days. But inasmuch as the solar year does
not consist of an even number of lunar months,
the months have in most nations become
ftced periods of 80 or 81 days. The length of
the months in most civilized nations has been
copied from the Romans. No nation has, how-
ever, followed the singular division which the
Romans made in the month by means of 8 days.
The first day bein^ called the calends, and Uie
18th or 15th the ides, the nones were the 9th
day before the ides, and the other days of the
month were numbered Arom the next succeed'
ing calends, nones, or ides. The day, for in-
Btance, which we call Feb. 19, they called the
11th before the calends of March. — ^The solar
year is a natural period, formerly measured b^
the interval between 2 successive vernal eqm-
noxes. If the civil year corresponds with the
Bolar, the seasons of the year will always come
at the same period. Bat in early times the
Roman pontim regulated the length of the civil
year so imperfectly^ that in the days of Julius
CflDsar the spring occurred in what the calen-
dar called summer. Csosar, with the help of
Sosigenes, reformed the calendar in 46 B. 0.,
and introduced our present arrangement of
having 8 years of 865 days followed by one of
866, divicUng the year into months nearly as at
present The irregularity of alternation in the
months of 80 and 81 days was introduced a few
years after to gratify the vanity of Augustus,

giving his month of August as many days as Ju-
us GsBsar^s month of July. The additional day
was given in leap year to February, by calling
the 6th day before the calends of March a
second 6th; whence leap year is still called in
the almanacs bissextile year. This calendar of
Julius OiBsar is still used in the Russian empire,
and was in use in all Europe until 1682.
Its eiTor consists in making the year 866^ days,
which is about 11 minutes too much, an error
which has now amounted to about 12 days.
Pope Gregory Xin. by a brief ordered Oct. 5,
1682, to be called the 15th, and that the years
1700, 1800, and 1900 should not be accounted
leap years. This is called the Gregorian calen*
dar.-^The most intricate matter in the calends
is the ecclesiastical rule governing the mov-
able feasts. The council of Nice ordained in
the year 826 that Easter should be celebrated
on the 1st Sunday after the fhll moon that
occurs on or next after the day of the vernal
equinox. The days of the week are denoted by
the 7 leading letters of the alphabet, A being
placed against Jan. 1 . The dominical letter for the
year is the letter which will then come against
Bonder* The solar cyde Is a period which re-

stores the 1st day of the year to the same day
of the week, by means of which we can of
course find the dominical letter for any year,
and therefore tell what day of the week it was
or will be at any given date. The lunar cycle
is a period which restores the new moon to the
same day of the month. The golden number
indicates the place of any given year in the
lunar cyde, so that by means of it we can tell
on what day of March the full moon falls, and
tims find Easter day. The Gr^^rian calendar,
civil and ecdesiastical, was soon adopted in the
Catholic states. In the Protestant states of
Germany it was but partially adopted in 1700,
and not wholly until 1774. The change from
Julian to Gregorian reckoning was made by
act of parliament in Great Britain, Sept 176^
the 8d of the month being called the 14th.
— ^The ancient Egyptians^ Ohaldeans, Persiana,
Syrians, Fhosnicians, and Carthaginians, each
began then* year at the autumnal equinox (about
Sept. 22). The Jews also began their oivu year
at that time, but in their ecclesiastical reokon-
ing the vear dated from the vernal equinox
(about March 22). The beginning of the year
among the Greexs was at the winter solstice
(about Dec. 22) before the time of Meton, and
at the summer solstice (about June 22), after
Meton. The Qreek astronomers had a solar
year peculiar to themselves, to the months of
which they gave the 12 rigns of the aodiac.
The Roman year from the time of Numa b^an
at the winter solstice. It was not probably the
original purpose of Csssar to change this time
of Uie commencement of the year, and his mo-
tive for delaying it several days till Jan, 1
was, doubtless, the desire to make the first year
of the reformed calendar begin with the day of
the new moon. Among £e Latin Christian
nations there were 7 different date» for the com-
mencement of the year : March 1 ; Jan. 1 ; Dec
26 ; March 26 (beginning the year more than 9
months sooner than we do, tliis was called the
Pisan calculation, and though unknown in
Spain, England, and G^ermany, was fbUowed in
several states till 1746); March 26 (b^^ing
the year nearly 8 months Later than we do;
this was called the Florentine calculation, and
was much in use from the 10th century till
1746) ; at Easter; and on Jan. 1. (but one year
in advance of us). In France the year began in
general at March 1, under the Merovingiana ; at
Dec. 26, under the Carlovingians ; and at Easter,
under the Oapetians. By edict of Charles IX..
in 1664, the beginning of the year was ordered
at Jan. 1. In England, from the 14th century
fill the change of style in 1762, the legal and
ecdesiastical year began at Miurch 26, thou{^
it was not uncommon in writing to reckon it
fh>m Jan 1. After the change was adopted
in 1762, events which had occurred in Jan.,
Feb., and before March 26, of the old legal year,
would, according to the new arrangement be
reckoned in the next subsequent year* Thoa
the revolution of 1688 occumd in Feb. of that
legal year, or, aa we ahonld now aay, in Feb.

^^H

CJALEKliEILLSQ ^^^^H

int:n3ii»^^ MM ih^ ^'lAi ixnmf^HUih T^«-**i ^^^H

^ I It; I
1,

'TH^t^lfJl^

^^^^^H
^^^^H

Uo. . . . ■[; 'p.'*^:^M JJT f v.:
4U ■
U J -^ ifir-^Tl il iwSs^i till'

ill ■ ^^H
wilt fir ' 1 JtJi WIb^ «lrr ^^^1

1 fhoic, tfit r^i ^^^^1

J^ -gm-^ iAl ;&pi^' r<4iJiAJUb ^v

asa

OALENDEBIKa

OALF

cf the damestio ironing board or table ^th ite
ooYer of cloth. Tlie paper rollers are yerr in*
genioQsly oontrired to avoid the defects of tiie
wooden ones, and present a smooth sorface to
tiie cloth. Set like a -wheel npon its azft, a
difik of cast-iron at the end of a strong iron
bar is perforated with 6 holes near its cironm-
ference for as many iron rods to pass through.
Oircnlar plates of thick pasteboard, an inch
larger in diameter than the intended roller, are
next laid npon this disk ; they are famished
with holes for Uie axle and the iron rods. The
pile is continued to a length as much exoeedinff
that intended for the roller as the pasteboard
disks will shrink by the compresdon they will
be subjected to. A corresponding iron plate is
then set npon the other end of the axle, and
the rods bemg passed throngh and screwed np,
the cylinder thos formed is pnt in a hot apait-
ment or stove to be thoroughly dried for seve-
ral days, the screws being oocasionfllly tightened
npon the rods as the pasteboard shrinks. The
sorfiftce of the cylinder thus obtained is exces-
sively hard and close. To turn it down to its
proper size is a work of great labor; several
men are employed upon it^ and the best tools
are rapidly dulled. They are necessarily of
small size, slowly working down the face of the
cylinder, as it revolves at the rate of only 40 or
60 revolutions per minute. When finished, it
presents a hardness and polish far superior to
that of wood; it also possesses great strength,
without the liability of being warped or ii\jured
by the great heat to which it is to be exposed.
When set in the frame^ they are so arranged
that they may be forced by levers or screws
into very dose contact with the iron cylinders.
The doth, fed from a roll placed opposite the
machine^ is carried over the upper pasteboard
cylinder, between this and the iron one, then
Mtween this and the next below, and so on
till it has been 4 times compressed and ironed,
The glazing or polishing of the surflaoe is pro-
duced by the middle pasteboard cylinder being
made to revolve more slowly than the others,
and consequently prodnciuff a rubbing effect of
the cylinders upon the dotn. By this arrange-
ment the former tedious operation of glazing
npon a table is rendered unnecessary. A calen-
der contrived by Mr. Dollfbs, has cylinders of
Buffident length to pass throiu^h 2 pieces of doth
at once, and it is also provided with a folding
machine, which reoeives the doth as it comes
out of the rollers, and fdds it without the at-
tention of the workmen. By running through
t layers of doth together, one upon &e other,
the threads of one make an impressioif upon
the other, giving a wiry appearance to the
surface. The embossed appeiuance is produced
by rollers of copper, upon the face of which
the design is engraved. The proper folding of
the doth preparatory to its being pressed, must,
like the other operations of calendering, be
oareAxUy conducted, that the appearance of the
finished artide shall be perfectly neat and free
from creases and blemishes of every kind.

Particular importance Is attadied to the nieitli-
od of doing this, the object bdng sometimes
to make the artimee appear what tbey are not,
and sometimes to make thdr real character
conspicuous. When the folds are completed,
usually with muslin goods so as to admit of
their being opened in any place, like the leaves
of a boo£ tiie pieces are placed, with thin
boards and glazed pasteboara between each,
in apowerfhf hydramic press^oapable of exert-
ing a pressure of 400 tons. While in the press
the parcels are corded and prepared for padc-
ing immediatdy in bales. The measure of tibe
doth has been taken befdTe the folding, either
npon the long measuring table, or by folding
the cloth from one side to the other and back
npon a graduated hooking frame, provided with
2 needles npon which eadi fold is suspended.
The labels for the cloth put up at the En^ish
calendering establishments, are expressly de-
agned for the particular country to whidi the
goods are to be sent Host A them are of
diowy pattern in blue and gold, with various
devices. Some of the more expendve cost $5
or $6 per 100, while the common labels are
worth only 25 cts. per 1.000.

CALENDS, the first day of the month in the
Latin calendar.

CALENTURE, or Lmi^N SuNHaraoa, a vio-
lent fever inddent to persons in hot dimates,
especially to such as are natives of more tem-
perate re^ons. This inflammatory fever is at-
tended with delirium, during which the patient
is often tempted to walk into the sea, imagining
the extensive surface of the ocean to be an im-
mense plain of pleasant and refreshingly cool
green fields.

CALENZIO. or CAuarrnTS, Eusio, a Nea*
pofitan poet of the 16th century, died in 1608,
published numerous writings in prose and verse,
elegies, epigrams, satires, fabltels, and epistles,
which were issued under the title of Opu$cultL
He also wrote upon penal legislation, and is
sdd to have been the first to propose the re>
striotion of capital punishment to the crime of
murder.

CALEPIN, a Frendi name for a coDeetkv}
of notes and extracts, or a commonplace booSi
It is derived from Ambbosio Oalbpiko, an
Italian, who published in 1602 a Latin-Italiaa
lexicon, which had in its time a great reputa-
tion and passed through many editions, espe-
dally in Switzerland, where it was enormooaly
increased by notes and bv the introdnctioii of
additional languages. The edition of Basd,
1590-1627, is in 11 knguages.

OALF, the young of a cow, or of the bo-
vine genus of^^ quadrupeds. Whatever breed
the calf may spring from, its natural food is
milk ; coming fh>m the mother in a warm state,
it is exactly adapted to the existing condition of
her ofbpring. Milk contains materials for mak-
ing bone, as phosphoric add, hme, soda, &o. ; for
muscle, caserne ; for feit, butter or oil, and sugar
of milk, as well as a large percentage of water.
The method pointed out by nature is paraued

ckur

V..._f.*. iV,, ,*,,If K. ..M.-,-,,J

*(^t ^^ ♦*.-.»

,J ,A .%.-

.,Lt,„

I .ik r-fv^ai |iL> •

i.k'

1 Dltif. Yf UCU

sot

l^vo, iik4 tbo
' fiuuon liiitiif
>« mti f«4 #i£

' -ui milk b

d euTor vii0lr t : -ck In ffowtk

pdA U &li^ ik'itU liqvia f^itl, Bn«l laioeyiliiil 111
lliia tUfelA »b<j%u ibo oair, w14q|i fm9A§ Ihim U i»
JMm Urn lliUIl — DnSAJST r<3«M, A tMya^«O0»-

OALHomr

fbl of solphor 8 moraingB in saooessioii; ZHar*
rhwiy a little chalk, opiom, and gentle cordials;
C<m«<ipatM>», castor oil, with a little ginffer. For
troatment of diseases, see Yonatt and Martin
on cattle.

CALHOUN, the name of ooontieB in several
of the United States. L A western county of
Florida, bordering on the golf of Mexico, and
washed bj the Appalachioola river on the £. ;
area, 464 sq. m. It has a low sarfJBMe, and
produces cotton, sugar, tobacco, and corn. The
productions in 1860 were 187 bales of cotton,
29,496 bushels of Indian com, 80,262 lbs. of to-
bacco, and 2,670 of rice. There were 8 grist
mills, 2 saw mills, 1 church, and 44 pupils at-
tending public schools. Named in honor of
John 0. Calhoun. Pop. in 1860, 1,877. of whom
468 were slaves. Capital, St* Josepn. II. A
central county of Mississippi, formed within a
few vears from Chickasaw, Lafavette, and
Tallobusha, and drained by Yallobusha and
Loosascoona rivers. It is not included in
the last census. IQ. A southern ooun^
of Texas, with an area of 484 sq. m., bound-
ed 6. W. by Guadalupe river, and border-
ing on the gulf of Mexico. The bays of
Matagorda and Lavacca indent its N. £. coast
The surface is generally level. Cotton, Indian
com, and sweet potatoes are the staple produc-
tions. The soil is not fertile, and tunber is
sparsely distributed over about \ of the surface.
In 1867 the county contained 801 horses, valued
at $17,600, and 17,888 head of cattle, valued at
$107,120. Value ofreal estate, $416,720. Trav-
ersed by the 8an Antonio and Mexican €hilf
raihroad. Capital, Indianola. Pop. in 1866,
2,114. IV. A southern county of Arkansas,
bounded 8. W. by the Washita river, here navi-

Sble by steamboats. K by Moro river, and
.ving an area of about 600 sq. m. It nas a
level or rolling sur£EU)e, and a good soil suitable
for cotton and grain. The productions in 1864
were 88,186 bushels of Indian com, 8,420 of
oatS| and 2,126 bales of cotton. Capital, Hamp*
ton. Pop. in 1864, 2,861, of whom 624 were
slaves. V. A soutiiern county of Michigan,
drained by St. Joseph^s river and the head
waters of the Kalamazoo, and having an area
of 720 sq. m. It has a ridi soil and an undula-
ting surface, mostly occupied by a scattered
growth of white and burr oak. Sandstone and
water power are abundant. The staples are
grain, nay, and wool, and the productions in
1860 were 886,969 bushels of wheats 827,644 of
Indian com, 18J79 tons of hay, and 126,991
lbs. of wooL There were 10 com and flour
mills, 8 saw mills^ 4 iron fonnderiea, 8 woollen
lactories, 2 newspaper offices, 18 churches, and
6,864 pupils attending public schools. The
Michigan central rttlroad passes through the
eounU. Organized in 1888. Capital, Marshall.
Pop. in 1860, 19,162. VI. A western oonnty
of Illinois, occupying a narrow strip of land b^
tween the Mississippi and Illinois rivers, the
former of which separates it firom Miasoori, and
is Joined by the latter at the a £. bonder of the

county. Near the river banks tiie soz&oe is
low and fireauently inundated ; in other locali-
ties are high blufb and table land broken by
ravines. In the W. part are valuable coal fields.
The staples are grain, hay, bee^ and pork, and
the productions in 1860 were 146,206 bushels <^
Indian corn, 8,870 of wheat, and 168 tons of
hay. There were 8 grist milLs, 2 churches^ and
196 pupils atten^g public schools. Capital,
Hardin. Pop. in 1866, 8,768.

CALHOUN, John Caldwkll, an American
statesman, born in the Calhoun settlement, dis-
trict of Abbeville, S. C, March 18, 1782, died
at Washington, March 81, 1860. On both
father's and mother^s side he was of Irish
Ptesbyterian descent His grandfather, James
Calhoun, emigrated ftom Donegal, Ireland, to
Pennsylvania, when his father, Patrick, was
only 6 years old. This was in 1788. The
Calhoun funily, foUowing the tide of emi-
gration then setting southward alongthe Alle-
ghanies, moved to the banks of the Kanawha,
in what is now Wythe co., Va. The incursions
of the Indians, consequent upon Braddock^s de-
feat, compelled them to a new emigration, and
again moving southward, they established in
1766 the Calhoun settlement, so called, in the
upper part of South Carolina, near the Sa-
vannah river, in what Sb now Abbeville dis-
trict. They were pioneer settlers upon the
Cherokee frontier, and were engaged in fre-
quent conflicts witn the Indians, m which Pat-
rick Calhoun took a leading part When the
revolution broke out he became an active
whig, and was exposed to great personal danger
from the numerous tories of the neighborhood.
In 1770 Patrick Calhoun married Martha Cald-
well, bom in Virginia, but the daughter
of an Irish Presbyterian emigrant John CL
Calhoun, the third son of his parents^ was
bom lust at the close of the revolutionary
strug^e. He showed himself flrom early boy-
hooa grave and thoughtful, ardent and perse-
vering. In that remote and thinly peopled
region it was chiefly household instruction that
he received. He was early taught to read the
Bible, and his parents strove, though with
sli^t success, to impress upon his youthful
mind their own strongly Calvinistic views.
At the age of 18 he took to reading history
and metaphysics with such application as to
impair his health. His father died not long
aftp^ leaving the family in but moderate dr-
oumstances. He continued to reside with his
widowed motiier, laboring on the farm, and
though most anxious for an education deter-
mined not to attempt to obtain it till sure of
the means without impairing her comforts.
In his 19th year, by the persuasion of a
brother, he recommenced his studies with a
view to the profesdon of the law, not however
till he had arranged with that brother and
mother to be furnished with means to pursae
them for 7 years. He declared his preference
for the life of a plain planter over that of a half-
eduoated professional man. In June, 1800, be

CAinofm

k.4 ll'iA. «'t*l«filA ^^•^.it^if.rtl.'W ^>t' \* A \».^|^-r.i

n, <r»nmcJh iMirirJili'tl thfi i» ■

I-

1 i***iniU'rtif'*l [-^nf-

11 r. Lilin^f* ilf
» 1 . i ,^i>.,.i

4 VMiiij^ tivfii like hhi

4^ Ifi firaffii4i»

dpQfvQniiftl •• Mm trnt^v*
ibFiiiiirtlsiiiiid tfjY
fia«i L^ uf Urn gu-

■ : t^'

CEUjir.i ti 4 Li£»k iicfuld )»iiwttr clii> pur-

ill!' 1-1]; MfiP, .,11 r*ir iijjpitn*"-"

mm 4i&fe to Iw cibnf«a

ifulfifa b# i«^ tfMulo AiOmni iIia vvmt Mr mi

OAIHOUK

rears after. This aoheme was warmly opp<Wl
07 Mr. Oalhoan^ who proposed to famish the
goyernment with $46,000,000 hj means of a
national specie-paying hank, wholly under pri-
vate control, and Qot ohliged to lend the gov-
ernment any thing. The capital of this bank
was to consist of |5,000,000 of specie and $45,-
* 000,000 of new treasury notes, which it was pro-
posed to get into circulation Vl making them
convertible into bank stock. This project pre-
vailed in the house by a large minority. But
Dallas in a labored report denied that new
treasury notes to any considerable amount could
thus be disposed of. He dwelt also on the in-
justice and political danger of a scheme which
might enable tJiose federal capitalists who had
hitherto held back and refused to lend their
money to the government to obtain, to the ez-
dusion of the holders of the existing govern-
ment stocks, the control of a national bank with
a capital 6 times as large as the old bank which
the administration party had refused to rechar-
ter. These considerations staggered a part of
the democratic supporters of the bill, and the
federalists, who had supported Hr. Oalhoun^s
scheme as against Dallas^s, now joining with
Hr. Dallas, Mr. Calhoun's bill fell to the
ground. Thereupon Dallas's sdieme was re-
newed in the senate, where a bill was speed-
ily passed for a non-epecie-payiog bank on
his plan. When this bill came down to the
house it was vehemently opposed by Mr. Cal-
houn, and after a very hot debate was defeated
by the casting vote of his colleague, Oheves^
who, since Mr. Clay's departure as commissioner
to Ghent, had been chosen speaker. A com-
promise scheme was then adopted for a bank
with $80,000,000 of capital, $5,000,000 in q>eoie,
$10,000,000 in stocks created nnce the war be-
gan, and $15,000,000 in new treasury notes. But
Uie great points of Mr. Calhoun's scheme were
still preserved : the bank was not obliged to lend
to tne government nor permitted to suspend
8|>ecie payments. The senate wished to subn-
stitute the main point of DaUas's plan by vest-
ing a power in the president to authorize a sus-
pension, but the house refttsed to agree to this,
and the bill having quickly passed without any
such provision, it was vetoed by President
Madison as inadequate to the emergency. The
peace which speedily and unexpectedly foUowed,
attended as it was bv great importations of
foreign goods, paying the double duties imposed
during the war, relieved the immediate wants
of the treasury. But both the government and
the country were still subjected to great em-
barrassments by the unequal value and depre-
ciated state of the currency, growing out of the
continual suspeusion of specie payments by the
banks south and v west of Kew England. To
remedy this evil, tire project of a United States
bank, which all now agreed should be specie-
paying, was revived ia^e 14th congress, result-
ing in the charter of the late bank of the United
States. The conduct of ^^his project thi
the house was intnuted tb^Mr.
\
\

was ohairman of the oommitfeee by whioh the
bill was reported, and he asserted in after
vears, and doubtless with truth, tliat but for
his efforts the bank would not have been clus-
tered. He also supported the tariff of A^l^
designed to give to the domestic manufaotiires
which the commercial restrictions, the war, and
double duties had called into existence, some
safeguard against foreign competition. — ^AnotluNr
topic now first prominently introduced into con-
gressional discussion, was that of internal im-
provements, of which the necessity had been
shown by the cost and difficulty of transportation
during the war. The president, in his annual
message, had suggested such roads and canals aa
could best be executed under the national authw-
ity " as objects of a wise and enlarged patriot-
ism." He referred, indeed, to the objection of a
want of express constitutional authority, but 8Ug»
gested that any obstacle from that source might
easily be removed. This idea was warmly taken
up by Mr. Calhoun, and at the next session of
congress, by great exertions, he succeeded in car-
rying through the house, by the dose vote of 86
to 84, a bill appropriating Uie bonus of a million
and a half to be paid by the United States
bank, also all dividends upon the seven mil-
lions of stock held by the government in that
institution, as a fund for intranal improvements ;
each state to be entitled to a share in the ex-
penditure proportioned to its representation in
congress, but to be authorized also to oonsent
to the expenditure of its share in any otber
state. This bill passed the senate, 20 to 15, but|
to Mr. Calhoun's great surprise and mortifica-
tion, was cut short by the veto of the president
on tne ground of want of constitutional power
in congress to make such appropriations. Ti^
occuned just at the close of Madison's term
of ^office (March, 1617\ which also brought
to a dose Mr. Calhoun's very active 6 years'
term of service in the house of representiitiveai
Before the next congress met, he was called to
take a place in President Monroe's cabinet as
secretary of war. He now removed his fganSiy
to Washington, and redded there permanently
for the next 7 years. In the first congress
after Monroe's accesdon, the house resolved, 90
to Y5, that congress wss empowered to ^[>pro-
priate money for the construction of post roadfl^
military and other roads, and of canals, and for
the improvement of water courses; and the see-
retaries of war and the treasury were directed to
report at the next sesdon a list of internal im-
provements in progress, and apbm for approori-
ationsto ddthem. The friends of the resolutioiis
looked up to Mr. Calhoun as their champion is
the cabinet against Mr. Crawford, the seoretaiy
of the treasury, who denied any oonstitntional
authority for such appropriations of the poblic
money.-— Mr. Calhoun found the war depart-
ment in a greatiy disorganised condition, with
some $50,000,000 of outstandinff and unsettled
accounts, and the greatest connidon in eveiy
brandi of service. He took means for the
speedy settiement of these daims^ and drew up

^^^^H QMMom m ^

^V aliHi f*<r {udLtfAMS^ dir, «tAlf ^ff fin arfrv.

Qrr,. ,t,\,,4_w#Tv \.uM\ ItrntT^'l.l fJ^rwtnT it n r«\fi. ^^B

B'wT^'

■ 1^

^^^u ni*% ur.

ke ■

tt-

■

^^^^^^KmI U>dU U{nl«

ou »tald call ^1

f«1 tit Ml*. ' H

^^^^^^k pqiiAiti^iicy tif Ir

■

^^HL' f i^r "^t 4M0jijbi

^^^■Bt ' Hi i J rvii^ u! f b l)i<^ f

^^RfeKTlsl i.

^HgHpcMt I

^^■Bio Iiwiie4n« t

^^Kait l^mlj^lfv.

^^^B~

^^^^n^

Trim \^l^\ Ct<JA fl t£-.VI>(l.. ^H

^^K^. .ill-

^^^K ili#

Cka^JudbciiL TbA^iyiiivUtoiweci ■

^^^^^^HMfpii

yUM piTtHieA tmintUlM* ^"'^ " r^r.it^u tm ^^H

^^^^iiia ^

iftiSki tbn i0a;li#im ftiul ^H

^^^Hs^i t'l tn

jrr 4 V vt' in .- ;* \iA fm fr * Tl^ f . i r 1 ^^B

^^^^^HKlffT^i Shy #Ur<^

^^1

^^^HbtiLi'*

^^pi««-

^^^JS:' ii^i»ii»^, *-L;n^j». ii*f

M,.H.i rn 1 ^' -(:B^<l«l

«k lUuiii^hAZiia, » «

tQftuJuij,, MlMJbr

^_ ^4;^ ''< tuenAliiiialot

-^ y^^% ^.-,. uEi*! \}m

Ht4mM«r , i<<»9o4oo Ui«

Si>j oaior 1!^ Tttuj^iswie,

^BjML''',. -u (uiil iTtt.Mr

/IL. Tl ■ • fL^llI 1 tt=> it' 1 1* " { •< I J \Mim

■^^

Ui-'

^K^: '

^^■Ik M(.i>

■^■Ki^Ue^,

A<>

ui*-a4ii^> li^ >^*^ ^ ^^^ «UiUi ^y£ ^Qf

OALEBOTJJS

means. He turned hte attentfon to the sover-
eignty of the Btatea, and from being charged
with being too national, soon after fell onder
the aoonsation of poshing the doctrine of state
rights to extremes. Building on the Virginia
and Kentnokj resolutions of l798-'9, he pro*
pounded the doctrine of nnllificationf that is to
say, the right of each state to prevent the eze-
cution witiiin her limits of such acts of con-
gress as she might judge unconstitutiiHial. This
doctrine he embodied in an elaborate paper,
prepared in the summer of 1828, which bemg

Sut into the hands of a committee of the
outh Carolina leg^lature, and beinff reported
to the house with some softening modifications,
was, though not adopted by it, ordered to be
printed, and became known as the *^ South
Carolina Exposition." The original draft of
this document, in which the whole course sub-
sequently taken by South Carolina is clearly
shadowed forth, may be foxmd in vol. tL of
Mr. Calhoun^s collected works. At the next ses-
sion of congress, the first under Gen. Jackson's
administration, this doctrine of nullification was
brought forward in the senateof the United States
by Mr. Hayne of South Carolina, in the speech
to which Mr. Webster made his fiunous reply,
and in which, though he answered Mr. Hayne,
he struck through him at Mr. Calhoun, who was
supposed, though not then certainly known, to
be the father of the doctrine. Meanwhile there
had occurred a great struggle fbr influence and
predominance with Gen. Jackson between the
advocates of the tariff and of free trade. Mr.
Van Bnren had been appointed secretary of
state. Two of Mr. Calhoun's friends had seats in
the cabinet, and a fair share of the other c^oes
was given to that side ; but their influence
with the president was not so predominating
as they had hoped, and the idea was soon start-
ed among them of superseding G«n. Jackson at
the end of his first term and electing Mr. Calhoun
in his place. This idea was not agreeable to Gen.
Jackson, and things tended fiut toward a rup-
ture. Personal alienation soon followed. Gen.
Jackson had already sought and soon after ob-
tained a statement from Mr. Crawford of what
had occurred in Mr. Monroe's cabinet on the
subject of the Seminole war. This statement
he transmitted to Mr. Calhoun, who admitted its
substantial correctness. Thereupon Gen. Jack-
son concluded, from this in conjunction with
other circumstances^ that Mr. Calhoun had been
at the bottom of the congressional attacks upon
him. The next step in this political schism
was the establishment at Washington of tiie
" Globe" newspaper, with a design to supersede
the '* Telegraph," wliich had been always under
the influence of Mr. Calhoun, to whom it stfll
adhered. Early in 1881, Mr. Calhoun pub-
lished a pamphlet with a preliminary address
to the people of the United States, containing a
body of correspondence in relation to the Semi-
nole affair. But though sustained by the ** Tele-
graph" and by a few members of congress and
a small sectionof the Jadcson party, he was not

able materially to diaainiah the po|Rdaritf and
infinence of the president^ who soon proceeded
to reconstruct his cabinet, Mr. Calhoun's frienda
being reauested to foUow the example of resign-
ing set oy Mr. Van Buren. Mr. Van Bnren
was appointed minister to England, but at the
ensuing session of congress^ by a coalition be-
tween the old opposition led by Clay and Web-
ster and Mr. Calhoun's friends, the nomine-
tion was r^ected, Mr. Calhoun presiding, and
twice upon ties voting for the r^ection. This
rejection of Mr. Van Bnren led to his nomi-
nation and election to the post of viod»prea-
ident; whereupon, without waiting for the
expiration of his term, Mr. Calhoun resigned,
beinff elected to fill the seat in the senate
which Mr. Hayne had vacated to become gov-
ernor of Soutii Carolina. In the summer of
1681, shortly after the reconstmctaon of Jadc-
son's cabinet, Mr. C^oun had publiahed an
address on the relation which the states and
general government bear to each other. In this
address he had maintained the right of the
states to judge of infractions of the constitntioD,
and in such cases to protect themselves. He
insuted that the general recognition of thia doc-
trine would of itself in a great measure, super-
sede the necessity of its exerdse, by impreadng
on the movements oi the general government
that moderation and justice so essential to har-
mony and peace in a country so extensive as
ours. The greater part of this address was oo-
cumed, however, in advocating the free trade
mde of the tariff question, and in ni^g upon
congress to take occasi(m from the paying off
of &e national debt to reduce the revenue to
the level of expenditure, abandoning any at-
tempt at protection beyond that which might
be incidental to the oolleotion of such a revenue.
But no attention was paid to this advice. The
new tariff of 1882 was as protective as the dd
one. On the application of Gk)vemor Hamilton
of South Carolina, Mr. Calhoun now addreased
to him a long and elaborate letter in defence
of his doctrine of state rights, and of its prac-
tical efficiency. It was at once determined to
act upon this doctrine, and the same legislatnrs
which elected Mr. Hayne governor and placed
Mr. Calhoun in the senate proceeded to auUior-
ize a state convention, according to the scheme
set forth in Mr. Calhoun's original draft of the
"South Carolina Exposition." That conven-
tion had met, and had passed an ordinance,
to go into effect on Eeb. 1, to nullify the tariff
of 1828 and 1882; and when Mr. Calhoun
took his seat m the senate, Dec. 1882, the
legiskture waa again in session enacting laws
to carry out this nullifying ordinance. The
president on his part had issued a proclama-
tion, entreating the people of South Candina
to reconsider their position, and announcing
his intention to sustam the laws of the United
States by force if necessary. He lUso sent to
congress a special message calling for addi-
tional legislation to ud him in enforcing the
collection of the revenue. Thia message led to

^^^^^^^^^^^^^ CULaoUH ^^^^^

■1

v.. I ..^ f: ,.^w ,*,'... .w .1 ,

1 ^^ H

^^^^^■H^. 1 1 '< » - 1 '

^^^^B

^^^PT^A'J

-< ttbliOV

■

^^^^H;t«>t

L ^ «rii:Bcksii la n^;:^' r

^^^HKud!'^

^^^1

^^^^Bitiitti Oi

^^^1

^^^^^^^■■Wd

Ci*.!

^^^1

^^^H 1

r^'l

^^H

^^^^P^ ■rum,

HiiMti'^a.

^^H

mlsm.'

^^B &0 piiB^a 5f ^*

i«lM^>

^^1

^^^fl^Mri ir^*''^)!!-

-1^]' ■

^^7

^H fi

^^H^^^K

^^^1

^^^^^^^ ' ekue^ -

^^1

^^^^^^^^b^ <*Dii 3.v^iriftd l^r* <

^^^1

^^^^^Hpl tkfi «lfii# AOMan^ Ufi diif^.\

^^1

^^^^PBH^'4 t%i^, M' ilbiribtirir^ [1

^^^1

^^H

^H Itm^tivflk] Irj tim firr^i*:t'()t

ntmm i» ^^H

^^^N^n^rJit<!tlO-!fJ frtlt!! I'Il' '• Jil mT

tii^i U<

^^^H

^^^^Vi

flUfHil t

^^H

^^^^^^^h.: d*

Mm fill

^^H

^^^^^^^kr i! r^^f^'t

110 tVlJ

^^H

^^^^^^^^^P^ ulittl^^ l^g^fH*-!:

tito gfiTcmi.

^^H

lUMl lidc^ f

^^^1

^^^^1^^^'

stiaiii|Ml rfilLH

^^H

^H &a:

-^Xhm oen coiii

^^^1

^^H f,^- . ■■-'j^iium I** «»nE*-- oa

j»fh' ■' " • •"

^^^H

^H 1 i triiiflflo III Ills Itirii

il.r

^^1

^^^..^r- ^-.hy^^w

^^^M

^^^^k ' ,. n77&>d*md

-w?^

^^H

^^^^^Bl^^i HteU wo*

&ll^ — , ^. .

^^^1

^^^K i«igii«c^

^krim^m 1

^^H

^^^■^Ft rt) imt^

mAXlif^ uf t

^^H

^^Kf .:ipu-

VVll

^^tiuw ^M

^^K* ^ Ml

■.z' h) f.i^ ^H

^^^^MfwiriMl jtiiiMr Vcrailifllli

40rri£«ir^ Mid ll

^^H

^^^^nr^tlt^friiEriiiii 'tMlnti>d

ai«wi^<>at^f{biiE

^^H

^^^^fc. frfiyiiS un -iktcig

8- mail «Tui brp

^^H

^^^K <h W r. 41^

4*iminHnl*>fT titf :

^^^1

^^^^^^;

h tb#8oiilli1)

^^^^Bu^u

> ikf V iDPttrf < <

^^H

^^^E^

L ill* ndtQBitslV
erkUt pftftf ]i4M III IU1

^^^^^K'

Hi usdi:

^^H

... ^ti» refill:. '

! • ^^^1

^^^^^Sfi9 Mr. WcMBv^ fiili lu ofMUuoa ibn

Uim^ ihmgh Uroved by (iisn, JhuIuutii Mid o^ ^^H

^H_

340

CALHOUN

warmlf opposed by a large soathem seotioiL of
itie party, which, in consequence, seceded and
nominated as their candidate Jadge White of
Tennessee. The existence of this northern anti-
slavery agitation was strongly urged in tlie
BOUtJiem states as an objection to voting for
a northern candidate for the presidency. Mr.
Van Buren's political friends in the northern
states, by way of relieving their candidate and
themselves from any odium on this score, had
joined with the mercantile interest in the north-
em cities in loudly denouncing the abolition-
ists. It was under these circumstances that the
president referred to the subject in his annual
message. While testifying to the general feel-
ing of indignant regret which the proceedings of
the abolitionists had aroused at the north (to be
no doubt followed up by legislation if needed),
he referred to the post office as specially under
the guardianship of congress, and suggested a law
to prohibit, under severe penalties, the circuXa-
tion in the southern states, through the mail, of
incendiary publications intended to instigate the
slaves to insurrection. Mr. Oalhoun moved the
reference of this part of the message to a special
conmiittee, and after some opposition from ad-
ministration senators, who preferred the post
office committee, the motion was carried, and
Mr. Calhoun was appointed the chairman. He
soon brought in a report^ and a bill along with
it, subjecting to severe penalties any postmaster
who should knowingly receive and put into the
mail any publication or picture touching the
subject of slavery, to go into any state or terri-
tory in which the circulation of such publica-
tion or picture should be forbidden by the state
laws. This report, starting with the doctrine
that the states were sovereign as to each other,
bound together only by compact, and that the
right of internal defence was one of their reserv-
ed rights, proceeded to argue that it belonged to
the states respectively, and not to congress, as
the president's message had assumed, to deter-
mine what publications were to be prohibited.
The objection taken in the message to the pub-
lications in question had been that they were
intended to stimulate the slaves to insurrection.
Mr. Calhoun's report went far beyond that. It
principally objected to these documents, that
their avowed object was the emancipation of the
negroes, a measure which involved not merely
a vast destruction of property, but what was of
infinitely more consequence and danger, the
overthrow of the existing relation between the
two races inhabiting the southern states — ^the
only relation, as the report contended, compati-
ble with their oonunon nappiness and pro^>erity,
or even with their existence together m the
same community. Social and pouticsl equaHty
between the two races was impossible. To
diange the condition of the Africans would put
them in a position of looking to the other states
for support and protection; it would mi^e
them virtually the allies and dependento of ^ose
states ; thus placing in the hands of those states
an effectual instrument to destroy the influence

and control the destiny of the vest of the
union. The object aimed at by the abolitionisto
was the destruction of a relation essential to the
peace, prosperity, and political influence of
the slaveholding states. The means employed
were or^anixed societies, and a powerful
press, which strove to promote the object in
view, by excidng the bitterest animosity and
hatred amon^ the people of the non-davehold-
ing stetes agunst the citizens and institutions of
the slaveholding states. Such a proceeding
tended to the erection of a powerfol i)olitical
party, the basis of which would be hatred
against the slaveholding states, and of which
the necessary consequence would be the disso-
lution of the union. It was, therefore, not
merely the right of the southern states to esDclude
those publications, it was also the duty of the
northern stetes, within which the danger origi-
nated, at once to arrest its fhrther progress — a
duty which they owed not merely to the states
whose institutions were assailed, but to the
union, the constitution, and themselves. In this
report, as well as in his speech in support of
the bill, Mr. Calhoun drew an alarmincr pic-
ture of the numbers and zeal of the abolition-
ists, and of the danger to which the SouUi was
exposed from their machinations. He predicted
that the obligation resting on the northern stetes
to put a stop to these proceedings would totally
fail to be fulfilled. He bad not much more hope
from congress, but he saw the safety of the South
in *^ the doctrine of steto interposition, carried
into successful practice on a recent occasion."
The bill, though helped along by Mr. Van
Huron's casting vote, fbiled on l£e final vote^ 25
to 19. With respect to petitions for the aboli-
tion of slavery in the territories and the district
of Columbia, Mr. Calhoun held that they on^t
to be rejected altogether. He took the ground
that congress had no jurisdiction over the sub-
ject of slavery, in whatever form it might be
presented — ^no more power over it in the district
of Columbia than in the stetes. The senate,
however, decided to receive the petitions and
then to r^ect their prayer. On this latter pro-
position Mr. Calhoun refused to vote. — ^Thoo^
still voting against Mr. Clay's bill for the
distribution amons the stetes of the pro-
ceeds of the public lands, he took an ac-
tive part in favor of the bill for depositing
with the stetes the large accumulated sur-
plus of public moneys, the aocumnlatioxi of
which as a " corruption fund" he had often la*
mented. The victory of San Jacinto having
introduced into congress the question of recog-
nizing the independence of Texas, Mr. Calhoun
declared himself not only in favor of that, but
of the Bunultaneous reception of Texas into the
union. On the question of the admission of
Michigan, he denied the power of the states to
confer on aliens the right of voting. He de*
nounced as revolutionary the action of the peo-
ple of Michigan in forming for themselves a state
oonstitution without waiting for the consent
of congress. He expressed hia strong dissent

^^B

QACOtOOW

^^^^^ fl

._-_.!., — . ^t. r

. J i.T it ^^^H

]

^^^B*'*-'

ij^-.

i«+iJ r

■ M,

Aaei '

bteb

^^1

13* 1

, ■

oIn^j

^ dUt ■

i^^^ai^ir 1

'?r

l»*ilii:^ .•

'Hiii \iA ^^t

^^^^^^Bfi*

taeitiiiiiii^ DC I

^^H

^^^^^H^^Fj

-A

r*^ftj?r7i! tii ;^rtn

^^1

^^^^n^^~»44 i'l

^^1

^^^Byitartp.-

^^1

^^^^HHMit^ n^i^i ;

^^^KkJr/iciii.

^^KBttroiili''

liliU 44X*Jf<M£j-

^^1

^^K tMk» ^

IWm/^m^mmi

^^1

^^^^^Bb lifeUcI, bj iriiii'i ill iiiir

.nHx«l, t&0 ian«i tol]

fci uj}o uiirnijir iiimi«iju]>ju t *^ ^^^|

^^H^Wnb^ wblebiMCnfhAi^-

wUdk fa nmr iVm p«»Utk4l b«ilt)illoQ«. B» ^H

mtom im fitulT!*^-- — -'^- ^H

1 ^urtdiiM ^ti >• ^H

^^B'

^^^^^^^fc]

i^^^^^^^fr-

iJ!:.

^^^^^^V

^ Uh^

Illi&

^^^K

'^J^

fltUUMbJ

^^^^HHBi/^ '

. . ^*i. _

^^fbreil^ll,^.

^^^K to fti^ifc^ »«uW^

ij moQfiii^

^^1

^^^•r^vMH>^h rti--. >-.-•) I>,L, i.,^

...1* .---, ,

^^H

• " -'• li / ' t"rw Rp«^iL

^ ■ . .-L * '!■ 0» .ftr^lv.,-

. .,

., Jm H

^-% ' , '.; I— r.

ir-

^»fcjt

wkatii «OT^ ^H

^ft^JJ^HU :

Ll« t

^^^^^^^^^^1^ '^ k

J ul *:;/U ^# ■

^^^^^^^P^^' -'

iI^tKlJV*^! l<^ 1

^^^F

^^^^^^^^B

*n\

ir ; 1..) .T^Q^ji ^H

^^^^^b^ Smtkmm m n

it^ on ^H

^^^^^^^^^^ iijii^, LiL ^iSJxivol m^ li-n

,.]£rU ^H

^^^^^B|fr« C«[biwm, <m^mr u^*ii

Ibn ttUi^

IT ^1

^^^^^^^^Bk ''(' r4.jkr>r^'

}>,i\r.^ ■' ..

._ . L.. .. ly ^H

■ '

^„.„

S42

GALHOUK

pendent treasury bil), not only tannted him with
desertion, but made his whole politioal career
the subject of one of those invectlTee in which
he so greatly excelled. Mr. Calhoun replied
(March 11, 1838) ; Mr. Olay answered on the
spot, and Mr. CaUionn r^oined. This contest
aooonded with exemplifications of the different
kinds of oratory of which each was master; on
the one side declamation, vehement invective,
wit, hamor, and bltmg sarcasm ; on the other,
dear statement, dose reasoning, and keen re-
tort. These speeches) apart from thdr rhetorical
merits, are of high historical value, from the
light they throw upon the secret history of the
compromise of 1888. Mr. Calhoun laid great
stress upon his, as being the vindication of his
pubhc life. . In one of his replies to Mr. Clay he
declared that he rested his public character
upon it. and desired it to be read by all who
would do him justice. He did not confine him-
self to defend, but retorted blow for blow.
Some sharp passages also occurred between
him and Mr. Webster. Previous to this de-
bate he had been involved in another, in
which he had almost the whole senate upon
him. It was equally the policy of both the polit-
ical parties to keep the slavery question out of
congress, as a subject upon which it was very
difficult to speak or act without offending
either the North or the South. With this in-
tent, both houses had adopted rules, the result
of which was that all petitions and memorials
on tliat subject were at once laid upon the
table, without being read or debated. The
northern whigs had indeed voted against this, .
contending that all petitions ought to be re-
ceived and referred to their appropriate com-
mittees, but still they were as well satisfied as
their opponents to avoid or escape debate. Mr.
Calhoun did not sympathize in this feeling.
Unlike the leaders of the two great political
parties, he had no friends to be placed in an
awkward predicament, nor any apprehensions
of compromising himself. He had already de-
clared his conviction that slavery was a pos-
itive political and social good. It appears
by a letter of his written in 1847, to a mem-
ber of the Alabama legislature, and publish-
ed rince his death, that he was from the be-
ginning in &vor of ^^ forcing," as he express-
ed it^ the slavery issue on the North, believing
^at delay was dangerous, and that the South
was relativdv stronger, both morally and polit-
icaJly, thsn ehe would ever be again. Not di»-
oouraged by the failure of the South, and even
of his own state, of which he complained in the
letter abovd^ rererred to, to back up sufficiently
his former attempts, he had offered a aeries of
resolutions having the same obiect in view.
The chief debate was on the fifth, which de-
dared that the intermeddling of any state
or states, or their dtizens, to abolish slavery
in the territories or the district of Columbia,
on the ground that it was immoral or sinflil, or
the passage of any measure by congress with
that view, would be a direct and das^rons at-

tack on the institntiona of all the dsvclioldiDg
states. Mr. Clay moved as a substitute two
resolutions, one applying to the district, the
other to the territories. Theee resolutions
omitted all reference to the moral or religious
character of slavery. For *^ intermeddling*'
they substituted '^ interference." The abohtion
of slavery in the district was pronounced a
violation of the faith implied in the cessions by
Maryland and Virginia, and its abolition in any
temtory a breach of good faith toward the
inhabitants who had been permitted to set-
tle with their slaves therein, and, in both cases,
a ground of just alarm to the slaveholding
states, tending to disturb and endanger the
union. Mr. Calhoun, though not favoring this
amendment, perceiving that the senate would
go no further, voted for it In the course of
this debate he stated, in reference to the Mis-
souri compromise, that when it was made he
was in favor of it, but that he had since been
led entirely to change bis opinion, and to regard .
it as a dangerous measure. He had condemned
Mr. Randolph's opposition to it as too uncom-
promising, too impracticable, but was now fully
satisfied that if the southern members had
acted and voted in the spirit of Mr. Randolph,
abolition might have been crushed for ever in
the bud. He rejected with scorn Mr. Bu-
chanan^s proffer to support the amended resolu-
tion, with a view to soothe and tranquiUixe the
feelings of the South. The South was calm and
collected, and could take care of herself. He
was anxious^ and sudi was his object in offer-
ing those resolutions, to present some common
ground on which the refiective and patriotic of
every quarter of the union might rally to airest
the apnroaching catastrophe— an object in
which tne North was at least as much inter-
ested as the South. To new diarges made against
him by Mr. Clay, of being a partisan of the admin-
istration, he in^gnantly replied that he was no
partisan of any man or any administration. He
supported the constitutional treasury becanBe it
accorded with his principles and views of policy ;
and he stood prepared to oppose or support, on
the same ground, other measures whidi the ad-
ministration might propose. It was, he said,
his fortune to stand in the senate alone, with
no other guide but God and his consdence. He
sought neither office nor popular favor. He
also denied explidtiy any connection with or
knowledge of tiie existence of any par^ uming
at disunion. On the contrary, he was seeking
to preserve the union, by opposing injustice and
oppression against the weakest and most ex-
posed section of it, in which it was his lot to be
cast. In a subsequent speech on the repeal of
the salt tax, he insisted that the union waa much
more in danger from consolidation than firom
dismemberment, and that South Carolina, in
striking the blow which led to the compromise
of 1838, aimed not to destroy but to preserve
the union, an object to which that blow had es-
sentially contributed by brin^g the protective
q^tem to the ground.— Having beoome a sap-

^^^^TJAuwra ^^^^^^^^3^ f

p.- '-...-.•

■ • "■-

^H r>- ',"<wf jwr«"

jNtjtl

l> '..1

1 •

1 >-'

' H

■ >''''

^^H

ir..

■ *-"'

^^^

liB

iviiidi-gfii^- ^H

■ ru ,^

tnrfTied ofit ^H

^1 l^rwvii boi 9nli#tOi« '>

^^1

H l<fih•cu^^

^^1

^1 Eicmniiiii^

^^1

H ikvfUltetif rH^ji

^^H

T.'

■aiik

ramtii ^H

t]^^ _^ .. . __„._, „:^.„._„

^, ... -^i, „i..Ltiajo

TU« It ^M

■tooa hif {iffufuHi wuti Cnas, iml^mK iW idrit«

fool, 11 ^H

rrtcrrilnjr^. Ou' i!i>

ki f tt^ 1 ^H

■ !.>:

kfi.iHii ^1

H J

H ^

■ ImI

' iiLrJiim lum-tL." iO ^H

■ IF

n</|3JK^d tU TTalff, tin ^H

^V t' > <

' 4Ti.r-

tLdi Uniiiui uiiL IL ti:;r.o'jKKi Mi DOClkihlHiTnil ^^M

^B \ ' : J

:*be,

[ji/W«t»i Iqi m t3i« Tiom fMoziictUiUiiietv pcil* ^H

^H :»^''

t tho

i£r^ Ualbcciii ran ^H

■ ('^

iJTwd

^H 1

■r— t

^H i:^

^uiiilli£r«i»rTcaitf»Mid tbiioj<i^.af ^H

^V '

a<a^!t]Qtllll}fUlAU)%UllSiOCIf<Sl«niM ^H

J i^i^UM C^ W

^ft .c^-

- lo4tfi!i«t!t mni

H ^

^H «^

■ Tiofibf^r T ^M

^l U'

mm tA L ^H

^V ••tt.ic^-i ■

1 itmivic,

n^ti<:r«. liny tjJ^iA lei m u:^ tllUit iu/j»r%JJVi<- ^^H

jiDQi trem \mmA li«il llesi Ud«i braig^ifc io iN ^H

■ I'M §ae mi-

.^mti^ms^

K »

-sdfo-

i^,ii ,. f i'.,^.i,\..,KryU* OiffHSi* ikdM^HQTof ^H

^B *^

<t<f^

Mr - «aa tLliaa«i»l¥U MUififlff ^M

•244

OALBOUir

fhe uinezitloii movemaat. Lord Aberdeen, in
dieolidming onbehalf of theBridah gOTemment
the special facte alleged, or any' aeoret plot for
the abolition of slavery in Texas, or anj dispo*
aition to resort either openly ot aeoretly to any
measaree whioh would tend to disturb uie peaoe
and tranqnittity of the alayeholding states, or
the proflperity of the linion, admitted howoTer
at the same time^ as a thing well known both to
the United States and everywhere elsa that
Great Britain deaired and was oonstantly ez*
ertinff hersdf to prooore the abolition of slay*
eiy throngboot the world. In replying: diortly
after the trea^ was oonolnded, to tnis dee-
pafedx, Mr. Oalhonn took the latter admissioia
as an admisnon also that the British gorem-
ment was laboring to prooore tiie abolition of
slayery in Texas, and as having Justified on the
part of the United States, as A necessary aot of
self-defenee, the treaty of annexation Just con-
dttded. Tlie Mexican minister at Waabington
bad given repeated noticea that the signature
of a treaty of annexation would be regarded by
Mexico as an aot of war. The treaty, and alons
with it a copy of Lord Aberdeen's desoatdh and
Mr. Oalhomi's reply to it, was sent to the Amer-
ican minister at Mexico, with directionB to dis-
avow any disrespect to that coontry, or indifbr^
ence to its honor or dignity, and to represent that
the effints of Great Britain to abolish slavery
in Texas— which, if accomplished, would lead to
a state of things dangerous in tne extreme to
the adjacent states and the union itself— had
oompdled the United States to dgn thttreaty of
annexation without stopping to obtain the pre-
vious consent of Mexico. Ae disposition, how-
ever, was expressed to settle all questions which
might grow out of this treaty, including t^t of
boundary, on t^e most liberal terms ; and the
mfauster was privately anthorized to tender
Me^dco by wav of peace ofiBering and indemnity
as much as $10,000,000. On the day of the
date of this letter (April 19) the treaty was
sent to the senate^ wnere, met a warm de-
bate, it was rejected bv a vote of 86 to 10.
Previously, however, to this rdection, Hhe tteatr
had had the eflbot to defbat Mr. Van Buren's
nomination by the democratio convention. He
as well as Mr. Olay, the candidate of the whiga^
had avowed himself opposed to immediate an-
nexation, on the grouna that it was equivalent
to war with Menco. In consequence of this
avowal Mr. Van Buren, though voted for by a
miljority of the convention, taSM to obtain the
two-ttiirds vote which the rule of that body re-
qubed, and eventnallv Mr. Polk was nominated.
Mr. Polk went into the canvass as the avowed
advocate of immediate annexation, and the elec-
tion having resulted in his ikvor, he beoame
very urgent to have the matter acted upon by
eongress before his acoeoion to office. At
the ensuing seaiion. Joint resolutions were
introduced ror receivmg Texas into the union.
These resolutions could be owrried throo^ the
senate only by annexing an alternative pro-
vision for a negotiaticm to be opened on the

subject with Texas and Merioo (the prerident
to aot under either provision as hie might
deem best), and by means of a promise from
Mr. Polk that he would act under the latter
proviaion. Li thi% however, he was antici-
pated by Mr. Calhoun. Witiiin 3 days after
the passage of the resolutions, and on tiie
last day of President l^^er's term of offioe,
he despatched a meoBenger to Texas to bring
her in under the first provisioo. As Mr. Polk
did not see fit to recall this messenger, it is
reasonable to suppose that the message was
sent with his approvaL Mr. Calhoun, who was
engaged in negotiations with Great Britain on
the 8ulf}ect of Oregon, would have been willingi
and expeoted to retain his position as seoretnrj
of state. Though not included in the new
oabinet, he was ofifored the place of minister to
England, but declined to accept it Hedidnoti
howevesv retire to private life. One of tho
South Cfarolina senators resigned his seat to
make room for him, and at the next sesaioii
(Deo. 1846) he reappeared at Washington as a
senator. In the violent debate at that sessioa
on t^e Oregon question, which threatened to
involve a war with Great Britain, he announced
himself the decided advocate of oompramiae and
peace. He deprecated war not merely for thecoat
and slaughter it would involve, but still more
for the social and political changes hy which it
would be attended, especially the increase of thko
power of the federal government The Oregon
question was peaoefoUy settled. The controvert
sy pending with Mexico ended in war. Thou^^
we Mexican government had at first indignant-
ly rqjected the advance toward a aettiemeat
made by Mr. Calhoun, they had afterward oon*
aented to receive a minister, and it is probable
that, had an arrangement oeen seriously and
ddmdly sought, it might have been effected.
The great dimcnlty was not the unwillingness
of the government, but the unnopularity with
the people of any ooncessionf which was there-
fore dangerous to the stabihty of any govern-
ment that might venture to consent to it^
Without waiting for the Mexican people to be-
oome recondledto a treaty, the president or-
dered tiie American troops in Texas to takm
potessionof the disputed territory on the north
iMmk of the Bio Grande. When the Mex-
icans oi^osed by force this occupation, the
prendent informed conmss that our territory
nad been invaded and that war had been
commenced by the Mexicans, and requested
that bodv to recognixe its existence and pro-
vide for its prosecution. }ii» Calhoun qpoke
against the bill introduced for this purpose^
but as the case was hopeless did not re-
cord his name against it. He was, however, nt-
teriy opposed to the war thus commenced, both
as unnecessary and uxdust. At the next sestioo.
the American forces having already oceupiea
the northern provinces of Mexico, Mr. Calhoun,
in his speech on the 8 million bill, advooatea
the poucy of abstaining firom further invasion.
Be pnfXMnd to hold tiie country already in

^^^^^^^^^^^ OAinonr ^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^... ..#

■' ■■^' ■"■

■" 1

}i.

iMLli iffli^w 1 1 v,diij** '}'■ V H J LJ^t 1^*1 : 11 -7

rn*.iU'-.

^^fl

^^^H

ilOMl pwtrfui Oilil ^ i aa « Demfl iif

liiiffti y^

^^^^^

L Thm^-**-' -- 1'- •••" '^'■^--

»,,. 1 1^ ...

^^1

^^^H

lOlJiMi

^^1

^^^H

lukvfiaii^tii.: ..

..,^ ,..,„^ _^; ..^ ->

^^1

^^^B

di*niloi»i«l Ml |»-

^^HIH

wiUi ttr Xm-tu;'

bi!

It*

f^H

w»

■

^^^^p

•-S 1

. cUl'j liJ -itiu.

^^1

^^^K

► Wtki

,iiDito|^iiil#r

^^1

^^^^H

feC^ L!J'' t'utir-.iiiii'i

' ' om tiii^t

^^B

^^^H

|U«7frQ iiilliiirUyLi'

.'rd«»ei, lU:'

■

^^^H

bf Ui»c**Hisi'^ *'

-1,., -J_1L4

^^1

^^^^1

^fAM t^i rooof'

^^1

^H^B

nK5,-*^Mjjdifc?v-^ ._,- -

^^B

Vdk~

-^oieMni,— Tiifi Wnmr

imtMmat^im 1

■iidi. T.>iW 1

^H|H

i|w

'Ib^ ^1

^^^^^

^Kin !h.^ b-rtt!:ic . di*

4»^

^^H

^^^^^

r«Uitui4i-"

^<i iit« &*ii' ^^1

^^^H

In^ 10 fu

' -M- tit'T'. t : ^H

^^^P

rr. ■■ i.-^i^

^^^Hi

IT ... '..-fflll

(be mar.

^^H

a|fx

i fi/tl fi^ Uiii Lti^'I-ir ami e2iflfil»

Mp§m>i

^^B

ric.

:^omim Inlmm. Bm ifltro-

portA 3

;: ' -.-^.- .. ^..-v ^-^-.,.

j^m m it, fer

• It'll*

tl>ij«j«ifc —

^^1

:il)d

^^M

^^■fe:

..... IMT

I^^^^B

!' ; Ttfift aoj^

Qtaik^nu

■

^^^^K

I -1 dnotiduQ

tJisti^jr.

^^B

^^^^H

^ ^tluf to pc^
s < iHtet friHa

llMx

umoesf wo'iiM ^H

^^^^K

U ;i

rittlfcr of tilt ^M

^^^B

^^lAt^ A 1 tn Wsf of tlltt

gcyvflnifiv

^^^^^

p-iy^. * oT iU ojTM^

IfraSmiik

e ^d ol cmrJirM ^H

^^^B

t^ 1 ffibvnn Uifi

aail pojfuUr if^iUi

jUah cf tbo ^H

^^^K

It ^ Mn^C«i fip.}a

ifntrtinljrooiydii L

^^^H

H^ -41 riH'jr Uf/^*^: '.^- M

4lihiiilfi cncitiwycQ a

^il^Ube H

^^^^^

^■l ^loiioCiMT!^) t4ff^

AoAqu Jbr t^ Urasiiftr

rijC mill ^H

^^^H

^By«Bjf f uiiju ImmQ Ihttr jibLmit.ni t^t mm^

ftETiflfti ttlA& ft UV2t£f ^

^ -^^ ■

^^^H

isfi^ciMiil lli« 10 mmtm ]

^i.' ^H

iMmiarteii Ikmm fvif^ttUmii^ 110I {inlr in S

ftttlo^l^lltlllj|>:i~^

■ .,;^ U«| ^J

edto* b €1* MUBt«^ bnt la ^tfp^Mi Mivuml

ItyMinUifflooofiilMi

l^raidcDi^ mk mhot* ^B

•846

OALHODir

ity. A resolution hftTing been o£fbred in the
senate congratolating the French on the snooess
of their revolutionary struggle, he moved to laj
it on the table, on the ground that it renudnea
to be seen, in the sort of government to whioh
this revolution might lead, whether it proved a
blessing or a ourse to Irance and the world.
Mr. CiiSUioun warmly opposed a bill^ introduced
on the recommendation of the president, to
occupy Yucatan, both for the protection of the
white population, who, in danger of extermina-
tion by the Indians, had sent to ask assbtance,
and in order to prevent that country from be-
eomiogthe colony of some European power.
In this speech he ezphiined the oriffin and
objects of the so-called Monroe doctrine,
which was assumed by the advocates of the
bill as the settied policy of the country.
That he denied. Mr. Monroe's declarations
were made for a temporary purpose, and had
never been acted upon. He saw no advantage
to be expected from Yucatan at all commensu-
rate with the cost of its acquisition and the
burden of its defence. As to the question of
protecting the white race there agamst the In-
dians, his sympathies were with the white race,
though he denied any aversion to any race, nsd
or black. But it was not quite dear that the
war in Yucatan was a war of races, and still
less was it dear that the whites were blameless
in the matter. Moreover, there was a tendency
in all the Spanish American republics to a con-
flict of the same kind between the whites and
the Indians. ** Are we to declare now by our
acts that in all these wars we are to interpose,
by force of arms, if need be, and thereby be-
come involved in the fate of sol these countries?
Ought we to set such a precedent? Ko. The
first duty of every nation is to itself and such
is the case, preeminentiy, with tne United
states. They owe a high duty to themselves —
to preserve a line of policy which will secure
thjir liberty. The success of their great po-
litical system will be of infinitdy more ser-
vice to mankind than the ascendency of the
white race in the soutiiem portions of this
continent, however important that mav be."
In his speech (June 27, 1848) on the DiU to
organize the Oregon territory, he warmlv op-
posed the extension to that territory of the
anti-davery provision of the ordinance of 1787.
Carrying out the prindples of his resolutions,
he not only denied any power in congress to
exdnde slavery from the territories, but in still
stronger terms, any power to do it on the part
of the inhabitants or legishitures of the terri-
tories. Even admitting the power in congress,
he denied the justice of exduding the South from
any nartidpation in territory, to the obtaining
of which she had contributed her ftill diare of
money and blood, and to the eijoyment of
whidi she had an equal right He started in
this speech the suggestion that the constitution
ci the United States, extending into the terri-
tories acquired from Mexico, operated to repeal
the Mexican laws abolishing slavery. Jn a

second speech, he went into an daborate history
of the rise and progress of abolition at the
North. He complained that the South had
encouraged and aided it by admitting political
fellowship with politicians who coquetted with
abolitionists. He insisted that if the South
wished to save the union, or save hersdj^ die
must rouse to instant action, sudi as would
evince her fixed determination to hold no con-
nection with any party in the Korth not pre-
pared to enforce the guarantees of the constitu-
tion in favor of the South. By taking tliat
course, a host of true and futhful allies would
rally to their support even in the North ; or, if
not, it would only prove that the South had
nobody but herself to depend upon. But it
was not merdy on the territorial question that
the rights of the South must be respected. He
enumerated the same grounds of complaint
mentioned in the Alabama letter (which had
not yet been made public), to which he added
the agitation of the slavery question in as wdl
as out of congress, and the total neglect into
which the frigitive slave law had fSallen— thus
laying the foundation of the new fugitive dave
act passed soon after. Messrs. Benton and
Houston having voted for the anti-davery
dause in the Oregon bill, he denounced them
with energy as traitors to the South. — ^In the
dection struggle between Gen. Taylor and Mr.
OasB, Mr. Celhoun does not appear to have
taken much interest At the short sesnon fol-
lowing the dection of Gton. Taylor, he was
very him in efforts to form a union o( the
slaveholcung states, irrespective of all preexist-
ing party differences, to resist the progress
of abolition. For that purpose a series of
meetings was hdd, at which none but dave-
holding members were present, and attended
at times by 70 or 80 members, a part of whom
were^ however, not favorable to the object of
the meeting. At the first meeting a committee
of 15, one from each state, was appointed to re-
port resolutions. This committee appointed a
sub-committee of 5, at the head of which was
Mr. Oalhoan. He drafted and reported an ad-
dress, which after some modification was
adopted, and signed by 48 senators and repre-
sentatives. It reiterated the same ground of
complaint urged by Mr. Oalhoun at the previous
session, and proposed the same remedy. The
union of the South might bring the North to a
pause, a cdculation of consequences, and a
change of measures; if not, the Soutn would
stand justified in resorting to any measure ne-
cessary to repel so dangerous a blow, witliout
looking to consequences. At the next seadon,
pending the discusdon of Mr. Clay's compromise
scheme, Mr. Calhoun, who had been for some
time laboring under severe pulmonary disease,
to which was now added disease of the heart,
prepared an ehiborate written speech, whidi
was read for him (March 4^ 1849) by another
senator. He dedared in this speech his belief
fh>m the first that the agitation of the subject
of slavery would, if not prevented by some time-

■

^^^^^^^ CU!*llOU1fl ^™

^^^■||Pbel\?9

IDlA^i - . ,

^^^^^^Ki»r^r, tftvnc ai;

^^^^H^% diLiur ~

*v\

^H|Kf UfVinW

^■^C^^f '.r -•.-

« '-' »v »"-■ '

^^^^B^^'

^^^^^K

jjii inH'i^ri*^ 1

^^^^^Ki

_ lit*' t-afU irr" 1 j-ifi*

1 Vi»W9 W|£|« llltal

^o:fTir!^FiiBfintrN>d

■.» **•• :i

'.u«3

. 'Vlh

^^^H^^

'1 Mdk'Uj^iliiLbiriiii^:^ iii^

. iKl

^hk:^

pToirmcAi of ftit prnwtft.

rini

^^^^^Btiifi n^i^jLui'^ t^ LU b^e, ofii] in Urn luu^ : ui : in

^^■^■nad «0tfrff3r t^t 1^ nunaur. Th<m lu^ K«l« ^'lui ^ i

■^■Pi^J''^-

1 .r.t, ^iK. ^ .... «^y<^i i^.{,n V

«. i\r |L^,ITI1 ^^H

j^dfB to hii '

^ & iMiiAior ii loiJjwn to wm ttiv^

. nni^''ik*'J li¥ iA a!!. ^7.1 TT*' Liit*.':.

"" 1

-— 1

•248

OALHOUN

sore to it, bat nether bis multi&rioiia oocapa-
tlons nor bis cost of mind permitted bim to be
a general reader. He read to inform bimself^
and was well informed, but bis opinion often
expressed was tbat reading made a secondary,
tbinking an original mind. He did not disdain,
bowever, but bigbly enjoyed good poetry, good
novels, and able reviews. He was not weijoltby,
but bis peonniary means, under bis excellent
management^ were amply sofficient for tbe wants
of bis family. According to tbe fasbion of bis
part of tbe oonntiy, be kept open boose, and tbe
family seldom sat down alone to a meal. Tbonsb
bimself uncommonly temperate in all things^ be
ei^oyed in moderation tbe pleasures of tbe ta-
ble, at wbicb time be was fond of seeing all bis
family assembled about bim. He usea to say
tbat good digestion depended greatly on cbeer-
fulness and equanimity, and be took tbe lead in
promoting at table conversation and gayety. Tbe
mode of life at Fort Hill was simple and ration-
al, and tbe absence of all form and ceremony,
combined witb real refinement, made it a favor-
ite resort. Thougb 'be never permitted com-
pany to interfere witb bis occupations, be was
ready at all times to furtber tbeir ezgoyments.
Tbe nours after dinner till bedtime were more
particularly devoted to conversation, music, &o»
Tbongb not musical be was fond of Scotcb and
Irisb songs and ballads, bis favorites among
wbicb be would call for evening after evening,
and listen to witb unfEuIing pleasure. Mr. Oal-
boun rose early, and devoted bis mornings to
writing. He WfiJked a great deal over bis plan-
tation, personally superintending its minutest
operations. He was tbe first or one of tbe first
in tbat region to cultivate successfully small
grain and cotton for market. Tbe slope of tbe
mountain wberebe resided bad been considered
too cold and variable in climate for cotton as a
market crop, and too far soutb for small grain.
From its position, a very elevated countiy in a
soutbem climate, tbat district is peculiarly
adapted to fruit, to tbe raising of wbicb Mr.
Calboun devoted mucb time and attentioui
and witb excellent success. He not only
bad tbe finest melons, figs, peacbea, and otber
Boutbem fruits, but bis apples, pears, cber-
ries, grapes, strawberries, raspberries, ^bc.,
were e(}ually excellent Tbese, bowever, were
not raised for sale. He was bimself ex-
tremely fond of fruit) and be deligbted in sbar-
ing it witb otbers, enbandng its flavor from
bis kindly manner of making presents of it to
bis neigbbors. He was not only fond of agri-
culture, but an eminentiy good and successfU
planter. Tbere were a few among bis neigb-
bors wbo difTered from bim politically, but in
agriculture bis autbority was never disputed.
His servants were in all respects well treated.
Tbey came to^im as umpire and judge. Of
tbeir private crops be purcbased wbat be
wanted at tbe bigbest market price, and gave
tbem every &cility for disposing of tbe rest.
A rig^d justice regulated bis conduct toward
tbem, wbicb ih&j repaid by devoted affec-

tion ; and this system of management was so
successful tbat to bave been an overseer at Fort
Hill was a bigb recommendation. He was al-
ways impatient to return borne, and remained
tbere till tbe latest moment Wbile tbere, bis
agricultural employments and social duties,
tether witb bis large correspondence, and in
bis latter years bis works on ^vemment, occu-
pied every moment of bis time. He was an
excellent shot, and till bis eyesiffbt failed, gen-
erally carried a ^n as be walked round bia
place, rarely missmg bis aim. He was an un-
wearied walker, and kept pace witb tbe young-
est and strongest of tbe party. Nature in all ber
moods and cbanges was cbarming to bim. He
sympatbijsed strongly witb ber beauty and ber
grandeur. Tbe mountains near bis residence
were very wild and picturesque, and be highly
enjoyed excursions among tbem. I bave often
seen bim, when a thunder storm was approach-
ing, walking in bis portico, which compianded
a fine view of tbe mountains, appajrentiy wrapt
in ike contemplation of tbe sublimity of the
scene;" Jn a uuniliar conversation with an in-
timate friend a few days before bis death — as
we learn from another authentic source — he
referred in tones of deep interest to the dear
streams, tbe quiet solitudes, and sublime slopes
of bis native mountain region. In bis person
Mr. Calboun was tall and slender. His coun-
tenance at rest was strikingly marked by de-
cision and firmness; in conversation, or when
speaking, it became highly animated and ex-
pressive. His large, danc, brilliant, penetrating
eyes strongly impressed all wbo encounterea
their glances, when addressing tbe senate he
stood firm, erect accompanying bis delivery
with an angular gesticulation, which, with tbe
general cast of bis person and character, oansed
Harriet Martineau to describe him as an ^^iron
man." His manner of speaking was energetic^
ardent) rapid, and marked by a solemn earnest-
ness which inspired a strong belief in bis sin-
cerity and deep conviction. He disdained all
rhetorical circumlocutions, and came directiy
to the point He was never commonplaoe^ and
never tedious. Upon every subject be was
acute, analytical, and orignal, dealing almoet
exclusively in argument His style was fordbla
dear, and condensed. He very rardy indulged
in tropes and figures, and sddom left any doubt
as to bis meaning. He bimself noted it as a
peculiarity of bis mind, and one that interfered
with his influence over passing events, that he
was disposed to follow every thing out to its ul-
timate results, disregarding its immediate, tem-
porary, and accidental bearings. — ^The works
of Mr. Oalboun bave been collected since his
death in 6 volumes, tbe first of which indndes
a disquisition on government, and a discussion
on tbe laws relative to the government of the
United States, which be left behind bim nnfin-
idied. Tbe editor, Mr. Richard K Oralis, of Vir-
ginia, is understood to have in preparation an
elaborate biography of the author, fonnded on
his private papers, and othw authentio materiaU

cja;t

OAUCO

/^ ATT rj# .C jt-^ J ifin nufC^A 1 J & rf»ftf f ^-a>cj|itf tirirri Ir. Tr,ri!i*-' Tn.cn T^.l* la T^ji^i^kAf *» trtiiPn

.^1 hetdCf'

kT.

•>ftrtL,

Cj'

WiulilnL

'• DOMPAeSSEa, or rAurca*. crmv

d viff-.'

' ' ill f3t£il tutu it51»|Lirtruk^

h t

1 jMirbj? 015 difiiiiifiin i

^^'-

■'■]-''- *> ^bich ||4fni«rtiL

. ,.1 N. til. IM KV

11.

l* 1

••«f»tt>iiof liboifHAir 1 i

pnuptii

iif; n.i^ ^r-i^

i. T?irx-f nqlaiv^s^ n-r m.

tJ»0 Elff

r;;S3

m^^ *m

la4.'i.4 u^.

mJikSft

•1 ill |iP*rf^.;

«p«*e

mJ tHp4tW«, .jCNli fVf

^"inn ^|^^D-- 'IjiijUrQ^:

fii^i^

u:id M5)il« liicitfimi of

mUoA pnkiL uoniiii&t l:

"fe-

Mai-

JVbrH art l»(^^iuc.^i ur pi«^ oft kn* «:.' i ,

' ' , "

G(i

t>n1 .

B^Tiu-Ta. Ift'inmt? ci-'lvlifati-sl fur l*n rtfailvl

i\m lak ttfiil ir<>oIllD viiiif «nhp

a 1 ;

^.ff^rp^^ I«iltao(bttw«s7iof

■arn-M :i

<> ,

-•ta. II..-

d 1f0#Q lit LUL> L»[i4U% kji iiAr;!!^^ Uf.ir

t«n LLJL' ;«iiri

<;'•

' ^MSmaii €ok^ whkh U s m^

OioMUir, [

ii£ tiiiM firli

fnr

nfUHiAt* of cl^:..-, ^ 1

ftflOtlt^^^ » ■-:- .-.(.: :,■-■: ..-^.^ .. , ■:^

aack»yc«, red, jutliiw, ^

Uio f^MSrkMftn ti|)o«i Uiio ni^EiffRiaiir* wjm r^-

-•r^i

• . iiLk*n.l^^*-^t HiiMLti Lwn:.

r^*j*il*-4 : l»iU a *ivs *irrn!. r* r rijil n--.'j*o>titiiJi:'^l,

k-^^

W.r :. 1

^'*!i| 0»4f*rf »rilh

%4^i^ Af« viUui&wi^f iU «taui.^%l ju^

urn pcrtioo <ii IW datin

244

OAUOO

Mqnently applied in the same spot to HH in
another portion of the fignre in another color —
tills process was soon nearly saperseded by im-
mense machines oonstmctod with the greatest
Ingenuity, capable of producing 16 or even 20
oolors at once with the same precision as in the
case of the simpler machines which printed
only 8 or 8 colors at once, while at the same
time 600 or 700 times as many pieces were pro-
duced per day, as if they had been blocked
separately with the same number of workmen,
employed. The progress of this rery impor^
tant branch of the manufactures of Great Biiir
fdn is elaborately treated in the valuable trea-
tise upon dyeing, in the work on chemistry by
Br. ^Inspratt This also contains full and dear
details of the numerous processes, chemical and
mechanical, applied in conducting this buaness
to its present high state of development The
art, perfected by the highest chemical talent^
which has been most liberally directed to im-
prove it, owes its prosperity as well to the inge-
nuity of the mechamdans who have applied
iheir skin to the construction of its wonderM
machinery; while the taste of the artist has
contributed its share to give that constantly
increasing elegance combined with novelty of
pattern to its products, which secures for them
the demand essential to the success of the man-
ufacture. It is curious to consider the great
variety of taste which the calico printer is
obliged to consult. As articles of dress, his
goods are to be worn by the half-clothed savage,
fond of a display of gaudy colors; they are to
please the most refined tastes of the ladies of
dvilized nations, of those of eastern harems, and
of the wives of African kings. Almost every
country upon the globe is a customer for these
goods, ana each demands peculiar styles, pat-
terns, and colors. These, too, must be varied
with the seasons, and always present some
novelty. For this purpose artists or pattern d&-
dgners are especially employed, whose constant
occupation is to furnish new patterns, from which
the printer selects those he Judges most likely
to be popular. The expense of this branch is
to some of the large establishments as much as
f4,000 per annum ; agents are employed to col-
lect in France the new patterns as nst as they
appear there, and send specimens to their em-
ployers. The French artists are admitted to
produce finer designs than the English, while
the latter nation daims a superiority in the
mechanical departments of calico printing. In-
deed, the art of designing is stated by the Eng^
lish to have retrograded, the patterns now pro-
duced being altogether inferior to those designed
many years ago by artists of great merit. The
cause of this is veiy probably the dependence
upon the French, and the feicility of copying
the work of their artists. — ^The preparatory
operations to which the doth is submitted be-
fore printing have been in part described in the
articles OALKNDSBiNa and Blsaohino. Printing
involves numerous operations of great diver-
Mty, of which but a mere outline description

can be attempted Inan artideof thisoluMoter.
The old method of printing by blocks is still
practised in some parts of the process. The
cloth is spread upon the surfoce of a smooth
table covered with a blanket, and receives the
impression of the figure, or a portion of it, by
the application by hand of the block of wood,
upon which the pattern is cut in reli^ The
Burfiice thus printed varies, according to the
size of the block, from 9 to 10 inches in length,
and from 4 to 7 indies in breadth. The w>th
is moved along the table as fiist as printed, and
the colors transferred from the block dry upon
it, as it is suspended in folds upon roUers. The
blocks are sometimes made by raising the pat-
tern with slips of copper inserted in the wood,
by which they are rendered much more dura-
ble, the fi*equent applications upon the long
pieces of doth soon causing the wooden blocka
to lose the distinctness of outline of thdr de-
signs. Pins in the comers serve to make amali
holes in the cotton, which mark the points for
placing the block the next time. A second or
third color is introduced into the pattern bj
using a second or tiiird block, so engraved aa
to fill in the vacandes left by the precedii^.
A modification of the block^ caUed a " toby/'
has been contrived, by which several ook>n
have been applied at once. — ^A oompHcated mar
chine, exhibiting great mechanical ingenuity,
was introduced into the French printing estal>-
lishments in 1884, by M. Perro^ of Bouen, by
which the block-printing process was rendered
much more expeditious than by the ordinazy
hand method. It was named tat its inventor,
the perrotine. Its construction is too compli-
cated to admit of description. As improved in
1844, it printed variously colored patterns on
white ground with the utmost ddicacy, and
with such economy of labor that two men could
print in 8 colors from 1,000 to 1,600 yards
of calico daily : an amount of work which with
the ordinary olook would require 25 printers
and as many tearers (assistants for keeping the
colors in order to be received with every inf-
pression upon the block).— Copperplate print-
ing was introduced in the works near Londcm
about the year 1770. The designs were cut in
the fiat plates in intaglio, and the color, applied
upon the whole surface, was removed frcnn the
smooth portion, leaving it in the sunken paria
The stun received it firom these on being pressed
into them by such a press as is used for print-
ing engravings on paper. The change firom these
fiat plates to a cylindrical form introduced the
method called cylinder-printing, the greatest
improvement that has ever been made in the
art, the importance of which can scarody be
overrated. In some of its forms, not the most
complete, it is stated that a mile of calico can
be printed off with 4 different colors in one
hour, and more accurately and with better effect
than by hand blocks. One cylinder machine,
attended by one man, can perform as much work
in the same time as can 100 men with as many
assiBtants. The invention of the madune m

^^^^^^ GAuro ^^^ li» ^J

.,*.-^Lf«,*j.l .1^. - — .ll^«. ""^Tlfitf QAIlUld

Hiiooiiim of '^^^ ii lA*-,--^ ^v,^>A k.- ^-.1- ^H

^^M

' iK^ibtftit

Ttiitrm^ * ^H

.- >*,.f -tl./**!* .1

^^H

^1 1'

W'Aflil' ^^

mIi

.,..„..: 1

■ '.

■ - ,:L

^■^

fe -

'U ^S./i«-i| «»I. ^H

■ t

hiCJ^be^yW: ^H

^T »

icyd 4t:i ' ^/itacttf ^ ' ^H

?v«rt ! ^Kl|lilr)f«^1 ^H

^b II

■ i

Qblna-hJiiv ' ^H

H u ' '

'■*

widUiiiiia ^M

.•!u«ur i^ rirm^ upia lijici n*Lii:tfli

ll'lf' ■ ! ■*"'■ 'Ml 'ffijiRjuia Lniinoi UY v-id ^^H

^1 T

IT ooc^ti Gtift In Gciuiaiai frilli iii

^^H oil j^#fc^M

^H inline tto

leluilMdriUiiiUHi exigmw^^ ri

^H iVOtlTViVvt

^iir, wd anpof t R^ llief ttri^riL

^lLaib4 iifoooiv lo^ratflmg iKtrnvmiii du^^i.^^ ^H

^H t/J 'Jk^ f^tkMi pfr^^^l Ivtif^r.!} iblif fiWO 0tld

OfmmtloiM. Whit*!t V,*iriiil4 rrjiiilTi* v.jIeiill. ^ip- ^H

tl ■

H 1^

ti^'. ' ' 1

^^^H

■

OuUiiiilll (UlLtt^, '* 1

H ^

iBtiift ■nj? rtf*^m' ■

^H ocMi^i^iuiCw

t^li ii^.i 'jr

bj ci^1i'> • ^H

th«»«MtM(;

^H til- ' ^

OtA V ' ^H

^^1

t^e dy „ ^M

^^^^H

tk& of tii« monkuc wiikah l4a« n ■

^^H

i7h*ii

chiiifij whiri] nnnlcTw it iaMiuib n^ t ■

^H '^

^^H

^^^H

L iii^a Aj-d'

. fl BJfl^'f-

^^H

idJ|Q«cni» ■

^^H Lia. iL'Ti iz<

.^jun^ij pstTijL'ii-

t*> ve'mru ca^ih IS iiktt^ i * 1

^M lA^ i«ri 1

-^ikm sud mBT*

wylNiBirfilitf«ttpi'90«l'' 1

m. »V».l., ■» -. ;«

^^1

-,-.,| .:.^, . !,

^H fi

rwfk Isilii oicL

^'MtloM* emf .1 mm% of ^H

246

CAIIOO

the animal prodnct^ and are eaUed labstiintes.
For delicate colors a solution of bran is also
used. Kot oidy is the useless portion of the
mordant removed by this method, bat the ma-
terial employed as thickening is also dissolved
ont, and the mordant which remains b the more
firmly fixed by uniting with some of the con-
ttituents of the dnng or of its sabstitntes. The
oloth, after being paned twice through the dnng-
becks, is severiu times washed in clean water,
and is then ready for dyeing. Upon the care
with whic^ the danging operation has been
oondnoted, the delicate effects to be produced
in great measure depend. — ^The padding style is
practised only with mineral colors. A colored
ground is obtained by passing the cloth through
a tub containing the mordant, and then between
9 rollers covered with blanket-stufi^, which nress
out the superfluous liquid. This is callea the
padding machine. It next goes through a sim-
ilar apparatus which fomiahes the color. If the
object is to obtain a design on a white or color-
ed ground, the cloth may be first mordanted in
one padding machine and then printed in the oth-
er; or, as commonly practised, be first printed
with one of the solntions^and then be padded
or winced in the other. Wincing is the pasnng
of goods back and forth a number ci times over
rollers placed in the dye-becks below the sur-
ftee of the dyeing liquid. — ^The topical style,
or steam printing, is the application of steam to
fix more stroncrly colors that do not attach
themselves firmly to the doth by being merely
printed on together with the mordant. It is
called topical worn the colors being themselves
printed upon the cloth. These are sometimes
permanent without the application of steam ;
and many cheap goods are sold, principally for
exportation, in which the fugitive colors, called
spirit, fancy, or wash-off colors, are fixed nei-
ther by a mordant nor by steaming. Steam not
only makes the color more permanent,but gives to
it a brilliancy and delicacy of finish. It is applied
in a variety of methods— by exposing the goods
in a cask, steam-chesty a tight chamb^, or recep-
tacle called a lantern, or in that commonly used
for calicoes, called the oolomn, to an atmosphere
of steam at the temperature of 211^ or 212° F.
The column consists essentially of a hollow cop-
per cvlinder perforated with numerous hol^
placed upright in a small apartment fnrnishea
with a fine for the exit of steam. Around the
cylinder is rolled a piece of blanket, then a
piece of white calico, and afterward several
pieces of the printed and dried calico. The
steam is then let into the cylinder for 80 or 40
minutes. — ^The resist style is the printing de-
signs with some substance^ as oil or a paste^
which will protect the porti<»s it covers from
receiving any color, ana which may subsequent-
ly be removed. They may be of a nature to
act mechanically or chemically, and designed to
resist the action either of a mordant or a color.
—The discharge style is producing white or
bright figures upon a colored ground, by dissolv-
ing out the mordant in goods not yet dyed, or

the c^e if this has been first applied, and then

printing the portions anew with the hand block.
Ohlorine and chromic acid are commonly used
for removing organic coloring matter, and mor-
dants are dissolved by printing with acid solu-
tions. "White figures are thus produced upon
the imitation turkey-red bandanna handker*
chiefs by letting a solution of chlorine flow
through hollow lead types of the form of ^e
figure, the ^rpes in 2 corresponding plates, one
above and the other underneath, being set in a
press which contains a pile of 12 or 14 hand-
kerchiefs. The plates are brought together with
a pressure of about 800 tons, and this is suffi-
cient to prevent the dilorine water from bleach-
ing the fabric beyond the limits of the types —
The Ohina-blue style is a method of forming a
patteni, partly of white and partly of different
shades of blue, by first printmg with indi^ in
its insoluble state ; and then reducing this to
the soluble state and dissolving it upon the
cloth by immersing it in suitable preparationa.
In this process the dye is transferred into
the substance of the fibres, where it is predpi-
tated in the original insoluble form, ana of tne
same variety of shades that were printed upon
the goods. It is very curious that in this pro-
cess the shades when dissolved do not run to-
gether, nor even spread upon the portions left
white. — ^Very interesting statistics respecting
the production of dyed goods have been collect-
ed by Mr. Edmund Potter, reporter for the jury
on printed goods in the great exhibition of 1851,
and these were made public by him in a lecture
the succeeding year, before the sodety of art&
The immense importance of this branch of
manufactures, will justify our giving some space
to these details. The annual production of print-
ed doth in Great Britun, induding muslins, de
lainea, and printed woollens, as well as calicoes,
is estimated by Mr. Potter at about 20,000.000
pieces ; and in the cotton fabrics about 4 oi the
whole importation of the raw material is thus
consumed. The entire export oi manufactured
cotton goods, not induding yams, was in the
year 1851, 28,447,108 lb&, and about | of this
is supposed to be printed goods. The following
table shows the proportions sent to different
countries in 1851 r

Hambarg tad nortili Ocmumr, Urge portion

In transit 900,000

Holland 800.000

Bolglom S0.00O

Denmark tt,000

Sweden nnd Norway SOJOOO

BuMla-OdeaM only 14,000

France— in transit 00,000

Naples and SlcUj 980^000

Sardinia, Tnscanr. Trieste 720,000

Turkey, Ionian Idee, Qreeee, Malta 1,440,000

E«ypt. 8&0O

Gibraltar and Spain 960^000

FortngalandMadein 410|.000

ChUlandPom 1,010,000

Hezieo STQ^OOO

Brazils and east coast of South America 8,060,000

British West Indies

Foreign West Indies

St. Thomas

British North America 4l«y000

United States I,«l0y000

i^nyooo

OALIt'O

^^F CALfrOEKlA %47 ^|

ni-fj

? !>*<• r^nt, E»rrT*r liM llV^irttft r»VriTf^ ^M

J^ fl

tu n tiiifXlkw'.*** h TT. it". Til ^^1

uiu ^v^ mid

■ L\ 13

a or

IT" ■'-- ^¥A Id ^H

Sao B^cmrdba, Sas Dii^fQ, Sea lrr7iDi:kQ<x 3mi ^H
J^»^tiki, cfdA Ltiii Oyffiov Baa MfttoQ, MaU ^H
BArlmra, S«J>*^ ("^aitl ^iitmIa rmz^ *^hiuL%. Sti ^^1

' ' i4A 4ri>

if^l»l, !.**>«. jliuva

Jv*, ^liil ii''aJ--ft. Ui tii. -, i:i4'4 i- nia ca^^j ( jil^, ^H

248

GAUFOmn/L

in 1852, 84,876, in 1858, 70,000 to 75.000), the
commercial capital of the state, Bituated on anar*
row point of land between the magnificent baj of
the same name and the Pacific ocean, in lat. 87"*
47' 86'' and long. ISS"* 26' 15", is the chief citf
on the Pacific coast. Within the brief space of
10 years it has sprang from the condition of a
•mall village compose of a few adobe houses
and a few nnndred inhabitants to that of one
of the chief commercial centres of the world.
Sacramento Oity, the political capital of the
state, and the second city in importance (pop.
25,000 to 80,000) is situated on the Sacramento
river, in the county of the same name, about
90 m. in a direct line and 120 by way of the
river K. E. from San Francisco. It is a town
<^ much commercial importance, being at the
head of navigation for large steamboats, and
die interior depot for the gold collected from an
extensive mineral region. Marysrille (pop.
10,000), in Yuba co., on the Yuba river, near
its confluence with Feather river, is a town
whose importance arises from the fact of its
location at the head of navigation on Feather
river (of which the Yuba is a tributary), and
its commanding the trade and travel of the
northern mines on Feather river and its
branches. Stockton (pop. 7,000 to 8,000), in
flan Joaquin co., is rituated at the head of
a "slough^' about 8 m. distant from the San
Joaquin river, and about 100 m. E. from San
IVancisco by water. It is the chief depot
for the southern mines. Los Angeles, in Los
Angeles ca, near the coast, is the largest town
in the southern part of the state, and was
originally a mission station ; as was also San
Jos6, a beautifid town in Santa Olara co.,
7 or 8 m. above the head of San Fran-
dsco bay, and about 50 m. from San Fran-
cisco. San Jos6 was at one time the cap-
ital of Oalifomia. Benioia (pop. in 1858 about
2,000, in 1858 about 1,500) was also formerly
the capital of the state, and is situated in
Solano CO., on the strait of Earquenas, which
connects San Pablo and Suisun bays; and while
it remained the political capital, it was a place
of considerable business importance, but has
since declined. Nevada (pop. 5,000 to 6,000),
the capital of Nevada oo., in the northern part
of the state, is the largest mining town in the
gold region. It is dtuated on Deer creek, a
confluent of the Yuba, at an elevation of about
8,000 feet above the level of the sea. The
other principal towns are San Diego, Trinidad,
Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Monterey,
Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, Yallejo, San Rafael,
Sonoma, Napa, Oakland, Mendocino, Humboldt
City, and Klamath, all on or near the coast ; east
of tiie Coast range, and for the most part among
the mines, are Shasta City, Downieville, Grass
Valley, Nicolaus, Mokelumne Hill, Sonora, Mari-
posa, San Bernardino. Yisalio, Columbia, Pla-
cerville, Coloma, Auourn, and a few others
of less importance. — ^Two enumerations of the
population of Cidifomia have been taken since
its acquisition by the United States, those of

the national censos of 1850, and the
census of 1852. Owing to the extremely nn-
settled state of the population, and the Isolated
position of a large portion of it^ the returns
are necessarily very imper£Dct> and suoh sta-
tistics as were coUected at the general cen-
sus of 1850 were mostly destroyed by fire,
and consequently never reached the census
bureau at Washington. In 1881 the population
(Meidcan) was estimated at 28,000. By the
census of 1850 the number returned was
92,597 ; by that of 1852, 264,485. In the lat^
ter number were included white males, 177,410;
white females, 22,198 (a disproportion between
males and females which indicates a veiy
anomalous state of society); citiz^is over 21
years of age, 115,000. The population in 1858^
as carefully estimated Cm part from actual r&*
turns), was 518,880, of wnom 217,750 were white
male adults, 70,000 women, 44,680 childrcoi
under 18 years of age, 4,000 colored persons,
making a total American population of 886,880.
The foreign white population is put down at
67,000, of whom 15,000 are French, 15,000 Mexi-
can, 10,000 Irish, 10,000 Qerman, 2,000 English,
and 15,000 of various nationalities, ma^g a
total white population of 408,880 ; to which add
50,000 Chinese and 65,000 Indians, and the grand
total is 518,880. Although a very large propar-
tion of the population of California migrated mm
the other states of the Union, yet almost every
nationaHty in the world has its representatives
there ; but the most remarkable foreign immigra-
tion has been from China. From 1849 to 1857,
inclusive, 75,801 Chinese arrived at San Fran-
cisco, 18,434 of whom arrived in 1852, and 16,-
068 in 1864. During the same term 17,524
took their departure, mostly for their fiither-
land. Allowing 10 per cent, for deaths, there
are now about 52,000 Chinese in the state.
They are represented as a very quiet, peaceful
orderly, and industrious people, excdling all
other classes in these respects. They are di-
vided into 5 companies^ each of which protects
its own sick and indigent Members of ue sane
company rarely quarrel, but there are ocoaaon*
al disputes, and have even been pitched battles,
in some of the mining districts, between parties
belonging to different conipanies. Their chief
occupations are mining, nshing, wasidng, and
trading in such provisions and articles as are in
demand among t^eir own people. They have
among their number very few mechanics and
physicians, and no lawyers nor priests. A
Chinese newspaper was published in San Fran*
Cisco for several years, but has been disoontin*
ned. There is a Chinese theatre in San Fi«n-
cisco. The Chinese usually engage in large
partnerships to work or trade, 20 or 80 often
joining in mining and 6 <»' 8 in kee^ng a shop.
Y erv few are employed to work mines owned
by Americans, or as servants. As debtors they
are said to be verv trustworthy, and they gen-
erally preserve the style of dress peonUar to
their country. They all know how to read
their native language, but have few books.

^^^^HI^^H

T^i»f fy^. K;^!n*^t t** fiun

7-^ ^T»?4

th* tflfrntft rjf t|>^ Ttjkr* f^^i^h ' vV-it ! 'n r. s ^^^^M

^^^^^^H^

--^t

^^^^^^^k

I'fjem.

^KKKtm-

Ai^.

■^►-iiliWrniii ^^^J

^M~*^

IfU^lKbtt^^H

^M W '

1 y\f uyrUt^*^ ^^^^B

■ ^

^^^1

^B n*'.

1 fvin,-- :

■

^^^^P^>

' aLT» iir,-i iM

^^^^^1

eul^^tttion. aad :'

IT tM lilJCJiiC-

chati h ^^^H

■ dOM of fl lllt«4 A^ ^

^^Kc?fif£iit0 and

iliisL lo l«r iliH mii ^^H

^^^^ h_-L^ nfi lv?lt»^a Tit

L^iif. i^sr- Wri-

^^■LW'' '

^^H^fa» rv-i«rfatiiitka .

m iTiiil M cU ^^^H

^^^KlltW,th.^

^t^ntl (If 1 ^^^H

^^^^^■ide fUfBci'

i^nri&U'^ ^^^^1

^^^^^^e tv'.

^^^^^■r

:ti«r9Arobo|fiiwiiblMb ^^^H

^^^H?:

ir^insuiU. OalL^jHioUi ^^^H

^^^^^■f-'

iiiH f.iti n^tit«»}fc^ and ^^^^H

^B.

lor ^^^H

am^. |i«n of ibii tt:ii«, willed ^H

^^^^^^HtTi^

,rot a«i>oti li AXiimili Hi ^H
v>,ncid i&T#ff d!7«ii- ^H

iti viait«Ri jiwi ml t^o ^H

1 |yw^n- .

250

OAUFQBiniL

moaniidiis rmminff K. W. and S. K, and gener-
allj parallel, callea the Sierra Nevada (snowy
range), and the Ooast range. The former
ehoots off from the latter on the S., the
snow-capped Mt. San Bernardino, near lat. 84%
long. 117^ (said to be 17,000 feet high), being
the connecting link. Thence it sweeps N. W.
to about lat. 38° 45', long. 120% whence it ex*
tends dae N., forming from that point the £•
boundary of the state. At the N. end it is
again united with the Ck>astran^ monntmns bj
a transverse range in which is situated Mt.
Shasta, 14,890 feet high, in abont kt 41'' 15'.
The Sierra Nevada is bjr far the most lofty and
rugged range, its summit being generally above
the region of perpetual snow, and having but
few, and those very elevated passes. Its ndea
are covered to about half their height with a
^owth of oak, succeeded by forests of gigan-
tic pine, cedar, and cypresL and these by the
naked nranite and snow, from its W. slope it
sends off nnmeronsspors into the interior valley ;
and among these lies the great gold region dis-
covered in 1848* The highest p^ks, after those
already named, are Mt St Joseph, about 10,000
feet; the Butte, 9,000; Table Mountain, 8,000;
Saddle, 7,200, &C. The Ooast range, as its name
indicates, runs along the coast, giving it that
rook-bound character so forbidding and danger-
ous. This range averages from 2,000 to 8,000
feet in height, and is divided in its length by
long narrow valleys, the Los Angeles, SaUnas^
Santa Clara, Sonoma, Napa, and others, and also
by the bay of San Frandsca The portion to
the £. of this bay is known as the Contra Costa
range. The breadth of the coast mountiuna
(from the Pacific to the great valley of the Sac-
ramento and San Joaquin) does not exceed 40
miles in most parts of the entire length of the
state. The valleys in the midst of l^ese coast
mountains, some of which are 60 miles in lengtii
by 10 broad, possess an equable and genial di-
mate. On the S. side of the break caused by
San Francisco bay, is Monte Diabolo, 8,770 feet
high, and on the N. side Table Hill, 2,560 feet
high. Beyond this point the range is generally
low, but with a few very elevated peaks, as
Mt Ripley, 7,600 feet ; Mt St John, 8,000 feet;
and Mt. Linn, the highest of the range, but
whose precise altitude has not yet been deter-
mined. The interlocking spurs of the two ranges
cover the whole northern end of the state^
and give it a very broken and rugged charac-
ter. The mountains of this range are clothed
throughout with luxuriant forests, and contain
a great variety of minerids, of which some of
the most valuable are found in abundance. Be-
tween the Coast range and the ocean occur
numerous minor ranges and isolated hills, fre-

Siently approaching the water^s edgo^ and en-
osing a succession of the most beautiful, salu-
brious, and fertile valleys. The range of the
Sierra Morena, or Brown mountains, on the S.,
lies between the Facificand the Salinas or Buen-
aventura and San Juan rivers. To the N. the
Pacific slope is still more broken with low hills

and momttaina.— Between the Sierra Nevada
and Ooast range lies the great basin bearing
the double name of the San Joaquin and Sacra-

icid formation. This extends N, and S. about
500 miles, with an average breadth of from 50 to
60 miles, and presents evidences of having once
been the bed of a vast lake. At the S. extremity
are the Tulare lakes and marshes, which in Uie
wet season cover a large extent of surfiEice.
Along the great rivers, Uie valleys are gener-
ally low and level, and extremely fertQe, rising
into undulating elopes and low hills, as the
mountains are approached on either side, and
broken on the £. by numerous well-woKoded
spurs from the Sierra. At the N. end is an elevat-
ed nlateau, about 100 miles in length, covered
with rugged hills. East of the Sierra, in Tulare,
San Bernardino, and San Diego cos., is a region
little explored, mostly level much of it suidy
and barren, but to a considerable extent well
adapted to graang, and along the Colorado sup-
posed to have a rich alluvial soil — On the W.
side of the Ooast range near Bodega bay are
found sandstones, clays, taloose slate, and trap
rock. The Sacramento valley over the moun-
tain to the £. contains conglomerates and sand-
stones, and on the western slope of the Sierra
Nevada talcose slates again appear, with granite,
trap, and serpentine. There is a volcano in
Calaveras eo., and volcanic vents, surrounded
by deposits of sulphur, &c., occur along the
coast — ^The climate of California, owing to
the diversities of surface and other causes,
varies greatiy in different parts, irrespective
of the great range of latitude, 9i^, through
which ^e state extends. San Diego in the
S. is in about the latitude of Charleston. S. C,
and Crescent City in the N. in that of Prov-
idence, R. L; but the climate differs very
greaUv from that of the Atlantic slope in the
same latitudes, and probably fix>m that of any
other country in the world. The peculiarities
of the California climate generally, as compared
with that of the Atiantio states, are, that the
winters are comparatively warm ; that the
rains are confined to winter, and not half so
abundant as on the Atlantic coast, the sky dear
for I of the year, thunder storms rare and
never severe, with hail storms in February and
Mardi, but never in summer, nights cold even
in midsummer, with little difference in the
temperature of winter and summer partic-
ularly on the coast from 85** to 40"*. Pxx>perly
speaking, California has several climates; the
basin of the Sacramento and San Joaouin val-
leys having one ; the western slope of tne Coast
range, N. of lat 85^. another; and that portion
of the state S. of 85*^ still another. The climate
W. of the Coast range is different from that K
of the same range, which is less than 60 mUes
in width. For instance, San Francisco and
Stockton are in very nearly the same latitude,
one on the coast, and the other in the San
Joaquin valley, E. of the Coast range; there is
very little difference in the elevation of the 2

»l

f,Wi^. Ttit !l U ?1aI^1 ijfi Tcr*^ ifn^wt ftti^lHif- ni»<hlF.tt'H«Hffir^l?S^«7T%TrGlAi!jL— T'lTiftimiiiL**

1 -i it^i^Mnjiy (^(■•j<#in^|

•W Mili-nndjr«i»^

nil J i^'ru['

,!3ii

''(ISA

1% iHjm

^ ^ 1 ikhn III

ii+T irtiv

c J4 Mf ^iUti^x :>uiii LL41 l^^viLuDtj' ta 4U>iit loL 3lJ ' Ig XUi ', 11 Liu^ iir 14^ rj;;iliiia»

OAUfOBNIA

oud/ wuUucm, The portloii wiiUn OaKfiir*
Bia Ues along the woBtora dopes of the Siena
Kevada; bat gold has also been fonnd on the
eastern aide^ and amon^ the moontains of
the ooaat in the latter, its amoont haa been
aappoeed to be so small that its prodnotioa
oonld never beoome profitable, bat recent dis*
eoreries in Marin co. (near Ban Eranoisoo)
and elsewhere, indicate the existence of rich
aoriferoos qaarta in confliderable abondanoe.
lOnmg is now (1658X saocessfoUy carried on
in portions of 28 counties ; bat the proper*
tion of the reffion aotoally oceapied to tbat prof-
itably avulable does not jet, as we infer from
the statements of Dr. Trask, state geologist, ex«
ceed 4 (»r 5 per cent Operations were at first
confined to the *' diggings," reqoiring merely
manoal labor and some simple apparatos for
separating the gold fixmi the soil oy washing.
The gold ihos fonnd is generally in a nearly
pore state, and in all forms from minote parti-
des to lamps of ssTcral ounces and even ponnds
m weight. This spedes of indostry is stiu pros*
eonted with vigor, and in msny places deep
shafts have been simk and broad hills tanndled
in search of richer '* placers," enterprises often
crowned by rich rewards. Bat the largest
deposits are found in the beds of streams,
many of which have been turned from their
natimd channels in the search. Ancient river
beds, long since dried op, are also found richly
charged with the precious metal AremarkaUo
vein of some hundreds of feet in width, called
the Great Blue Lead, in Sierra co., presents
abundant evidences of being such a bed, although
it has been traced through the centre of hiUa,
and in places is crossed by laive living streams or
obliterated by deep ravines. Wherever traced, it
is walled in by steep banks of rock, between
which are sedimentary depodts of light-blue day
impregnated with arsenic, tightly packed with
rounded and polished pebbles and bowlders of
quartz, resting on a hard bed-rock worn into
long, smooth channels^ It contains throughout
very large deposits of gold, of which, as in living
streams, the finer partides are found at the ddes
and minted with the day, and the heavier and
filthier in the centre, restang on the bed-rock.
iV>r a distance of 20 m. this bed has been
worked, dther on the surface or bytunnds
through the superimposed hills, and found nni-
Ibrml V presenting the same characteristics. In
the dry season the natural supply of water
essential to mining is in great part cut off, and
for this reason, as well as to render available
mining lands at a distance from streams, canals
and ditches have been firom time to time con-
structed, amounting in 1857 to 4,405 m., at a
cost of $11,890,800. with about 900 m. more
in progress. But the auriferous quarts found
throughout the region, and doubtless from the
disintegration of which all the deposits of
"dust'' have been derived, promises to be the
most permanent and certdnly remunerative
source of the precious metd. This occurs in
veins and ledges of greater or less extent^ and

varies grsaQy in yield. An aversflo ratorn of
$15 to $20 per ton is considered profitable^
but this is occadonally many times exceeded*
The richest veins b> yet worked are at Grass
Valley, Nevada oo« The Allison Bench vein,
in that locality, yidda $800 per ton. Theeapar
bilities of this spedes of mining are as yet but
impecftctly developed, since, mm the creater
outlay of capital and ingenuity raqoire^ it ia
but a few years nnce it became permanently
established; but the abundance of the material
would seem to i^equire ages to exhaust it. The
rock is crushed in powerful mills, and the gold
extracted by amd^unation. Of these miUa (the
first of which were erected in 1851), ihen are
now (Aug. 1858) in operation 188,. of which
86 are propelled by water, 48 by steam, and 4
by horse power, and several more are in oooise
of construction. The aggregate number oi
stamps used in these mills is 1,521. These
mills are dtuated in 16 different counties, but
chiefly in Amador, Oalaveras, £1 Dorado, Kari-
posa, and Nevada. It is quite imposnble to
obtain any accurate figures showing the amount
of gold taken from the mines. The only reoords
fk'om which an approximate estimate can be
made, are the books of the custom-honse and
the U. S. branch mint at San Fxandsoo, which
show the amount shipped according to the man-
ifests of the vessels leaving port, and the amount
deposited for assay, comage, or otherwiseu
These figures give the following result :

1849 MiUfSO sa.^94S

18S0 2T,«T<(,M6 98,tOCnS

185t .42,588,605 6S.88S.iSS

1853 4«,58«,184. ^OTO^SIB

1853 57^1,024 64,488,886

1854 01.439.09S 4S.819.088

1855 45.168,681 49.019.S4a

1856 .51,148.268 58.879,901

1867 49,840,186 19,750,808

ToUl,97Mn..9876»191,683 888S,96fi»4M

What proportion of the diipments had passed
through the U. S. mint it is imposdble to tdl,
and how much has been brought away in pri-
vate hands is unknown. It is estimated that
100,000 miners have returned from Odifomia
to their homes, each of whom took with him
more or less gold, and tins added to the quantily
manufactured into ornaments must swdl veiy
considerably the amount as exhibited by the
deposits at the mint It has been estimated
by intelligent persons familiar with the oam-
merce and industry of the state, that the
enture gold product of Oalifbrnia, since the
first difiKDOvery of the predous metd, is not
less than |600,000,000.--NearIy all other
minerals, as well as gold, are fonnd in Oalifor-
nia. Of these, quicksilver is the one which haa
hitherto received most attention. Cinnabar fore
of quicksilver) is found in severdlocdities; Dot
the prindpd mine yet opened is at New Alma*
den, Santa COara co., which is bdng woriced in
a very thorough and sdentifio manner, employ*
ing 200 men. The Guaddupe mine, in the
same locdity, put in operation in 1856 witib
a foroe of 100 men, proves very rich* The total

■

^^B CAiirftsmA s^i ^1

■_,...„.,

.,d-w*- <-. iJ.,^ m.^,--^ ^C(^,4 ».*,^!

V Itli BIKWflMC tilt) wlM oil] ^H

H ^40-

H-A^'"

xrir/«aiaa ^1

^■M^^i^'

; ^VL^'fitTL" YittiJlJ, ^^^1

u. bii«kif b ^H

^^H,

' iiL hiifp i^H' ^^H

^^H;

♦ *^*

J4^T7u7M'f, . :^ ^H

^^^F

■Ifffl

pmp^'

■ il rrj (insr^vi

A urar^kv ^H

tl\:

; miimttmu^

IntfUe r ^1

Ik'

-^^^--- dV

£f<JtlAf|JLti| ^'» iL .-^i^rij [i-Aur H« ^^^1

■ '

■.*p

[D«iC||i>, fill. ^. f^CO^ .Ti ^H

M.^-

l..^ ;.jVt u i«f

iiiftii iiAd« Id Lba f<iiit-v ^H

Wmt

itfl^Q Ndof

Kafir^^i^, Aikd iIk* ^H

^WF.

. rkt^iiTiti!

cf'liirviiik'* L\T.» !:r' ■ ^^H

■^^^^B 1^'

^^1

■^fcrai n

iAtmttm

Will UmM JJi ^H

^^^b^r/'.

in iniAK

Clim ^> Ifl ^H

^^^^^H^BIti

'iO»

fori' jif^iHni;^.] a- ^H

^^^^^^^^k!

^7 ■

ri'i

^^■k Bofnr^i

rm4|»l)arr1. S Wilditti^ Hk ^H

^^^^^■^^r, r,

■tfe,

^^^Hf

^^^^^^^Kr.

lSo rttnif^ ^ tn t ' l1.^4. fii.^r.^i ^^H

^B;

^B^

.1^ wcft^ti-tt? '

^^^^^K^.

'arilit*4jiiL'

I ^H

^^^^^B 4

a«a BtP.

Lilfl 1

^^^..

, i-j. >*,,■■ ,

...jiH ^H

^^^k^

^itOiiW t

n to m mimf&Hi^^ aIu^ ^H

niui v'lv

. . Jki «w tlM n^TviP-!. tifti ^H

^^^^^^r^ --

' It iiiim;

mlpffi^ MMl\ b4irii8)« ^H

^^^B-

M^mdte^ i''

: ijMi m^ w>*t]«jii^ ^H

^^^^^n,

e;-f«ol

u>*;MiiJmf^j0»»£fii. il l«i ^H

^^^^^^^H

tat, fa IF

TnAll fnirp0i tin Ukd t^k^rm ^H

Hk^

^^^^K

• la

Qiki^itn^ a^^ »ki« bi^octiii « rnnr : j^ ^H

^^^^■1^^^, ....

-- .- — . - V .vm*

»na ftiiiii^sL Bif Tr«# Q/4iv«. JTcinr 4» ^H

^^H^^fl^i

mk In Urn mmmi\ ^iotniAi

S04

CAIIFDBNU

Maripoeft ca, eoataining 184 trees over 15 Ibet
in diameter, and nearly 800 smaller ones. In
all these groves there are many trees firom
800 to 400 feet high, from 25 to 84 feet in di-
ameter, and of exceedingly graoefol proportions ;
and some of the largest that have been felled
indicate an age, by the ordinary mode of reck-
oninff, of from 2,000 to 8,000 years. The wood
oloseTy resembles red cedar, with not quite so
even a grain, and is very durable ; the oark in
some specimens is 18 inches thick, of a stringy,
ehistio substance, and reddish brown color.
Beeds of this tree have been pUinted in EngUwd,
the young trees, 8 or 4 feet hiffh, are said to be
growing thriftil}^ near the level of the sea.
The redwood {a, Bemp&rvireMy EndL), which
bears a strong resembknce to the mammoth
tree and is sometimes mistaken for it, fre-
Quently grows to a height of 800 feet and a
oiameter of 15 feet. It is a soft, straight-
grained, free-splitting, extremely durable and
very valuable wood. This tree is found on
the plains or mountains near the ocean,
and grows in dense and large groves. The
sugar pine (ptnuM Lambertiana) is a magnifi-
cent tree in sife, and one of the most grace-
ful of the everereens. It grows about 800 feet
high and 12 feet diameter at the base. The
wood IB free-splittLog and valuable for lumber.
It grows on the Sierra Nevada. Instead of
emitting the rednons substance of the ordinary
pine, it furnishes a saccharine sap, which by
evaporation becomes granulated and crystallizeo,
and has very much the appearance and taste of
common sugar. The Dougks spruce (pintu
Douffl(Mni)y the yellow pine (pintu oraehyptera\
and the white cedar {lit^eedrtts decurren$%
are all large trees, growing more than 200 feet
high and 6 or 8 feet through at the butt The
wood is coarse-grained and is not valuable for
Joiner-work. The nut-pine (pinus edulia), the
cones of which contain edible seeds about the
size of the kernel of a plum stone, grows on
the coast mountains and at the base of the
Sierra Nevada, and is of little value. The
California white oak is a large, wide-spreading
tree with a crooked trunk, and is of no value
except for fire-wood. Among the other trees
and shrubs found in California, may be men-
tioned the evergreen oak, the maderone, man-
ganita, willow, sycamore, bay-tree^ cotton-
wood, horse-chestnut, live oiJl, spruce, fir,
cedar, ash, beech, and other trees of commercial
value. The almond grows wild in the coast
mountains in Santa Clara co. A wild coffee
tree, bearing a berry much resembling tiie real
coffee, grows in Calaveras co. Edible berries of
various kinds abound in some portions of the
state. There is also a great variety of indige-
nous grasses. Kany species of CalLfomia trees
and shrubs bear a strong resemblance to
species found in the Atlantic states and
Europe, but they are not the same, and
many of the trees of other parts of the conti-
nent do not grow in California. The botany
of the state generally presents peculiar charac-

teristics^ offering a highly intsresting fisld fat
scientific investigation. — No portion of the
world offers better facilities for grazing and
wool-growing than a great part of California,
and considerable enterprise is already exhibited
in that direction. The following is the return
of the number of domestic animals for 1856 :
cattie 684,248, horses 109,991, mules and asses
80,641, sheep 258,812, goats 4,544, swine 186,-
585, poultry 266,886. The whale fishery is
prosecuted to a small extent on the coast The
sslmon fishery of the Sacramento river extends
over a distance of 50 miles, employing, in 1856,
150 boats, 400 men, and a capitsl of $75,000;
number taken, about 450,000, averaging about
15 lbs. each ; total value estimated at $84^875.
The native ouadrupeds of California are nu-
merous, of which the principal are the gps"
lyand other bears, cougar, wolf^ wolverine,
wildcat, the cuyote (an aniinal between a fox
and a wolf), moose, elk, antelope, mountain
sheep, deer, lynx, fox, badger, raccoon, mar-
mot, hare, rabbit, squirrel, &c. Of fur-bear-
ing animals, the sea and land otter, seal, beaver,
and muskrat Of birds, vultures of great size,
the golden and bald eagle, turkey buzzard,
hawks of various kinds, geruloon, owl, raven,
shrike, robin, thrush, lark, magpie, jay, wood-
pecker, humming-bird, swallow, grouse, cur-
lew, goose, duck, penguin, pelican, albatroea,
and various other game and sea birds. Of
fishes^ the sturgeon, bass, niiackerel, codfish,
crawnsh, blaokfish, clams, oysters^ lobsters,
crabs, hialibut, sharks, trout, sslmon trout,
smelts, sardines, salmon — ^the last 2 in suffident
abundance to be articles of export Horses
and cattle roam wild in great numbers
over the uncultivated districts, and before
the discovery of gold the hides of the latter
fomifllied almost l£e only article of export
— Perhaps the most wonderful of the many re-
markable natural curiosities of California is the
Tosemite viUley or dell, with its surrounding cas-
cades and mountain peaks. The name of this
valley is sometimes written Yo Hamity and
Yohamite; but Yosemlte is the orthography
more generally adopted. It is described by
writers who have recentiy visited it as possess-
ing scenery unmatched for wild and romantic
b^uty and sublime grandeur. Its course is
nearly east and west It is about 10 miles long
and nearly 8 miles wide in the centre, from
which it decreases in width each way. It is
bounded on all sides by waUs of yellowish granite
from 2,000 to 4500 feet high, eenerally very
precipitous, and in places perpencucular, so that
the valley is accessible only from the ends ; and
here within a radius of 5 or 6 miles are 5
cascades ranging from 850 to 2,000 feet in
height, and as many rocky mount^n peaks
whose height ranges from 2,900 to 4,480 feet
'^The valley," says a recent visitor, '*is a deft
in the Sierra Nevada, watered by the main
fork of the Merced river, which, above and be-
low, makes its way through the mountains in
deep and dark gorges, scarcely getting a glimpee

CJOsmvBU

as^

111 tjri^4*lit'Lt,v

lt'Lt,i.'_=v iinf^-r 1. 1:

,^Hh *jf ii

:i.l r»«»tK Wir.. -•

tic- ir4*3t.1CrOtN-

1 • '-^rt« ii

'tac cm^Jt

IIAHIC IhMl Clio kk

fill, ^- .

ivi* IriUt i^tie v:^.., ._ .„.. . .„i-_ Up

% wtoioa It ]M|9

Hod tbtt

ii.^^. ^i. .n. ■■■. 1..... ,,.4m, t«,tl I!if1^04*

tnurift a!pui4j ifuyttd, ^'i^iq oon-

♦Jl'« IJ tU**.'' fc»tH..if*ti*^U'1

VilLMilii^li&iDiaiM tr-.

^ar

lag % fio.;!!;^ . i*iLl4, wli^i

liftlier ^[m of 100 JMf R klru It
Qtinf iena,~bBf isipi wKleb tlio oitu liti* eoi bona

Qio«i urt»f.M^.L. ..V T .tT??«l mrwaile* from

256

OiUraBKIA.

Jeoto of interost to devotees of lutiare tnd of
Bdeatiflo re6earoh.«^The industrial interests of
the state, of course, centre in the gold mines, in
which probabljr one-half the entire population
are employed. In connection with this depart-
ment of industry th«« is a branch of the IT. S.
mint at San Francisco, pnt in operation in April^
1864^ at which there had been coined np to Jan.
1. 1857, $58,266,787 in gold, and $878,668 in
sdver, beside large amounts oi both assayed and
ran into bars. There are seyeral private estab-
lishments for the assaying and refining of gold
and other metals, and &e extraction of gold from
the '^ tailings " of quartz, or snch as, from the ad-
mixture of extraneous substances, cannot be re-
duced by amalgamation at the quartz mills.
Msnnfacturing industry has hitherto been con-
fined to those departments required by the
more pressing local wants, but in some of these
great enterprise and activity are being develop-
ed. During the first years of the settlement
the neglect of agriculture necesatated an almost
entire dependence on importation for bread-
stuff, and even vegetables, and the price of
flour frequently ranged from $20 to $80 and
$40 per barrel. Already, however, ^e case
has been reversed, and flour has become a staple
export There are 181 grist mills, 67 propelled
by steam and 64 by water power, with 270
run of stone, erected at an estimated cost of
$2,400,000, and capable of producing 2,174^960
barrels of flour per annum, several times the
quantity necessary for home consumption. The
manufiictare of lumber is also an important
branch of industry and of commerce. There
are 878 saw-mills, 171 propelled by steam and
202 by water; estimated cost, $2,500,000;
aggregate capacity, about 500,000,000 feet per
annum. The most extendve lumber district is
the vicinity of Humboldt bay, in the N. W.,
whence the export trade is mainly supplied.
There are 14 iron foonderies and machine shops,
adapted to the manufiioture of all kinds of
steun and other machinery, and of a capacity
to supply all demands; 18 tanneries; an ex-
tensive sugar refinery at San Francisco, employ-
ing 150 hands, and supplied with raw material
by a special line of clipper barks from Manila,
Batavia, and other Pacific ports ; a cordage
and oakum manufactory at the same place, on
the largest scale ; a large paper-mill in Marin
CO.; 4 large distilleries and 104 breweries, but
most of the latter are small local establishments.
The trade and travel between San Francisco
and the interior are carried on by steamers of
large size to Sacramento and Stockton, and by
smaller ones beyond those points, all of whi<&
have been built in the state. Ocean ship-build-
ing is also beginning to be prosecuted to some
extent at San Francisco. The U. S. govern-
ment has a navy yard at Mare island, Sim Fran-
oisco bay, the only one on the Pacific coast,
which, if completed on the scale projected, will
oost $16,000,000 or $20,000,000, and be one of
the most commodious in the world. It akeady
affi>rd8 oonvenieooeB for all necessary docking

and repain both of the naval and merohaat
inarine.-*The commerce of Oalifomia is mainly
carried on through the port of San Francisco,
which ranks as the 4th dty in the Union in
point of oommerdal importance. Its trade em-
ploys a large number of ocean steamers of from
900 to 8,000 tons burden, connecting with Um
Atlantic by railway via the isthmus <« Panama,
and by land and water tranmt throuch Nicara-
gua. Beside these steamers, mnltitudes of sail-
ing vessels of all descriptions arrive and depart
daily. In 1862 there arrived 718 vessels with
a tonnage of 261,852, and cleaiHsd 906, tonnage
860,872, about i of which were foreign. The
tonnage for the year ending June 80, 1857,
was as follows: arrivals, domestic, 102,639
tons; foreign, 46,608— total, 149,242; defwt-
nres, domestic, 213,884; foreign, 48,917— to-
tal, 262,751. Of American cities, ody New
York, Boston, and New Orleans exceeded this
amount. Number of passengers arrived at San
Francisco from April, 1849, to December, 1856,
860,118; excess of arrivals over departores
from 1852 to 1856, 82,969. The foreign imports
of 1856 amounted to $9,155,501 ; duties, $1,675,-
108. Totsl duties collected from 1848 to Dec.
81, 1856, 8i years, $15,485,766. The exports
of the chief articles of domestic produce, other
than gold, in 1866, were as follows: flour,
$766,212; oats and barley, $24,646 (1856,
$182,807); potatoes, $1,292 (1855, $26,712);
wheat $66,370 (1855, $92,686); tallow, $67,-
661 ; lumber, $48,818 ; ouicksilver, $795,898,
Ac.; totsl exports, $1,782,608, not includ-
ing a considerable amount of hides, of which
the value is not returned, and a few minor
articles. — But one railroad has yet been
built, from Sacramento to Folsom, 22^ miles,
which was opened Feb. 22, 1866 ; oost of con^
struction, $1,200,000. This road has beoi
eminentiy sucoes^ since its opening, and it ia
designed to extend it to several of the interior
towns, arrangements being now in proj^ess for
a northern branch to Aforysville or Oroville.
Wagon roads have been constructed from Sac-
ramento^ Marysville, Stockton, &c, to the prin-
dpal pomts in the mining region; that from
Stockton connects with the military road
from San Bernardino to Salt Lake Ci^,
a distance altogether of 1.100 miles, lliere
are 2 lines of magnetic telegraph in opera-
tion, with an aggregate commnnication of
560 miles. The canals and ditches for minins
purposes have been elsewhere mentioned.
For a railroad connecting California dhecUy
with the Atluitic states, 5 or 6 different routes
have been surveyed or explored, averaging over
2,000 m. in length, and varying in estimated
cost from $94,000,000 to $170,000,000. Con-
gress has made a liberal appropriation for
tiie construction of two wagon roads adiqpted
to the conveyance of mai£ and passengen,
which are in progress, and a through n&ul ia
already in operation over the route termi-
nating at San Diego. A through line of
magnetic telegn^h is ahK> in immediate oo&*

|cr

J..-H

IITJU7U

All .

Ml «ii4iuits b tbtt

I. _ ... 13^,

4^ itKiiitldf^ will I q«^

, ,, „, , T iiv in ^iifiwjpa Ur^^ttn^c^,

i fWodIj, 3 yMTRSDi^ mill 2 sijmiji-^1;
;- iiMieil III Sua Fnitmbav T at H««r,^-

. 1^ DO fidpurv --Ijl it qolNi

m.s}

•lUvX'i 17 tilV l^Q ^h'2^ IWTlTfc

SfiS

OAUFOBNIA

tioDB of ibe Bame kind, and there are wvenl
MOtB with a number of chnrohes whose statis-
tics have never been compiled bj tbemselves.
The attainable ohnroh statistios of the state are
as follows :

ChwcllM.

Cleify.

BMIU

Methodist North

S,S0O

£«00

1,000

600

eoo

1,000
650
70

68
80
15
11
11
42
18
1

PrMbfterUn, Old School. ..
PresbyterUn, New School..
ConrreffstionalUt

17
18
18

Biinflit

^pIsCOp&liAll

tJnltamn

Tot»l Protestftnt

T,820
80,000
10.000

170
M
8

160

OkthoUc

Hebrew

Total

97,820

845

The CamberlaDd Presbyterians and Gampbellite
Baptists haye each a namber of congregations
in the state. The estimate of GaUiohos in-
dades all who attend the Oatholio chorchesand
their children ; and tlie estimate of the num*
ber of Hebrews includes all of Jewish blood,
man J of whom neglect the observances of their
church. There is but 1 regpilarlj ordained
rabbi in the state, but a number occasionally
officiate as such. It is estimated bj intelligent
residents of Oalifomia that at least f of the
population of the state are Protestant by edu-
cation and sympathy, though not by church
membership. The average attendance at the
Protestant churches is said to be 6 or 6 times
greater than the number of communicants;
and the number of congregations who occasion-
ally meet for worship far exceeds the number of
church buildings. The Chinese, mentioned else-
where, are nearly all Buddhists. The Indians,
with very few exceptions, are destitute of any
creed beyond a vague belief in the Great Spirit
and unseen powers, and a profound reverence
for their medicine men. — The constitution of
California is similar in its general features to
those of the older members of the confederacy,
although differing from many of them in some
of its details. By its provisions, all legal distinc-
tions between individuals on religious grounds
are prohibited ; the utmost freedom of assem-
bling, of speech, and of the press is secured, sub-
ject only to restraint for abuse, and in triids for
libel proof of the truth of the charge and of good
intentions is a bar to damages^ the jury deciding
upon the law and the fact; foreigners who are
lona fdt residents are secured the same rights
in respect to pro^rty as native-born citizens;
there is to be no imprisonment for debt, except
in cases of fraud ; slavery and involuntary ser-
vitude, except for crime, are expressly prohibit-
ed ; wives are secured in their separate rights
of property, independent of their husbands*
control; a certain portion of the homestead
and other property of heads of families is to be
secured by law fhnn forced sale. Among the
restrictions on legislation are the following:
No public debt aball be created exceeding at

any time the sum of $800,000, except upon a

apedfio vote of the people, and then within
certain prescribed limits; no divorce shall be
granted oy the legislature; lotteries and the
sale of lottery tickets shall not be allowed ; cor-
porations or joint-stock companies may be
formed under general laws, but shall not be
created by special acts, and tne members thereof
shidl be individually liable for corporate debts ;
no charter for banking purposes shall be granted,
and the circulation of paper money in any form
is prohibited; the credit of the state shall not
be loaned to any individual or corporation, nor
shdl the state directly or indired^ become a
stockholder in any corporation. The right of
suf&age is conferred on all citizens 21 years of
age, not convicted of crime or idiotic, resident
6 months in the state and 80 days in the county
or district The legislative department oonsbts
of a senate elected for 2 years, and an assembly
for 1, the former consisting at present of 88 and
the latter of 80 members. All citizens resident
1 year in the state, and 6 months in the district,
are eligible to membership. The executive de-
partment consists of a governor, lieutenant-
governor, comptroller, treasurer, attorney-gen-
eral, surveyor-general, and superintendent of
public instruction, chosen by the people, the
last for 8 and the others for 2 vears, and a sec-
retary of state appointed by the governor and
legislature. The qualification of all for eligi-
bility is an age of 25 years or over, and a citizen-
ship and residence in the state of 2 years. The
judiciary consists of a supreme court with 8
justices, elected by the people for 6 years, hav-
ing appellate jurisdiction in civil cases where
the amount in dispute exceeds $200, in questions
of the legality of taxes, &c., and in criminal
oases amounting to felony ; district courts ^now
16 in number), with 1 judge each, elected for 6
years, having original jurisdiction in law and
equity in civil cases where the amount exceeds
$200, and unlimited jurisdiction in all criminal
cases not otherwise provided for, and in issues
of fact joined in probate courts ; county courts,
consistmg of 1 judge in each county, elected
for 4 years, who performs tlie duties of surro-
gate or probate judge, and, with 2 justices of
the peace, holds courts of special sessions; and
such a number of justices of the peace in each
county, town, city, or village, and with such
powers, as the legislature may direct. Salaries
are fixed as follows bj[ act of April, 1866, being
in most cases reductions from former rates:
^vemor, $6.000 ; comptroller, treasurer, snper-
mtendent or public iustruction, and secretary
of state, each $8,500; surveyor-general and
attorney-general, each $2,000 ; supreme court
judges, $6,000; district judges, from $8,000 to
$5,000 ; presiding officers of the legislature, $12
per diem, members $10 for the first 90 days and
$5 thereafter, and mileage at the rate of $4 for
every 20 miles travelled. — Revenue (exclusive
of that for school purposes) is raised by taxa-
tion upon real and personal property, which
yielded in 1856, $655,815 45, at the rate of 70

OAUFOBNIA

cents on (lOO, the total assessed valaation being
$05,007,440 97 ; by a poll-tax of $3 on every
resident between tlie ages of 21 and 50 ; and by
a small license tax on merchants, bankers, places
of amusement, foreign miners, &c. The receipts
and disbarsement of the state, from 1856 to
1857 inchisive, were as follows:

T«<«rB. Rarelittg. TXttmrMiiMnta.

1S55 $1,156.53710 $1^7,49664

1S56 72a,2^v9 8:J 1^63,684 81

18&7 1,152,284 00 609,803 00

The receipts for 1857 were from the following
sources ; property tax, $695,749 95 ; poll tax,
$75,027 43 ; foreign miners* licenses, $154,660
58 ; trade licenses, &c., $226,796 04. The debt
of the state in March, 1658, was as follows :

Bonds of 1S50, 8 per cent interest with interest. . .|6,&98 95

** - 1S50, 7 per cent due 1860 150,000 00

" •• 1S53, •* •* " - 1870 1,889,60000

" " 1855, *• « *» •* ** 700,00000

" "1856,"" •« « 187& 984,00000

In<lian war debt ....218,020 91

D. bt due bjr aUte to school fund 464,000 00

OuUUading comptroller's warrants 404,447 12

Total debt of the state $4,810,956 98

The state government commenced its fhnctions
under very unfavorable financial circumstances.
The expenditures of every branch of the admin-
istration were enormous, and there was very
little real property held under secure title, and
a smaU permanent population from which to
draw revenue. The consequence was resort to
the credit system. The emission of paper
money in the form of bonds and warrants, which
could only be converted into cash at a heavy
discoant, considerably increased the expenditure
of the government. The state constitution had
provided that the legislature, after its first ses-
sion, should create no debt greater than $300,000
unless sanctioned by a popular vote of the
peoi)le. None of the debts before mentioned
were submitted to the people, and the supreme
court decided in one case that the want of that
authority for a debt created after 1850 rendered
the legislation whereby it was created nncon-
5(ti rational ; and the court intimated that all the
debts created after 1850 were illegal In the
aatiirnn of 1857 the people by a popular vote
decided that all the state debts should be paid,
57,661 voting in favor of payment, and 16,970
for repudiation. During the year 1857 the
receipts into the treasury for the first time
exceeded the disbursements, and on Jan. 1,
ISoS, there was a surplus of $460,000 in the
treasury. In addition to the state debt, the
cities have outstanding bonds (in 1S6T) to the
nmonnt of $5,668,903, and various counties
12,365,260, which added to the debt of the state
m ikes the whole public indebtedness of Gali-
f.;ruia $12,163,090. The state owns the tide
hnds, being that portion covered by water
from high- water mark to the channels of bays
and rivers, and 8 m. into the ocean ; adso the
S'.vamp and overflowed lands of the state,
amounting to about 5,000,000 acres. — ^The ety-
mology of the name California, according to
tlte annals of San Francisco, is uncertain ; some
^rritera have asserted tiiat it comes from the

Latin words ealida Bndfomax, Spanish ealienU
fomalla^ a hot furnace — ^while others of high
authority question this origin of the word.
Other Latin derivations have also been sng^
gested, but for the most part with little
plausibility. It is probably a corruption of
the original Indian name. The name Oali*
fornia is first found in the writings of Bcr*
nal Diaz del Castillo, an officer who served
under Cortes in the conquest of Mexico, and by
him limited to a single bay on the coast. In some
of the early English maps California is call^
New Albion, having been so named by Sir
Francis Drake, who touched on the coast during
one of his buccaneering expeditions in 1579. A
century later it was called Islas Carolinas (sup-
posed then to be an island), in honor of Charles
Xl. of Spain ; but subsequently the original name
was revived and nniversally adopted. Lower
or Old California was discovered as early as 1534
by Zimenes, a Spanish explorer ; but the first
settlements were made much later, in 1683, by
the Jesuit missionaries. The precise date of the
discovery of New or Upper California is uncer-
tain; but it was subsequent to that of Old
California, and the first mission (San Diego) was
founded as late as 1769. Other missions and
presidios were established in the following years,
and the government of the country, both spir*
itual and temporal, was intrusted to certain
monks of the order of St Francis. The bay of
San Francisco was discovered about 1770, and a
mission was established there in 1776. In 1803,
according to Uumboldt, 18 missions had been es-
tablished with 15,562 converts. Three more mis-
sions were subsequently established, and in 1831
the entire population is stated by Forbes in his
history of Upper California at 23,025 (exclusive
of unconverted Indians), of whom 18,683 were
Indian converts. The same writer infers that
for several years thereafter the population re-
mained stationary. It seems to have been the
policy of the ecclesiastical rulers to prevent the
settlement of the country as far as possible,
deeming such course best calculated to advance
the object they had in view, viz., the con-
version of the savages. The produce of the
country in 1831 was, wheat 62,860 bushels,
Indian corn 27,316, barley 18,512, beans and
peas, 6,816, the entire crop being valued at $86,-
284. Of domestic animals, there were 216,727
cattle, 82,201 horses, 8,021 mules and asses,
153,455 sheep, and 2,712 goats and swine. There
were at the same time many wild cattle and
horses in the country. At this date a good mule
or saddle horse was worth $10 ; a mare, cow, or
fat ox, $5 ; a sheep, $2. The missions had been
declining in wedth and power since 1824, in
consequence of the interference of the Mexican
government with the vested rights of the fathers,
which finally resulted in the practical confisca-
tion of the church property. The following
statistics of the missions during the period of
their greatest prosperity, are collected from
the Rev. Calvin Colton's "Three Years in
California" :

260

OALIFOBNIA.

HiMlMU.

CMtb.

HOHM.

Sbmp,

MolM.

Hon.

M«fthe'«

•ad
8p«d..

San Francisco

Dolores. ....
SanU Clara.. .
JanJosA.....
Saa Juaa

Bautista....
San Carlos...
Santa Crus..

Bolodad

San Antonio.
San Miffuel..
San Lull

Obispo

La Purisslma
Santa Barbara
San Buena*
Sanntura. ....

Te Fernando
BanOabriol..
Sa&LuiaBey

8,050

07,087
08,810

U,512

00,630
43.000
86,800
58,800
91,840

87,000

40,800
40,160

87,400

56,800
70,240
70.280

8»084

6,840
9,840

6.280

18,000
8,200
6,000
4,800
4,100

6,500

6,600
8,000

1.900

1,600
4,200
2,000

79,000
88,000
62,000

69,580

5,400
72,S00
70,000
48000
47,000

72,000

80,000
80,000

80,000

64,000
64.000
68,000

820

720
420

900

600
2,000

8»700

600

200
400
800

8,000
1,000

l.WK)

5,000

8,000
8,000

$60,000
120,000

95,000

40,000
85.000

128.000
140,000

Total

928,200 78,244

878,480

10,460

18,000

$608,000

In addition to these missions, there were Santa
Inez, possessing property valued at $800,000, and
San Juan Gapistrano and San Dieco, which were
reputed to be among the most opcuent of the mis-
BioDs. The Spanish power in Oalifomia was over-
thrown by the Mezioan revolution in 1822, and
though the government of that country changed
frequently, all administrations agreed in the pol-
icy of secularizing the government of Oalifomia,
and the fathers were finally stripped of their
possessions and their former dignity and influ-
ence. The centralization of power at the fed-
eral capital, under the first administration of
Santa Anna, caused a rebellion in Oalifomia
which resulted in the expulsion of the federal
officials, and a declaration of independence on
the part of the Oalifomians ; but in the follow-
ing year, when the excitement had subsided,
the people came back to their allegiance, and
quietly submitted to the new order of things,
xhe settlement of the country began to advance,
particularly from the immigration of foreigners,
the people of the United States being Iwgely
represented. In 1842, Oom. Jones, of the if. S.
navy, imder the impression that the United
States were at war with Mexico, took forcible
possession of Monterey, hoisted the stars and
stripes, and proclaimed Oalifomia U. S. terri-
tory. Discovering his mistake the following
day, he hauled down his fiag, and made such

gK>logy a» the circumstances would admit
uring the years 1848, ^44, '46, and '46 many
thousands of emigrants from the United .States
settled in Oalifomia; and while the county
was rapidly becoming Americanized, in ApriL
1846, war was declared between Mexico and
the United States; but before the news of
this event had reached Oalifomia, a quarrel
arose between the Mexican officials and the
American settlers, in which the Mexican com-
mander attempted to expel the settlers from
the ooontry. This resulted in quite a gen-
eral uprising of the Americana, a declaration
of independence, and an active and enei^petlo
warfare against the Mexican authorities,
which, under the lead of OoL John 0. Fremont,

by a few rapid and bold movements, had near*
ly subdued the country, when, July T, Oom.
Sloat, of the U. 8. navy, arrived at Monterey,
with intelligence of the declaration of war,
and with assistance to the American cause.
A few days later, Oom. Stockton arrived
with additional assistance, took command of
the American forces, and at the head of about
800 men marched on the capital, Los Angeles,
which he took without firing a gun. Gren.
Oastro with a greatly superior force having
fled to Sonora on his approach. Stockton pro-
claimed Oalifomia a territory of the United
States, proceeded to establish a provisional gov-
ernment, and the country was apparently con-
quered; but the Mexican forces subsequently
rallied under Gen. Flores, recaptured Los An-
geles and Santa Barbara, which were not
strongly garrisoned, and met with some other
slight temporary successes. Stockton again
collected his forces, and marched against ilores,
whom he defeated, with very slight loss on the
American side, in 2 battles, at Rio San Gabriel,
Jan. 8, and on the plains of the Mesa, Jan. 9,
1847, which practically terminated the stru^^e
for the mastery in Oalifomia. The treaty of
peace soon followed, by which Oalifomia and
certain other territory were ceded to tiie Unit-
ed States for the sum of $15,000,000. At the
dose of hostilities the white population was
estimated at 12,000 to 15,000. in the month
of Feb. 1848, gold was discovered on the prop-
erty of OoL Sutter, in Ooloma county. The
news spread rapidly. Men left tiheir business of
all kinds, and rushed to the locality of the new
Ophir, and it was soon found that gold was
widely distributed throughout the state. Peo-
ple flocked in from Mexico, fix>m South Ameri*
ca, from the Atlantic states, from Europe, and
frt>m Ohina. The emigration was altogether un-
paralleled. In a very short time Oalifomia con-
tained a mixed population of nearly a quarter of
a million of energetic, daring, reckless, and dan-
gerous people. A substantial govemment be-
came necessary. Gen. Biley; the nulitaiy gov-
emor of the territory, called a convention of
delegates, to meet at Monterey, Sept 1, 1849,
to frame a stete constitution. The convention
met, and after about 6 weeks* consideration,
agreed on a constitution, which was submitted
to the people, by whom it was adopted, and on
Sept. 9, 1850, Oalifomia was admitted into the
muon of American stetes by act of congress. —
Gambling became almost a universal passion
among the Oalifomians. Whde squares were
devoted exclusively to it in San Frandsoo, and
it is sud that as high as |20,000 have been
risked on the tum of a card, and $5,000, $8,000,
$2,000, and $1,000 were repeatedly ventured ;
fortunes were lost and won in a few minutes with
a ooolness that amounted almost to indifTereDoe.
Prices for all sorts of goods and services rose to
fabulous figures. The smallest change used was
quarter dollars, and no service was rendered
for less than 60 cents. Admission to the cirooa
ranged from $8 for a seat in the pit, to $66 for

■■

^^H OALrrOEKiA

^^^^^^ H

IHTlAinOfifnifife '

Ijlil^. . * J. .

^^^H
^^1
^^1

^h 4^^r

^1 Wliicli wsl-

IIh* ff^

^^H

■ i>.

. \ji. <l&u>^A ^^1

■ w

ii>»fUo* ■

■ tl'.

or u\7 Jtjn-j:

' -^i ■

■ ''

vMi^ H

■ ^

J ■ l-riij -t ^1 •

■

■ 1'.

t^in^rltf

stfatiM e^ :

w ^

h*^ ^OT^

|ij 'I irtn'j 1 1

..... ^^1

11 1

irco*

r^.'

or ^ii^hia ^H

C ; -

EiLil

t^.

*Ufr»F« ac^ ^H

I<*UCC n»»r •

] T^akiiii H

tOiA,!'? t: / -

*hl* i?CfV8<^ ^H

■ r.n

■ (-.^ ^

^^1

^H iMijr;^ o£ Oj.

■ ftiul tlio Uii

^^1

■ Wi^n^iOcttl'

J wi.'ks \^t %ins LO^ntn'.

l»nM'j>ji

^^H

■ fL&tUo«flirv

rofstior

W IHllK^^

^ frUdta Ut* - - -' » -'*'

^-,.,.^.. ■■

d^rvr^

fsistoiiiri-

^^1

^- etm^t.., ;.^^. -a

Ba4i FfvMi.^., , ^: ..,:,

^^M

I':

r. lc»i-Tii,v»na Ui t4i:ti J*n

r.*

(*f^.

^H rc'^' ■ ' T 4 ¥?-fjtriJTf% <*<f!?»jT^frif^ wli?<*5i lui^

tilMt)

^^1

■ ''

' ' '■*'*ffllffr

Ltlttuc

1*1 '

H ""^^

^^ni3

Ji.

■

^^1 ^r ,

■ Tai]!,!^ did

Vanx VK. UJ.L? f-

'indMn. ■

■ fy m:Ufj

i Llia ^ Ikil-

uutamiitft^ .

:o arrort 1

I^ISi M^

Hff ifai foi

™-j wiUi ... ^M

mhft offv^ir :

itiaaodci ^H

^^^1 gful r^irriiAti'Qj/tlJ.

...Li gliiirtetor

o|idl/#t-K1..

*HMltfT^ t',. ^H

^H <vr laedti^

ii|iiN^Qi&At4«nti

nwt4>^^

^^1

^V tr. V, ^ut^ 1

^ ^ nMCobar of tlM

aina wi>PCK kilt»tS4at d? ur

UtlO)-

pkifiy^ mh^ii hA wm ^m

rdcwr 1

rii^. Alwirwwki ■

■ Jl9W

Ur«ir iU

rod ill IllfWlTt ■

■ r^.

• Mlll-i

lift^Sje. ^ir

^^B^^^^-"-

wt;ri:) UXiirJ^-C'v

L DSSIiBiVT 'Js'^iUa IM 1

^H^HH^

CI--* viu 6i>4«t aymiinEi. < <t f>f tlw 1

^^^^^^^

in ir*^ '^ i*t:u»-ii uii,* 1(19

iMliiW wore liiiniiki4 Ik^m "^ * ^ pre- |

is«mm1tte mtb ■

^H t>.

ponydtieu Hjc dff pflso^

VmmmiM^ ttooim moM 1

CALIFORNIA

CALIGULA

in the ohoioe of city and oonnty offioera fiiTor*
able to the oommittee, and the city has been
oomparatiTelj quiet and orderly ever sinoe. A
number of suits for damages have been com-
menoed against members of the committee by
certain parties -who had been expelled.— The
elastic energy and unconquerable enterprise of
the people of California have been strikinsly
illustrated in the rise, progr^ repeated de-
struction, and rapid resuscitation of her prin-
cipal towns. In the earlier history of the gold
fever, when the principal mercantUe operations
of California were conducted in canvas tents
or rudely constructed wooden buildings, the
chief towns were frequently destroyed by fire
or flood, or both. Ere a month had passed
after one of these destructive visitations, other
buildings would take the pkces of those destroy-
ed, and apparently all traces of the fire would
be lost in uie bustle and business activity of the
town. San Francisco, the metropolis of Cali-
fomia, has been six times nearly destroyed
by fire. Sacramento, and other laige towna^
have also suffered in the same way. The to-
tal loss by fire in San Francisco alone has
been estknated at $20,000,000, yet the growth
of that town is without a parallel on this con-
tinent.

CALIFORNIA, Gulf o» ( 8p., Mar Bermtjo,
or the Red sea), a gulf of the Padflc, which
separates the peninsula of California from the
Mexican states of Sonora and Cinaloa. It is
about 700 miles in length, and from 40 to 100 in
breadth. Its coast is indented with many small
bays, and numerous islands stud its surface.
The rivers Colorado and Gila discharge their
waters into its upper extremity, and the vil-
lages of Loreto, La Paz, and Guaymas are sit-
uated on its shores. This gulf has been cele-
brated for its pearl fishery.

CALIFORNIA, Lowbb, or Old (Sp., Baja^
or Vieja CaUfornUC)^ a department and penin-
sula of the Mexican republic, situated on the
W. coast of North America, and having Upper
or New California N., Sonora and the gulf of
California £., and the Pacific ocean S. and W.
It is about 750 miles in length, and from 30 to
150 mUes in breadth. This region is of vol-
canic origin, and is traversed throughout by
the Sierra Nevada range of mountainiL which
attains in some places to an elevation of nearly
5,000 feet above the level of the sea. These
mountains are in general barren and desolate
near their summits; but at their base, cactuses
of extraordinary size are to be met with, and
such ni the valleys as have a sufficiency
of water are of exuberant fertility. The cli-
mate is variable. The summer temperatura
cm the coast of the Pacific ranges from 58"*
to 71''. The sky is remarkable for its trans-
parency and deep azure color, save at sun-
set, when it is often variegated by the most
beautiful shades of violet, purple, and green.
In winter there is heavy rain and terrific torna-
does of wind, which sweep the soil from evenr
exposed position into the soa, and force the cul-

tivator to seek a new locality. The principal
vegetable productions of Lower Califomia are
maize, wheat, beans, peaS| manioc, grapes,
oranges, lemons, citrons, prunes, date^, plan-
tains, and pinei^ples. The chief animals are
wild sheep, goats, horses, horned cattle, mules,
and pigs. The adjoining seas are stored with
an abundance of excellent fish. There is a
pearl fishery in the S. part of the gulf of Cali-
fornia, which in 1851 employed 15 boats and
produced pearls which were worth $86,000.
It is said that valuable gold mines abound in
this peninsula. The chief towns are La Paz,
the capital, and Loreto. Pop. in 1850, 12,000.
Lower Califomia was discovered by Fortune
Zimenes, in 1584 In 1688 the Jesuits
formed establishments here, and instructed the
natives in agriculture and the arts of dviliza-
tion ; but in 1767 they were expeUed, and
the destinies of California committed to the
gniardianship of the Dominican monks of
the city of Mexico, who were very far from
following in the footsteps of their predeces-
sors.

CAT.TGNY, Jkak Ant£nob Hus dx, a
Frendi engineer, member of a French family
which has produced a great number of able
engineers, bom in 1657, died in 1781. He was
present at the sieges of Valenciennes, Fribourg,
Courtrai, Fumes, Dixmude, and eventually be-
came director of the fortifications of Burgundy,
where he superintended the constraction of the
canal of that name. During the bombardment
of Calais by the English, he decided the issue of
the battle by Uie 2 forts. Fort Rouge and Fort
Vert, successively thrown up in such a manner
as to arrest the progress of the hostile army.
Again in 1706, after the battle of RamiHies, he
frustrated the plans of Marlborough, by causing
the two banks of the canals of Lemnghes and
of Brages to be inundated,- although his own
estates were the first to suffer from this inunda-
tion. He also constracted the great dam on
the Aar, at Gravelines, and 8 forts with bastions
at Fumes.

CALIGULA, Caius Cissab AuoTTSfrns Gsb-
XANions, son of Germanicus and Agrippina,
born in camp, it is supposed in Germany, A. D.
12, murdered in Rome, Jan. 24, 41. His nick-
name of Caligula, the use of wMch, in his latter
years, he held a serious o£fence, came ftom the
military boot or brogue, ealiga^ worn by the
common leffionary soldiers, which he was made
to wear in his early childhood, for the purpose
of conciliating the good will of the men, which,
in fact, he retained to the last After the mmv
der of his &ther, by Piso and Plancina, and the
exile and voluntary death of his mother, in the
Sale of Pandataria, he was brought up by his
great-grandmother, livia Augusta, until her
death ; when he was taken to the house of his
grandmother, Antonia. Having escaped the fate
of his mother and brothers, he ingratiated him-
eelf with Tiberius, who promoted him to offices
of honor, and held out to him hopes of the snc-
oeasion. It was one of the earliest ]deasQr«a

OALIQULA

of Oalignla to be present at ezeontiona, and
he became in bia yonth sn amateur in tbe
inspection of boman agonies, "as in bis matnrer
years be was a coriooa and ingenions inventor
of new torments. Tbe deatb of Tiberias,
A. D. 87, wbich was caused or accelerated by
Caligula, broogbt bim into power. By bis
testament, Tiberius bad associated witb Uaios,
in tbe empire Tiberias Gemellus, tbe son of
the elder Drusus, bis own son by Agrippina
Vipsania, wbo bad been poisoned by Sejanus ;
but on tbe pretext of bia youtb, Oaligola
procured that be should be set aside by tbe
senate, although in every other respect be
afTected a profound respect for the will of tbe
late emperor, even to the allowing tbe wretch-
es wbo were lying under sentence of deatb in
the dungeons, and who now expected the act
of grace usual at a new accession, to be stran-
gled. But for a time, tbe world had a moment
in whicb to breathe freely. A foreign writer,
not a native or inhabitant of Bome, has left a
singular record of this brief epoch, so strangely
contrasted with those which preceded and fol-
lowed it. "The Greeks," be writes, "bad no
quarrels with barbarians, nor the soldiers with
the citizens. Men could not sufficiently admire
the incredible felicity of this young prince. He
had immense riches; great forces, both by
land and sea ; prodigious revenues, coming in to
him from all quarters of the world. The limits
of his empire were no less than the Bhine and
the £upbrates,beyond wbich there existed only
savage populations, the Scythians, the Par-
thians, the Germans. Thus, from the rising of
the sun to his setting, over tbe continent and in
the isles, even beyond the sea, there was no
sentiment but joy. Italy, Bome, Europe, Asia,
held constant holiday. For under no other
emperor bad men tasted sucb repose, bad they
been permitted so tranquil an enjoyment of
their own property. In all towns were to be
seen altars, victims, sacrifices, men clad in white
and crowned with flowers, games, concerts,
festivals, dances, horse-races, revelry of all
kinds. Bicb and poor, noble and plebeian,
debtor and creditor, master and slave, all par-
took of one common happiness, as if it bad been
a saturnalia." For 7 months this state of things
continued, when, in consequence of debauch-
eries and excesses, tbe prince fell ill, and was like
to die ; and tbe Boman world, ignorant into what
banda it would fall next, gave itself up to de-
spair. All men put on mourning ; they sat up
all night long, and beset the palace gates for
tidings. Men vowed their lives to redeem that
of Caligula. There is much cause to believe
that from this time forth be became, if be
had not been one before, a madman. From
his infancy he bad been subject to epilepsy.
Morally and physically, bis nature was with-
out balance or regulation ; at one time
undergoing tbe most extraordinary fatigues, at
another scarcely able to support himself; con-
fessing, at moments, that he was conscious of
the germa of incipient madness, and considering

the propriety of secluding himself and taking
hellebore. Ue scarcely slept 8 hours out of the
24; and, even daring these, bia slumbers were
disturbed by frightful dreams and apparitions.
He often passed whole nights in pacing up and
down the vast porticos of bis palace, WMting
the approach of day, and invoking it with pas-
aionate apostrophes; in all things, he was
different, and differently organized, from other
men. Immediately on his recovery, he threw
off all restraint We find him committing
incest with his 8 sisters, Julia, Agrippinai
and Drusilla; disgracing, impoverishing, ban-
ishing the 2 former, on her death deifying
the latter, and then chuckling within himself
in idiotic delight at the idea that he had got
all bis flatterers Into a deadly dilemma ; sinca
they were equally guilty of impiety and worthy
of death if they should mourn for DrusDla the
woman, when Drusilla is a goddess, or rejoica
at the deification of Drusilla, when Drusilla the
woman is dead. We find bim putting to
deatb, in torture, tbe adulators, who had vow-
ed their own lives for the restoration of his
life, in order to teach them to keep their word
with tbe gods. We find bim, economically,
^ving the old gladiators to the beasts of the
circus, for the twofold reason that meat is dear,
and that supporting old gladiators is a needless
expense to the state. We find bim delighted
at being able to convict the consuls of treason,
in either case, whether they should or should
not celebrate the victory of Actium ; since, on
his mother's side, he is of tbe family of Augus-
tus, tbe victor ; on bis grandmother's, of that
of the vanquished Antony. We find him build-
ing bridges from Baise to Puteoli, more than a
league in length, tbe pontoons of which are all the
corn fieet which supplied Bome with food, so
that the city is famished during tbe continuance
of the fabric, the superstructure of which is a
second Appian way, witb taverns and wine shops
on the wayside, and groves of timber trees to
shade tbe passengers, and rivulets of fresh water,
running far out to sea, to water tbe horses, and
then, to crown tbe celebration, ordering the
crowds who came to gaze upon tbe wonder to
be thrown into the Mediterranean, and bewail-
ing bis bad luck because it is fine weather with
a calm sea, so that most of these victims of bia
merry mood make their escape by swimming.
Even in bis more harmless pleasures, we find
the same cynical and insane humor : removing
tbe velaria from tbe amphitheatres, for the pleas-
ure of seeing the whole people in an agony of
beat and suffocation, under the fierce blaze of
an Italian noontide; invading Germany, invad-
ing Britain, with innumerable armies and great
fleets, in order to make the legionaries collect
sea shells in their helmets, the spoils of tbe con-
quered ocean ; and for want of German captives
to exhibit at his triumph, having some unhq>p7
Gauls, who were as much civilized men and
citizens as himself, taught to speak German,
and led through the streets with their hair,
which had been let to grow long, dyed red, in

264

OALIPH

OAHXHNES

order to simiilAte prisoners of war, but not to

rimolate their fate, dnce that was real, for diey
were all scoarged and beheaded, as if they had
been genuine Germans. Lastly, we find him
not only wishing that all the Roman people had
bat a single neck, that he might finish them all
at one blow, but actually preparing to destroy
half the senate, and more than half the eques-
trian order, when he was himself anticipated
by the daggers of Oassius Ohaarea and his fellow-
conspirators, who brought relief to Bome by
murdering him 4 months after his return to the
eternal city. Tet there were those who sin-
cerely mourned him, and honored his remains.
The prffitorians regretted him, for he gave
them gold and license and blood. The friv-
olous women and the dissipated young men of
Bome regretted him, for he encouraged their
debaucheries, gave them pageantries, games, .
shows of gladiators — ^in a word, something to
do. What is strange is this, that the Jew
Agrippa came at dead of night, to oarry off
the mortal relics of* his master, at the risk of
his own life, and give to them the rites of
sepulture; that his sisters, Julia and Agrippina,
whom he had outraged, compelled to infamy,
and then disgraced for the infamy to which he
had compelled them, immediately on their re-
turn from banishment, removed his remains to
a more honorable sepulchre ; that Hilonia
Offisonia, his wife, who, neither young nor beau-
tiful, exercised so strange a fascination over
him, that he had threatened to put her to the
rack in order to make her ezpliun how she
made him love her, remained in attendance on
his corpse, covered with his blood, until the
murderers returned, when she opened her
bosom to their swords, bidding them to haste,
in order that she might die with her husband.
Offisonia^s request was granted, and she as well
as the daughter she had bome to Oaligula was
put to deau.

OALIPH (Arab. Ehalifa), the tiUe of the
successors of Mohammed. There were 8 cali-
nhates: Ist, the Oriental, first established at
Mecca in 632, afterward at Damascus under the
Ommyiades, and finally, till 1258, under the
Abbassides at Bagdad; 2d, that of Oordova,
founded in 756 by Abderrahman, a member of
the family of the Ommyiades, wmoh lasted un-
til 1081 ; 8d, that of Egypt, or of the Fatimites,
founded in 909 by Obeiaalloh, who pretended
to be descended from the prophet^s daughter,
Fatima; it lasted until 1171, when it was over-
thrown by Saladin. The power of the caliphs
of Bagdad was shaken in 934, when Bhadi as-
sumed the office of Emir al omra (captain of the
captains), with which the exercise of the absolute
power, in the name of the caliph, was united.
In Egypt, however, the caliphs maintained their
spiritual authority until the con<^uest of that
country by the Turks in the beginning of the
16th century. The Turkish sultans now assumed
the dignity of caliph, and the grand seignior at
Oonstahtinople retains it to tne present day,
though his claim to spiritual authority is not

much regarded outside of Turkey. A new
work on the caliphs, by Dr. Weil, is gmng
through the press of Ferthes in Gotha, and an-
nounced to be published in the course of 1668^
The following table presents a chronological
list of the successive caliphs, and of the dose of
their reigns :

1st Obxbmtal OALinB. Moktadl..... lOM

(Cauphi OP Arabia.) Mortader UlS

Ababekr A.D. dSS— «84 HoeUnhed lUS

OiMrl..... 644 Rasbld 1185

Othman 866 Hootaft Iiee

All Ml MoeUnJed 1170.

HMaan 661 Hoatadhi 1180

(OmmADiB.) Naaer 1«6

Moawyiah 1 661—680 Zalier 1S25

TozidI 688 Mostanser 1848

Moawylah II 688 Mostaaem 1196

Herwan 1 694 Sd. Caupbb or Coesota.

AbdelMalek 706 Abderrahman I.... 796— 76T

Walld 1 715 HashomL TB5

Bolyman 717 Al Hakem 1 8S1

Omarll 780 AbderrahmaaU 6S9

Tezidll 724 Mohammod L 880

Haahem 748 Almondhlr 888

WaUdll 744 Abdallah 919

TeddlU 744 Abderrahmaa III 961

Ibrahim 744 AlHakemll 976

Merwanll 700 Haahemll 1906

(AsBAiMiDB.) Mohammod Al Mahdi

AbolAbbaa 760—754 (deposed) 1006

Aba OlaflTar, called Al Bolrmaii 1016

Mansoor (the Tletoti- Mohammed (refileeted). 1016

ons) 775 Hashem (reelected).... 1016

Mahdl 785 Hamad lOlT

Hadl 785 Abderrahman lY 1061

Haroan al Bashld 809 Kaatm 1061

Amln 818 Yahye lOSS

AlMamnn 888 Abderrahman Y. 1066

Motassem 841 Mohammed III 1064

Wathek 847 Yahye (reelected) 1065

Motawaokel 861 Haahem III 1081

Moetanaer 661 Sd. Caupbs or Eotvt, ox

Moetaln 866 FATumn.

Motaz 860 Obeldallah 900-086

Mohtadi 860 Kaiem AbolKaalm.... 665

Motamed 899 AlManaoor 968

Motadhed 909 Moex 9T5

Moctafl 908 Adz.... 996

Moctader 989 Hakem 1061

Kaher 984 Daher 1066

Bhadi 940 Aba Tamin Moatanter.. lOM

Motaki 944 Abal KaslmMostalt.... UOl

Moatakli 944 Abul MaoMMr Amer . . . 1180

Motl 974 Hafed 1148

Tal 991 Dafer .i 11«

Kader 1081 FByea 1166

Kaim 1075 A(ihed UTl

OAUFPUS, a Greek astronomer, bom at
Cyzicus, in the 4th century B. C. He went to
Athens, and became associated with Aristotle,
whom he assisted in rectifying and completing
the discoveries of Eudozus. Alr^y several
attempts had been made to express in en-
tire numbers the 8 great natural unities of
time, the solar year, the lunar month, and the
solar day. A century before, Meton had discov-
ered that 19 years corresponded to 285 monthsi,
or 6,940 days. Oalippus observed that by this
calculation there was an error of about ^ of a
day each 19 years, which he proposed to avoid
by quadrupling the cyde and reckoning it at
76 years, and omitting one entire day in each
cycle. This period of 76 years was called the
Oalippio cycle, and was adopted by aatzon-
omers after the year 880 B. 0.

OALIXTINES (from the Latin ealix^ chal-
ice). There are 2 sects in ecclesiastical history
known by this name. I. Those who demanded
the communion in both kinds for laymen.

OAOXTUS

These OaliztiiieB were a brandi of the Hossites,
and are also called Utraquists. They were
the more moderate of the 2 branches of the
followers of that reformer, and were will-
ing to oompromit the remaining 8 of th^ 4
points which the Bohemian heretics had snb-
mitted, as the terms of reconciliation, at a
council of Basel (Feb. 16, 1433). The 4 points
were, 1, the nse of the cup; 2, the free
preaching of the word of God; 3, the aboli-
tion of clerical endowments; 4, the punish-
ment by the civil magistrate of heinons trans-
gressions and mortal sins. At an embassy held
at Prague some time after, the Catholics in-
trodaced these 4 articles, so amended as that
they conld snpport them ; but now the Bohe-
mian reformers refused to accept them as
amended. The Calixtines, however, attaching
so much importance to the 1st of the 4 ar-
ticles, consented to waive the other 8, in con-
sideration of securing this. They were op-
posed by the Taborites or Orphans, who con-
tended for all the 4w The event proved in favor
of the Oalixtines, for in the following year a
decisive battle crushed the hopes of the Tabor-
ites, and thereafter the only distinction from
the GathoUo communion which the Hussite
party enjoyed, was that for which the Calix-
tines contended. IL The other body known
as Calixtines were the followers of George
Caliztufl^ one of the reformers in the 16th cen-
tury, the founder of the party called 6yncre-
tists. Bee Cauxtus, Gbobob.

OALIXTUS, the name of 3 popes. The first,
born in slavery, was bishop of Rome from
217 to 222, when he is said by some to
have suffered martsrrdom. IL Bom near Be-
sancon, died in Rome, March 18, 1124. His
family name was Guido of Burgundy, and he
was the 5th son of William, count of Burgundy,
and related to the queen of France, the em-
peror of Germany, and the king of England.
In 1096 he was already archbishop of Vienne,
and he soon after went to France and England
in the quality of papal legate, principally in or-
der to settle the vexed question of lay mvesti-
ture. In 1119, Gelasius H. died at the abbey
of Cluny, and OaUxtus was appointed to suc-
ceed him. He held councils at Toulouse and
at Kheims, at the latter of which 427 bishops and
abbots were present, while the emperor Henry
V. was encamped in the vicinity, with 30,000
men. Nevertheless he was solenonly excommu-
nicated by Calixtus, in presence of the oounciL
^Vinong other decrees of this council was one
declaring the archbishop of York independent
of the arohbisliop of Canterbury. After closing
the council Galixtus went to Rome in 1120,
where an anti-pope, named Gregory Vm., had
established himself under the protection of the
emperor ; but Calixtus expelled him, and with
the aid of the neighboring princes stormed
the castle of Satri, whither he had fled, and
nia<le him prisoner. He next attacked the Fran-
^ipani, and Oenci, broke their power, and threw
down their castles. In 1121 and 1122 he sent

legates to Germany, a diet was held at Wflrz-
burg, and finally the pactum Calixtinum^ or
concordat of Worms, was concluded. Henry sent
ambassadors to the pope, and in 1123 the first
Lateran council was held, at which 300 bishops
were present, and in this council Henry was
absolved, and the question of investiture finaDy
settled. The remainder of his life was spent
by Calixtus in active labor for the good of the
church and of his states ; and he paid particu-
lar attention to the decoration of St Peter's
. church, and repairing the aqueducts of Rome.
III. (Alfonso Bobgia), a member of tlie Span-
ish branch of the Borgia family, born at Valen-
cia, was pope from 1455 until Aug. 6, 1458,
when he <£ed. After having received an excel-
lent education, he was promoted to a canonry
by the anti-pope Benedict XIII. rPeter de Luna),
whose party was embraced by Alfonso V., king of
Aragon. Having soon after been called to the
royal council by the above-mentioned prince, he
was sent by him to Benedict's successor, in or-
der to induce him to abandon his pretensions ;
and having succeeded in this mission, he nego-
tiated the reconciliation of his sovereign with
Pope Martin V., and was rewarded by that
pontiff with the archbishopric of Yslencia.
About 15 years afterwara (1444), he was
made cardinal by Eugenius Iv., as a reward
for essential services in negotiating a reconcili-
ation between himself and Alfonso V. On
April 8, 1465, he succeeded Nicholas V. on the

Eapal throne. The ruling idea of his ponti-
cate was the revival of the crusades against
the Turks. He made the most energetic and
persevering efibrts to unite all the powers of
Christendom in this undertaking, but without
much success. This pope is said to have admin-
istered the government of the church with zeal
and ability. The greatest fault which he com-
mitted was the elevation of his 2 unworthy
nephews, Rodrigo Lenzuolo and Milo, to the
dignity of cardinal, the former of whom be-
came afterward pope under the name of Alex-
ander VI.

CALIXTUS, Gkobqb, properly OALusKir, a
Lutheran divine, born at Meelby in Holstein,
Dec. 14, 1686, died atHehnstadt, March 19, 1656.
He studied successively at Helmstadt, Jena,
Giessen, Tubingen, and Heidelberg. With a
son of an opulent Dutch gentleman named
Overbeck he made the tour of England and
Germany, and by this means became acquaint-
ed with many of the leading reformers of those
countries. The duke of Brunswick had, before
his departure from the continent, been inter-
ested in the talents of Calixtus, by a disctission
in which he had heard him engaged with a Jesuit.
On his return the duke appointed him to a pro-
fessorship in Helmstadt Helmstadt was one
of the original protesters against the "Form of
Concord,'' that famous instrument drawn up in
167T, and always regarded as the Magna Char-
ta of Lutheranism. Every thing in Helmstadt
then readily fell under the suspicion of Calvin-
istio tendencies. Consequently, when CalixtuS|

266

OALTnyg

CALL OF BIRDS

at the oonferenoe of Thorn (1646), showed him-
self so moderate in his Lutheran opinions as to
favor and attempt the reconciliation of the
Ftotestants and the Beformed church, he fell
under the hatred of Galoyius and his adherents,
who insisted on his excommunication from the
Lutheran church as suspected of Calvinism.
Hean while, another party had Just accused him
of Catholicism, on account of one of his works,
the ''Epitomeof Moral Theology.*' On the other
hand, the Catholics regarded him as their most
sagacious and insidious enemy. To sustain him-
self under this triple fire was no small task. He
considered a union of the sundered body of Christ
feasible, if the conflicting parties could be induced
to return to the cscumenical councils and laws
of the first 6 centuries. This plan gave rise to
what is known in eccleaastical history as Syncre-
tism, though the followers of Caliztns are some-
times called Caliztines. These Oaliztines, how-
ever, must not be confounded with the Hussite
sect of the same name. He had embraced the
Aristotelian philosophy, and that modified his
treatment of the ethical system of Christianity.
He was the first writer who attempted a tnuy
scientific and philosophic symbol of Christiani-
ty. The Calixtine controversy continued long
after his death, so that his influence on the the-
ology of the succeeding age was greater than on
that of his own.

CALKING, the process of driving tarred oak-
um into the seams between the planks of ships, in
order to render the joints water-tight A wisp
of the oakum is drawn out and rolled together
between the hands, and being laid over the
seam, is driven by a wedge-shaped instrument,
called the calking iron. The work ]» afterward
gone over with a more powerful instrument of
the same kind, which is held by one man and
struck with a beetle held by another, When
all the oakum is forced in that is practicable,
the seams are payed over with melted pitch,
and where they are to be covered with copper,
a thread of spnnyam is laid in to make them
'flush with the planks.

CALLOFBIEDS. The call of the feathered
races must not be confounded with their song,
ftom which it is entirely and in all senses dis-
tinct The former is their language, at all
times, in all seasons, and is en>ressive, in so far
as they can express them, of all their wants,
passions, and desires, one alone excepted ; the
latter is occasional, limited to a single season of
the year, when the bird is in a state of nature,
limited to a single sex, the male, and expressive
but of a single feeUng, that of amorous desire.
Many birds have no power of song; none, so far
as it is yet ascertained, are without a call Some,
so far as it has been shown, have but a ungle call
to express all their inclinations— -although it may
he doubted whether a more extended acquaint-
ance with many of the wild tribes, whose dis-
tant haunts and secluded habits prevent the
great enemy, man. from becoming familiar with
their domestic and fimiiliar ways, would not
prove that the toobI qualities of all birds are

more extended in compass and more diversljSed
than we are at first dispoaed to bolievo. Of
many species of birds, the wild aquatic and semi-
aquatic legions of the duck, goose, crane, plo-
ver, and sandpiper &milies, we know little in re-
lation to their call beyond their passing cries,
used as rallying notes or signals when on their
voyages, or as alarm calls when startled by the
approach of their enemies. A closer intimacy
would, probably, teach us that even the most
nlent, in an ordinary sense, of the fei^ered
races, have their sounds expressive of tender-
ness to tiieir mateS) <^ aflfecUon to their young,
of akirm when the enemy is at hand, of gratola-
tion on reassembling after absence, of invitation
to partake in the food which is opportanely
found, or of recall at the hour of roosting.
Mauv birds, which are mute in the countries
to wnich they migrate in the winter months^
and have the reputation of being entiraly voice-
less, are clamorous when they breed, as is the
case with the European woodcock {icolopax
ru8ticola\ and the jacksnipe, or judcock (molo'
fax gallinulaX both of which are reputed dumb
m the countries where they are shot, while in
those where they breed they are known to
have at least one note, and probably have many
others, which are either never heard, never dis-
tinguished, or, if both, are assigned to others
than those to which they belong, being uttered
only in the seclusion of remote and sectary
places, and addressed only to their young when
m privacy, or to their mates when in the honr
of courtship, or when sitting on their egsa, or
caring for tneir tender broods. Some biraa are
known by their clan^ of tongues, as they sweep
through the heavens in their migrations, clamor-
ing in order to regulate their squadrons in tiie
starless night, as wild geese, cranes, and many
of the waders, which, when they are alarmed bv
the sportsman, rise voiceless and unheard, and
feed in the daytime silent in the woods and
wastes which they inhabit Otliers fiy silent,
feed silent, and are, so far as we know, silent
at all times, except when thev spring upNon the
wing in any sudden alarm. Some again, as the
passenger pigeons, make their migrations in
silence, take wing in ulence when lunrmed, yet
when al<Hie in the woods, undisturbed and fear-
less^ make the green sditndes sonorous witli
their conversations ; others, Uke rooks, are at
all times, eejpecially in the breeding seasoiL
habitually noisy, yet rise in flocks without soimd
or signal. The song of all birds in a wild state
is limited to the season of pairing, when the
female, like the girl described by Moore in
one of his poems, invariably 'Ogives to song
what gold could never buy,'' or whOe she is
brooding hopefully on her egpgs cheered by the
love notes of the fkithfnl lover, who recreates
her patient labors with his voice, but ceases to
sing when he, also, has cares paternal tofolfiL
In some species which do not sing, there is an
amatory oiall which answers the porpoee of
song, peculiar to the male bird during the sesr-
son of the female's inoabation, as the dear

■■

^H Qkhh or BUiDS ^^B^^^

'■""^"' "■' " '" ' "' '^ ''

■

^P\

^^Hi/i4r iiutn-

ifauAiUiMi b ttiteiinil Mirr ^

^^^^H

^^^^miitik^^'il

ijfUil^^ifK <.if W^l'>j N!...

^^H

^^^^^^^c

^^^^^^Kv

■vliiUj; tii^Jji .

'^^^^^W

- fnudi roM!:.

.If ^^H

^^^^^^^Hi

il Buaiidt nitii f.

^^^^^H

1 .--J,....' ,K r
fi tinf %iwj A lint, ' n

III ^^^1

^^^K^

^^^^■ri

iujij

^^^1

^^^^^p

idaram»w ^H

^Lh>.-

(if ^^M

^^1

GALL OF BIRDS

OALLAO

tention of the other htrundinss^ and hids them
beware that the hawk is at haod. AqnaUc
and gregarions birds, especially the nocturnal,
that shift their quarters in the dark, are very
noisy and loquacious, as cranes, wild geese,
wild ducks, and the like ; their perpetual clam-
or preventing them from dispersing and losing
their companions. In so extensive a subject,
sketches and outlines are as much as can be
expected ; for it would be endless to instance
in all the infinite variety of the feathered na-
tion. We shall, therefore, confine the remain-
der of this letter to the few domestic fowls of
our yards, which are most known, and there-
fore best understood. And first, we peacook
with his gorgeous train demands our attention ;
but like most gaudy birds, his notes are grating
and shocking to the ear ; the yelling of cats,
the braymg of an ass, are not more disgustfuL
The voice of the goose is trumpet-like and
clanking, and one saved the capitol of Rome,
as grave historians assert The hiss also of the
gander is formidable and full of menace, and
* protective of his young.* Among ducks, the
sexual distinction of voice is remarkable; for
while the quack of the female is loud and so-
norous, the voice of the drake is inward, and
harsh and feeble, and scarce discernible. The
cock turkey struts and gobbles to his mistress,
in a most uncouth manner; he hath also a pert
and petulant note when he attacks his adver-
sary. When a hen turkey leads forth her
young brood, she keeps a watchful eye, and, if
a biid of prey appear, though ever so high in
the air, the careful mother announces the enemy
with a little inward moan, and watches him
with a steady and attentive look ; but, if he
approach, her note becomes earnest and
ahurmed, and her outcries are redoubled. No
inhabitants of a yard seem possessed of such a
variety of expression and so copious a language
as common poultry. Take a chicken of 4 or 5
days old, and hold it at a window where there
are files, and it will immediately seise its prey
with little twitterings of complacency; but If
you tender it a wasp or a bee, at once its note
becomes han^ and expressive of disapprobation
and a sense of danger. When a pullet is ready
to lay, she intimates the event by a joyous and
easy soft note. Of all the events of their Hfe,
that of laying seems to them the most impor-
tant; for no sooner has a hen disburdened her-
self than she rushes forth with a sort of clam-
orous joy, which the cock and the rest of his
mistresses immediately adopt. The tumult is
not confined to the family concerned, but
catches from ^ard to yard, and spreads to every
homestead within hearing, till at last the whole
village is in an unroar. As soon as a hen be-
comes a mother, her new rehition demands a
new language; she then runs clucking and
screaming about, and seems agitated, as if pos-
sessed. The father of the family nas also a
considerable vocabulary; if he finds food, he
calls a favorite to share it; and if a bird
of prey pass over, with a warning voice he

bids his family beware. The gallant chan-
ticleer has at command his amorous phrases^
and his tones of defiance. But the sound by
which he is best known is his crowing; by this
he has been dLstinguished in all ages as the
countryman's dock or larum — ^as ihe watch-
man that proclaims the divisions of the night
Thus the poet elegantly styles him ' the creeMi
dock, whose clarion sounds the silent hours.' A
neighboring gentleman, one summer, had lost
most of his chickens by a sparrow-hawk, thai
came gliding down between a fagot pile and
tlie end of the house, to the place where his
coops stood. The owner, inwanlly vexed to see
his flock thus diminishing, adroitly hung a
setting net between the pile and the house, into
which the caitiff dash^ and was entangled.
Resentment suggested the law of retaliation;
he therefore clipped the hawk's wings, out off
his talons, and nxing a cork on his bill, threw
him down among the brood hens. Imagination
cannot paint the scene that ensued ; the expres-
sions that fear, rage, and revenge inspired, were
new, or at least, such as had been unnoticed
before. The exasperated matrons upbraid^
they execrated, they insulted, they triumphed.
In a word, they never desisted from buffeting
their adversary till they had torn him in a
hundred pieces."

GALL A, a genus of plants, belonging to the'
arum family, marked by an open and sprcNihding
spathe, with a white upper surface, an oblong
spadix entirely covered with flowers, heart-
shaped leaves, red berries, and thick creeping
root-stocks. The C. palustris is a native of
marshy places in the north of Europe, and is
common in cold bogs in the northern United
States. Its seeds are surrounded with jelly. In
Sweden Its root is dried, and furnishes a kmd of
meal from which bread is made. The C. .^Sthuh
pica was introduced into England from tiie
Gape of Oood Hope, in 1731. It is also found
wild in St. Helena. Its large spathe is pure
white, surrounding a spadix which is colored
deeply yellow by its antheriferous flowers. It is
often cultivated, and is one of the most beauti-
ful of aroideous plants. Being hardy, it will
live in temperate regions, growing in great
vigor in the ordinary apartments of a house,
and may be made to blossom all the year round*

GALLAK, a munidpal borough, market
town, and parish, on King^s river, co. of Kil-
kenny, Ireland. One-third of tlie inhabitantB
of the town are said to be without regidar
employment. It has been the scene of many
baUles, and in 1660 was taken by Oromwc^
It gives the title of viscount to the Fielding
family. Pop. 8,100.

GALLAN A, or Galahna, a town and db^ct
of Soodan, N. W. Africa. It is situated among
the mountains of the Bataka range, a system
which branches from the mountains of Kong,
and terminates in the Sahara.

GALLAO, or Gaijulo db Lxma, a town of
Peru, 6 miles W. of lima, of which it is the
port; pop. 7,000. The original town was en-

^V tMLUWAV ^^1

F cAixrimBS mP^^I

^H|tay;f tlrmt\iUhf*t rifwT ^htimt—^v'T Iv rci. A/ir*!i

fjtnrAh k, InT.«^ *'r.r. •• ^IrTitl.i 'Til iU^ Efi%!> ^|

^^^C»

^^^^B^^,i

i*iW ^^M

^^^^^k'

<i *'£f««|#tuitMii IN ^H

b tJni ^H

^^^^^^^^^v*

^^M

^^^^^K.

^^^Hi

^^M

^ m

^^^^^^n< ,tt-3 4 ul

^^^Ht:

^^H

1 ^H

^^H

^^^H

^^1

^^^^^^Kf'

^^H

^^^ptw\ia>i uL^,

^i^ii:*^^! Ci> ^^H

^^^yat) f.

%ii$i{ It- ml ^H

^^^^^Mi>' ■

^^^KSfit 'Li \v:}ij|ti t^M^i iA..nr nju^i'-r. \.ii;4i>t^

^^H

^^^^^^^^D«

vrlic-' <ij| ^H

^^^■[l 1 f^J^TT *3r™ il t,^^^-,*-.,,. U'. ,* *rx l^fn..

^^H

^^M

^^Rtttuf

^^H

^^BMlik^i:

^^^^t.

^^1

^^^1

^^^^^^^H^'

.ilflU'Jl.At^ ^H

^ Uf tlsQ ^1

^^^^^^^Vl'

n o?KTliiitnl k »«« ^H

^^^^HK^i...., .,

• fjl f 'ljILtii^ijI Wi , ^ ,..,„._.„ .„ ■-Ij.O ^^^1

^^^Pirca^'. ' 5ti, tdt^

i-rtuoQ ilioiunl* ^H

' tuiaca, bfis iaoi3< ^H

H^tattT ^Ui |tijUUalit4 dli Ar4kmui U liAf

270

OALLIMAGHUB

OALLmiHENICS

NbrmandT, May 14, 1645, died In Pafla, May

0, 1717. He was sent to Poland in 1672, for
the purpose of advancing Longaeyille's daim to
the Polish throne. He officiated as ambassador
in Holland, and was present at the signing of
the treaty of Ryswiok, Sept 20, 1697.

CALLIMAOHUS. I. A Greek architect and
statuary, supposed to have lived before 896
B. C, and said to have invented the Corinthian
column. U. An Alexandrine grammarian and
poet, bom at Oyrene^ in Africa, lived in the
reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphns and Euergetes,
and was chief librarian of the celebrated Alex-
andrian library, from 260 until 240 B. 0., when
he died. For some time he had kept a school
at Alexandria, and numbered among his pupils
Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, and
Apollonius Rhodius. Only 6 hymns and 73
epigrams remain of his numerous writings.

CALLIN6ER, a strong British fortress in
Bnndelound, Hmdostan, built on the summit of
a mountain 1,280 feet above the sea, is about 5
miles in circuit After the British had taken
possession of all the surrounding district, they
were obliged to lay regular siege to this fortress,
and took it with great difficulty and after many
efforts, Feb. 28, 1812. In earlier times it had
resisted sieges more than 10 years long.

CALLIKUS, of Ephesus, the earliest Greek
elegiac poet, lived about 700 B. 0. One of his
elegies consisting of 21 lines is extant, having
been preserved by Stobsaus.

OALLIOPE, in Greek mythology, the muse
of epic poetry, named from the sweetness of her
voice. She is represented in ancient art as bear-
ing a tablet and stilus, waiting to record heroio
deeds. She is particularly associated in the
ancient statues with Homer.

CALUOPE, a steam musical instrument, in-
vented by Mr. Joshua 0. Stoddard, of Worces-
ter, Mass. Valve chambers are arranged along
the top of a steam chest or cylinder, each
one furnished with a double metallic valvei
seated steam-tight without packiag. A small
stem passes from each of the valves through the
chamber to the outside, by which the valve may
by slight pressure be opened; the pressure
taken of^ it instantly closes. Over each valve
is a steam whistle, each having its own tone.
A cylinder with cogs, like that of a music box,
is so placed as to ILft the valves as it revolves,
and thus produce tunes. By recent improve-
ments the tunes may be played by striking keys
similar to those of a piano.

OALLIPHON, a Greek Epicurean or rather
eclectic philosopher, who taught that the high-
est good of man consists in a union of virtue
and bodily pleasure.

CALLIRRHOE, a fountun near Athens,
called also Enneacrunus, because its waters
were distributed by 0 channels. It still bears
its ancient name.

CALLISTEIA, festivals among the ancient
Greeks at which the prize of beauty was ad-
judged to the fairest. One of these contests
was held by the Lesbian women in the temple

of Jimo on the^ island; another fotined a part
of the festival celebrated by the Parrhastana in
Arcadia, in honor of Ceres Eleuania ; and a 3d
occurrea among the Eleans. In the last, however,
only men contended; and the most beautiful
man received a suit of armor which he dedi-
cated to Minerva, and on his way to the temple
was encompassed by his friends and adorned
with ribbons and a myrtle wreath.

OALLISTHENES, of Olynthus, a pnpil and
relation of Aristotle, by whose recommenda-
tion he accompanied Alexander the Great to
Asia. He often expressed disapprobation to
Alexander, and at length, when tiie conqueror
had adopted the pomp and the humiliating e«re-
monial of the Peraan court, Oallisthenea not
only freely uttered his own indignation, but
excited displeasure among the soldiers. He was
put to death by command of Alexander. Of
the several histories which he wrote, no one has
come down to us; but one of the most popular
of the medisBval romances, filled with traditiiona
and fancies concerning the oriental life of Alex-
ander, has been attributed to him.

OALLISTHENIGS(Gr.iaiXXor, beauty, cr«»or,
strength), a system of exercises which has
for its object the development of physical
grace and vigor. The callisthenic exercises, re-
quiring less violence of muscular action than the
ordinary gymnastics, are considered to be
better adapted to the more delicate organization
of females, and are generaDv confin^ in their
application to that sex. Their purpose is to
give equal development to all the voluntary
musdes, and thus produce that harmony of
action on which depends not only health, but
regularity of proportion and grace of mov^nent.
Gcdlisthenics may be practised mediately or im-
mediately, with or without apparatus. All the
apparatus required, when used, is a strong chair,
a &ort roller fixed in sockets near the top of
an open doorway, a light wooden staff^ about
4^ feet in length and i an inch in diam-
eter, a pair of light dumb bells, a hair mat-
tress, a couple of square weights, and 2 par-
allel bars. The exercises with these are sim-
ple, and can be readily learned in a lesson or two
from a teacher, or, in fact, from any of the
numerous manuals published on the subject
They are difficult to describe, however, without
the aid of diagrams. In the chair exercise.
the nupil plants her feet at some distance, and
then leans forward on tiptoe, and rests her hands
upon the back of the chair. The exercise con-
sists in moving the body slowly backward and
forward between the two fixed points of the
toes on the floor and the hands on the back of
the chair. This simple manoeuvre is admirably
adapted for the expansion of the chest, and the
development of all the musdes of the trunk of
the body. In the roller exercise the pupil sus-
pends herself by her hands a few inches above
the floor, and swings in this position, or moves
her grasp alternately from side to side. This,
however, is an exercise which, however fiivor-
able to strength, will not be oon^dered so con-

^^^^ CAIUBTHEKTC^ f

^V OAIXOf H

^^^^Bh^ ^f f^^mf^

lytfnfidtmi^^l, im^, Irt ric«, «i«i nn ffiOf* ^H

^^H

^^^^^^fe:

^^M

^^^^Bi'

;; 1

^^^^^^^^^F

^^^k' '*"

^^^K

^^^H

^K'

^^PBQIF^ii^^^ r>u^< ui Ui- Qujvoii^i^t* XTii

272

CALLUS

OALinJOKS

home, onlj to escape again. But again he
was brought back to Nancy by his oldest
brother, who lay in ambnsh for him at Tnrin.
Finally, bis father yielded to his desire ; he
resumed his studies in Italy, and eventually
acquired great celebrity as an engraver. . He ex-
ecuted over 1,500 plates, and made himself very
popular by etchings which illustrated the life
and manners of the people. He excelled also as
a painter, but his universal reputation depends
mainly on his engravings of the temptation of
St. Anthony, his fairs of Nancy, his battles and
sieges, his punishments, and a few others.

CALLUS, any preternatural hardness in the
body, particularly of the skin, as on the hands or
feet, from friction or pressure. The hardened
edges of a wound or ulcer are also termed callus ;
but the most common application of the word
is to the new growth of osseous matter around
and between ue extremities of fractured bones,
serving to unite them. The mode of reparation
is attended by Ihe following changes: 1. Extra-
vasation of blood where uie bone is fractured.
After this is absorbed, liquor sanguinis is effused,
and assumes the position which the blood had oc-
cupied. 2. Tills consolidates, and the watery por-
tion being absorbed, the rest becomes organized.
8. This period of plastic exudation lasts 8 or 10
days, and then becomes quasi-cartilaginous. 4.
This mass contracts, increases in density, and
gradually becomes what is commonly termed
bone, but it is not true bone, though very
hard and strong. 5. The ossification or solidi-
fication advances fh)m the periphery, and the
fractured extremities are now surrounded by a
bony cose termed the provisional callus. 6.
After this is formed, continuity is truly restored
by the formation of what is called definitive
callus or true bone, which takes place between
the fractured extremities. 7. Finely, the provi-
sional callus is absorbed and disappears. It was
formed merely to serve as a natural case or splint
to maintain the broken extremities in their
position, while the osseous reparation was pro-
ceeding to restore the natural unity and conti-
nuity of Btruoture. The provisional callus is
not true bone, but a hard substance resembling
ivory or bony structure.

CALLT, FiXBBS, a French theologian, bom
near Argentan, about the middle of the 17th
century, died Dec. 81, 1709. He was the first
person in France who accepted fully the philos-
ophy of Descartes, for which he was exiled
for 12 years to Moulins. He published several
works upon philosophical and theological topics,
and also edited the De Philotophia d<maolati<me
of Boethius.

CALMAR, or Eaxmas, a seaport town of
Sweden, pop. 5,846, on the strait separating the
island of Oeland from the continent, 190 miles
S. S. W.from Stockholm. Here, in 1897, was con-
cluded the treaty known as the " Union of Cal-
mar,'' which united the 8 kingdoms of Sweden,
Denmark, and Norway under Margaret, daugh-
ter of Waldemar III. Here also, in 1520, Gua-
tavus Yasa disembarked to put a final end to

the muon« Lonia iLVUl., daring hia exil^ from
France, resided at Calmar in 1604, and ereoted
there a tablet in honor of Oustavus.

CALMET, AuQusTix, a French scholar and
Benedictine of the conffregation of St. Yannea,
born Feb. 26, 1672. died in Paris, Oct 20, 1757.
He began to study theology in thepri<»y of Bren-
11, but learned Hebrew under Faber, a Luther-
an divine. In 1698 he was appointed to instmet
the younger monks of Moyen-Moutier in theol-
ogy ; in 1704 he became director of the i^bey
of Munster, where he expounded the Scriptures ;
and he passed thence to the abbey of St L6o>
pold, near Nancy, in 1711, and to that of S^iones
in Lorraine in 1728. He was actively engaged
in his duties till his death, honored by all for
his piety and simplidty, and held in regard even
by Voltaire. He devoted himself laboriously to
archffiological, historical, and theological studies,
and left many learned works, among which ia his
celebrated *^ Dictionary of the Bible."

CALMUCKS, the most numerous and cele-
brated people of the Mongol race, inhabiting
parts of Asia and eastern Europe, and belonging
to the empires of China and Russia. They
were formerly called the Meutes; the Tartars
call them Khalimihf or apostates; and they
call themselves Derben Eret^ or the 4 aUkes.
They are divided into 4 principal hordes: the
Khokhots, numbering 40,000 fSuniliea, who in-
habit eastern Thibet and the environs of Koko
Nor, which they regard as their native seat;
the JDzoungares, or Soongars, giving their name
to the country Soongaria, having from 20,000
to 80,000 families, and formerly the richest and
most powerful of the hordes; the Derbeta, or
Tdioros, who migrated from Soongaria in 1621.,
established themselves on the upper Tobol, be-
came vassals of Russia, and during the last
century took possession of the steppe betwe^i
the Don and the Yolga, where they now form
16,000 families, and are associated with &e
Cossacks of the Don ; and the Toigots, or primi-
tive tribe of Soongaria, who migrated to the
Yolga to the number of 55,000 families in 1662,
but in consequence of vexations received firom
Russian agents, returned in 1771 to the banks of
the Emba. The Calmucks are described aa one
of the ugliest in appearance of all the tribea of
men. They are small and thin, with brown
complexion, round faces, piercing eyes set near
together, thick lips, wide nostoils, prqjeoting
cheek bones, large and prominent ears, and
black, thick, and bristling nair, which ia diaved
from the greater part of the head. Their
ngliness is their title to P^^t^ of race. They
are descendants of the Scythian barbarians <a
antiquity, and of the Huns who nnder Attik
terrified the sonthem nations of Europe as
much by their hideous aspcict as by thdr fero-
city. They are slothfbl, but intelUgenti canons^
violent, and deceitfU. thoogh hospitable. They
have extraordinary aelioacy of sense, especially
of sight, and their memory ia snoh that many of
them know by heart the songs of tiieir bards
and long passages from their aacred bodes and

(uuouAsm

OMJDVEL

m.\ iii.lim, Tu

i,m..*t*.\ 4"«>HLiI» J.. i*t|-* *.? t /^TTJxi.1,^,1 ,.f,.» l..H*'i-' •^"■^ 1 f^-f

km-

;l-ji''^

itl.MliUHjJ]!

i 4I1I11

iii4M4 Uj til*'

feiti» t>r III** r-

Jd nil.

- r !n«itiii|io^!Rim iQ

...l'.-.^^ ,T ,'.rn *1...

10 til u r*i|;*»r>r
tit itfBid ill tin

l.il

>i4

•

- -tit

- ^

ill CfiTTodft

tiOtiJo^ lutil nUI giv^ whrn ooc*

r ■ -^ ' -^^

by ttiltUiiiAiUiib 1'ltli tmr

nft

U^i iX *ti«l Ui* kg JiiUlU WiUmsr, uU \hm ifr ii^i^^ ^Sbfii m

274

OALaKKB

piedpiiate upon the addition of solution of
ammonia; then dry if A mode ofprepara*
lion in the wet way is recommended by Frofes-
eor THieder in the "Chemical Gazette^' of
July, 1854. The oommercial oorrodve snbli-
mate is dissolved in water heated to 122^ F.,
and BolphiiroQa add gas, obtained by heatins
coarse oharcoal powder with concentrated
solphnrio acid, is passed throngh the hot satu-
rated solution. Calomel in the form of a deli"
oate powder and of a dagaTing whiteness, which
glistens in the sunlight, is precipitated. The
Bquid, when saturated with the gas, is digested
for a time, and when cooled is filtered from the
calomel, which is afterward washed. This pro-
cess has the advantage that it is easily avail-
able for middng calomel in small quantities.
The calomel of Mr. Joseph Jewell of London,
sometimes called Howard's, which possesses the
highest reputation, is prepared by causing the
vapor to come in contact with steam in a largo
receiver. It is thus entirely washed from cor-
rosive sublimate, at the same time that it is
oondensed into an impalpable powder. Its ex-
treme fineness appears to give it more activity
as a medicine than is possessed by th*e calomel
obtained by levigation and elutriation. — ^In the
use of calomel as a medicine, particular atten-
tion ^ould be given to its liability to generate
corrosive sublimate by decomposition. This
effect may be produced by bitter almonds or
cherry-laurel water, or any other substance con-
taining hydrocyanic acid, being administered
nmultoneouslywithit. ISitro-muriatic add pro-
duces the same effects, as also, to some degree,
the chlorides of potassium, sodium, and ammoni-
um. It is rendered ineffectual by the alkalies
and alkaline earths. Calomd is regarded as the
most valuable of the mercurial preparation^^
though the homoeopathists and some other medi-
cal innovators rdect it It is employed as a
purgative, operatmg chiefly upon the liver by
stimulating its secretory functions. Being slow
in its action, and liable to salivate if too long
retained, it is usually administered with some
other cathartic. It is also given as a remedy
lor worms, and as an alterative in derangement
of the liver in small doses administered once in
24 or 48 hours. In ydlow and malignant bilioua
fevers, violent dysentery, and malignant cholera,
it has been effectually administer^ in repeated
doses of 20 grains or more each. This use of it
is much approved in hot dimates, though not
•o well adapted to colder latitudes.

CALONNE,CHA]aJnALBZAin)BEDS,aFrendi
statesman, bom in 1784^ at Douay, died Oct. 80,
1802, in Paris. Bdonging to a good &mily he
was appointed to several judicial offices, in
which he gave evidence of quickness of mind,
boldness of conduct, and easy consdence. This
became espedally apparent in the prosecution
against La Chalotais, attorney-general of Brit-
tany, in which he played a part neither just nor
honorable. But he had meanwhile secured the
favor of influential persons, such as the count
of Yergennes^ seoretaiy for foreign afbirs, and

OALOBDfSnEB

himself with the second brother
"the king, the oount of Artois. He had im-
pressed them with such a high opinion of his
political talent and financial capacity, that they
judged him the only man able to overcome
the difficulties which Nedcer himself had only
succeeded in postponing. He was consequent-
Iv, in 1788, appointed comptroller-general of
finance. His first acts seemed fully to justify
the anticipations of his protectors; money was
abundant in the treasury ; Calonne showed
himself ready to gratify the most extravagant
wishes of the queen and the princes ; no comp-
troller had ever been so popular among the
courtiers; and consequently none was reputed
so skilful. But this seeming prosperil^ had
been procured, not by fostering true wealth
in the nation, but by the dexterous man-
agement of extraordinary resources, the fre-
quent and at first successful negotiation of
loans, and the exhaustion of all branches of
the revenue. Such a system, the only conse-
quence of which was to increase the defidt
at a fearful rate, could not last long. The hour
of reckoning came. Calonne, being at his wita^
end, resolved to adopt the desperate means
of sunmioning an assembly of notables. The
session openai Feb. 2, 1787; the comptroller
came out with his wonted boldness, unravdled
the difficulties of the situation, acknowledging
that within the last few years the loans had
amounted to 1.260,000,000 livres, while the
annual deficit had increased to 115,000,000,
and dedared that the only remedy was to
reform altogether the financial system by ex-
tending the taxes over the property of the
nobles and dergy. These astounding disdo-
sures, coming from such a man, feU like a
thunderbolt on the court; a hue and cry was
raised against Calonne, whom the king at once
dismissed from office and exiled to Lorraine,
He afterward removed to England, where he
wrote several memoirs justificative of his ad-
ministration; but he had to contend against
Necker and several other able finanders, and
could not but come out second best. His repu-
tation for ability was not, however, entirely
ruined, and he afterward became a moat active
agent of the French hmigrii at Coblenta. As
an adviser of his protector, the count of Ar>
tois, he now evinced the same boldness and
ingenuity, but also the same levity, as in his
former me. He ultimatdy separated in disgust
from his party, and asked from the first oo^nl,
Bonaparte, permisdon to return to France.
This was granted^ but death overtook him a
few weeks after his return.

CALORIC (Lat cahr^ heat), the name former-
ly applied to an imaginary material substance,
supposed to be the cause of the phenomena ox
heat. As now used, it is synonymous wiUi
HxAT which see

CALORIMETER (Lat ealor, heat, Gr. fMipor,
measure), an instrument for ascertaining the
amount of heat in bodies. The first used for
tiiis purpose was contrived by Lavoisier and

0MA}iaMnKE

"f- Of

viJt-iL:* Uj

WM Ui^ £036 tfl'

lUrn'JL: "-lilijli tilt; jlMfp-

to I

t
li

>l«l

I'iMnt ■TO »biJ «0iiAmsilfl

i76

CALPUBNTUB

CALVADOS

Jamna, 46 miles S. W. of Oawnpoor. It is ft
large, popnlooa, bat ill-built town, with a fort
OommaDding the passage of tlie river, adyan-
tageoasly sitaateo, bat of no great strength.
The town was once a place of more note than
at present, and was the seat of a mint. It is
still an important depot for the cotton trade
of Bandelcand, and is fiEmious for the manafao-
tare of remarkably fine refined su^r. Paper-
making is also carried on to some extent Pop.
in 1863, 21,812. — Calpee is said to have been
fbonded as early as the 4th century, by a sover-
eign of Gambay. After passing through many
hands, it was tdcen from the Mahrattas by the
British in 1778, was subsequently relinquished,
and in 1802 was again acquired by the East
India company by the treaty of Bassein. It
was at that time occupied by Nana Govind
Bao, jaghiredar of Jaloun, who refused to give
it up to the British, and was accordingly be-
sieged, and finally forced into submission. In
1857 it became a place of rendezvous for the
disaffected sepoys, and by the spring of 1858 an
army of mutineers, said to be 10,000 strong, had
assembled there under the command of the
t^ah of Jhansi and several other native princes.
Bir Hugh Rose marched against them from
Jhansi, Hay 26, defeated a force of 7,000 sta-
tioned on the road to oppose him. and reaching
Oalpee, captured it after some nard fighting.
The sepoys took to fiight, were pursued, and
a large amount of ammunition, stores, and a
number of elephants, and guns, fell into the
hands of the British. By tiie accounts, how-
ever, which left Calcutta by the mail of tiune 8,
the rebels were reported to have routed the for-
ces of Sindia, and to have marched on Gwalior.
OALPURNIUS, Trrus Julius, a Latin pas-
toral poet, born in Sicily, lived near the end
of the 8d century; 11 eclogues have oome
down bearing his name. The efforts of German
scholars to ^ow more than this have resulted
in several different plausible, but imaginary,
lives of ths poet; and in one instance he has
been blotted out from history, and a certain Ser-
vanus mentioned by Juvenal substituted in his

Slace. Els eclogues, too, have been variously
ivided and distributed between himself, his
contemporaries, and his copyists. There is con-
siderable resemblance between these eclogues
and those of Virgil.

OALTAGIROJNE, or Oauitagironb (per-
haps the ano. Calata Eier<mis\ a city of Sicily,
in the province of Catania; pop. 21,700. It is
built on the slope of a hill, and with its suburbs
covers a considerable extent of ground. It is
the see of a bishop, and is reputed one of the
wealthiest and most commercial towns on the
island. Its inhabitants excel in all the us^ul
arts, and maoy of them find employment in
the potteries and cotton factories of the place.
There are several churches, convents, and a
royal college. The town was fortified by the
Saracens, and taken from them by the Genoese.
Boger Guiscard granted it many privileges.
CALTAKISETTA, a town of Sicily, capital

of the province of the same name, is situated in
ft fertile plain near the right bank of the Salso,
65 m. S. £. of Palermo ; pop. over 16,000. It
is well built, with broad, straight streets, a hand-
some square, and several fine edifices. In its
vicimtjT are several jets of hydrogen gas, and
extensive sulphur works.

CALTROP, a kind of thistle which grows in
France and Spain, and is troublesome to the
feet of cattle.— In military tactics, an iron in-
strument with four points, so formed, that,
however thrown, one will always project up-
ward. They are used to prevent tne onset of
cavalry.

CALTUBA, a seaport town in the 8. W. part
of Ceylon, about 28 miles S. £. from Colombo.
It has a brisk trade, especially with Madras and
the Coromandel coast, and contains a chapel and
school established by Wesleyan missionaries.

CALUMET, a kind of pipe, the symbol of
peace among the American Indians. The bowl
is made of a soft marble, and the stem is usually
a long reed adorned with feadiers and hiero-
glyphic figures according to the rank of the
owner. The calumet is introduced upon aU
important occasions when Indian chiefe meet
together, or meet with whites. It is filled not
only with tobacco, but with the leaves of va-
rious other plants, and is passed round for every
member of the company to take a few whif&.
To receive the calumet when thus passed signi-
fies that the terms proposed are acceptod.

CALUMET, an eastern county of Wisconsin,
along the eastern shore of Winnebago lake;
area, 860 sq. m. ; pop. in 1865, 8,681. The snr-
fjEice is mountdnous, a high ridse running across
the county nearly parallel with the lake. The
soU yields excellent crops gf com, wheat, bar-
ley, oats, and hay. Timber is abundant, and
pasturage is good. The productions in 1850
were 7,827 bushels of wheat, 8L428 of oals, 10,-
532 of Indian com, 8,887 of barley, 9,116 of
potatoes, 846 tons of hay, and 21.588 pounds of
butter. There were 4 saw mills, 8 chnrdiea,
and 173 pupils attending public schools. Or-
ganized in 1842. Capitiu, Chilton.

CALUMICE, or Calumet Bivbb, rises in La
Porte CO., Indiana, fiows westward into IDindfl^
and there divides; one of its branches eaters
Lake Michigan, the other makes a b^id, runs
eastward parallel with its former course, and
only 3 or 4 miles north of it, recrosses the In-
diana boundary, and dischaiges its waters into
Lake Michigan, in Lake co.

CALVADOS, a maritime department of
France, divided into 6 arrondissements : Oa^
Falaise, Bayeux, Yire, Lisieux, and Pont V £v6-
que, bordering on the English channel, and de-
riving its name from a long reef of rooks on
its coast. It is watered by several rivers, the
most important of which is the Ome, but none
of them is navigable for any oonnderable extent
inland. The dlimate is rather cold and moist;
the surface, which in some parts is intersected
by elevated hiUs, possesses fine plains and bean-
tiful valleys, among which that of Auge is eel*

^^^^^ (uaviUuiT ^

^^^ CULTIET lUV H

^^^B '^.-'i

j__* 1 jf_. _*^ii, 1^ A .. -.i._ in. _ ,r I'lftk ^^^1

^^^B*

.., ,i^, ,.ijlfl, ^^

^^^^^K'

««^i£M>«|. 1

^^^^R

,t.ci*fu I.ifii* ^^M

. 1 jjMiHir ^H

^^^^^B

-^ biQQfva. : ■

^^^^K

,iaft wemikf^ L..^....^^ . .,„^ i ^H

^^^^^P,^

'"ITTET tlLvirtRHui! tj iiillirtl^Fulilicif Ekii- ^^M

^^^^^wi '>«^ «r«ni^ m

^^^^^^^'[

^^B.

^^^F

^^^^Hk L\j\rs-'.: JLfvi, V',lio ; p>l.. t.n

^^■iPii'fKr.

^^■■BVoT^Y 1 i->>^ _ „ Tf.. .... ,. .

^^1

^B 1.'

■

■ Al''

^M « ■ 4i>v'-afifiB i%f i!i<> Tte-

^^1

ijffi iif-);. ^^1

^J^^^^^,

/ WM -np' ^H

^■^■^1' .lMn4l4^0r.

^^1

^^^^^m TfiftlHim^'

^^^K

' tlijin'i 1 A inii»» UTDfUii II nu^f*^ ^^B

^^^^^K^

riiilf yai iQ%] dMkroe willi 1

^^^^^^^HDiD '

iM yenn ;...,.-.«, r V lu^ 1

^^^K|«i«#ri.

-iPltllUft- XA^ I

^^^^K-

- ■•■ MMt*ooii;^. ^^. ^-.^.,. •'*i ^J

^^^Kr

«k{i oJ^artAT, bo k 1 ^M

^^^B^ .'.

■>^'h 'if tliF* Pn.lv4t,, ^M

^^Hluc-'^

^^^■l^f-1,

^^^1

fif^ ;--*>itnnft fldi&Ut Oti^tft^^/* Thy ^^1

^^^■1^ vi ih^m'

<nlbllHfef fnr ' - ^H

^^^^■d iiltiiit f hn

i^i^tiU. ^H

^^^^K Ji:%ihli :

^^^^^■^ ^'^M, crac;

^i4 ■ltffici«ll ^TOWldftr 1

^^^^^^^^^Kfi )

^JW^r-K-vr, AT].] Ill nboft tliAt CSalTortirit 1

^^^^^K-

urom^tTtod at sll^ itawg olwiyi hajx • ■

^^^^^^^B^l

i^<iilAdl^ t&e^ Urn tjjclr ftrgffttii»n[ti nu l^ ^J

^^^^^L 'ipWL Vf

lyt tlmi li« ouHOed Ilk ontodx iu KewfbtiildlMiil M

^^^^^^■l^ Tci Ih,:. ir..rt*^£,f

let 1 J* ^ 1 k : . ) ^ Li r T Ti .* ri v-Lif J, OMSl^IvUlUr ^^ niit r ' 1 1 . ^^1

^^^^^P

0^ .IniifNEyltim f ^H

^^^M^.

CfU^ iiMireliifo tiii cji ^H

iMsa iM4lt(MM;yMaHi|iAa IkIim tiiittk^ ^H

STB

OALTEBT

aw^ed by WXkit, They tatthur assert that
his 12 children were all brought np In the Oath-
olio faith, no record whatever of their conver-
tAon existing, and his marriage with Annej
daughter of George Mjnne of Hertfordshire,
and granddaughter of Sir Thomas Wroth of
Dorance, in Enfield, Middlesex, haying taken
place in 1604-*5. Their strongest argnments,
howerer, are the repeated declarations of the
king against Oatholics, those who were apos-
tates from Pi^testantism falling under his se*
verest displeasure. In his speech delivered at
TVliitehall on the opening of parliament in 1609,
he eay&f ^'I divide all my subjects that are pa-
{dsts into 2 ranks : either old papists that were
to brought up in lames of popery, and those
that be younger in years, yet have never drunk
in other milk ; or eise such as do become apos*
tates, having once been of our profession and
have forsaken the truth. .... For the former
eort, I pity them, but if they be good and quiet
finlrjects, I hate not their persons. But as for
liiese apostates, who I know must be the great-
est haters of their own sect, I confess I can
never show any fiavorable oountenance toward
them ; " and in 1616, in his star chamber
speech, he says : ^ I can love the person of a pa-
tnst, bdng oUierwise a good man and honestly
bred, never having known any other religion ;
but the person of an apostate papist I hate." In
i^ite of such sentiments Calvert always retain-
ed the king's regard. Catholic writers, howev-
er, insist upon the conversion, and bring for-
ward testimony in turn to support their asser-
tions. The kins retained Calvert in the privy
council, althougn he resigned his place as sec-
retaiy of state, and in 1625 he was elevated to
the Irish peerage by the titie of baron of Balti-
more, in the county of Longford, Ireland. Cal-
vert had long been imbned with the idea of
planting colonial establishments in America, and
obtained apatent from King James which created
him Bolelord and proprietor of a part of the island
of Newibnndlandf and with all the rights and
privileges of nobihty. To this place, which was
fltyled Fenyland, he sent a colony in 1621, and
he raent of his own fortune full jB25,(X)0 in
boilding warehouses and granaries, as well as a
superb mansion for his own accommodation.
He followed in 1625, about the time of Kins
James^ death, but was completely disappointea
with Newfoundland, the climate proving too se-
vere for English oonstitntions, and the soil too
rugged to be worked with profit. After remain-
ing a fow years, he abanaoned the colony and
sought a more genial dime. In 1628 he visited
the Virginia setdements and explored the wa-
ters of the Chesapeake bay, delighting in its
magnifloent expanse and noble tributaries, and in
the delidous dimate and the naturally fertile
lands of that fair region. The waters of the bay
and its rivers abounded with fish and wild fowl,
and the woods were vocal with the song of birds.
A tradition exists to this day in Maryland, that
Lord Baltimore was charmed with tne appear-
ance of the oriole (jifphante$ BaUimars) giving

ithis name, and dioosiiMP its briffiaat Uaek and
oranffe plumage for his Every. But the recep-
tion he met in the Virginia colony was by no
means cordial ; there the chnrch of En^and
party had tail sway, and the authorities tender*
ed to him the oath of supremacy, whk^ as a
Roman Catholio he could not take, and in his
disappointment it is supposed that he formed the
plan of obtaining a new charter fh>m Charles I.,
and seeking to plant a colony in a more sooth-
em latitude. From 1 628 to 1 682, littie is known
respecting Lord Baltimore, but he is supposed
to have returned to the settiement in Kewfonnd-
land, as history relates that he rendered servioe
in the war then carried on between Endand and
France, and he Is said to have rescued 20 sdl
of fishing vessds (those of Newfoundland si
the time being upward of 250 in number^ af-
ter they had Iraen captured by a French squa^
ron. He returned to England, and in the latter
year applied to the king for a renewal <^ bis
former charter, with the privilege of a new loca-
tion, and his petition was acceded to. Steps
were taken toward the drawing of the papen^
and there is no doubt that the draft of the char*
ter '^ was penned by the first Lord Baltimore
himself although it was finally issued for the
benefit of his son.^' The territory granted was
that whidi now forms the states of Kniyland
and Delaware, but Lord Baltimore died before
the papers could be duly executed. Though
anxious for the hereditary privileges of no-
bility, the character of Calvert will ever
shine as that of one who cherished liberty of
conscience. In this respect he was in ad-
vance of the general bigotry of his time,
and his memory is accordingly revered, not
only by the people of Maryland, but by all
who are interested in the history of civil and
religious freedom. A complete life of Lord
Baltimore is now (1858) in course of prepare
tion by Mr. Sebastian F. Streeter of Baltimore. —
Caoiurs, son of the preceding, and the 2d
htama of Baltimore, bom in 1628, died in 1676.
On June 20, 1682, the charter which had been
intended for his fatlier was executed for him
by the command of Charles I. It consisted of
28 sections, the 4th of which conferred on Lord
Baltimore and his heirs forever, absolute owner-
ship of the territory granted, and also certain
dvil and ecclesiastical powers, like those derived
firom the middle ages and continued in the fom-
ilies of the most powerful nobility. The man-
ner in which this design of fastening upon the
oolony the institutions of the feudal system was
defeated, forms a very interesting feature la the
early history of Maryland. The name first in-
tended for the colony was Cresoentia, but Mary-
land was adopted instead, in compliment to the
queen, Henrietta Maria. The rdations which
Calvert as i»x>prietor bore to Ms sovereign are
expressed in the charter in the obscure language
of such instruments in that age, but its meaidng
Is, that by the annual payment ^f 2 Indiaa
arrows, Lord Baltimore acknowledges that the
origiaal tide to the land is still in the poeseadon

CAt.VJCttT

-^^1 -*-,•..- I

^Vi, L^i* ♦!.*. *fc(i-*|rT-***-^!— * >m^^^^ .Yf.vLlt*^ f..'«,|#f-1^

IKTiiAliiar,

all lliii^,....- ... ....,,

^ t?nir rir^T^trnr^ tit" thn fiiUi

ri:jiJJtj

kill

II fc I

rtbiiiiMt

IfflflikL— JUiiiri HdHiam

,'.,, ^*ii ...^- ir-i WU)2l|ri<l

^ rn^?^ Intnodi^ to hmtX ui iff4er oftiuT
MgpuMl lliui ilit» Lttid» tluMalil ^ jv

lllO

,0^

■ -:-!-- t» tliiJrr f topriittjr* mil

ID iIM^ SfKUl InfTMSilJU

OALVXBT

jiuriBdidlon were to deeoend firom the original
owner to his hmra. In order, however, to found
an aristocracy upon a solid basis as it existed in
England, it was also necessarj to establish
titles, primogeniture, and hereditary legislation,
sachasispepetuatedby ahouseofloim The
provision for titles and dignities had been
sketched by Lord Baltimore, but he could not
secure the other provisions without a written
constitution, expressly enacting all the features
of a body of aristocrat^. Beside, in the charter
itself was a provision which, in effect, nullified
the one for creating an aristocracy, inasmuch
as it prescribed that laws could only be made
with ^^the advice, assent, and approbation of
the freemen of said province, or of the greater
part of them, or of tneir delegates or deputies.^'
l^e idea of founding an aristocracy seems, firom
the very first, to have been of no effect, as no
single title was ever created, and none recog-
nized, but that of thet proprietary himself; so
that in due time, when tne country revolted
agfunst the authority of England, Maryland was
found to be as democratic as any of her sister
colonies. It is true that in some of the early
manors baronial courts were held. A record of
one is still preserved, and runs as follows : '^ A
court baron was held at the manor of St
Gabriel, on March 7, 1656, by the steward of
the ladv of the manor, when one Martin Kirk
took of the lady of the manor, in full court by
delivery of the said steward, by the rod, accord-
ing to the custom of the said manor, one mes-
suage, lying in the said manor, by the yearly rent

of ; and so the said Elirk, having done his

fealty to the lady, was thereof admitted tenant.^'
8uch instances were, however, very rare ; and
moreover, a difference sprin^g up between
Lord Baltimore and the colonists, as to the
right of originating laws, many of the acts of
the assembly of 1687^ among which were 6 re-
lating to manors, never to& effect, and there
was no after attempt to revive tiiem. The
manors, in fact, intended to lay the foundation
of powerful &milies, were soon subdivided, and
became mere farms belonging to the different
descendants of the original proprietors. The
last one ceased to exist in itsenturety with Oharles
Oarroll of OarroUton, the latest surviving signer
of the declaration of independence, although a
part of it no w forms a fine estate in the possession
of his grandson, and is styled '^ The Manor."
Meanwhile, the troubles in England between the
king and parliament, ending in 1648 in the over-
throw of the monarch and tiie aristocracy, had
great effect upon Maryland in frustrating the
design of establishing nobility.— Much trouble
was experienced in the early days of the colony
in re«Lrd to the laws intended to govern it.
Had Lord Baltimore accompanied the expedi-
tion, he would have been able to see what laws
in the infancy of the colony were necessary,
and what were expedient But, at the last mo-
ment, he decided to remain, so that the one who
was most important to the law-making power
waa not to be oonmranicated with under 8 or 4

numths, and it was soon fomid tiliat tiie kgiala-
tion of the proprietary in ikigland for an Ameri-
can cdony would npt answer. The diffioolty
was also increased by the vague terms of the
charter, which did not clearly express whether
the laws were to be originated by the oolonists
or the proprietary. On this account, for several
years the colony held together without any Isws
at all, but in great danger of anarchy. FhisJly,
Lord Baltimore magnanimously withdrew frooi
what he considered his just ri^^t; and ooneeded
to the coloniBts permission to frame thdr own
laws, reserving only to himseh^ or his depnty, a
veto in case of necessity. After the assembly
of Maryland had been fairly organized, sevend
laws were passed in relation to religion, whidi
by some writers have been made the subject of
extravagant praise, while others have unjustly
selected to award them due merit It does
not appear that Lord Baltimore, or any of the
eetti€a*8, had an intention on founding thecdony
of proclaiming absolute religious freedom, and
one of the first acts of the assembly of 16S9
was to make the Boman OathoUo rdigion the
creed of the state. But the true ^lory of the
Oatholics of Maryland in that age of mtiieranoe,
was their permission for all homes of CHiristiaDs
to worship God according to their consdeaoe.
In '^ an act for the liberties of the people,'' it
was declared that "all Christian inhalbitaiits
(slaves excepted) are to have and enjoy all snoh
rights, liberties, immunities, privileges, and free
customs within this province, as any natnnl
bom subject of England hath or ought to
have." At the same time, to show that the
Boman OathoUo faith was predominant, eat*
ing flesh in time of Lent was forbidden, under
penalty of a fine, and this was obligatory on Prot-
estants as well as Oatholics. Some 10 years
after this time another law was passed, which
expresses even more clearly the rights of Protes-
tants, and breathes the purest spirit of religioiis
freedom. A portion of it declared that '^ no
person or persons whatsoever, profesdng to b^
lieve in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be any
way troubled, molested, or discountenanced, for
and in respect of his or her religion, nor in the
free exercise thereof nor in any way compelled
to the belief or exercise of any other reugjbn,
against his or her consent.'' At the same time it
was forbidden to blaspheme against the blessed
Virgin Mary, or the aposties or evangelista, or
to reproach any one with the epithets of here-
tic, schismatic, or idolater, or for being s ^ Pu-
ritan, Independent, Presbyterian, P(^ish priest,
Jesuit, Jesuited Papist, Lutheran, Calvinist, «
Anabaptist, Brownist, Antinomian, Barrowist,
Boundhead, or Separatist" The toleration
thus freely granted continued always to be en-
joyed, and redounds to the honor of the colo-
nists, and no less of Lord Baltimore ; but the
claim of absolute reli^ous freedom, that ia, dis-
solution of all connection betwe^i church and
state, did not, as some zealous writers have en-
deavored to prove, originate in Maryland. To
Boger WilUama, the founder of Bhode laland,

C4tVtM ^B

^V €ALVm «ftl^^|

i.ti .1..* .i^j U,. l.K* 'Vi^T.. ^« fl.jL

f' u *rrr!'r /i...^i.i.^ p A .o-«i'i^-^ ^^^^H

S iiut'/m£%i ^^^^M

■ 1^

^^^M

11 J-wTUfL^ti

■ pi'

■ ^

i**r \i3r» "

.^1

I 1^' '

--^^^t-- <■

' ^^^1

■ &«» ^ '1

i^a; t*

- ^^^H

111! T»>tn 4

: ^^M

ihv UlL*^^ , ^^^^1

■ ih

■ I

■ 1

■ 4.V

■i ^^^^B

H 1:1 .

■ 1

. iti<iif .11 u* ir»iiip

1 ^^^^^H

■ ^'

III Mf Abasaoo

dki^U ^^M

■ 1^

' ^r.-Tn, tlj|<| 00^-^

h^ Wfut u^- ^^^H

■ ^L

'HUiejMkiii

Lnn^Vtl

■ IL^'-.

1^ R4< Mi M&mlilj;' tfQd oilM&^^H

■ tl

^^^H

■ h

H %

.1 yjuiif.

isifMen ui UtiAti.i. L ^^^H

■ b

ji»i|iiMd^

■ %!'

iaOll%

H ff^

jIsEa.

■ A.M..<

f a^ fj<n*i[jnn fT* 'irijf fdU

S£i^ - c ^oias iiC Uitt Iv^^^^^^l

■ in^'

^i« lll«nBldln^ m^ iwro

1 C;'::-.^

: m port d^trnj^iML IMi

1 |«wi«fltetLiiOou^O]l-

ioiflottii and Hi oonMir imi sarkiftl bj auh>- ^^^I

■ frr:

tfoofT mSlai? fb(o% loc4

■ t"*"

. 1. i L lcia4 fludnoiiiiajlii^iad kb

V ri^r/

1 - V n\'rr yt^fmm. EuL Oftlrirtlud

DOtd la tLi^^l.irjT^liyf gt.](UltM^r ' • ^^H

!'■

n iziadt oSUoIibV «Did bte thHoiis

ft m cif ^annoiil lili irt| o^fii lor 24 ^H

h f^it tlM iiAtA of En^diod «iid of

visp^ r ^1 cAlUajr < A ^Hfir, \t tha ^H

1^.

.-M biwiefiml yi MkiL tilt

icji^ .>dmiil Ifeiri^aMi :^42Ufillld ^H

fLT.

01.:. >yfit ttatH Ilk _^H

< Nnsuki

fit Soj.r ' ^^^ ^^^1

? Gf^ • 1.

mtif

•li*l 4t 1.1 ^i'WffO

m&mMial^ .Irirrt

GwiiftTii. t ^^^H

l<«aftil|L., ai«r

CM^ wi^ ^ fv .Tt ^^^>Ar, 1 1 u iau»c^ r . - ^^^^|

t*.

ratsmanitj ^Mm

mn^ m Cnu?TD 4iiiEiotlmia wr> . ^^^H

- ""*- ^.. -^-^-^i

wm A mm of thniird luiiiUfiffitm ; hi. ^^H

«•

^pfiaao IJiSifraftit *lm Cmnttwd, r^^* ^^H

.lAjr a^d luir iSeirf lUtfiti^ Imliiwil i ^^^H

«M

..■ . ^ _„:_,,■..,■ _ '^. .-:'-•,._:.

If aim #triut n>B«ioti* ^r\m%. ^^H

b^a««JUi«t4ii

w 'JLmtjimmk ^a! auiM u# fyMmi/^

Mi^ «t liti KklLueA «i|iiiOdo, flriyi Uitt lioMiw ^H

OALYHr

of the n6ble De ICommor ftmily^ At t&e age
of 12, he was presented by one of this family to
tiie benefice of the ebapel de la Genne, to
defray the cost of his education for the priest-
hood. He was already noted for his memory
and diligence, as well as for his moral atriot-
ness. Among the youth he was known as the
** acoasative." Bemoved to Paris with the De
Mommor oMtdren, he proseonted his stodies in
the coll^ de la Mardie, where Mathnrin Oor-
dier, an able scholar, taught him Latin ; and
^en in the coll6gje Hontaigo, where a Span*
laid initiated bun into the scholastic dialectics.
At the age of 18, though he had only received
tonsure, he obtained &e living of Marteville,
Sept 27, 1527, which was in 2 years exchanged,
July, 1529, for that of Pont T^v^que, the vilr
lage where his grandfather had made wine
c^ka. He pieaimed short sermons, and con-
tinned his studies with the greatest assiduity.
After a frugal evening repast, says Beza, he
would study till midn^ht, and in early morn-
ing before he rose he would review all he had
learned the previous day. IBQs ambitious fiither,
foreseeing his fame, perhaps alarmed by the
prospective troubles in the cnurch, and thinking
the legal profession a sorer road to wealth and
parliament, now changed his plans, and sent
nis son to Orleans to study law under that em-
inent Jurist, Pierre r£toile (Peter de Stella).
This training unconsciously prepared him to be
the lejgislator of Geneva. About the same time
the influence of his relative, Bobert Oli-
retan, who translated the Bible into French,
led him to question his traditional and una-
wakened faith. By day he pursued the study
of the law, and by night the study of the Bible,
with what commentaries he could command, to
resolve his growing doubts. In the law he
made such progress that several times in the
absence of the professor the youthful student
was called to fiU his place. A radical change
hi his religious views was marked by what he
himself calls ^'a sudden conversion,'^ which
seems to have at once broken the thraldom of
the medisoval system. '^ The secret guidance of
€k>d's providence," he concisely tells us, " deliv-
ered him from the superstitions of tiie papacy."
Henceforth he sought the society and confinn-
ed the opinions of those who were struggling
Ibr the new light His protracted studies and
mental conflicts already preyed upon his health,
and his whole subseauent life was a contest
with death. His Imu and theologicd studies
were continued at Sourges^ the former under
the learned Italian, Aldati. Melchior W<dmar
not only taught him the Greek of the Kew Tea*
. tament, but also gave him fhrther taste of her-
eby. His position in the university was so
prominent that he was requested, though only
astndent, to draw up an opinion, still extsnti
upon tiie divorce or Henry YIH., when that
question was submitted to the fMity. But
aeal for the truth of God had now become, as
Bayous declares, the passion of his lifia. He
cheered all of like mind, resolving their aem-

pies; even when he son^^ quiet) his iwtrealB
became, he says, a puUio sdiooL His native
timidity could not bide the shining of the light
within him, and many others came to share it
The time of mdedslon was past; such confiietH,
SDch lingering attachment to the paat^ as we
find in LutiMr and Melanohthon, form no i>art
of the recorded experience of John Oalvin. At
the age of 20 he was already full-&sbioDed as a
reformer. The death of his father, in 1528 or
'80 — the date is uncertain— 4nterrupted his uni-
versity course. For 2 or 8 years we hear little
of him. From 1529 he was at least a part of
the time in Paris strug^^ing with the reformers.
In the midst of persecutions he gave up the
legal profession, and devoted himself to theolo-
gy. The Sorbonne had just proscribed the
tenets of Luther. The congregation of Meanx,
of some 800 or 400, which even Bishc^ Brioon-
net had at first ^vored, was dispersed by vio-
lence; Farel had fled; Ledero was branded
and burnt; Lef&vre was in Navarre; several
persons (7 in 1528) had been burned for heresy.
Calvin's sermons, usually ending with the words,
^If God be for us, who can be against us? " in-
spired the timid with new 2eaL To the impris-
oned he sent messages of comfort and lic^>e.
The friends of reform looked to him as their
diampion. At his own expense he now pub-
lished (April, 1582) an edition dihe De Cle-
fMfUia of the austere Seneca, perhaps his own
model in Latin style. At that time no better
philological work had been edited by ao yonth-
lul a 6<molar. It has been conjectured that it
was intended to move Francis I. to clemency,
but the inevitable comparison with Nero was
neither flattering nor persuasive ; yet the king
did not escape the suspicion of being for a time
inclined to favor the reform. Next came a
bolder ventureu Nicolas Oop, a friend of Cal-
vin, Just chosen rector of the Sorbonne, deliv-
ered, according to the custom at the least of
All Saints, an oration, which is supposed to
hove been written by Calvin, in which he dis-
coursed, contrary to all precedent upon the
doctrine of justification by faith alone. The
amazed and indignant Sorbonne ordered it to
be burnt and Cop and Calvin were obliged to
shake off the dust from their feet in a hasty
flight, the latter, it is rumored, being let down
by the wall in a basket, after the primitive
apostolic method. He was welcomed at N4-
rao by Queen Margaret of Navarre, the sister
of Francis L, and the refuge of the persecu-
ted ; her own book, the '' Mhrror of a Sinfiil
Soul," was in small favor at the Sorbonne. In
Angoul6me, witii his friend Louis da Tillet,
Calvin distributed sermons among the peo]de
and began his ^'Institutes." The venerable
Lef&vre d'fitaples, whom he met at Ntoio, at
the court of Kavarro. in 1588, foretold that
this young man would *' restore the church of
France." Betorning to Paris, at sreat personal
risk, he accepted a challenge of Servetns to
discuss the positions advanced in his recent
work on the ''£rrors of the Trinity." But

OALVor ^^^1

IIimImI I.-* nrtTv it TTTi'ti Vhtx r\\ ^mi

h n f**ilni'\. TIk. ♦^it'L-n r.f l^'t'Vrt %nL* iBfn^*? J ^^^H

^T^

^^^^^

■""

k..

■ V.

^^^^1

■ u...

^^^H

m^'

^^^M

■m^h

^' cr.^i

^^^^H

BRHI

K B«i'

^^^1

H^-'- --1

L ^

ft IT..

^^^^1

iK-i

^^^H

ilifffiUMUJ.,

■'S*^'!^''.

^^^1

, «« ri

(£!- i

bw»f11«^

^^^^1

btj'

^^^^1

tV,^

^^^1

^jLi...

" ^n,irt, 4 .,

^^^^^1

^^^■llliL 1

''kfttMee: ^'

tiiiftfimi ^^H

■iR'tof

.Li irL:'r„

iktaoDdiit; .,.-.. p ^^^H

■ ru 3&^

r I.J

'^Vn ^^1

k^i

^^^H

P^'

^^^H

r ^^

.vi«; ibiU. i4iu^ 4^ It ^^^H

<*♦

'xmi iunX fii«t'ii^ii««»^ ^^^H

.I«4

ul &mi '' ^^^H

V.'

^ rmol fdu ^^^H

£^riri

tnnieru.

^•:j.i*3 i m.\

- ' .^Q M LM iUlUI lU^'lll*, U'H^ iiiato in ui«i ^^^^^H

dtliatiar

J^JIV A

>]d« enitb WM tfa0 KtiTm iLQfai4i]gr of ^^H

TaAM. lUii 1

'^-nu^— -

m at pnt(lf^tbiui<ffi i^ - ' i MM ^^H

*mt

^a fuieUi

]^ Mttiritrd &ratr h^^MM _^^^H

■ tiriiti Unil

r^^ W«dL" ^^^H

. C-

,1 -I

' L^jMf bj 1^^' ^^^1

OALYIS

and immediate* The polemical astntenesB and
doctrinal completeness of the '' Institutes ^^ gave
It an immediate fame. The reform, supposed
to be sporadic, was here concentrated in living
imity and vigor. Less heed was given to the
comparative neglect of human freedom than to
the searching exposure of the vanity of human
merit. The sovereignty of God was brought to
bear against tiie supremacy of the pope. — Ben^
de France, daughter of Louis XII., married to
Ercole IL, duke of Ferrara^ imitating the ex-
ample as she shared the opmions of Margaret
of Navarre, invited Calvin to her court, then the
refuge of many of the persecuted. Under the
name of Oharles d^Espeville he here enjoyed for
a short time comparative repose, yet winning
Madame de Soubise, Anne and Jean de Par-
thenay, and others, to the new opinions. The
Tigilant inquisition, already crushmg out Italian
reform, soon compelled him to retrace his steps.
After tarrying a while at Aosta, he came for
the last time to his native place, and arranged
his family affiurs. Prevented by the war in
Lorraine from gaining Strasbourg by the most
direct route, he came, in Aug. 1586, not with-
out personal peril, to Geneva, led 'by a secret
providence, which changed all his plans of se-
clusion, and transformed the nervous scholar
into a bold practical reformer. He was now
27 years old. Geneva was to be at once the
test and triumph of Calvin's whole system. No
place in Europe presented greater difficulties, so
sharp was the conflict of its parties, and so corrupt
was it in morals; and no place had such aid*
Tantagee as a radiating centre. At this moment
it was rent by factions. Delivered from the
domination of the duke of Savoy, it had received
t^e reformed opinions through the zeal of Wil-
liam FareL and in Aug. 1585, established the new
service, ant the old parties, the Eidgenossen
(confederates), and the Mameluks (Savoyards),
reappeared under new forms. The city was de-
moralized ; libertinism as to both faith and mo-
rals was popular, though the old earueil gSnSral
bad been revived, and had already attempted the
prohibition of worldly amusements. But the
strict party was in &e minority, and Farel,
ardent in the onset, knew himself unequal to
the work of reorganization. Hearing of Calvin's
presence in the city, from one who had recog-
nized that pale visage and those keen eyes in a
crowd, he besought him to remain; and when
he pleaded his need of repose, and desure for
study, Farel broke out in a solemn adjuration:
*^ Since you reftise to do the work of the Lord
in this church, may the Lord curse the repose
Tou seek, and also your studies I " Calvin yielded,
he says, ^^ as if to the voice of the Eternal" At
first he would only teach theology, but he
preached a sermon, and crowds foUowed him
to secure its repetition ; and he was obliged to
become one of the pastors. His salary must
have be«i aligh^ judging from the fact that
after 6 months (Feb. 18, 1587), the council
voted him 6 gtowdb, *^ seeing he had not re-
odved any thing.'' In coi^junotion with Faid

and Yiret^ he at once proceeded to the woA of
organizing the church afiairs. In 1587 he pab*
lished a catechism in French (1588, in Ij^\
extracted from his *^ Institutes," " since to hoiU
an ecUfice that is to last, long, the children souat
be instructed according to their littl^aess." A
*^ Confession of Faith," with articles oi strict dis-
cipline annexed, had been approved bv the
council in Kov. 1686, and was read in charoh
every Sunday. At a public disputation with
the Anabaptists, March 18, 1587, he pot than
to silence, so that for many years they were no
longer heard of. At a disputation in Laoaannei
he spoke against the real presence, and on the
authority due the f&thers. A certain Garoli
accused him, Farel, and Yiret^ of being
Arians, because the words Trinity and person
(on which Calvin never insisted) were not i&
the Genevese creed; but his orthodoi^ was
amply vindicated at Lausanne and Bern. Ss
great work, however, was the regulatioaof dia-
cipline, according to the principles advocated
in his ** Institutes." And here he encountered
wrathful opposition. Many of the Eidgenossen
had joined the reforming party from merely
patriotio motives; the remaining partisanacK
Kome and the Anaba^ts made common
cause with these Libertmes agunst the ^an
which was to extend ecclesiastical discipliiie to
all the citizens, banishment being the penalty of
obstinacy. Some sumptuary regulations were
introduced; games of chance and liooitiouB
dances were prohibited anew — ^they had been
repeatedly forbidden since 1487 ; though Oalrin
granted tiiat cards and dancing might be inno-
cent in themselves, yet they led to ^^ feuds and
quarrels." The Libertines, whom even the
secular historians of Geneva accuse dT great
injustice and corruption, gained the election of
Feb. 8, 1588, and at once forbade the ministers
to mingle in politics. The ministers thear^
frised to hold communion at Easter, on account
of the prevailing immorality ; they further r^
fused to restore certain church festivals, to use
the baptismal font, and to give unleavened bread
in the supper, though a Lausanne council had
recommended these things. Calvin was per-
sonally not opposed to these rites, but went with
his colleagues. Thereupon, April 28, the
oouncil banished Calvin and Faiel, who de*
parted, saying, *' It is better to obey God thm
man." Ztlrioh and Bern interceded for them
in vain; a popular assembly. May 20, coofixmed
the decree of the council. And Calvin, thou^
he '4oved Geneva as his own soul," was did
to return to the life of a student. Expelled
from Geneva, he was welcomed at Strasbourg by
Bucer. A church of 1,500 French refc^gees was
put under his chai^ and adopted his disoiplizia.
The city gave him the ri^t of oitizenship,
afterward prolonged fbr his lifis. He was pres-
ent at the oonference between the Boman
Catholics and Protestants in Frankfort. 1582,
and in that of Worms a^oumed to Batisbon in
1541. Here it was that Melandithon gave hhn
publicly the title of *' the theologiaiu" He pre-

oissns

Mt^A .L i:i>^>Li^

l*i*t 1 nnf'T Pfl

^J.- i-n^1a IV

''1|F1T| \} mk Tif f.f^ j^«lZ<h|^ Iff na iVU «"«- I'^^a*

il ftn-^

1 Si'>-tM." mr
ltd, iwW- tlBri

r40tdli0C

Tl- .1 ^r. '

Hi tdUt 1

ilia ik^d«iii«ili«(ti iif Oia Uw •

.^tli'!! n.it i'i.iiiIy tk'iiLJ. Jur. Ill

^i4 itt4C»i^ td khm vlttUd £Uy«^ w*i biLiiti • mnw iUi4 i«fiMi» lUM^* «ctkli ii^

286

OALYIXr

made the bttis <)€ many oilier tefi)ffm«d Htoiiepl^
The pnbtio wordiip was ordered with extreme
vmptioity, all that appealed merely to the aenae
and imagination being exolnded. Not that he
was tenaoioos in oppoaiticm to " things indiffer-
ent;^' for when consolted in 1555 about the
Engliflh litorgy, then the oooasionof tronbleain
Frankfort, thoogh he replied that it contained
tft^fuR, he added the a4ieotiye^20fti&i2si; Bnoh
power as Oalvin now ezerdsed oonld not be
unresisted, except in a thorough despotism with
a standing army. And Oalvin haa no money,
no arms, no Dimily influence, and he nerer fls^
tered the passions. Beside, he was a foreigner,
a Frenchman. The disafifected patriots raised
this cry against him, and named ^eir dogs after
him. This final opposition of the libertines,
both the political and moral ones, called out all
the resonroea of his now indomitable wilL
Some of the Libertines were animated by a
feeling of patriotic independence ; others held
to the gross views of the Familists; all joined in
the opposition ; blood flowed. Perrin was ex-
ecuted in effigy, in 1565, for trying to seise the
government. Gruet was decapitated as a mate-
rialist, and an enemy of the state. Berthelier,
a son of him who had headed the movement for
independence against the duke of Savoy, was
ex^oomiuDicated; he appealed from the eonsis-
tory to the general council, and the council
acquitted him. The trial of strength came. All
the clergy remonstrated against we decision of
the oounciL Oalvin appeared before the 200,
and pleaded in vain for the independence of
the church. The council stall demanded that
Berthelier should receive the communion. On
the Sabbath, after the sermon, Calvin exhorted
the church to partake of the sacrament; but
thundered out that " he would sooner die than
offer holy things to the exoommunioated." Ber-
thelier did not dare approach the table. The
council postponed the final decision. The peo-
lie in the streets still cried, " Slay the alien P*
'he contest continued for a whole year, but the
party of Oalvin waa strengthened by the natu-
ralization of a large number of Frenchmen,
800 at one time in 1557, and the authoritv of
the reformer waa insured. Tet it was far from
being absolute even with the consistory. Tho^h
he had at one time obliged them to take off a
light, . and impose a heavy sentence iroon
Ameaux, who had libelled him, yet they often
opposed his views ; in one letter he complains
that they even subjected his theological works
to the censorship. These ecclesiastical and
eivil disputes were only a small part of his
labors. He was also eoffaged in perpetual
theological disputations. Bmsec, once a Roman
Catholic and almoner of the duchess of Ferrank
now a convert I to the reformed religion and
a physician, disputed his doctrine of predes-
tination. After a sharp controversy he waa
banished from Geneva, became again a Catho-
lic, and wrote in 1577 a life of Calvin, filled
with all manner of libels; asserting, for ex-
ample, Hiat when a young man he had been

branded for a erimeagaihstiiatareL TUsfar^-
fitted by the Catholic historians Itoson and
Do May, though propagated by Richelieu. The
l^anish and Italian anti-Trinitariana made
much trouble at Geneva. Geibaldi was banish-
ed, Gentilis was led for a time to recant. Le-
lioa Sodnus came to Geneva even after the
execution of Servetus, and subsequently corre-
sponded with Calvin, on the doctrine of eleolaoD.
l^e most melancholy case was that of the Span-
ish physician Servetus, burnt at Geneva, Got.
1553. The party of the libertinea tried to make
use of him to defeat Calvin's influence. Oalvin
himself interceded in vain to have hia pmiisb-
ment changed to decapitation. Hia condemnation
was the act of the council, after a long deliber-
ation, and in accordance wiUi the e^;»reBsed
opinions of other cantons. BuUinger and Me-
Isnchthon sanctioned the deed. The exeootion
was in accordance with the laws of all the
European states of the time. It was t&a in-
herited spirit of the times, and not the power
of Oalvin, that burnt Servetus. The penalty
was cruel; it is indefensible; it was even at
the time impolitic. But Oalvin is to be here
blamed, only as the whole legislation of Europe
isto be blamed yet more severely. Neither civil
nor religious liberty was yet understood; still
less was there any sharp distinction made be*
tween them. That analysis was the fivit of
time, and of the seed which Oal^n was tiien
sowing in Greneva. Amons his other theological
works was an '^Antidote,'' in 1548, to 25 new
articles of faith, drawn up by the Sorbonne ; an*
other ^'Antidote," in 1547, to the decrees of the
council of Trent ; a severe treatise on the ^ Free-
dom and Bondage of the Will,'' acainst the
Roman Catholic Pighius, which had the rare
controvwsial success of convincing his opponents
After prolonged discusmons, ZlUrich and Bern
united with Geneva (1649) in a consenana on
the Lord's Supper ; the Swiss churches genera&y
acceded to it in 1551. But the Lutherana were
enraged. Westphal aroused them to oppositic^
When Lasco's Reformed churdi waa driven
from England on Mary's accession, it could at
first find DO resting place in Denmark or Ger-
many; Westphal called them '^martyra of the
devil." Oalvin made a fierce attacu: on bim
and Hesshns, and rebuked with severity the
silence of Melanchthon. He could never nndec^
stand how the Lutheran divines could make
their peculiar views of consubstantiation necea-
sary to church fellowship. — ^The most impor-
tant part of Calvin's labOTs waa in oonneetioo
with the new academy of Geneva, inangurafeed
in 1559, and endowed by the liberality of
Bonnivard. Such institutions of learning sprung
up wherever the reform prospered. M
Geneva there were chairs of Hebrew, philology,
philosophy, and theology. Besa, tne ardent
friend and able successor aa well as biographer
of Calvin, of a generous humanistic enlturo, waa
the fint rector of the acadesay. Oalvin taogjit
theology, without a title. Six hundred Btiid«Dla
were present at the opening of the inatltnliOD ;

^^H

iULVDf

■

^^^^HMMk rA €tlr{yi 9ttfnr$lmt^

fittMtwnr*1

1.T.<T

wM*Ji vftx. li.itTvirr-. Kni!v^ t^^.

fnir.lH ^^H

fan*

UK:

1 V ^^^^^H

hit ^^H

^^1

^^H

Blitfei tn4 moor j^diij lio 1^ no

K^ tr«» kl«frni|)tA 1
^^B Imumn of >«

^^^Mt^ Wit* OfVP « 1

of A

tbcr

Uv^ 4l««

888

OALVIN

OALTMENE

to the fteUng of frieadahip, Hk theology was
flevere, becanse it was oonservatiTe and logical j
it emphaazed the divine holiness rather than
the divine love; it made an abstract decree to
take the central place, which only Ohrist can
rightMy fill; bnt it is still the most complete
system whidi the 16th centory prodnced,
nor has it been supplanted by any single work.
The Roman Oathouc Remond terms it *'the
Koran, or rather the Talmud of heresy.*' Bos-
snet, D^Alembert, Mignet, Panl Lacnoix, and
Nisard, all confess that it puts its author among
2m ffranda ierivain$j and makes him one <n
the ** glories" of French literature. Eaiiy in
1664 his body began to sink under his multi*
plied cares, and a complication of disorders, that
had been wearing npon him ever since his youth,
asthma, fever, colic, the stone, the gout dis-
ease of the kidneys, and the hemormoido, as«
sailed him with violence. He could hardlv take
any food, bnt still continued to dictate letters
and comments on the book of Joshua. He
began to preach a sermon on February 4,
but was obliged to stop. On April 27, the
leaser council met around his bedside to receive
his parting words; the next day the minis-
ters of the city and nei^borhood listened, for
the last time, to his affectionate and faithful
counsel. FareL now 80 years of age, journeyed
from Neufch&tel once more to grasp his himd.
Prayers were offered for him in all the churches.
He fingered on in intense suffering, yet in the tri-
umph of faith, until May 27, at 8 o'dock
in the evening^ when he breathed his last He
was buried in the cemetery of Plain Palais; at
his own request, no monument marked the spot,
and no one in Geneva can now tell where repose
the remains of the man who made that aitj
famous. His whole earthly wealth, 225 crowns,
he bequeathed to his relatives and poor foreign-
ers. His salary was 250 franca, and he would not
receive that portion of it which accrued during
his last illness^— The works of Calvin were first
collected in the Geneva edition of 1617, in 12
vols. fol. The best edition is that of Amster-
dam, 1671, in 9 vols. foL The collected works of
Calvin have been published in English by the
Calvin translation society of Edinburgh in 62
Yols. 8vo, completed in 1855. His commentar
rieswere publiished together in 1561, in 2 vols.
8vo. Tholuck edited his commentary on the
New Testament, 1831-^4, Halle. The 1st Paris
edition in French is now in the course of publi-
cation. His Opvscula were issued in 1562 ; the
best edition is the Genevan of 1597. Parts of
his correspondence appeared in 1576, in Beza's
^Life of Calvin.'* Jules Bonnet is now (1858)
editing a complete edition, after years of re-
search; 2 volumes, containing nearly 800 let>-
tors, were issued at Paris in 1864^ and, in Knglish,
at Edinburgh; 2 other volumes will complete
the work. Beza, in 1564^ wrote the life of
Calvin. De May, in 1557, dei>icted his career
firom the Roman Catholie point of view. A
publication directed against Bolseo's libdlooa
work t^peared at deves in 1622* Waterman

and Dyer, 1850, have written hb biography
in English. The most complete account is
given in Paul Henry's Ldien Joha^in OtU-
vtiM, dsi ffrcum Btformatort^ 8 Bde. 1885-'44,
Hamburg ; with a copious appendix of extracts
from 544 letters, to which Dr. Henry had
access. This work has been translated by
Dr. Stebbing, omitting the appendix, in 2 vols.
8vo, London and New York, 1854. In Haag^
I¥anMProte$tante is a valuable JSfbtiee mrjean
CfUoiny »avieei$e9 ouvrageB, with a full account
of the various editions of his works. Andin^s
Skt<nredelaviedsiintorage9et da doctrines de
Oalvin (3d edition, Pteria, 1845), has been trans-
lated into English and German, and is written
from a Roman Catholic point of view. Among
the ot^er biographical sketches of Calvinmust be
mentioned one published by Herzog, in Basd,
in 1848, and the famous sketch of Guizot, from
which we have quoted, and which is to be ibund
in the MuiSe dee proteetawU eUthree. Among
the more recent works which tend to throw
light upon Calvin and his times, may be men-
tioned, Gabriel's Jlietoire de Vealiee de GenMte
depute le eommeneement de la reformation juo"
gu'en 1815 (Geneva, 1855). — ^For an aooonnt
of the historic^ rdations of Calvxnibic, see

BXFORMSD ChUBOH.

CALYISIUS, SsTHus, a German mnridaa
and chronologiBt, bom Feb. 21, 1566, died in
Leipsio. Nov. 24, 1615. He was poor, and by his
musical talents earned the means to virit sev-
eral of the German udverdties, and made great
progress in classical literature, astronomy, and
the mathematics. He opened a musical echoed
at Pforte, rather than accept a professorship of
mathematics, which was offered to him by S
nniversities. The reading of Scaliger^s works
induced him to engage in chronological calca-
lations, and he organized a system of chronol-
ogy, embracing the history of the world, npon
anew plan. He also wrote npon the Gregorian
calendar, proving its inadequacy, and proposing
a new ana more accurate system.

CALYUS, Caiub Lioxniub Maobb, a Roman
orator and poet, a son of the annalist and orator
of the same name, bom 82 B. C, died about
47. He. left 21 orations, but fev fragments
survive. One of these against Y aonius, whose
counsel Cicero was^ produced so nowwftd an
effect that the accused interrupted the orator
and exdaimed, *' Jud^ ami to be condcmmed
because my accuser is eloouentf* His poems
ranked wilSi those of CatuUns.

CALX, a term formerly in use by the <^
chemists for designating the product of the
oxidation of a metal, when heated in the air.
Subseqnently it was limited to lime prepared
by calcination, and is now used in this sense
in the pharmaccmottas. Its properties will be
described under the head of Lno.

CALTMEKE (Gr. tmuikvufi^mh eoDoealed,
BO named from the obscmw nature of the geninX
a genua of trilobiteB charaoteriaed by the
ihcoltv of rolling the body into the fbrm of a
ban, by bringing the two extramitieB of the

^^^^ (MLH^tl OiUIAiCGini Mt^l

^^^^^H^^^Bb*.

ri»A rinxi^tiri^nd d^iii.t# <^*«!.i;. .f...! 1^.1. ^rn.. ^t« ^^^^^H

•f^t!, ftiijl My of tiii^ ^^^B

<r not liAM ^H

^^H

^^^K^,-..T^.

^^E^

^^^^K:l

^^^^^b,

^■Lia> w UW nib MpeditiOT, vltW. pojrtbr, . 2 ■

^■l^jL.. ' "^ ■

^^^■Nl Um i 4ml»iikr, i: H

t_ "J

oakabula

0AMBAGS33I$SS

porUon is extremely fertile ; game is abondant.
Salt is formed naturally on the banks of the
marshes, and is an important article of trade.
A company is now engaged in draining the
marshes.

0 AMABILLA, a term of political application,
implying a secret court influence, apart from the
regular and publicly knoim agency of ministers
of state and public ftmctlonaries. It is a Spanish
word, meanmg primarily a small room or clos-
et, and is used as a term of reproach. Its origin
is attributed to a period after the return of Fer-
dinand Yil., but there is considerable probabil-
ity that it was Imown in the same sense at a
much earlier stage of Spanish history.

OAMABINA) a town on the S. coast of
Sicily, founded by a colony from Syracuse,
about 600 B. 0. It was an exposed position
in the Roman and Oarthaginian wars, and
was several times taken, retaken, and de-
stroyed. Scarcely any yestiges of the ancient
town remain.

OAMABIKES. This name is applied to the
whole of the S. E. peninsula of the island of Lu-
zon; but it designates more especially 2 of the
20 provinces of the island, known as Cama-
rina Norte, and Oamarina Sur. The name, which
in Spanish signifies a small chamber, is used in
Manila to sigo^ a porch or piazza; and as the
palms for the construction of this portion of the
European dwellings were obtained from the
peninsula^ it received this name from the Span-
iards. Tne Camarines provinces are bounded
N. by the province of Tay abas ; S. by the prov-
ince of Aibay, which forms the southern ex-
tremity of the peninsula; E. by the Pacific
ocean; and W. by the great bay of Bagay.
The formation of the peninsula Ib volcanic ; the
Oaraballos ranse of mountains extends its whole
length, from N. to S., and 7 of its peaks are
active volcanoes. The soil of the 2 provinces
possesses the same remarkable fertility whidi
accompanies all the volcanic formations through-
out the archipelaga Tobacco, sugar, coffee,
cocoa, and indigo, are largely produced for
exportation; but the chief occupation of the
inhabitants of the Camarines is the culture
of the pinei^le, and the manufacture of
pioa cloth. The official authority, It^orme
aobre Vestado de las islaa Filipinos, states
that about 17,000 looms are actively em-
ployed in these provinces in the manufacture of
pina cloth ; which varies in quality, from the
most delicate fabric, worth $1,600 fdr a ladv's
dress, to the coarser tissneisuitable for a la-
borer's camisa, worth $5. The women of the
Oamarines are esteemed the most skilfttl em-
broiderers in Luzon of the delicate pina. The
skill of the women of these provinces is also sin-
gularly displayed in the working of gold and sil-
ver filigree. All the artificers in precious metals
are women; and some articles of Jewelry, espe-
dallv their neck chains, are very beautiful and
much sought for by strangers, European as well
as Asiatic. — ^The agriculture of the Camarines
iDdicatee in some reapeots a degree of progress

beyond that of the other provinces of theklandi
The o^ and oooasionaUy the horse, are used in
ploughing, instead of the slow, unwieldy bnfblo,
so generally preferred by the native East IndiaD
fkrmer. The Oamarinians have also discarded
the ancient plough, the primitive one in use
among every semi-civilized people, formed from
a sin^e piece of crooked timber, with a point
hardened by fire; and have substitated in its
place a European style of implement, with iron
coulter and a mouldboard. As an evidence of
the advanced civilization and superior skffl
and industry of the inhabitants of these prov-
inces, especiallv of Camarina Sur, we may
state that official authorities, quoting the
prices of real estate in Luzon, mentum a
quillon of land, a measure of 1,000 sq. fath-
oms, as worth in the Camariues, when fenced
and irrigated, from $250 to $700; or on an
average $200 per English acre. The prov-
inces have welt-constructed roads; and many
of the rivers are traversed by substantial stone
bridges. The Kaga river, whidi drains the lakes
Bato, Baao, Buhi, and Iryga, and disembogaes
into the bay of San Miguel, is navigable about
40 miles for vessels drawing not more than IS
ft. water. The industrial development of these
provinces has been accompanied by a notable
mcrease in population; and this being com-
posed, with but small exception, of the brown
race of the Philippines, which nas yielded so
readily to tiie infiuences of Christian dvilizatioo.
The Camarines have not had their progress re-
tarded, like otiier provinces of Luzon, by the
troublesome presence of the wild negrito raoe.
In 40 years, the population of the provinces has
doubled. Camarma Sur, pop. 1 16,575, and area
2,820 sq. m. Camarina Noite, pop. 28,829, and
area 1,094 sq. m.

CAMBAC£r£:S. Jxan Jaoquib R£oia urn, a
French statesman, bom at Montpellier, Oct. 16,
1768, died in Paris, March 6, 1824. He was
educated to the bar, in which profession he won
an early eminence, and was made a counsellor
of the court of excise in his native place. At
the opening of the revolution, he took an active
part in politics, and was afterward sent as m^n*
ber first to the legislative assembly and then
to the national convention. Placed on Uie com-
mittee on legislation, he rendered important ser*
vices by means of his intimate knowledge of
law, his saoacity, and his powers of generaliza-
tion. Dunog the trial of Louis XYL, it was
on his fbotion that counsel were allowed to the
king, and were also permitted to communicate
with him finely. He voted for the condemna-
tion of that monarch, but denied the right of
the convention to a^jadge him to an nnocmdi-
tional death. He was in £avor of a prorisional
reprieve, and of death only in case of a hostile in-
vasion. Through the dreadfiil reign of viole&oe
which followed, he is said to have endeavored to
restrain the more arbitrary acts of the body, and
to bring it back to strictiy ledslative meas-
ures ; but he must have exerted himself rather
caatiously, for he suggested the revolntioiutfy

^V gammmIIV

■

CAMBOM 201 H

^™ tr^ . I rrfM.1. f.rv-K.,^ :* *tii^tj (if |||(l fr.»T»^ Itwr?

f^TTT kn h»m^jTr^i ^i nr« 1ii"d<-k M'TtflBM iff^J*^^-**- ^^^^^H

^HI>>^| 1 ..

"l"^:

.til ^H

^^^^Bt II

— ^^H

^F"'

^^^^^^^HB i'

'T riTTTjf qf Tim tfT RT^m^ ^H

^^^HBSrtru/^iU

► '

amI ^^M

^^^Kl wtiti tie^ati

54.cr,T. ^H

^^Kftir "'-'

^^^^^^C ^

^^^^^^^P e>.<r

^^H

^^^^^^^^nc"

^^^^H

^^^^^^^^^Ei *

^4 ^^H

^^^^^^np^'^ ' '

^^1

^^^Bi«> Dftmr ^

^^H»eiw«^

m ^M

^HPI of IX

^^^^H^ 1 TC

Vl '«. v-si

,. o J . i- ■*

iJ«uA.-*iC« ^^^1

lik itsicr

r,<»il ar

YUihtk wf»t) itii iuiA ^H

i W 0 V, '

•,.tr.l b«

^^H

pp-ik 11

^P^

^^^Bk*^

rnivoTJ ,

r 'pJvo'.ri. tlid litre* ^H

^^^B^w lEMfm

1 ill t.tflk^

A^yA ftr^'^lf-

11- ^H

^^^^^^^^^Bl^

. uTvr- ^H

^Jtoar

hU d 1 1)0 pliAmift' ^^M

,.i-l>i*iL

'^^^a% wttkll ^H

^^^^^^^^^^^B 1

r, dbd ill tin* ^H

'« tn '-^'VTt.iVFjrrrfi], ^^1

^^^^BT' '

' 'a«;

.itti

«ti«! ... U4i ^^M

cvOeeJ iLti i\^u'UUi .. w Ui |in]> ^^|

S92

OAMBOOBIE

QAMBBIDGX

d«lmed in his native town. He was sent to
the legislative assembly, and while supporting
the cause of democracy, gave partioolar atten-
tion to financial mattess. Most of the great
measm*6s which enabled the government to get
through the revolntionaiy period were suggest-
ed or controlled by him ; and to him the honor
is dae of having laid the foondation of the
modem financial system of France. He pro-
moted the confiscation of the estates of the imi-
gri$ in 1792, and made, after Angnst 10^ re-
port in which he argued that Louis aVL,
naving held a secret correspondence with the
enemies of France, was guilty of high treason.
He presided over the last sittings of the legisla-
tive assembly, and afterward took his seat as a
member of the convention. Here he opposed
with equal energy the partisans of monarchy and
of teiTorism. He accused both Dumouriez and
Harat. When Louis XVL was arraigned be-
fore the convention, he voted for his immediate
death, and aeainst the appeal to the people.
He opposed the creation of the revolutionary
tribunal, aud innsted upon trial by jury. At
the opening of the convention, he had been ap-
pointed member of the committee on finances;
April 7, 1798, he entered the committee of
public safety. On June 2, when the Girondists
were threatened by the infuriated mob calling
for their proscription, he boldlv took his place
among them, hoping to be able, through his
popularity, to save them from violence; he
then opposed to the last the decree ordering
their arrest, and he seemed so much grieved by
its adoption, that it was thought for a mo-
ment that he would not reappear in the as-
sembly. He did not however, desert his post,
and continued to fhlnl his duties with untiring
activity. In July, 1798, he presented, in the
name of the committee on public saiety, the
report on the general situation of affiurs. The
next year he made another report on the ad-
ministration of finances, which is considered
a masterpiece of financial ability, and gives a
fullsketcn of the plan which was afterward
adopted for the regular registration of pub-
lic debt In the conflict which brought on the
revolution of the 9th Thermidor, Gambon took
part against Robespierre and his adherents ; but
thouffh he had been instrumental in their de-
feat, ne was charged with having been their
accomplice, and a warrant was issued against
him. He succeeded in baffling the search for
him, and on the amnesty proclaimed by the
convention on their a^oumment, he retired
to an estate in the vicinity of Montpellier, where
he devoted himself to agriculture. In 1816 he
was elected a member of the chamber of depu-
ties. On the second return of the Bourbons,
he was not included in the bill of amnesty, and
repaired to Brussels, where he spent his last
years in retirement.

OAMBOOBIE, or Zambubi, a walled town
of Slam, at the confluence of the See-sa-wat
and May-mannoi rivers. It has a brick fort
with 20 gons.

OAHBORNE, an English town in the eonntf
of Oomwall, 9^ miles N. W. from Peniyn ; area,
6,900 acres ; pop. nearly 8,000. It is a neatiy
built modem town, and derives its importance
mainly from its vicinity to very prodiustive tin
and copper mines. It nas a himasome drarch,
built in the later Gothic style, several djasenting
chapels, and a fi'ee schooL

OAMBR AI, or Oambbat. a fortified town of
France, department of Nord, on the right bank
of the Scheldt, at the head of the canal of St
Quentin, 105 m. N. N. E. from Paris. It was
a place of importance when Oessar conquered the
country, and from its old name, Oainaraonm,
its present appellation was derived. It was for
a while the seat of a small Frankish kingdom,
which was united by Olovis to his empire.
During the middle ages it belonged to the
counts of Flanders, and came aft^ward into
the possession of the dukes of Buigondy, from
whom it was transmitted to the house c^ Aus-
tria. Here the famous league against Venice
was concluded in 1508, and a peace between
Francis I. and Oharles y» was negotiated in
1629 by Louise of Savov and Margaret of Aus-
tria, known as lapaix ies damet. It was taken
from th^ Spaniards by Louis XIY., in 1067, and
confirmed to France by the treaty of Nimeguen.
FenSlon was archbishop of Oambrai, and dur-
ing the disastrous war for the succession of
Spain devoted himself to the protection of the
people of his diocese. In 1798 the town was
vainly besieged by the Austrians. It was the
buthplace of Dumouriez and Marshal Mntier.
It has been long celebrated for its manu&cture
of fine linens and lawns, whence all similar fab-
rics are called in Englimd cambrics, and which
are still the most important branch of its indus-
try. It also produces thread, cotton atufb of
various kinds, soap, and beet sugar. The prin-
cipal public buildings are the cathedral, which
is modem, the old one having been destroyed
during the revolution, the city hall, imd the
theatre. A monument was erected here in
honor of F^n61on. Oambrai has a communal
college, a diocesan seminary, a library with
80,000 volumes, and several other learned and
charitable institutions. Pop. in 1866, 31,405.

OAMBBIA, the Latin name for Wales, mean-
ing the land of the Oymri, as the Welali call
themselves in their native tongue.

OAMBRDLI^ SYSTEM, tiie loweet daasified
group of fossiliferous rocks^ lying next below
the Silurian. The Potsdam sandstone of this
country is included in it by I^eU, and the
sandstones and conglomerates of Lake Superior
are referred by Logan to the same grtmp^ or
possibly to one still older.

OAMBRIO, originally a very fine fabrio oC
linen, named fix>m Oambrai, where it was first
made. The name afterward came to be a|>>
plied to cotton fabrics of various qualities.

OAMBRIDGE, a city of Middlesex oob, Maa&,
a suburb of Boston, lying W. of that dty, a&d
separated from it by the river O^fflea, whiclx
is nearly a mile in width. It was aettied in IGftl^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^auBBiDGi:

^^^^1 .Hi ^M

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I^^^Hfv

^^^^^K^^

^^^^^^^^^^^nr^r \s^

BMHR^^B^*^ no >'

ill ^M

p "■ ^^'- ''• ' " '■ ' ^■

^^1
^^H

^^rir -1 ^'^'jik-A*

IKUL* * '

KfUtv- 'i^9£a9€.

insii

Mfe 'i .'^->-

r,..*^. ;

H^'i^i

^^^^■it

^^H^'

i>ioi'o&« i

utUrvi ui iba ^H

^^H '

f*M*^, pr-'

.'j»^H^. ft ^M

B''

■bii^:< ,vr.:.'.

K y Uld

■rtitutffib^ ^i, — „ ..

k^T- f

mgm!ti» mm i^'^mH-^'-i m

Li fi!

Indu

^i H

^^■^M airiir. ^ i9^

ifc^!^

^■IPkw rr.ir ,

tnit^if

■Mt» ^^ '

^^1

BttT mrr.

BMn^

^ioiii-r

^^H. .r^l

fff^ ■

^^^K» '

ton 1 day

' liOl inr^ILUHU'^tif iht ^^B

HHRKL .
1.

l.-.~1 t ^

: c^{»ml4y pftYolkiL and ^H

II .iuw

B^MMPI ^^l** ■ v^ii.-^ib^ tuji'^ n-'^di •* , < j

kk^jN,! '•.■.J 1

. iirit<^ii Tit* /iif i^ittH ^^^1

^■^fe ImfUian fla^ pdfm >^.

wiffJ^inic.

^^H

^^^HpiA odtIi<jrtriiiiD.!ir»-« ciTiL

U-iiiif.i Lf r

__ ,__.

^^H^

sj-k^

o^ KPdk\i i» ^H

^^^■^

i ■

: b ^Tin tT Spr '*- ^B

^^^^' '-^ ^^^*

|ri*^ ffi?*

^^^K IntTTt^.

iriu iiT U-

^^^k:

Ui« tli^.

■

^^fimotiinr

.. ■

' m

^^n ^; Dioiniciin

■

^^Ej

».ij-iuk/ i-— "r '^f* ^^H

^^■l

i^.nr.tTj :t0Wtl Ol OA^ ^|

aa rhim fjvi^ii ^H

Th^^ MW1I It hi ^H

^^^fci

■

J^^ratt- ^^H

294

CAMBRIDGE UNTVEBSriT

lem, and consecrated in 1101, Addenbrooke'a
hospital, and several other handsome ecUfioes.
A school of art was established here in Ang.
1858. The town is on the river Oanii the an-
cient Grants^ and was the dte of a Roman
station. King John gave Oambridge a goild,
and the privilege of being governed by a pro-
vost of its own choosing, an office for which
Henry III. snbstitnted a mayor and 4 bailiff.
Cromwell thrice represented Cambridge in par-
liament. The borongh of Oambridge is govern-
ed by 10 aldermen and 80 councillors, one of
whom is mayor, and returns 2 members to the
house of commons. There are places of wor-
ship for Wesleyans and Primitive Methodists,
for Baptists and Independents, a grammar-
school founded in 1615 for 100 scholars, and
various charitable, educational, and literary in-
stitutions, among which there is an industrial*
school, a mechanics' institute, and the Philo
nnion. Cambridge derives its chief glory from
being the seat of the cdebrated uxdversity of
that name.

CAMBRIDGE, IlNivKBsrrT of, an English
seat of learning, of very ancient origin. The
first authentic charter is sud to be dated 16th
Henry HI. (1230), and even long before that time
Cambridge is bolieved to have enjoyed a repu-
tation for learning. The present university
statutes were ^ven by Elizabeth in the 12th
year of her reign. They are the foundation on
which all new laws are framed. The universi-
ty consists of the following 17 colleges : St. Pe-
ter's, founded 1267; Clare Hall, 1826; Pem-
broke, 1847; Gonville and Caius, 1848; Trini-
ty Hall, 1850; Corpus Christi, 1852; King's,
1441 ; Queen's, 1448, re-founded 1465 ; St.
Catharine's Hall, 1476; Jesns, 1496; Christ's,
1505 ; St. John's, 1511 ; Magdalene, 1519 ; Trm-
ity, the wealthiest college of them all, 1646 ; Em-
manuel, 1684; Sidney Sussex, 1598; Downing,
1800. Each college is a corporate body, bonnd
by its own statut^ but is likewise subject to
the general laws of the university. ]^ch of
the 17 colleges furnishes members both for the
legislative and executive branches of the gov-
ernment of the university. The former branch
consists of a senate, which is divided into 2
houses — ^the regents' and the non-regents'
house — ^and of the councQ of the senate, by
which every university grace must be sanction-
ed before it can be brought before the senate.
No degree is ever confeired without a ffrace for
that purpose. The council consists of me chan-
cellor, the vice-chancellors, 4 heads of colleges,
4 professors of the university, and 8 other
members of the senate. The executive officers
of the university are : a chancellor, a high
steward, a vice-chancellor, a commissary, a
public orator, the assessor, 2 proctors, a librari-
an, a registrar, 2 scrutators. 2 moderators, 2
pro-proctors, and various otner officers. The
university sends 2 members to the house of
commons, which are chosen by the collective
body of the senate. The present members (elect-
ed April, 1857) are Mr. L. T.Wigrwn and the Rt.

Hon. Spencer H. Wdpole. The number of mem-
bers of the university senate for 1858 is4,666; of
under-graduates or students, 1,618; and the
total number of members inscribed on the books
or boards of the universi^, 7,51 6. The branches
of studv pursued at Cambridge may be infeired
from the following list of professors, namdy :
the Lady Margaret's professor of divmity; the
regius professors of aivinity, civil law, physic,
Hebrew and Greek; 2 professors of Arabic,
one of whom is appointea by the lord almoner ;
the Lucasian professor of mathematics ; pro-
fessors of moral theology or casuistry ; chem-
istry, astronomy, and experimentid philosophy;
anatomy; modem history; botany; geology;
astronomy and geometry; the Korriaan pro-
fessor of divinity; natural and experimental
philosophy ; the Downhig professors of the
laws of England and of medicine ; ^e profes-
sors of mineralor^, political economy, and
music; and the Disney professors of arohsd-
ology, founded in 1851 by Mr. John Disney.
Beside these regular professorships, there are
various endowed lecturee^ps. A board of
mathematical studies was established in 1848 ;
a board of classical studies in 1854 ; and a board
of medical studies in the same year. The rev-
enues of the separate colleges are large and are
derived from endowments and fees, but those
of the university are small, and hsurdly exceed
^5,500 a year. The professors are paid from
the university fhnds, or by the government, or
from estates left for that purpose. The sum
granted to them by the government was £1,063
in 1856 and the same amount in 1857. The
caution money to be deposited preliminary to
the admission to the university is £50 for no-
blenlen, £25 for fellow-commoners, £15 for
pensioners, and £10 for sizars. The matricula-
tion fees are respectively £16, £11, £5 10s.,
and £1 5s. There are various degrees of pay-
ment for tuition, according to the d^^ree
and condition of the members, and alightly
differing in the several colleges. The annual
unavoidable average expenses of an under-
graduate or student, are stated by the ^ Oam-
bridge Almanac" of 1858 to be about £60,
or $800. The terms of the univeroty are
8, viz.: Michaelmas, or October, begins Oct.
10, and ends Dec 16; Len^ or January,
begins January 18, and ends on the Friday
before Palm-Sunday; Easter, or midsummer,
begins on the 11th day (the Wednesday
se'nnight) after Easter day, and ends on the
Friday after commencement day. Commence-
ment day is always the 1st Tuesday in July. —
The degrees are conferred as follows : Bachelor
of arts. (B. A.) after 12 terms, 10 of which must
be in residence. Privy councillors, relations of
royalty, bishops, noblemen and their sons, bar-
onets, and knights, are adnussible after 7 terms.
Master .of arts (M. A.), 8 years after taking a
bachelor's degree ; bachelor in divinity (B. D.X
must be M. A. of 7 years' standing. Persons
admitted of any college when upward of 24
yean old, are permitted to take the degree of

^ i}AiiaaiDu£

^^H

'^^^^^P

} ' '- ■ ■ ^- -

' ' !^^^^^|

It r^^^

itlIJt:W

^^H

■Wull^.

^^^1

InCffi L ^-* ■. -.-.^.J ^,^^M.^Ar^

^^^^H

tiiLHi r-ri<^^ Hi*- ^jT^bir r«fVol '^

^^^^1

^^H

1 ^^^^^1

■

Sfi.'

^^^^^1

■

#l*iL.r

, , ;

^^^^1

' §«iviil

.. ^^^^1

«i, .

t-,«iQ--'

'■ ^^^^1

L ^^^^1

iti

I ^^^^^1

t . .

' ^^^^1

lALin <iil=i.

^^^^H

itfiirUaiftci

'irx^^W' . ^^^H

Hif OiMliC'Hiau -•*< r^ i ri n 7%^ d^^ ' i r

(M^jp .'.ri ;i

ii'Tini^'U r^»qqiAtiiin*, tij. ^^^H

iti^Ui«jdii£j«ial f^>a^ Ui^ % mill

iD|thlail2, atl

iiitii|ittrtai^ ftud m or : ^^^1

Oil Irtcrsiuf m i^^^kml fHj^

^^^^H

malmntktm In tiioril md u.

^jm/md m\vnia» ijid ititui^ *«ler^

loMl, kr'j rmKMniuMid

' ^^^^1

ILt prrivtrr , «n'3 t^k

. , , ^^^^1

Un 1 ^^^H

j.<

; )^fl?}{^ »t f.: i ^^^H

V,M,t..

1 ^^^^^1

■

Ailm.f"

~ ^^^^1

■

.< ^^^1

■

r ^^^^B

L ^^^^H

: ^H

■

iei»i-lU -Kif.. .^^.'.^^mifif l^Orf'H'M

' ^^^1

■

|iUi«lfU ' • ' ■ '!■ -1 ' • r.^'flTf f TTT •'lli rlf,.-.

. -r - - , , ',^,„^, .-,

^„ ; ^^^^H

^f^/igL Hj'lite fit tXi <

■ - fm^m yt •

1 ^^^^^1

—

[J- Df tlll4S d*:

H ^^^^1

■

)^ .oisdUoci?

4v pi

-'iii^'Ui^Ulu mmjUW^ ^^"^ ^^ cluir*^^^^^!

n.r^ii IT

nTitvvnMtrriHtTivnriof poMk? A*i>i^^^^H

#1:

IHij ,

' •iLit^nqiTi^', I!

f ^^^1

■

^ J.

-^Bw^ t.

^ ^^^^^1

■

llfej r*>» , t". ^'^'-i;, *^+'.-i':7 ■

.1 u .^ ciiU„,,^i 1^

1, ^^^H

liil^M* lii

« ^^^^^1

OAMBBIDGESHIBS

CAMDEN

duke of Cambridge, ki 1854 was sdvaneed to
the rank of lienteoaiitrgeiieral, and in 1866 to
that of generaL He oommanded the 2 brigades
of Highmnders and guards which formed the
first divifflon of the army sent to the Crimea.
He led tiiese troops into action at the battle
of Alma, and at Inkerman had a horse shot
under him. Directed by his physician to with-
draw for a time flrom camp life, he retired first
to Pera, and soon after to England. On the
resignation of Yisoonnt Hardinge in July, 1856,
he was appointed commander-in*ohief of the
British army.

CAMBRIDGESHIBE, one of the agrionltu-
ral ooonties of England; area, 898 sq. m.;
pop. in 1851, 185,405. The general aspect of
the county is flat ; in fact, it has been redeemed
for agricidtaral pniposes, and forms part of the
great Bedford level The rivers are the Cose,
the Ken. the I^rk, and the Cam, all small, bat
rendered nseful for inland navigation. The
county is traversed by several railways and
main roads, but the internal traffic is inconsid-
erable. The history of Cambridgeshire is in-
teresting in the early times for the resistance
ofibred by the Saxons in the isle of Ely to the
Normans. They succeeded for a considerable
time in maintaining thdr independence, not-
withstanding the force which William in per-
son brought against them. In the civil wars
Cambridgeshire was generally favorable to the
parliament, while the university supported the
cause of the king.

CAMBR0N2% Fubrbb Jacques EtonsEj
baron, a French general, bom Dec. 26, 1770, at
St S^bastien, near Nantes, died in the latter
city, Jan. 8, 1842. He served in the Yend^
under Hoche, then in Switzerland under Has-
s6na, entered the imperial guard, and was re-
nowned for intrepidity. When the emperor
was sent to Elba, Cambronne went with him,
and daring the Hundred Days he received the
rank of lieutenant-general, and a seat in the
senate. At Waterloo he was in command of
the imperial guard ; and when the day was lost
being surrounded by his enemies and summoned
to surrender, he refused, and fell covered with
wounds. He was taken from among the dead,
nearly dead himself carried to Brussels, and
afterward to London ; but having been chained
in France as guilty of an attacc on his own
country, he gave himself up as a prisoner and
demaided a triaL He was tried and honora-
bly discharged. After the revolution of July,
1880, although almost disabled by age and
wounds, he was reinstated among the staff
officers of the army.

CAMBTSES, the second Persian king, suc-
ceeded his fiither Qyrus' 529 B. C, died 522
B. C. He is the Ahasuerus of Scripture, who is
mentioned (Ezra iv. 6-22) as prohibiting the
Jews from rebuilding their temple. In 525 B. C.
he conquered Egypt and took Fsammenitua,
its king, captive. He then desired to attack
Carthage; but the Fhoenidan fleet, which
Ibrmed Uie bulk of Ids navy, reftised to molest

their own colony* An tun^yseixt to taksepo*^
session of the temple of Jupiter Ammon per-
ished in the sand, and another army, led by
Cambyses himself against the Ethic^iaDSy was
reduced by hunger and disease. These diflift-
ters exasperated Cambyses. He put his brotbsr
Smerdis to deatlkkilled onrof his sisters, who
was (contrary to Perdan law) also his wife, be-
cause she mourned for Smerdis, and treated the
Egyptians with great cruelty. He gave orders
for the destruction of many EgypUan saored
monuments, and slew the god Apis. He de«
creed the death of Croesus, the ex-monarbh of
Lydia, attended at the place of execution, and
burst into tears. The officers suspended their
operations. Cambyses advanced and embraioed
C&cosns, but ordered the instant execution of the
officers for disobedience. These and other eooen*
tricities caused an insurrection among his officers,
who espoused the cause of a pretended Smerdis.
Cambyses set out against the pretender^ bat
died from a wound accidentally inflicted by hb
ovn sword.

CAMDEN, the name of counties in scTeral
of the United States. I. A south-western coun-
ty of New Jersey, separated from Pennsylvania
by the Delaware river, and comprising an area
of about 220 sq. m. The sur&ce is generally
level, the soil of the E. part sandy, and that of
the W. a rich loam, yielding quantities of frnit
and vegetables for the Philadelphia maikets.
The productions in 1850 were 259,684 bushds of
Indian corn, 807,869 of Irish potatoes, 65,191 of
sweet potatoes, 12,946 tons of hay, and 299,856
lbs. of wool. There were 2 founderies, 1 loco-
motive manufactory, 5 glassworks, 11 floormilte,
1 paper mill, and 28 saw mills, 85 churches, 8
newspaper offices, and 8,689 pupils attending
public schook. Most of the mannfactmring es-
tablishments are in the E. part of the county.
The Camden and Amboy and Camden and At-
lantic railroads traverse it. Formed from GIoq-
cester co., in 1844. Capitsl, Camden. Fop. in
1855, 29,160. n. A north-eastern county of
North Carolina, bounded N. by Vir^nma, S. and
S. W. by Albemarle sound and Pasquotank
river, and having an area of abont 280 sq.
m., part of which is occupied by the Dismal
Swamp. It has a level surface and aferli^
soil, weU adapted to Indian corn, of which m
1850 it produced 868,000 bushels, bedde 28L49S
of sweet potatoes, and 4,880 of wheat. There
were 5 shingle mills, 1 com and flour milL 7
churches, and 1,860 pupils attendins pnblio
schools. Valuable forests of cedar and oypreas
exist, and the exportation of the lumber mod
other products is facilitated by the Dismal
Swamp canal, 22 miles long. Value of land in
1857, $573,788. Capital, Camden CourtHouae.
Formed in 1777, and named in honor of the
earl of Camden, who defended the American
colonies in the British parliament. Pop. in
1850, 6,049, of whom 2,187 were sUves. m.
A south-eastern county of Qeorgia, bordering
on Florida and the Atlantic ocean, bounded S.
hj St. Mary's river, intersected by the SantiUSi

OAMDEN

297

and having ail area of 1,135 eq. m* It in-

clades Cumberland island in the Atlantio, 18
miles long, 2 or 8 .miles wide, and separated
from the mainland bj a narrow ohanneL The
gnrface is level and the soil sandy. The pro-
dactions in 1850 were 6,400,940 lbs. of rice (the
greatest quantity produced by any county of
the state except Ohatham), 62,328 bushels of
sweet potatoes, 68,478 of Indian com, and 45
hogsheads of sugar. There were 8 turpentine
distilleries, 4 corn mills, 1 saw mill, 10 churches,
and 115 pupils attending schools and academies.
Value of real estate in 1656, $878,692. Oapi*
ti^, Jefferson. Pop. In 1856, not returned ; in
1S50, 6,819, of whom 4,246 were slaves. IV.
A central county of Missouri, drained by Osage
and several other rivers, and having an area of
about 600 sq. m., with an undulating surfiEUse
and a tolerably fertile soil. Lead mines are
worked near Osage river, which is navigable
during a short time every year. The produc*
tioQs in 1850 were 256,054 bushels of Indian
corn, 22,241 of wheat, 45,176 of oats, and 219
tons of hay. There were 5 com mills and 6
saw mUls. Capital, Erie. Pop. in 1866, 8,287,
of wliom 188 were slaves.

CAMDEN. L A city, port of delivery, and
seat of justice, of Camden co., N. J. ; pop. in
1850, 9,479 ; iu 1865, about 16,000. It is built
on a plain on the left bank of Delaware river,
immediately opposite the city of Philadelphia,
with which it is connected by 6 ferries, and its
proximity to which has greatly aided the growth
of its population. The streets are regular, and
in tersect one another at right angles. There are
many fine buildings; the principal pubhc edi-
fices are a court house and gaol, 2 railway depots,
and 10 churches. There are 2 literary aseocia-
titms, an insurance company, ironfounderies, ship
yards, chemical and glass works, and a number
of mills of various kinds. The dty was charter-
ed in 1881, and is divided into 8 wards, governed
by a mayor and common counciL Kailroads
connect it with New York, Trenton, Woodbury,
and Absecum Beach. IL The capital of Ker«
shaw district, 8. C, 112 m. from Charleston, is
situated in a fertile and productive region, on
the £. bank of the Wateree river, which is
navigable to this point by steamboats, and is
crossed by a bridge near the town ; pop. 2,000.
Camden is a flourishing commercial place, cot-
ton and tnrpentine being the staples of export;
it commmucates by nmroad with Charleston.
It contains 8 academies and several grammar-
Bchools, 2 banks, 4 ohnrohes^ an oiphan society,
a masonio lodge, and Tarious other societies.
It has witnessed 2 bi^ea— one fought in Aug.,
1780, between Gates and Comwallis; the other
in April, 1781, between Greene and Bawdon.
A monument to Baron De Kalb was erected in
1S25, of which Lafayette laid the corner stone.
Two Indian mounds exist on the side of the
town. HL The capital of Wilcox oo., Ala.,
pop. 800, is a flourishing post village, the
centre of an active trade, and the most popu-
lous town in the oomity. Itstandaonahealthy

eminenoe abont 4 m. from Alabama river, and
c<mtain8 a respectable academy and 2 female
seminaries. On several moips of the state it
has been erroneously named Barboursville.
IV. The capital of Washita oo.. Ark. ; pop.
in 1866, 1,400. It stands on a declivity of a
range of lulls, on tlie right bank of the Washita
river, and at the head of navigation for large
steamers. It is a handsome place, built in a
very tasteful style, and possessing great advan-
tages for trade. A plank road, to connect it
with Fulton on Bed river, is now in process of
erection. It was formerly a rendezvous for
hunters, known as JScore d Fcibre, It was
settled in 1842, on the site of a dense forest,
parts of which are still standing. The growth
of the town has been very rapid, and it stil^
continues to increase in size, population, and im-
portance.

CAMDEN, a fouth-eastern county of l^ew
Sonth Wales^ bordering on the Pacific, and
covering an area of 1,400,820 acres. It has an
uneven sur&oe, beautifully diversified by hUla,
▼alleys, and picturesque lakes. It is well
watered by small branches of the Cowpasture^
Wingecarabee, Bhoalhaven. and other rivers,
has many fertile tracts, and embraces a variety
of fine scenery. One of the richest parts of th»
coimty is a district known as the ^^ Cowpastures,*'
so called from large herds of cattle found there,
which sprang from a few animals escaped from
the settlements soon after the foundation of the
colony. Capital, Berrima. Pop. 8,328.

CAMDEN, Chables Pilitt, earl, an Eng-
lish judge and statesman, bom in Devonshire,
in 1714, died April 18, 1794. He was educated
at Eton and Cambridge ; was called to the bar
in 1788, where after passing a long period with-
out practice, his rise was at leng& sudden and
rapid. In 1762, upon the prosecution of a print-
er for a libel upon the house of commons, Pratt
maintained, in opposition to the ruling of tlie
judge, the doctrine of the right of juries to de-
cide upon ^e nature and intention of alleged
libels. His position upon this occasion was the
commencement of a contest which continued
for 40 years, and it is mainly owing to his ex-
ertions that this doctrine fiiudly became recog^
nized as the law of England. In 1767 he was
made attorney-general and knighted under Lord
Chatham. In his place in parliament he conduct-
ed the law business of the crown satisfactorily
but without display, and as the prosecuting offi-
cer he took the opportunity to proceed, before
juries, upon his former construction of the law
of libel. He also conducted with great propri*
ety and moderation the trial of Lord Femers for
murder before the house of lords. In conse*
quence of the change of policy which took place
on the accession of George HI., Pratt was re-
moved in 1762 to the chief justiceship of the
court of common pleas, and accepted the a^H
pointment as a lastmg retirement from public
life. But the arrest of Mr. Wilkes, April 80,
1768, under a general warrant from the secre-
tu7 of state and other similar caaeS| pzooght

OAMDEK

OAHMr

the important political and legal qnestions con-
cerning the legality of anch warrants before
that oonrt, and in his JndgmentB agpunst them
he was called npon to take a posilion in defence
of the liberties of the sabject. The principles
which he then hud down were not only applied
to check abuses at the time, bnthave ever since
been considered of the first importance. In
consequenoe of the mat popuwty thns ob-
tained, he was raised to the peerage, Jnly IT,
1765, nnder the name of Baron Camden. He
distingaiBhed himself at once b^ his exertions
in behalf of the American colonies, and on the
formation of Lord Chatham's 2d administration
he was made lord chancellor, Jnlv 80, 1766. He
held this office for 8^ years, oisoharging his
Unties as a Judge with nniversal approbation,
bnt occupying, as a minister, a precarious and
doubtful position in relation to the American
policy of the cabinet However, upon the resig-
nation of Lord Chatham he hastened to free
himself from complicity with their measures,
and was removed from his place Jan. 17, 1770.
From this time until the close of the American
war he continued in opposition to the govern-
ment of Lord North, both upon its domestic
and foreign policy, the treatment of Wilkes
^d of the colonies ; and distinguished himsdf
by the memorable eloquence with which he
contended in parliament for the just demands
of the Americans and the pacification of the
empire. Soon after the trial of Woodftll, the
printer of Junius's letters, in 1770, before Lord
Mansfield, he was engaged in a personal con-
troversy with the latter, in relation to the charge
to the jury upon that occasion, upon the old
question of the law of libel, in which he ob-
tained a decided superiority. After the resig-
nation of Lord North's ministry in 1782, he
was made president of the oounciL but resigned
the next vear on the accession of the '^ Coalition
lOnistry," and enlisted under the banner of the
younger Pitt The success of this mmister led
to Camden's restoration to the same office
which he peacefully filled for 9 years. . He was
created Earl Camden and Viscount Baylumi of
Bayham abbey, Sussex co., May 18, 1786; and
still took a considerable share in the business of
the house of lords, notwithstanding his ad-
vanced age. In 1792, a short time before his
death, he had the satis&ction of pressing the
passage of Mr. Fox's deckratory libel bill
through the house of lords^ against all the inge-
nuity of Lord Thurlow, who had procured a
nnanimous opinion of the 12 judges against it
He had contended for its principles throughout
his life, and its final success was mainly attribu- '
table to his courage and vigor.

CAMDEN, William, a British historian and
antiquary, bom in London, May 2, 1661, died
at Chiselhorst, in Kent, Nov. 9. 1628. In 1671
he quitted the univendly of Oxrord, having pre-
viously been educated at Christ's boipitai and
St Paul's school, and, prosecating his studies
in London, he was appointed in 1676 second
maBter of Westminster sohooL Dnringthispe-

riod he composed his celebrated work, written
in elegant Latin, entitied Britannia^ which was
published in 1686. An English translati<», by
Dr. Holland, appeared in 1610, and a later edi-
tion in 1687, and new translations by Edmund
Gibson, afterward bishop of London, in 1695,
and afterward by Mr. Gcugh, the eminent to-
posrapher. In these editions large additions
and changes were introduced, so that the work
in its English dress little resembles the orig-
inal. In 1692 he became head master of
Westminster school, and in 1697 was made
Clarencieux king at arms. His next great work
was the *^ Annus of the Beign of Queen £Up-
abeth," also written in Latin; the first port of
tiiis was published in 1616, and though it was
completed within the next 2 years, he deter-
mined that the 5^ volume should not appear
until after his death. He commenced a his-
tory of the reign of James I., which he did not
live to complete. He wrote many other works,
among which was a Greek grammar pub-
lished in 1697, and used at Westaiinster achooL
He was interred in Westminster abbey, where
a monument with his half-length statue, the
left hand resting on '* Britannia/' still remains.
The Camden professorship of history at Oxford
derives its name from Mr. Camden, who devoted
the greater part of his estate to its foundation.
CAMEL (eamelui), a genus of ruminant ani-
malsj without horns. The name of this ani-
mal is nearly the same in the languages of aU
civilized nations, from the Hebrew, Arabic, and
Greek, down to the modem tongues ^ken
at the present day. It appears to have been
nearly, if not absolutely, the first animal that
was reduced to the service of man, or it divides
that claim with the only other creature which
can compare with it in patient endurance of
fatigue and privation, the much slandered and
crudly abused ass; both having long preceded
the horse in th&r services to tiie human race.
Unlike the ass, however, which still exists in a
wild state in the central regions of Asia, so isr
south as to the northern limits of India, the
camel cannot be assigned to any hmd, locality,
or dimate, in which it has ever, certainly, ex-
isted in a wild condition. Diodorus and Strabo,
indeed, mention it as being found wild in the
interior of Arabia; while Desmoulins, who has
left some valuable contributions on this sutyect^
asserts that it so existed as lately as in the time
of Hadrian. It is said also, by Uie natives of
Central Africa, that cameb are there to be found
wild, in regions never trod by a European
foot; while statements of the same kind are
current among the Tartar:^ and Buohariana in
relation to Central Asia. In all these cases,
however, there is much reason to believe that
where they do exist in a state of nature at this
time, or did so exist formerly, they are. like
the wild horses of America, descendants or ani-
mals which, onoe domesticated, have been ac-
cidentally or purposely liberated by tbm own-
ers; and in some cases the Calmucks are known
to be still in the habit of liberating domaHtio

^^^^^^ CiAHEL ^^^^ ^3KI ^1

aidmliDf ^*' ^"'

. r_ ^_- _ r. .. ■ . ^ - _ ,- 1 _ .

___ t^._.__^ . _,^.i. . .iw^^^^B

Ibuonufifr

Rioii Wi^lj -

.iibP^ vM^ ' "^jHn^^^^^^^H

Oiu MuUi or 1

•(•(.itej ^iii^^^H

Jtf^ r'nirii P-*

n»rfe^^^^^^H

¥^It

• ^^^^^1

j»iin>'ii

*' ^^^^^^1

**^^^^l

L I^^B

lv> ■■

i^^^H

n^^'U.

• ^^^^^1

tW, .

t ^^^^H

^h^

" ^^^^1

(l- :

i^^H

i^^^^H

i .

''"

'T i^Qfl^^^^^^l

ca.^.^.,

'" '^^^^i^^^^H

JWiliX*

''^ft^^^^H

knavTP

'-'^^^^1

huttrsi uuA

•'^^^^H

iJ*J-T(ili^U3

,^^^H

T '

f ^^^^^1

II ^^

1 ^^^^^^1

h 1}.^^

/^^^^^^H

■ nf *r

If ^^^^H

■ in-.'

i^^H

■ ^'

'1 ^^^^H

in il*r -

ii ^^^^^1

derto.r

^^^^^1

trt^p ; .■,.

, « , . -^ « . ' itfi^^^^^H

ns'A:n lu'Vi

lima fMsUM^^H

L 1**.- ■■ ■■

. v:'- lU-i I r> r 1 '4^^^^H

■ i"' '

'. ^^^H

ta '

-4l WWUji

'^^H

1 ''

4Rd osiaii,

^ . ''^^H

■ UtJ L<:'.3;.«, uiV

liikt4 ac;r Vfiutx ^tl ttliid^

mu^ii t^i tL^i. * ^^^H

H «erT«(tt«, aiuJ ii»,aeu>% aod ewMtlx;" wbttrtM

^Qjmim^ H

■ h .

inter,

iiDodtti &ir cx^.< ^H

I ^'

j^ib.

ikjyv slijryjjr m\ i ^H

^H k; EliU^Uir^^

' yavH4 ii.*i arLi3:nmi |;£t «X'

— rtirdlo^liikil ^H

■ r cors, lion

i» «f^ lot t]kft flnA tlifie b

■ hi , ^-ufn*»^tT-^t

t:.,. ,,^ t.. ^UAi 1^

tko to tlig llMttE ^H

■ aitiit*i »tk* t|i«'i

.HH

UniM ^istlttL ( ^H

1^ t«-.f r ^ir^irwi ,;f

llloll!

?jjr tMtiirl »^ ^^H

11 t

■ <.

aiLrrr tht>j hmi

a£ wWil : ^H

■ r

■ ■ > the rlV!"*?!!*?**,

p*jTtWfij^:' ^H

I ^'

i^il iiHiL':

!.^ ^ikm«i r

^^1

♦ :*> J Piiiii

^^^1

■ V.

TUtBitaal

1 :'

u( .-i ^^7.1^

1 :

. - ' .- - .,, , -.- . !j

Fll-'li^I^.. ■ . ,-^^H

im imnw^ i«ntfmt | •tia ym

ii«mAi^ «iit Uiu huuiy uiii ifttliMiiiia Ivmim ^H

800

flAHTCr.

beauties, when examined with referenoe to the
exigenoiee of the animal, and its condition as
the slave of man. And here arises the question
whether this hump and these callosities are natp
nral formations, or dne to the pressure of the
loads with whidi the animal has for ages been
burdened, and to the weight of the body. The
callosities are 7 in number, and upon these the
pressure of the body is thrown when the animal
tneels and rises up. They have been observed
upon a newly born camel ; but no child is bom
with corns upon the toes and feet, whatever
fsshion and tight shoes may have done for the
parent; at least I never heard of a babjr who
came into the world with those excruciating
appendages. Not that it may not be admitted,
that in a long course of yean those marks of
servitude, as tiiey have been called, may have
been more largely developed. Dr. Waiter Adam,
in his paper on the osteology of the Bactrian
camel, remarks that tiie dorsal vertebred of the
animal on which he made his observations had
been modified by the pressure of its loads. We
know that, by careful breeding, the horns of the
ox and the sheep may be made to aasume almost
every grade of excess or defect, until they van-
ish fldtqgetiier, and a hornless race is obtained.
Kow, whether we look at the grotesque figure
of the camel or investigate its internal structure,
we find the most unmistakable evidence of
adaptation to that state of life to which it has
pleased the great author of its being to call it.
Bom for the desert, the callosities prevent the
skin from cracking at those points where the
wei^t of the animal rests upon the arid bum*
ing sands. The strong, nipper-like upper incisor
teeth are fit instruments for cutting through the
tough plants and shrabs, that spring here and
there on those boundless wastes. The nostrils
are so organused that the animal can effectually
dose tiiem, and defy the stormy, destractive
sand-drifts that sweep harmlessly by him. The
^desert ship' seems to float rather than step on
the elastic, pad-like cushions of its spreading feet,
moving as noiselessly as Mr. Marks*s vulcanized
Indian rubber wheel tires convey a carriage
over a granite lavement ^ What uways straok
me as somethinff extremely romantic and mys-
terious,' writes Mr. McFarlane, ' was the noise-
less step of the camel firom the spongy na-
ture of his feet. Whatever be the nature of
the ground— sand, or rock, or paved stones—
you hear no footfisJl. Tou see an immense ani-
mal approach you stilly as a cloud floating in
the air, and unless he wear a bell, your sense of
bearing, acute as it may be, will ^ve you no in-
timation of his presence.' Biley, too, ob-
serves the silent passage of a train of camds
up a rocky steep, and accounts for the silence,
because tiieir feet are as soft as sponge or
leather. The structure of his stomach en-
ables the camel to digest the coarsest vege-
table tissues, and he even prefers such plants
as a horse would not touch to the finest
pasture. He is satisfied with verv littie, and
if be should be stinted even of this hard

fbre, the fiit hump contains a store of noori^
ment to be taken up into the system, and sua*
tain it till it reaches some oatAs of toogh prick-
ly bushes, which he discusses with the great-
est relish ; and, if the best of liquids be there,
fills the water tanks with whion his interior
is fitted up, and goes on his way r^oiciDg. —
Dr. Adam suggests that it is not improbable
that the symmetry of the swift dromedaries
will be found to be much more complete than
that of the baggage camel. The lottd for the
latter is varioudy stated; some mi^e it 600,
some 700, and others above 800 pounds ; nay,
Sandys says that he will carry 1,000. The swiftp
ness of the dromedary, el heirie^ or as most
travellers call it, mah^^^ may be compared
with that of the high-mettled racer, with more
endurance. 'When thou shalt meet a heirie.
and say to his rider, '^ Salem Alick," ere he ahau
have answered thee **Alick Salem," he w91 be
afar ofi^ and nearly out of sight, for his fleetneas
is like the wind.' A idbayee^ said to be tiie
swiftest of this breed, is good for 680 milea,
85 days of caravan travelling, in 5 days. Seven
or 8 miles an hour, for 9 or 10 houra a day, is
stated to be a common performance ; and the
late lamented Captain Lyon, whose accuraqr
was strict, relates that a northern African
maherry's long trot, at the rate of 9 miles an
hour, will endure for many honn together.
— ^^ Train up a child in the way he should
go ' and, acting upon this principle, the camel
drivers of some parts of Africa, Senegal, for in-
stance, were wont, soon after the youi^; camel
was bom. to tie its feet under its belly, throw
a large cloth over its back, and place heavy
stones upon each of the comers of the doth
that rested upon the ground. Thus did the
Moors accustom the animal to receive the loads
which it was destined to carry through a life
of labor, generally prolonged to 20 veara.
Females, indeed, and such fortunate malea as
are exempt finom work, are said to live to 2fi,
or even 80 years. The European mode of
training the camel is not commenced till it has
attained the age of 4 years, when the trainers
first double up one of the forelegs, which they
bind fiist wiui a cord; this they pull, and so
compel the trainee to come down upon his
bent knee. But all pupils are not eqi^y do-
cile ; and, if this metnod should faO, as it some-
times doeSs, both legs are tied up, and the camel
falls upon both Imees, and on the caDoaty
which protects the breast This operation is
often accompanied by a cry and a shght u>pli-
cation of the whip from the trainer: and, by
degrees, the animal leams at last to lie down
upon its belly, with its legs doubled under it|
at the well-remembered cry and blow, accom-
panied by a Jerk of the halter. Having attained
so much obedience, the tndner proceeds to
d|ace a pack-saddle on the creature's back.
When it is accustomed to this appendam, a
light load is put on and gradually increased tin
it reaches the maximum, which is understood
to be 14 kilogrammes, or above 800 poundsi

04 ill

J^ A fUHtrfiim nofnil* Ikidli te

^i-. ,1

niA "1^

Si..

& Ir^**

fif aiiii

iOMlt ij ^1-

'or

\|Mr

J !»•► ofaiij^;

ildT, U^

. «br ik

i Ui« ii|i

^'401. ODi'

'^^It km

ma, cc."

ufkil, piu

'1 Vli IHIV)** lUl'H-t

.« til e£l

till Lf mf hump.

a of Oi

^^-.4 V *, — ..1l-n.

i lili 1%t^3

»m iri

*ir4i Aa-.

(■'ifv wV.

,4il fracti tlv»fr wEn In aiij iftAfiti^ titltHfiir

the {tfD|pEi!« ftad T
iiiiC0r4t^a» In u .

-J arji v*i^ In' I
lltlM|i!«'lS* palm -^

ri4 ft Ally Dxr l4jl^tSJI|C,

802

OAMEL

CAMELLIA

deep ciheBt and strong forelegs enable it to si^
port well a load placed over them, but its
narrow loins, and long, nngainly hind legs,
deprive it of the force necessary for the Ion-
gitadinal strain. Its additional joint, too,
in the hind leas, by which it is enabled to
kneel down, and take a position particularly
suited to the packing of hardens upon its
back and of readily rising with them, indi-
cates unmistakably its particular oualifications
for that kind of service. Unfitted by the for-
mation of its nostrils and lungs for violent ex-
ertion, its long regular strides, however, with
its capacity for continuous labor, enable it to
make eztenrive journeys in comparatively good
time. It is said, and I believe it, that the camel
will, on emergency, travel at its regular gait for
60 successive hours without stopping. Formed
rather for a level than a broken country, the
camel meets without inconvenience a fair
amount of mountain and valley, and is not dis-
tressed in ascending or descending moderate
slopes although they be long. The foot of the
camel, clothed with a tough skin which some
assert to be true horn, enables it to travel with
facility over sand; gravel, or stones. It will
fdso stand a tolerable degree of volcanic debris
or rocky soil, and aided by art — ^provided with
a shoe of hide, iron-shod at the bottom, and
attached round the fetlock joint — ^it traverses
these impediments without difficulty, and also
ice and snow. In wet, clayey, and muddy soils
the camel moves with embarrassment, ia apt to
dip and slide in it, without the ability to gather
itself quickly." Msgor Wayne also bears testi-
mony to the good quality of the camel's flesh
as an edible, representing it as undistinguishable
fpm the best beef, and of its milk as not to be
Imown from that of the cow either by flavor or
color. Its capacity to carry weight on contin-
uous journeys he estimates, for the strongest
camels, at from 450 to 600 lbs., for the com-
mon kinds from 800 to 450 lbs. ; and these
they will carry from 18 to 80 miles a day, ac-
cording to the character of the country, whether
broken or -level, over which they travel, mov-
ing for the usual daily travelling time of from
8 to 10 hours. With lighter loads, they will
travel a little &ster. The saddle dromedary,
or swifb riding camel, he thinks, will carry from
150 to 800 lbs. continually, travelling from 8
to 10 hours, about 50 miles a day. On emer-
gency, they will make fi^m 70 to 90 miles a
day, but only for a day or two, over a level
country. There are at the present time in the
United States about 70 camels, brought over at
2 importations, the first of 88, the other of 41,
the latter being by far the larger animals.
The present grand duke of Tuscany has, ac-
cording to the report, 250, which, although
badly cared for, out of condition, and neg-
lected, do the work of 1,000 horses; and
here the camels are reported greatly to outdo
either mules or oxen. The true land of the
camel is not, as many persons suppose, the
tropics, or their confines; but, rather, the

northern regions of the temperate nme. They
thrive better, and are a larger, hardier, ana
stronger animal, in central AMa, than in Africa
or Arabia, and are at least as impatient of ex*
treme heat as of intense oold. StilL it is a
matter of doubt how &r they will endnre the
rigor of the overland Oalifomia passage and the
inclemency of the mountains; and it ia more
probable tiiat their utility will be restricted to
the southern routes to the Paciflc.

OAMEL, a machine for partially lifthig ships
so as to float them in shoal water, as over bani
It was invented and first applied by the Dutch
about the year 1688, in order to carry their
ships over the sands of the Zuy der Zee. It cmi-
sisted of 2 similar-shaped vessels about 127 feet
long, 22 feet wide at one end, and 18 at Hie
other. These being brought one on each
side of the ship, and secured to it by ropes
passing under the keel from one to the other,
water was let into each till it sunk nearly down
to the surface, the ropes being kept tight by
windlasses or capstans on the decks dT the
camels. The water being then pumped out,
the camels as they rose lifted the vessel with
them. For large ships heavy timbers were run
out of the port holes, which took the strain as
the camels rose under them. Similar machines
are used for carrying vessels over the bar of
New Bedford harbor, and at Nantucket. Float-
ing docks are constructed on the same nrind-
ple, and vessels are often lightened by tne use
of empty casks fioated on each side, and drawn
down by ropespassed under the keel.

OAMELS' HAIR. The hair of the camel is
an article of commerce in the East where it is
larsely used for other purposes tnan thai to
which it is applied in other countries. The
rough fabrics of the middle ages, called mmr^
linum and eameletumj were woven of this ma-
terial, and the Arabs now make of it stufb for
carpets, tents, and wearing apparel ; and the
Persians use it for like purposes. The Frendi
apply it tb the manufacture of hats. The
fine hair used for pencils of artists is imported
from Smyrna, Oonstantinople, and Alexandria.
It is obtained from Persia, and is distinguished
by three qualities — ^black, red, and gray, of
which the best is the black ; the g^j is estimated
worth only half as much as the red. See
Bbuss.

OAMEL'S RUMP, or Oakkl^s Back Momr-
TAiN, 17 miles from Montpelier, Yt, is one ol
the highest peaks of the Green mountains. Ele-
vation, 4,188 feet above tidewater. From oer^
tain points of view it bears some resemblance
to a crouching lion, and is occasionally called
by a name given to designate this peculiarity.

OAMELLIA, a genus of shrubs belon^g to
the natural order tem$tromiaeea^ and fdmismng
the domestic drug tea and some of the most
beautiful of cultivated flowers. All the species
are natives of Obioa, Japan, or Nepaul. They
were first imported into Europe by a German
Jesuit named Earael, about the year 1789 ; and
hence the name of Oamellia. They are polypet-

-as

J|U*iik. I

- -TIL*.

•^iPi mil

)4,a ^ ^L^ I4i«l lU> **^S pari «iii

' fcM.F-^j.Mi, ii^v'^ If ^"^^t *> mt» 4

^LV v^Jfta M."(_-

•Jt^ V '.'J W^-UuLT

804

OAMELOPABD

Thns tbe frnmeiifle length of ito 1^ snd height
of the animal at the withers, raising the isser-
tion ^ the neok, long and towering as is that
portion of its frame, to snch a distanoe from the
ground that the animal can graze on an even
Burface only with difficulty and hy straddling
the fore legs wide i^art, enahles it to feed on
what it prefers as food, and finds in abun-
dance in the sandy and arid tracts where
the superficial vegetation of the soil, except
at certain seasons, is scarce, dry, and innutri-
tions, namely, the delicate and succulent leaves
and twigs of the tallest trees, particularly those
of a species of mimosapeculiar to the districts
which it inhabits. Tne peculiar conforma-
tion of the extensile and prehensile tongue,
which is furnished with rough papillra capa-
ble of voluntary erection, enables it to gath-
er and collect into little bundles the soft leaves
which it loves, in a degree scarcely inferi-
or to that possessed by the proboscis of the
elephant The same qualitv is observable in
the prehensile upper np of the moose deer,
which, like the giraffe, is not principally a graz-
ing, but a browsing, animal. Its eye& such as
they are described above, give it &ciiities for
avoiding stealthy attacks, which probably are
those alone to which it is usually subject ; since
the only beasts of prey, of the regions which
it inhabits, likely to attack it, the lion and
the leopard, invariably attack by surprise and
at a single bound^ which missed, they both
BuQenly retreat without any effort to pursue.
Again, its speed, which has been represented
by some writers as contemptible, owing to a
certain awkwardness in the management of its
limbs and slowness in getting under way, is by
no means so, in truth; as is shown by the
statement of all hunters who have pursued it,
particularly the African Nimrod, Oapt. Gordon
Oumming ; all of whom testify that, being a
timid and wary animal, and always securinff for
itself a good start, it is not easily overtaken,
except by a swift horse. Its paces are a trot,
a pace with both legs moved on the same side,
and a regular gallop, by changing from one to
the other of which, with no apparent diminu-
tion of its speed, it can keep up a considerable
rate of going — ^not of course equal to that of
the deer, antelope, greyhound, or race-horse,
but in all respects sufiident for its purposes —
for a long continued space of time and distanoe.
Where water and pasture are to be found only
at long intervals, and where swift pursuit is
not a contingency naturally to be provided
against— since Oumminfls, mounted on Oolea*
bergs and armed with 2-grooved rifies, do
not oome within the category of the natural
enemies of the giraffe— the power of continued
locomotion for great distances is a far more
necessary qualification for a life in the desert,
than that of exerting a great turn of speed over
a short course. It haa been said that it has not
strength to defend itself, but Le Yaillant, who
is the first well-informed modem zoologist who
saw it in a state of nature, asserts that ^*he

knows beyond a deabt, tha* l^ite kkiciBg St
often tires out^ discourages, and even beato off
the lion." The same mat is shown by Gi^k
Oumming's mention, on more than one occa-
sion, of his seeing or killing camelopards with
large unhealed wounds on their dMraldem and
haunches, made by the cruel daws of lioaa,
which in those oases must actually have mo-
ceeded in their first spring, and ihen been
shaken from their hold by the muscular power,
and beiM»n off by the iron heels of this nominal-
ly defenceless ruminant. Of the strange adap-
tation of the camelopard to the country and
scenery he inhabits, the observant natoralist
and sportsman— to whose enterprise we owe so
much of our knowledge of the &una of soutliein
and central Africa, yet to whom we oan scarce-
ly pardon his wholesale butchery of animals so
beautiful, so inoffendve, so harmlessly haopj
in their central wilds, and so utterly naelesi
and unprofitable when shdn, as the giraffes,
which, by hia own account he shot ^own by
scores, unredsting and weeping in their agony,
not at a dngle shot, but by the slow torture oi
protracted volleys— speaks as follows: ^ I have
often traced a remarkable resemblanoe be-
tween the animal and the general appearance
of the locality in which it is found;*' and then,
after pointing out many sndi analooea between
ordinary small animals, reptiles, and insedB, and
the natural objects among which they live, he
proceeds thus: "In like nuumer, among quad-
rupeds, I have traced a considerable analogy;
for even in the case of the stupendous depbant,
the ashy color of his hide so corresponds vrith
the generd appearance of the gray, thorny
jungles which he frequents throughout the day,
that a person unaccustomed to hunting them,
standing upon a commanding dtuation, might
look down upon a herd of elephants, and fiuTto
detect their presence. And further, in the
case of the giraffe, which is invariably met
with among venerable forests^ where innumer-
able blasted and weather-beaten trunks and
stems occur, I have been repeatedly in doubt as
to the presence of a troop of them, until I had
recourse to my spy-glass ; and on referring the
case to my savage attendants, I have known
even their optics to fail — at one time mistakinff
the dilapidated trunks for oamdoparda^ and
again confounding red camdopards with those
aged veterans of the forest'' The camd(^«rd»
when full-grown, appears sometimes to attain
a height of 16, 16, and even 17 feet. It
was formerly believed dmost universally,
though quite erroneoudy, that the fore legs
are much longer than the hinder ones, the
very reverse being the case; as, in fiaet, on
exandnation of the skdeton, talang the kgs
only from the setting on, the hind legs aro the
longer by about one inch. The great develop-
ment and height of the withers, which are
needed to give a proper base to the long nedk
and towering crest, have been the cause of thia
error; the same mistake has prevailed in regard
to the American moose deer, the withers of

^H| iiAwni^^*jLiin ^^^f PAim> f^ ^H

HMnPttrm thfi antvtr. f rtT!ir«Tt!]r.!irT ,-^o^te<m h T» /f 1 f f h Ikir L^«i ^f\\Tirin i*f l>rpi !(^ IrtWtao de^ ^H

F-" M

B- -T H

^^^■H^l> ^H

^^^^^pi ^H

^^^Kt H

^^^^V ^1

^^^^^V^ ^H

^^^^Bf ^H

^^^^^^^HHQ •'It' '-4 ^^^^1

^^K^ ^1

^^^■Sc* "*- "' ^H

^^^■T ^1

^^^H' ^1

^^^K H

^^^E H

^^^^B ^H

^^^^^^B^ ^^1

^^^n ^1

^^^^Bj>' ^H

^^^^n* ^H

^^^^V ^1

^^^^Bi' ^H

^^^^B'< ^1

^^^^^B* ^H

^^^^^K> .r^ ^H

^^^^^v<' ^H

^^^V' ^1

^^^Hfr ^H

^^^■j H

^^^H ^ ^1

^^^^K ' ^1

^^^^^^Bc! ^^H

^^^^^^^^H 1 ^^^1

^^B' -^1 ■

^^^^K E¥f lo ^ilL«Ti>l (ffttiirvl ^1

^^^^B .t£ ^M

^^^m H

^^^■i ^1

^^^^^m* ^H

^^^K; . ^B

^^^^mt '/ftlSlDQ- ^H

^^^K- H

^^^^H i ^H

^^^^^^H' ^^1

^^^^^^Bij ^^1

^^^^HT ' *^ ^H

^^^^B:i m^M ^H

^^^^^Ei> M 111 .'% lu^i hUl'j '4I I'vniiU^a U^ilm ^H

806

OAMEO

Greeks ; and yet it is probablj not bo old as the
Bimpler process of carving in intaglio. Beside
employing the natural gems, the Latins made
nse, in the time of Pliny, of an artificial paste
in 2 colors, called viPrwn ohndiamtm, Bnt the
hard stones used by the Greeks, by the delicacy
of finish of which they are snsceptible, and by
the durability of the lines carved npon them,
have proved a better material for transmitting to
distant ages an idea of the high attainments of
this ooltivated people in art, than either bronze
or marble. [Neither the one. shrouded in its
prized patina, nor the other, disgaised in quasi
restorations, can convey an idea of the patient
labor and exquisite skill that curled the hair of
Hercules, or brought out the expression of dis-
dmn that inflated the nostrils of Apollo, or the
supreme intelligence beneath the helmet of
lunerva, or of power, controlling gods and
men, in the mien of Jupiter. Even now con-
noisseurs distinguish between modem gems and
those cut more than 2,000 years ago, by the su-
perior polish of the latter. In the 4th century,
cameo-cutting had fallen into disuse, the art
ending, as it began, in lifeless stone. On its
revivd in Rome, in the 16t^ century, gem-
engraving received especial patronage from
Lorenzo and Pietro de* Medicu Specimens of
this period rival in perfection those of more
ancient times. The art has since contin-
ned to be extensively practised in Italy ; but
its adoption in other parts of Europe can
hardly be referred beyond the present cen-
turv. The chief peculiarity of the Italian
style is the converting of blemishes in the
material into points of attraction, and bring-
ing them bololy out in alto rilievo, as if de-
signed for some special representation; while
the Greek, seeking perfect harmony in the
colors of tlie gem, by a series of subtle curves
and most delicate Hues running through its
low relief, effectually concealed the labor, made
so obvious in the productions of later times.
The first cameo of which we have account
is that of Polycrates' ring, by "Theodorus of
Bamos, son of Telectes the Samian." Among
the finest cameos are those in the imperial cabi-
net of St. Petersburg; one of Perseus and An-
dromeda, on a pale brown sardL the figures of
exquisite finish in high relief; the other of
Ptolemy 11. and the first ArsinoS; the same
Ptolemy and the second Arsinod appear on a
gem of inferior merit in the Vienna museum.
That representing the apotheosis of Augustus, in
the BwliotMque tmpiruzU at Paris, is the largest
and one of the most famous of these works; it
is an onvx measuring 12^ inches in one direc-
tion, and 10^ in another. This antique cameo
contains 22 figures. It is often known by the
name of Agate de la sainte chofeUe^ from the
holy chapel of the palace to which it was oon-
ngned by Charles Y . It was there regarded as
representing the triumph of Joseph under Pha-
raoh. It came oxiginally from the East in the
time of St. Louis, luils collection oontidns manj
other choice works of this kind. At Naples is

one ranked among th6 finest, representing tiie
apotheosis of Ptolemy on one side, and the bead
of Medusa on the ouier. Of the ancient cam-
eos, the most noted is the Mantuan Tase at
Brunswick, representing on one side Ceres
seeking her daughter— on the other, the god-
dees teaching agriculture to Triptolemns. — ^At
Ekaterinburg, in the Ural mountains, Atkinson
(** Western and Oriental Siberia," p. 95) speaks
of seeing a workman engaged in oatting
a head of Ajax, after the antique, ia jas-
per of 2 colors, liie ground a darK green, and
the head a yellowish cream color, in very
high relief, and intended for a brooch. It
was a splendid production of art, made^ how-
ever, at a cost for labor of only 38. 8d. sterling
per montii, and 86 lbs. of rye flour. In other
countries, where this skill commands higher
price's, the groat expense of cutting these hard
substances has led to the substitution of aoft-
er materialsL and varieties of porcelain and
of enamelled glass are often now used. But
the material most extensively employed is the
shell of various species of mollusca, which,
while it is easily carved, presents layers of a
fine natural polish and beautiful colors. The use
of shells began in Bome about the year 1820,
and for some years the whole consumption was
about 800 per annum, all of which were sent
from England, and sold in Rome for about SOs.
sterling each. In 1847 the consumption had be-
come very large in Paris, so that the sales in
that year were reported to amount to no less than
100,600 shells, at an aggregate cost of £8,960.
The shells are of 4 varieties only, and known as
the bulPs mouth, black helmet, norned helmet,
and queen conch. Of the first named, 80,000
were sold at an average price of Is. 8d. ; of
the 2d, 8,000 at 6s. each; of the 8d, 600 at Sa.
6d.; and of the 4th, 12,000 at Is. 2id. The
queen conch is referred to by Woodward as
the eauis Madagascariensis. This and the C
tuherosa he describes as presenting a white
upon a dark claret color ; the (7. comuta^ white
on orange ground ; the 0. m/Oj a pale salmon
on orange; and Strombus gtgaa^ yellow on
pink. C^ Manual of the MoUusca," pp. 46. note,
and 114.) The black helmet is probably the
0. ttiberoaa, which, under its oommerdal name,
is cJsewhere spoken of as presenting a white
upper layer npon a dark, almost blade ground.
The horned helmet is no doubt the C. canwia.
The bull's mouth we Judge is the 8tnnnbu» gi-
ga$j of which Woodward states 800,000 were
brought to Liverpool in 1860 for cameos and
porcelain. Althousdi the shells were furnished
to the trade by Uie English, and the value of the
cameos produced in Paris in 1846 was estimated
at £40,000, there were at that time not more
than 6 persons employed in the art in England. —
Cameo-cutting, in this country, can hardly be
said to be introduced as a branch of bnainees.
The beauty and neatness of the process haa
caused it to be taken up by amateurs, and it is
practised for amusement by gentlemen and la-
dies, the pieces of shell being prepared and tat-

CUOOBD nBBbciii 8<^i^^^|

M r.M

1^4 Th it.f-a^ 1,^ t>4i' i.vit'li.ftv'*, Tli^il^^^ i'TiiiKT nr*'^ C»n.. fiwt' iNiiifijd flr»! vivtiihi>^4i^^^H

H^ ' H

' ^^^1

'ftji'

^^^^1

n'r

^^^^H

tir,

' ^^^^1

^ •

^^^^^^H

r3 •

' ^1

'^H

' ^H

'^H

n H

t . ■

^B' 11 liitt imofu i«cii m Urn pirxm ap|imm*« ^^|

^^B

81 ]>jUir ^^^1

^Jl(<rt ^^^H

^m >. 'Eirnv, w ' ^^^^H

^^M

^^^^^H

^^^^"r.i'- , ^^^^^^H

^^^H

K v'rl' ^^1

^w" ^^H

^^^^H

H' rcn^ ^^B

^^^^H

^Ki ■ ^^^^H

^^^H

Br: . riiiKiiiii ^^^H

^^^^H

H)t ivtf in Kmf* ^1 ^^^H

^^^H

Kir ' Urn uuhcrntj vi ^^^H

^^^^ff

^' '-,iVf«W yi».i.r .^.^*, ^^^H

^M m'

^m 1.

■^i^^^M

^ iZ ^M

^^1

^1^1

^ diakgniAi «iitl In tli4> , ^M

* -r^ r-j

0AMERLIN6O

CAMEBOK

called to Yienna by the emperor Maximilian to
ooansel in the critical affiurs of the empire in
regard to religion, Gamerarins was a scholar
of extensive and varied learning. He particu-
larly cultivated medicine, mathematics, and
Greek. His works (more than 150 distinct
treatises) are mostly on clasmcal and religious
subjects. His biography of Melanchthon, of
which a new edition appeared in Halle in
1777, and his collection of letters of Melanch-
thon, are peculiarly interesting to the student of
the times of the reformation. — Joachim, son
of the preceding, born at Nuremberg, Nov. 6,
1534, died there Oct 11, 1598, was sent suc-
cessively to Wittenberg and Leipsic, and also
studied with Melanchthon. He received a
medical diploma at Bologna in 1562. Botany
was his favorite study. A genus of plants
(jCameraHa) was named after him.

CAMERLINGO, or Oamabunoo, one of the
highest officers of the Boman court The cam-
erUngo exercises supreme power when the pa-
pal chair is vacated, and, as the head of the
government, controls the treasury and ad-
ministers justice. He presides over the apos-
tolic chaniber. The present camerlingo is Car-
dinal Ludovico Altieri, and the vice-camerlingo
is Antonio Matteucci.

CAMERON, a southern county of Texas,
bordering on the gulf of Mexico, separated from
Mexico on the south by the Bio Grande, and
containing 5,460 sq. m. The soil, though fer-
tile and well adapted to cotton, maize, and the
sugar-cane, is very little cultivated, most of the
wealth of the inhabitants consisting of live
stock, the value of which, in 1856, was $108,-
240. The surface is dotted with numerous
lakes, many of which yield excellent salt The
largest of these, called Sal del Bey, is capable
of producing almost unlimited quantities. In
1850 the harvest amounted to 8,700 bushels of
corn and 2,000 lbs. of wool. There were 4
churches, and 415 pupils attending public and
other schools. The county was named in hon-
or of Capt Cameron, who fell in the Mier ex-
pedition. Pop. in 1866, 8,756, of whom 11
were slaves. Capital, Brownsvflle.

CAMERON, John, a Scottish theologian
bom at Glasgow about 1570, died about 1625.
He received his education in tJie university of his
native city, and made such proficiency in the
Greek language, that at the age of 19 he read
lectures in Greek, and discoursed in it with
as much ease as the scholars of his day gener-
ally did in Latin. This laid the foundation for
his distinction. He spent some time in France,
where he made the acquaintance of many emi-
nent Protestants, and where he was eventually
appointed regent of the university of Bergerao,
but soon vacated this chair in favor of that of
philosophy at Sedan, which appointment he
received through the favor of the due de
Bouillon. The chair of Greek at Sedan he de-
clined. At Sedan he remained but 2 years,
removing to Bordeaux. By a provision of the
€hurch 4 theological students of promise were

constantly supported from the church fdnds.
Cameron was nominated one of these, and spent
the next 4 years successively at Paris, Greneva,
and Heidelberg. At the expiration of this time^
he returned to Bordeaux. In 1618 he was ap-
pointed to succeed Gomarus in the chidr of &r
vinity at Saumur. The civil wars by which France
was distressed caused the dispersion of the uni-
versity (1620), and Cameron returned to his na-
tive town. Here he received an appointment
as regent of the universitv of Glasgow. As
Boyd, his predecessor, had been removed on
account of rresbyterianism, Cameron was nat-
urally accused by his townsmen of leaning to
Episcopacy. This caused him to resign the
office before the expiration of a year. Return-
ing to France, he gave private uieological leo-
tnres at Saumur, until in 1624 he was appoint-
ed professor of divinity at Montaubau. Hie
doctrine of passive obedience which he had pro-
mulgated, exposed him to the censures of many
Protestants, and he withdrew to Moissao, but
soon returned to Montauban, where he died of
a wound given by an unknown hand. His life
and works have been published bv Louis
Cappel, a professor of Hebrew, and afterward
of oivinity at Saumur. Cameron held some
peculiar aoctrines on the action of the will,
which distinguished him from the Calvinista,
and also sufficiently from the Arminians. EQs
theory of will was based on the position that
it could only be acted on by motive appealing
through the judgment or intellect The synod
of Dort had promulgated that God operated on
the human will by a direct interpoation of di-
vine power, restraining and directing its action,
and by enlightening the understanding, so that
it would influence the will to a given action.
Cameron's theory sought to re&ce these 2
modes of the divine government of human
will into one. He was accused by Calvinista of
Pdagianism. He also taught the universality
of the effects of Christ s sacrifice, and was desig-
nated a Universalist His followers were styl^
Amyraldists. and also from him, Cameronitea.
They are to De distinguished ftom Cameroniana.
CAMEROIT, BioHABD, the founder of the
religious body called Cameronians. He ^was
bom in Falkland, Fife co., Scotland, died Jnly
20, 1680. His father was a small sliopkeeper,
and an Episcopalian. Cameron, having re-
ceived such an education as the parochial
school of his native town was able to famish
followed for a time the religious faith of
his father, and was appointed master of the
parish schooL This made him ex officio the
precentor of the parish church. But having
heard some field-preachers, Richard was con-
verted to Presbyterianism. Eesigning his of-
fice as parochial master, he was promoted to the
degree of field-licentiate, under the imposition
ofhandsbyJohn Welch. The Presbyterians were
at that time divided into 2 parties, on account of
a bill denominated the indulgence, whi(^ by
making their worship legal, was designed to
harmonize them with the government and the

■

nAMKIfOKLA^S

OAJteBOONS' ifonxTAma wv ^m

^^B

, ' ■

^^H '^

^^H

^^1

^1 r

^^H

H ^'

H ^

^1 r

^^H s-

•

^^H

^^1

^^m

■

^M I"

■

■ I

^M 1 '

^^1

■

H ^

■

^^1

H >

H ^"

^H £ti

H 1

^H ri

H -^^

■

^H ^.

^H T<

^H *.\

^^m

^^m T.

^H %--

^H 'M

^^H

^1 *A-

^H ih

1*^ .

■ ■.'.>.S'-

^H ^

■ ^"

^^H

^^1

^H fi

"iU'jli

^^M

:if:len

IV.

^H L.

^^1

^m v

. f \ d- 1 r V c J tif

^^H

dtirlnkltt

i^itofBiiifrm

^^1

Tlli XTl+lnT'i

■)

i ^ npq»0T^aI

H '3

^htwm ifv

H ^

^_ ■ __ . _ ' j..iif. 4n m.

^1 t^

H £

*mm s eH^rsict DttrtD^ diu riiU| ^oif ^H

H u

N iiiiri;rc1^fi? h^ THivdA ilf lltif iil«s %<l( ^H

^H rr

._r

iu Uitt

^ ptt» 1i ijnJj trfim 1 ra 3a ^^

^H r

fr«l.

U Ttr^krKiwn. On o«i« «f ■

^H ^

^H c

^H ^'

• '11% *Tvi Jin:-'. ^

^H r

> ^ mt\ xndm u{l. 1

H "^

- - -'■-■ J

^H i!'

810

OAICETA

OAJOBABDB

covered nearly to the summit with dense woods,
has an elevation of 18,000 feet, and is apparent*
If the commencement of a Tolcanio range
stretching N. £. and nniting with the Monn-
tains of the Moon.

O AMETA, a floorishing town in the province
of Para, Brazil. It is situated on the Tocan-
tins, in an extremely fertile district, whose pop-
ulation is 20,000.

OAMIGUm ISLAND, one of the Babuyanes
islands, in the Malay archipelago. It is from
7 to 0 m. long, high, ana very hilly. The
southern part condsts of a mountain formerly
a volcano, and coral rocks extend along the
shores. The port of San Ro Quinto, on the
W. side of the island, is the only place which
affords even tolerable shelter for large vesseb.

0 AMILLUS, Masous FuBitTS, a RcHman magis-
trate, died of pestilence in 865 B. 0., whose
name is connected with the greatest events of
a long period of the history of the republic,
and whose life has probably been adorned with
many a legend, appears first as censor in the
year 408 B. C, then several times as consular
tribune, 6 times as dictator, and twice as inter-
rex. Having served during the siege of Yeii,
and in the war against Falerii, he defeated, in
his Ist dictatorship, the Falisci, Gapenates, Fi-
denates, and other tribes, advanced to Veil,
penetrated through a subterranean passage into
the city, and thus put an end to its siege, which
had already lasted 10 years. He made his tri*
umphal entrance at Rome in a chariot drawn
by 4 white horses, and asked the 10th part of
the booty, to accomplish a vow to Apollo, for
which circumstances his enemies accused him
of pride and extortion. But he earned new
glory by the conquest of Falerii, which surren-
dered to his generosity, as proved in the repu»
diation of an act of treachery committed by a
schoolmaster. His continued opposition to the
emigration of the people to Yeii, rendered him
unpopular; accused of having embezxled a
part of the bootv of that city, he left Rome,
and lived in exile at Ardea, when the Oauls
under Brennus invaded and pillaged Rome.
He repulsed them from Ardea, was secretly re-
called by the defenders of the capitol^ and ap-
peared at Rome, according to a legend, at the
head of an army, at the moment when the gold
ibr which the Romans purchased peace was
being weighed befbre the insulting conqueror.
*'Roine buys her freedom with iron," he ex-
claimed, and proved it He routed ih^ Gauls
twice, had a new triumph, was called a second
Romulus, and prevailed i^jain against the de*
sertion of Rome, now in ruins. He subse*
quently defeated m coalition of the .£qui. Vol-
sci, Etrurians, and Latins, was successiftal in a
war against Antium, had to struggle against the
rivalry of Manliua, and, as dictator for the 6th
time, against the agitation of lidnius Stole, and
waS) at the age of 80, once more victorious
over the Gauls. Oamillus was the resolute
champion of the patricians, and redgned his
4lh dSotttorship in 867 B. a, when be found it

hopeless to resist the inoreadng demaoda of ih»
plebeians. He is the great hero of his time,
and his virtues and exploits are recorded with
exaggerated pnuse by livy and Plutarch.

GAMIKATZIN, or Oacuhazin, a Mexican
king, died in 1621. He was nephew of King
Montezuma, and reigned over Tescuoo, the prin-
cipal dty or Anahuae. The best citizens of the
state, the nobles and priests, saw with indigna-
tion the humiliation of theur king and kingdom
under Cortes and the Spaniards. Caminatsn,
witih more courage and enterprise than his nnde,
proposed to his subjects a declaration of yrar
agamst the foreigners. The proposal was re>
ceived with enthusiasm, and Caminatrin called
upon the laniards to leave the eoimtry imme-
diately or to expect to be treated aa enemies.
Oortes was preparing to march his army against
Tezouco, wnen the representations of Monte-
zuma concerning the defences of the town and
the daring of the population, induced him to
change his plan, and to resort to treason instead
of force. At his instigation Montezuma invited
his nephew to Mexico to become reconciled with .
the Spaniards. The answer of Oaminatzin was
that he could enter Mexico only to destroy the
tyrants of his country. Montezuma then de-
spatched secret agents to Tezcuco to get pos-
session of the young prince by whatever means.
His first officers and nearest friends were cor-
rupted, and he was delivered by them to Corte»
and imprisoned. He was released after the ex-

Euldon of the Spaniards, and is supposed to
ave perished soon after in the siege of Mexico*
OAMISARDS, French Protestants who re-
belled in the Oevennes at the be^ning of the
18th century, so called from a kmd of smock-
frock which they wore, called eamUa; they are
also called Cevenols. As early aa tbe 18th cen-
tury the Albigenses and Waldenses had taken
refiige in the Oevennes ; and their opinions, pre-
vailing among a sober and virtuous people, out-
lived the persecutions to which they were oooa-
sionally subjected. After the refonnation they
adopted the Calvinistic creed. They were cd «
peaceftd disposition ; but during tiie reign of
Loms XIV . they were subjected to a longseriea
of violent and merciless persecutions. Promi-
nent among their enemies was the Abb6 Dachay-
la, who subjected many of them to tortureu On
a night in 1702, a few hundred of them stole to
the castle of Pont de Montvert, his reridenoe^
seized on the hated priest and murdered him.
This was the signal of general rebellion. AH
the Oevenols, or, as they were now called, tb*
GamiBards, flew to arms, incited by their deora
for vengeance and incensed by the q>eeche8 and
prophecies of some among them who pretended
to be inspired. *« No taxes," and '' Liberty of
conscience," were the devices inscribed on
their standards. They were commanded bj
bold leaders : Roland, who had sored in th»
army and possessed some military knowledge ;
Jean Cavalier, a Journeyman baker who at once
evinced remarkable talents ; Bavenal and Abjiis
Maniel, snmamed Oatinat. It was an awftil

^^^^V CAItLn

OAMO&KE iU 1

■ vrj^ Thn (n4f*f--l »li* V ririfT^^^k-i ^%*^^m^^ fjLT^i

rLLTTittv <llM^iniit(Vr:.«l|\g|||X lll^ Vt)jll r.ti.1 T>.tj Iv^. ^^^H

7&. ■

^^K^^ik^^ji.

mifiitflir ^^H

^^^Bkr>.Tj tnanv 4::ri;iMru>'

«!»>: fit- ^H

.■)jr M

<^T«d 441 Oi* i«^tUl^ wJ.4fu L« d^«L AU«r ^^H

312

CAMP

his death he was called the ^* Apollo Portn-
gaez,^' " GamSes o -Grande,^' a monament
was erected to his memory, medals stmck in his
honor; his *^ Lusiad '' was translated into for-
eign languages, and warmlj praised bj both
Lope de Vega and Tasso. Tieck founded a
novel upon the poet's death (Tod des IHchters%
and Portagnese and foreigners flock to the
Lnsiad grotto at Macao, which has been adorn-
ed in a beantifnl manner hy Mr. Htzhngh, an
English admirer of the poet. OamoSns' life,
which in many respects resembles that of
Oervantes^ presents a sad record of the strug-
gles of a chiTalric man of genius with uncon-
genial circumstances. Beside the **Lusiad,"
he wrote sonnets, which are devoted to love,
chiefly to his love for Oatarina, to the celebrar
tion of virtue, and to friendship. In these son-
nets he pays a graceful homage to his teachers,
and a warm tribute to his friend Noronha. The
sonnets written shortly before his death breathe
the purest imagination. The most celebrated
of his *' RedondhilW is that suggested to him
by his escape from shipwreck. He also wrote
Uan{ia&9 on the model of Petrarch's Oanganij
odes, seztinas, elegies, stanzas composed in
ottaoa rima^ eclogues^ and 8 comedies, El
Eey Seleueoy founded upon the well-known
anecdote of the king who resigns his wife,
Stratonice, to his son Antiochus; FiUdemo^
and 0$ AmphitrySeSy his most valuable contri-
bution to the Portuguese stage. His fame,
however, rests upon his *^ Lnsiad." PatriotiBm is
the leading sentiment of this national poem,
whidi abounds in picturesque descriptions of
storms and scenery, and in pathetic alluaons to
Portugal's influence in extending the area of
Ohristendom. The most remarkable passages
are those referring to the tragic end of Liez de
Oastro, and to Adamastor, the mythological ruler
of the sea, who uses his supreme influence for
the purpose of stopping the progress of Vasoo da
Gama. A copy of the 1st edition of the ^'Lnsiad,"
which appeared in 1572, is in the possession of
Lord Holland's family. A magnificent edition
was published by Didot in 1817 for the editor,
Bouza Botelho. His complete works were edited
by Barreto Feio and Monteiro, Hamburg, 1884.
The best English translation is that of Mickle.
The Spanish translators are Gk)mez de Tapia,
Garzes, and Lamberto Gil. The French trans-
lation is by Milli6, the German by Donner, the
Italian by Nervi, and the Polish by Przybylski.
OAMTj a place of repose for troops, whether
for one night or a longer tune, and whether in
tents, in bivouac, or with any such shelter as
may be hastily constructed. Troops are
cantoned when distributed among villages, or
when placed in huts at the end of a campaign.
Barracks are permanent military quarters.
Tents were deemed unwholesome by KapoleoUi
who preferred that the soldier should bivouac,
sleeping with his feet toward the fircL and pro-
tected from the wind by slight sheds and
bowers. Mnjor Sibley, of the i^erican army,
has invented a tent which willaooommodate 20

cavalry soldiers, witii their aooontremeDta, sQ
sleeping with their feet toward a fire in its
centre. Bivouac tents have been intzodnoed
into the French service since 1887. They oon«
sist of a tissue of cotton cloth impregnated with
caoutchouc, and thus made water-proot Every
man carries a portion of this cloth, and the
different pieces are rapidly attached together
by means of dasps. In the selection of a camp,
good water witmn a convenient distance Is es-
sential, as is the proximity of woods for fire-
wood and means of belter. Good roads,
canals, or navigable streams are important to
furnish the troops with the necessaries of life,
if they are encamped for a long period. The
vicinity of swamps or stagnant water is to be
avoided. The ground to be suitable for ddTence
must admit of manosuvres of troops. As far as
possible the cavalrv and infantry should be es-
tablished on a sin^e line, the former upon the
wings, the latter m the centre. The shelten
or huts are arranged, as nearly as the nature of
the ground admit^ in streets perpendicular tothe
front, and extondmg from one end of the camp
to the other. In arranging a camp, however, no
universal rule can be laid down, but the com-
mander must decide according to drcnmstanoes
whether to form his army in 1 or 2 Hues, md
upon the relative positions of infantry, cavalry,
and artillery. The guards of camps are : l,the
camp-guard, which serves to keep good order
and discipline, prevent desertions, and give the
alarm ; 2, detachments of infimtry and cavalry,
denominated pickets, stationed in front and
on the flanks, which intercept reconnoitriDg
parties of the enemy, and give timely notice of
a hostile approach; and 8, grand guards, or
outposts, which are large detadiments posted in
Burrounaing villages, farm-houses, or small field
workS| from which they can watch the move-
ments of the enemy. They should not be ao
far from the camp as to be beyond succor in case
of attack. Immediately after arriving on the
ground, the number of men to be famished for
guards and pickets are detailed; the poets to
be occupied by them are designated ; the places
for distribution of provisions mentioned; and,
in genera], all arrangements made concerning
the interior and exterior police and service of
the camp. — One of the most ancient campa
mentioned in history is that of the Israel-
ites at their exodus from Egypt It formed
a large square^ divided for the different tribes,
had in the middle the camp of the Levitea
with the tobemacle, and a principal gate or
entrance, which, with an adjacent open q>ac^
was at the same time a forum and mat'
ket-place. But the form, the dimension^
and the intronchments of the regular military
camps of the Hebrews, or their enemies, eaa
scarcely be traced. — ^The camp of the Greeks
before Troy was dose upon the sea-^ore^ to
shelter their ships drawn upon the land, divided
into separate quarters for the different tribes^
and fortified with ramparts fh)nting the otty
and the sea, and externally with a high mount

OMTP

dAilPAO.SA 1*1 liUJi4

)«0flliir fiTMSiiil^iMii ol

'' \ T^l !»r*MA, !r:^T^!-frwT]rromi*l-

WilH

U&, I- : 1. I.

iju Tlio

Brripn^-

814

CAMPAIGN

nAMpAinerxA

B. 0. there was snow upon the ground for 40
days, and now it is rarely present for so long a
time as 2 days. During the winter and early
spring the vegetation is rich and flonrishing,
bnt in summer the Oampagna has a dry and
barren appearance. The laborers for the fanna
are peasants from the hills, strong, hardy men,
bat many of them are always more or less
affected by the malaria. The Oampagna is divid-
ed jadicially into the Oomarca di J^ma, and
Frosinone. The principal modem towns are
TivoU, Yelletri, IVascata, Terracina, Ostia, and
Palestrina. The great interest felt concerning
this plain arises from the situation of Borne,
whose ruins lie scattered on every side. Across
the desolate Oampagna stretch vie long lines of
the aqueducts, whose broken and now useless
arches fitly represent the state to which the
'^mistress of the world" has fallen.

OAAIPAIGN. This term is very often
used to denote the military operations which
are carried on during a war within a angle
year ; but if these operations take place on 2
or more independent seats of war, it would be
scarcely logical to comprise the whole of them
under the head of one campaign. Thus what
may be loosely called the campaign of 1800
comprises 2 distinct campaigns, conducted each
quite independently of the other: the cam-
paign of Italy (Marengo), and the campaign
of G^ermany (Hohenlinden). On the other
hand, since the almost total disuse of winter
quarters, the end of the year does not id-
ways mark the boundary between the close
of one distinct series of warlike operations
and the commencement of another. There are
nowadajrs many other military and political
considerations far more important in war than
the change of the seasons. Thus each of the
campaigns of 1 800 conmsts of 2 distinct portions :
a general armistice extending over the time
from July to September divides them, and al-
though the campaign of Germany is brought to
a dose in Dec. 1800, yet that of Italy continues
during the first half of Jan. 1801. Olausewitz
justly observes that the campaign of 1812 does
evidently not end with Dec. 81 of that year,
when the French were still on the Kiemen,
and in fall retreat, but with their arrival behind
the £lbe in Feb. 1818, where they again col-
lected their forces, the impetus whidi drove
them homeward having ceased. Still, winter
remaining always a season during which fatigue
and exposure wiU, in our latitt^es, reduce ac-
tive armies at an excessive rate, a mutual sus-
pension of operations and recruiting of strength
very often coincide with that time of the year ;
and although a campaign, in the strict sense of
tibte word, means a series of warlike operations
closely connected together by one strategetical
plan and directed toward one strategetical object,
campaigns may still in most cases very conve-
nientiy be named by the year in which thdr
decisive actions are fought.

OAMP AN, a French town, pop. estimated at
from 8,000 to 4,500, in the d^artment of Hautea

Pyr6n6ea,iQthe vallevofthesamenamfl. The
valley ia bounded by Mont Aigre, traversed by
the river Adour, contains the andent convent
of Medous, the priory St Paul, and the village
FEsponnes ; is celebrated for its piotnreeque
scenery, for its stalactite grotto, and for its
quarries of green, red. and Isabel marble, which
extend along the Aaour and the road leading
to Bagndres de Bigorre. Jean Paul Bichter'a
Oampanerihdl was inspired by the beautleB of
this valley.

OAMPAN, JxAHKx Louiss Hkmbisxtb
Gbnest, a F^nch teacher, bom Oct 6, 1762,
in Paris, died March 16, 1822, at Mantes. She
was appointed reader to the daughters of Louia
XV. when only 16, and after her mairiage
with M. Oampan, attached to the person of
Marie Antoinette. She showed great devotion
to her royal mistress during the revolutionary
troubles, and barely escaped with her life on
the storming of the Tuileries. Bereft of all
her fortune by the revolution, she opened a
young ladies' boarding school at St Germain in
1796, secured the patronage of Mme. Beauhar-
nais, afterward the empress Josephine, attract
ed tiie attention and won the esteem of Hupo^
leon, by whom she was, in 1806, appointed
superintendent of the school he founded at
£oouen for the daughters, sisters, and nieces c^
officers killed on the battle-field, over which
she presided 7 years until it was suppressed by
the Bourbons. She was the sister of M.
Genest, the French republican minister to the
United States, during the 2d administration
of Washington. Her works upon education
scarcely rise above mediocrity ; but her Journal
aneedotique^ her Correapondance inSdite amm
la reine Bortenae^ and her Mem<nre$ sur la via
privee de Marie AtUoinette are full of interest.

OAHPANA, a town of l^ain, in Andalnaia^
pop. nearly 6,000; 37 m. E. K £. of Seville,
on the river Madre, near its junction with the
Guadalquivir. It has remdns of Moorish archi-
tecture, one parish church, several monasteriesi
umI 6 schools

OAMPANA, a village in the provinoe of Ye>
rona, in Lombardy. A victory was gained
here by the French, under Bonaparte, over the
Austrians, Nov. 21, 1796.

0 AMP ANELLA, Tomuaso, an Italian philoa-
opher, born at Stilo in Oalabria, Sept 5, 1568,
died in Paris, March 21, 1689. When very
youn^ he displaved unusual aptitude for
leammg, especially languages. His lather
wished to send him to.Naples to fit himself for
a lawyer, but he followed his own predileetiooa,
and joining the Dominicans, pursued the stndj
of theology. When but 17 years of age, atndying
at Oosenza, his professor was engi^ped to take
part in a discussion upon philosophy with the
Franciscans; but being somewhat unwell, seat
vonng Oampanella in his place, who astoniahed
his audience by the force of his ai^gnmeol
against Aristotie. In 1590^ he published his
own opinions; the work gamed him some ad-
mirers, but so many enemifis that he left Kaj^liea

^^^B OAKFAlOiA ^^

^^^ CAMPAKIIJr

■

^^^^^^^^^^M ■IH^^^^\'

■ . , ^ ^.

^^^1

^^^Hiliailrail

^^^^Fffir

^^^^^1

^^^^^^Btf. <'vr|i^Vjrwl^».

^^H

^^^^^B' r^mr^i

^^^^1

^^^^^H|r itm/^ tehLulkiui iutd^ l^>

mtiQ# ere tli>

^^^V ^OQQ,ifl

BfJogliU, Kdn

^^^1

^^^K ilUBk

Crt^t&oQJiVav

^^^■PnUnvi t jroa>*it »^^'^h^<U| ft liiOf-

1^^ mmmlU

^^^^M

^^^B-toi fMli iJUtlltlQfiS.

^^^H

^^^■M^jIV. —

^ _ ».. 1 .^.^. .

^^^|Eif^v ^

^^^^^^Ku:

^^M

^_^^^i

^^^S^wm^i

^^^H

^^^frlM tt^*

■

^^^^Hjta^B -

L'i 4 .

III ^^^H

^^^^ft

Tia

^^^^Hit ,.^...,^...,,.^ii4j%(rUd

WiC'J. ,.. ^

nfliPL -di Itiw^

^^^HiV. > ri t • Ta k^ r i<in t>Ir^ 1 1 1 at r . Uhjj

i^oaail' LAoua M ^

^i' ^H

^^HB HiJuf^^

IMp ff% mirtfl *»j'

r*ii ^H

^^^HiVi^ajt

r: ' ' ".

^^Kuf tbam r

^^K^T

^^^^■j

^^1

^^^^B8^ V

^^1

,^ im t^ Uof-

'^ _l

816

OAMPAinLE

CAMPBELL

from a brazen figure in the top, whioh 'weighs
a ton and a hal£ yet tarns with the wind.

CAMPANILE, an Italian missionary, bom in
1762 near Naples, died in the latter city, March
2, 1835. At an earlv age he entered Uie order
of St. Dominic, and was employed in teach-
ing in the different houses of the Dominicans.
A desire to preach the gospel to the heathen
made him enter tlie college of the propaganda
at Rome, where he learned Arabic. In 1802 he
was naroedprefect of the missions of Mesopo-
tamia and Koordistan, and through his jEeal and
activity 10 large villages loined the Roman
Oatho]ic church. In 1816 he returned to Na-
ples, and was appointed professor of Arabic in
. the university. In 1818 ne published a history
of Koordistan and of its different relif^ous sects,
containing many details respecting the customs
and usages of the country, whi<£ are consid-
ered highly interesting.

OAmPANUS, Johannes, an Italian mathe*
matidan, author of the first translation of En-
did that was printed, bom at Novara, probably
in the 12th century. His translation was from
the Arabic, and was printed by Ratdolt at Yen-
ice, in 1482.

CAMPBELL, the name of counties in several
of the United States. I. A southern county of
Virginia, lying between James river on the N.
and Staunton river on the S., and comprising
an area of 576 sq. m. It has an uneven sur&ce,
and a fertile soil. Productions in 1850, 2,634,780
lbs. of tobacco, 889,267 bushels of com, 100,500
of wheat, 167,254 of oats, and 2,168 tons of
hay. There were a number of mills and fac-
tories, 42 churches, and 994 pupils attending
public and other schools. Value of real estate
m 1856, $5,692,854. Iron ore is obtained in
some places, and granite is abundant Oak and
pine forests cover much of the hilly part of the
county. Organized in 1784, and named in honor
of Gen. William Campbell, an officer of the revo-
lution. Oapital, Oampbell Oourt House. Pop.
in 1850, 230,245, of whom 10,866 were slaves.
II. A central county of Georgia, with an area of
860 sq. m., intersected by the Ohattahoochee
liver. It has an irregular surface, and embraces
several varieties of soil. The soil of the river
bottoms consists of a black loam, and vields good
crops of grain and cotton. The proauctions in
1850 amounted to 271,600 bushels of coru, 27,-
236 of oats, 44,484 of sweet potatoes, and 8,040
bales of cotton. There were 20 churches, and
450 pupils attending public schools. Gold, iron,
and soap-stone are the principal minerals.
Value of real estate in 1856, $1,099,222. The
county received its name in honor of Duncan G.
Campbell, a member of the G^rgia legislature.
Capital, Gampbellton. Pop. 7,470, of whom
1,687 were slaves. III. A north-eastern coun-
ty of Tennessee, bordering on Kentucky, drain-
ed by several affluents of the Cumberland river,
and comprising an area of 450 sq.m. The sur-
face is hilly, and the central part traversed by
a ridge of the Cumberland mountains. Large
forests occupy a considerable portion of the

land. The productions in 1850 were 227,896
bushels of corn, 48,889 of oats, 48,467 lbs. of
butter, and 8,167 of wool. The public achocds
numbered 660 pupils. Capital, Jacksonborongh.
Pop. 6,068, of whom 818 were slaves. IV. A
northern county of Kentucky, with an area of
120 sq. m. It is situated on the bank of the
Ohio, nearly opposite Cincinnati, is bordered
on the W. by the liddng river, has an ezeelleot
soil, and produced in 1850, 801,126 bushels of
com, 9,988 of wheat, 87,769 of oats, and 28,108
lbs. of tobacco. The surface consists of level bot-
tom lands, and gently undulating tracts of up-
land. The county was organized in 1794, and
named in honor of Col. John CampbeU, a for-
mer member of the state senate. Capital, Alex-
andria. Pop. in 1860, 18,127, of whom 177
were slaves.

CAMPBELL, Alexandkr, founder of the
reli^ous sect called *^ Disciples of Christ,^ pres-
ident of Bethany college, Va., bom in 1792.
He was originally a Presbyterian, but withdrew
from that church in 1812, and received bap-
tism by immersion the same year. In connec-
tion with his &ther, Thomas CampbeU, h«
formed several congregations, which united
with a Baptist association, but protested against
all human creeds as a bond of union, accepting
the Bible alone as the rule of fiiith and prao>
tice. He met with much opposition in the a^*
sertion of this principle, and in 1827 he was
exduded from the fellowship of the Baptist
churches. His followers now began to K>nn
into a separate bodv, and in 1888 were aap-
posed to number at least 100,000 souls. Xliey
have prevailed especially in the states of Vir-
ginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky. In 1841 llr.
Campbell founded Bethany coUege in Bethany,
Va., which has about 150 students. A com*

Slete history of the reform to which he was
evoted may be found in the " Christian Bap-
tist and Millennial Harbinger," a periodical
edited by bun in Bethany.
CAMPBELL, Abohibald. See Aboyu^ Duxb

OF.

CAMPBELL, Abthxtb, an American colonel,
bom in 1742, in Augusta co., Va., died in 1816,
in Knox co., Ky. Enlisting at 16 as frontier
militiaman, he was captured by the Lidians
around lakes Erie and Michigan, adopted by one
of the chiefs, and humanely treated. He es^ped
after 8 years* captivity, his family having long
supposed him dead. At the commencement
of tiie revolution he caused the American
cause, and was successively migor, lienten-
ant-colonel, and colonel in tibe army. He was
elected to the assembly of his native state, and
assisted in the framing of her constitution.

CAMPBELL, Sib Coun, a British general,
bom in Glasgow in 1791, entered the military
service in 1808 ; served in Portugal and at Wal*
dheren; was wounded on several oocaaons
during the peninsular war ; served in the war
with the United States, in 1814 and 1816;
aided, in 1828, in quelling an insurrection at
Demerara; was actively engaged in the Chineee

^^^^^^^^^^^^V tlAWEELL

■

^^Br^n^'t^ : In ftp f><^rA Pnnj.tiH c^iJTTr,-JLri. nf T^f. i.<

* 1 1 , Tc yrrxr^* i) i ^ .-tft.^"^ ii i-- n r >f tTj r ^4 1 *< , ^^^B

^^Hk'

1 1, i* '

^^K'

^^^^^^K-

^^^^1

^^^^H[

^^K>-

^^1

^^Hfe^~

^^1

^^^^■■|A|^

^^^1

^^^^^^Bii ' '

^^^1

^^^^^B|: ^lu- htm

^^^1

^^^HHki "f:- 'TT^*'

^^^^1

^Hm« ^mi

^^^^1

^^^b^ilicf^

^^1

^^^^^^M^BI-i

^^^^^H^

■

^^^^H^

Mil H

^^^^^^^H#|jl L » • LP^ tji^<

ir« ^^H

^^^^^b thibt t*U0«, m^ 1 r

4li|r [iF^^la^! ^B

^^^^^^ wu racttim '•"

^^^H

^^^^■pihi p^mtX 0t

^^^1

^^^^^^Kt j n f*

^^^^1

^^^^^^w'

^^1

^^^K'

^^^^P

^^^^B^

■

^^^^^^B%

^^^^^^K'

' ;i..'ii[ilii:ii.L t^A iliH ^^^1

^^^^^Ki.

||«>€im4 biiu^ ^^B

^^^^^^E*'

^^^^^^^Bl''

1 j«f oc«l i:luuii» of ^B

^^^^K.^ a<«tzi7 }i

rdpfii, «liii!t» ^H

^^^^^K^

. ■ .l!- ''ii_ nud ^^H

^^^^^K^'

■

^^^Ki

^^^^^^B)

^^^^^V

^^^^^^Er

^^^^^^^■ir

^^^^^^^

^HBPf

^^^H

■Bv^tD^ Li^« ..if LLa ±Li, Uuau^u ihc lu

/ih.; Uiijj ivurt iiLar^ml Ti U^j u uuit^Ql ^^^^|

818

GAJCPBELL

fMing of oppo«llaoiiioEpii0cppaoy. aod reo6ired
mach oensure in the ^'Anti-Jaoooin Reriew "
(1801). On the oocaaon of his resignation, in
1795, he received a pension of £800 a year from
the goyemment

OAMPBELL, GBoms W., an American
statesman, bom in Tennessee abont 1768, died
Feb. 1 7, 1 848. Oommencing his political career
in 1803, he served in the U. S. house of repre-
sentatives till 1809, in the senate from
1811 to 1818, with one year of intermission
(181i), during which he was secretary of the
treasury. He left the senate in 1818 to be-
come minister plenipotentiary and envoy extrar
ordinaiT to Russia.

OA^BELL, JoHzr, a political and historical
writer, bom in Edinburgh, Muroh 8, 1708, died
Dec. 28, 1775. He was intended for the law,
but became a writer in the varied departments
of biography, history, politics, and statistics.
.Commencing at the age of 28, his literary career
ended only with his li^ His first publica-
tions were anonymous^ and appeared in the
foUowing order: ^^The AGlituy History of
Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough*'
(1786), 2 vols.; his contributions to the *^ Univer-
sal History" (1787-'89); "Travels and Adven-
tures of Edward Brown, Esq," (1739), and " Oon-
dse History of Spanish Ajnerica" (1741). In
1742 he began to put his name to his works; the
first was the ^' Lives of the English Admirals,"
Ac, This work was enlarged from 2 to 4 volumes
in 1744, and was swelled to 8 by succeeding
authors. la 1745 he began his contributions
to the Biographia Britanniea, In 1750 he
published his ^'Survey of the Present State of
Europe," a work which met with considerable
success. After the peace of Paris, 1768, he was
employed by the Britii^ government to write a
•vindication of it. His last work, "A Political
Survey of Great Britain," was pronounced to
come altogether short of the expectation raised
by its title. In 1755 he was i^pointed his
migesty's agent for the province of Georgia,
wmch office he retained until his death.

CAMPBELL, Thb Rbv. John, a dissenting
minister, bom in Edinbui^h, in 1766, died Apru
4, 1840. He was apprenticed by his fluther to a
goldsmith and jeweller in Edinburgh, but when
about 28 years old he began to give himself to
the ministry. His Christian labors and spirit
seemed from the beginning to have had a mis-
sionary turn. Among his first enterprises was
that of undertaking the charge of 24 young
Africans who had been brought from Sierra
Leone to be instracted in Chiistianity. He
took also an active part in the formation of the
British and foreign Bible society in 1804. He
was ordained the same year pastor of the Eings-
land dissenting church, near London. In 1812
Le made a journey to South Africa, to inquiro
into the religious state of the natives, and the
prosperity of the missions among them, and re-
peated the visit in 1818. On his return, each
time, he published an account of his travels
and observations. In 1828 he founded the mag-

adne oaUed the ** Teaoher's (MFeriag,*' having
previously established the ^* Yontii's Magame,"
which he edited for 18 years. He also wrote
several other works.

CAMPBELL, Joror, lord, chief justice of the
English court of queen^s bendi, bom Sept.
15, 1781, at Springfield, a village near Onpar,
Fifeshire, Scotland. His father, the Rev. Dr.
Qeorge Campbell, was minister for 54 years at
Cupar. John was the 2d son, and was educated
at the Scottish university of St Andrew's. He
migrated early in life to London, entered as a
student at Lincoln^s Inn (1800), and was calkd
to the bar in 1806. While pursuing his kgal
studies, he supported himself by writing law
reports, and theatrical criticisms for the Lraidon
*^ Homing Chronicle." His industry and talents
soon brought him a good practice at the common
law bar ; nevertheless he found time to puUiah
reports of the principal cases decided in the
courts of king^s bench and common pkuL
In 1821 he married Mary Elieabeth, the
eldest daughter of Sir James Scarlett^ after-
ward the first Lord Abingw. — ^Though fie won
a prominent place among advocates, yet, as «
serviceable member of the whig party, Mb pol-
itics were ungrateful to Lord Eldon, and it was
not till 1827 that he received the appointmeot
of king's counsel. In 1880 he was deoted M.
P. for the borough of Stafford, and in 1882 ior
Dudley. In November of the latter year be
was appointed solicitor-general by the Orey
ministry, which office he rotained until Feb.
1884, when he was elevated to the rank of at-
torney-general. He left office with the Grey
ministry in Nov. 1884, and at the ensuing gen-
eral election was returned by the dty of EdiiH
burgh, which he continued to represent until
his elevation to the peerage. After the reog-
nation of Sir Robert Ped's ministry in 1685,
Sir John Campbell regained the attora^-gen-
eralship, and romuned in possession of it until
June, 1841. In the mean time his wife had
been raised tb the peerage with the title ol
Baroness Stratheden. In June, 1841, he was
appointed lord chancellor of Ireland, and
raised to the peerage as Baron OampbelL On
the resignation of the Melbourne administration
he lost his recenUy acquired office, Sept. 1841.
From this period until 1846, his public life was
confined to hearing fq>pes]8 in the hovse of
lords, and on the juoicial committee of the privy
council, and acting as one of the leaders of the
opposition in the upper house. The kisorB
that thus fell to him was devoted to literary
pursuits, the fruits of which wero presented to
the world in 1846, in the shape of the **IivH
of the Lord Chancellors and Ke^ters of the
Great Seal of England, from the earliest timas
to the reign of George IV.," in 7 vdnmes,
London, 1846-^47; republished in Philadelpbia.
The retum of the liberal party to power in
1846 gave him the post of chancellor of the
duchy of Lancaster, and a seat in the BuaseU
cabinet In 1849 he published in 8 voIosmb,
<^Th6 lives of the Chief Justices ol fiD^^and,

CAJIFBELL Sll)

( r inTr["^tf '

..,.11. t...

II O0O0f, of

■ .1^ . It, ^

820

CAMPBELL

GAMFB

meat at that time, that it had amplified his as-
Bociation with French officers abroad iato a
plot, and a warrant was issued for his appre-
hension as a spy. It was with difficnlty that
the poet, on arriving at E^nburgh, could satisfy
the authorities of his loyalty. During his trav-
els he had composed a few short pieces, among
which were his ** Exile of Erin/' "LochiePs
Warning," and "Ye Mariners of England," but
now obtained his livelihood only by fugitive
articles for the newspapers and booksellers. A
poet by choice, but a prose author from neces-
sity, he removed in 1803 to London, and soon
idfter to Sydenham, where for 17 years he de-
voted himself to fulfilling contracts with pub-
lishers, and to composing, in the intermissions
of daily toil, the few poems which confirmed
and increased the reputation which his first
work had procured him. He had a wife,
mother, and sisters dependent on him, and
amid alternate seasons of energy and lassitude,
hope and despondency, composed an elaborate
historical notice of Great Britain for the " Edin-
burgh Encyclopedia," a " History of the Reiffn
of George III.," frequent contriDutions to the
'^Star" newspaper, and collected materials for
his "Specimens of the British Poets." Upon
the accession of the whigs to i>ower in 1806, he
received a pension of Jt200, and in 1809 pub-
lished his second great poem, "Gertrude of
Wyoming," to which were attached several of
his finished and powerful lyrics. In 1812 he
lectured on poetry at the royal institution to
an illustrious audience, whose approbation he
won ; in 1814 he visited Paris in companv with
Mrs. Siddons, where nothing delighted him so
much as the masterpieces of ancient art in the
Louvre; in 1818 travelled in Germany, and
associated with Amdt, the Sohlegels, and
Humboldt; and on his return to England as-
sumed, on liberal terms, the editorship of
Oolbum's "New Monthly Magazine," which he
retained for 10 years. His poetical labors fi*om
this time, with the exception of the "Last
Man," which is one of the happiest of his pro-
ductions, are of little importance. The author
of the finest lyrics and perhaps the best di-
dactic poem in the language produced, during
his later years, only one or two passages which
approached in gracefulness and vigor to his ear-
lier achievements. His " Theodric^" published
in 1824, was pronounced infenor to his
former poems, and his "Pilgrim of Glencoe^"
which appeared in 1842, was deemed a failure.
He was now also interested in other pursuits.
He started the project of the London umversity,
which, chiefiy through his exertions, was at
length sucoessfblly established; he was chosen
in 1826 lord rector of the university of Glasgow,
to which office he was twice reelected; he was
severely stricken in 1881 by the capture of
Warsaw, and the total defeat of the Poles, the
objects of his youthful enthusiasm j and domes-
tic calamities came to complete his desoladon.
" My wife is dead, my son is mad, and my harp
unstrung," was the account which he gave of

huDseU^ and, with his delittate oanBtitiitl<m bio-
ken, he found himself a prematurely old man,
alone in the world. Tet he remained basr t4> •
the last, composed biographies of Mra. Siddona
and of Petrarch, travelled in Algeria and wrota
pleasant poetical sketches of that country, visit*
ed Germany again, and in 1848, from the dooble
motive of health and eoononiT, removed to
Boulogne, which he resolved to make his
future readenoe. There he died, after a linger^
ing fflokness, solaced by the gentle guardianship
of his niece and of his friend and biographer.
Dr. Beattie. His poems have retuned all their
original popularity amid every fiuctoation of
taste. Though he chastened ms style to am*
plicity with laborious care, and polished hia
verses till they accorded with a fastidious and
Greek taste, yet most of his lyrics and many
portions of his two lonf;est poems ai^>eal to the
popular mind and feeling, and are treasured in
the memory like primitive songs and ballads.

OAMPBELL, Loan William, the last of the
royal governors of South Oarolma, died in 1778.
He was the 8d brother of the duke of Anzyle,
and married a wealthy Carolina lady oxthe
Izard family. He was active in fomenting i&«
surrectionary movements &vorable to the crown
among the border population and the red men.
Detected in this practice, he was expelled firom
the country by the patriots, and took refuge
on board a British man-of-war. In thia ves^
he threatened the city of Charleston, but the
guns of Fort Johnson forced him to retreat.
He joined the expedition under Sir Peter Par-
ker against the provinoe, and in th^ attack on
Charleston in 1776 received the woond of
which he died.

CAMPBELL, WiuiAic, an officer in the
American revolution, bom in Augusta, Va.,
1745, killed at the battle of Eutaw Springs,
S. C, Sept. 8, 1781. He held a captain's com-
mission in the Virginia line, among the earliest
troops raised in that state. In 1778 he was
promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel of
the Wellington county militia, and soon after
to that of colonel. After the battles of E1d«'s
mountain and of Guilford, in both of which ne
greatly distin^shed himself^ he was promoted
bv the Virginia legislature to the rank of briga-
dier-genersJ. He led the Virginia troops at the
battle of Eutaw, and fell in the shock of the
charge with the bayonet. In his dying mo-
ments he was told of the defeat of the enemy,
and is said to have uttered the celebrated ^acu-
lationof Gen. Wolfe, "I die contented."

CAMPBELLTOWN, a district of Van Die-
men's Land, with a settlement of the same name
on an affluent of the Macquarrie.

C A^QPE, JoAOHiM Hjsinbioh, a German anthor
and publisher, born at Deensen in 1746, died in
Brunswick, Oct. 22, 1818. He studied theology
at Helmstadt and at Halle, and in 1773 was ap-
pointed chaplain in the Prussian army; but,
moved at tne spectacle of human suffering,
he turned his mind to the education of youth
as the source whence would result the great-

{Tutrsuuio

fm tUft^ofp^nk of tV< r. iriuiiHiifi tyf hr^ Hi- rUi^.n inUi^ i,V\niA i.> ajitJ..ir <»iM:.ir< tIl.

JiQi mmm Fen>

; . ml- il

ftir

r-Ai ij r 1 31 r. li r.-* i jinci« 1 1 ;<. u

M Ttir -51. iri»WLm.'a n

'bfp'NlMbf^ yimb ia

m.'

. ^ !?tr*4:a LJ aii

; tmi ^*_.i '■-.'> iiiiiiTj-T gi in-R

siobj jm die ^'

.1 _^. ,_,«i i...* . ,.f

GAHPSNON

OAIIPKB

His miadoii faSM in its main ol^eot, but be
made by Henry VIIL bisbop of Salisbaiy. On
bis return be was again sent as legate to tbe
diet of Nnrembeiv, accredited with full but
fhiitlesspowers to obeck or uproot Lutberanism,
When Henry YHL determined upon a divorce
from bis wife Catharine of Araeon, Cardinal
Oampeggio was again sent to En^and to hold
a iegatine court, in connection with Cardinal
Wolsey, in which to judge the matter. The ap-
peal of the queen to the pope caused Campegrao
to return to Italy, where be assisted at the
crowning of Charles Y. at Bologna, and upon
the death of Pope Clement YH. used his influ-
ence succeaifully in the condave for the elec-
tion of Alexander Famese. Campeggio was
the friend of Erasmus, Sadolet, and ouier learned
men of his time ; but of his numerous writings
only a collection of letters has been published.

CAMPENON, Fbanqois Nioolab Yinoent,
8 French poet, bom in Guadeloupe, March 29,
1772, died Nov, 24, 1848, at Yilleneuve-eur-
Corbeil, near Paris. During the early events of
the revolution he composed a romance in praise
of Marie Antoinette, and was compelled to flee
to Switzerland ; he published in 1795 a fanci-
fiol account, in prose and verse, of his journey.
After his return to Paris, he published in 1800
bis I^re aux femmeB^ and soon afterward a
didactic poem entitled La mawm des champs.
Two years later appeared his J^/iint prodigu^
which had an immense success, and occasioned
bis nomination and election to the instituto of
Paris, to succeed DeliUe.

CAMPER, PiKTEB, a Dutoh physician and
anatomist, bom in Leyden, May 11, 1722, died at
tbe Hague, April 7, 1789. The son of a wealthy
and refined man, who was on intimate terms
with Boerhaave and other eminent persons,
be was earlv encouraged in bis studious habits,
and applied himself diligently and with much
success to diflferent branches of literature and
art He had acquired at the age of 20 consider-
able skill in the art of drawmg. He was in-
stracted in drawing b^ Moor, and in geometry
by Labordes. On entering the university of Ley*
den he devoted himself with assiduity to the
study of medicine. In 1746 he received bis de*
gree of doctor of medicine. Two years later,
bavimt lost his parents, he travelled through Eng-
land, France, and Switzerland, visiting museums
and collections of art, making tbe acquaintance
of eminent men in all departments of learn-
ing, and competing for the prizes offered by
academic and scientific bodies in large cities.
In England he remained about a year, during
which time he became acquainted with many
of the eminent men of science and institutions
of that country. During his absence from
home, in 1749, he was appointed professor of
philosophy, medicine, and surgery at Franeker.
In 1768 he was named professor of anatomy and
surgery at tbe athenteum of Amsterdam. In
1758 he was appointed to the chair of medicine
in the same establishment In 1761 he resigned
these Amotions to pursae bis studies more at

leisure, while residing in the boose of Klon
Lanknm, near Franeker ; and during this time
be was elected a member of tbe assembly of
the states of the province of Friesland. Two
years later he resumed his professional career,
and was appointed to the chair of medicine,
surgery, anatomy, and botany at the nm-
versity of Groningen. In 1778 he resigned
this chair, and some time after he was named
a member of the state council of the united
provinces ; which dignity be held at the time
of the memorable events of 1786. He was
attached to the party of the stadthouder ; but
the political measures of the victorious party
gave him much displeasure and depressed bu
spirits. He fell into a state of melancholy
which precipitated bis death. Ko man bad
more success than Oamper during his own life-
time. In 1772 he obtamed a prize from Uie
academy of sciences of Paris, and an " accesait ^
in 1776 ,* a prize from the academy of Duon in
1779 ; from that of Lyons in 1778. and that of
Toulouse in 1774. He also obtained prizes from
the societies of Haarlem and Edinburgh, and
the academy of surgery. He was a member of
the academies of Berlin and 6t Petersburg, and
of the societies of London and Gottingen. In
1785 he was elected foreign associate of the
academy of sciences of Paris, he and the cele-
brated Boerhaave being the only Hollanders
who had obtained that honor. In 1761 Camper
discovered and described the organs of bearing
in fishes, which had only been superficially and
incorrectly indicated by €reoffroy. In 1771 be
discovered that the boUow bones of birds were
in direct communication with tiie respiratory-
organs. Gabb6 had already observed that these
bones in birds contained no marrow, and he
surmised that this peculiarity was a condition
of stebility ; but Oamper showed that tbe air
of the lungs, penetrating into these cavities of
the bones, subserved a special purpose in ren-
dering the body spedficaUy lighter as a means
of rising in the air, and enabling tbe bird to
fiy. In 1774 John Hunter made the same ob*
servation, and described this peculiarity in the
anatomy of birds ; and hence many English anat*
omists ascribe the discovery to him, w£^ch leaDy
belongs to Oamper. Oamper was the first to
show that the ancient anatomical descriptions
of the ape apply to a species of orang-outang.
He was one or Uie earliest ethnological students
who have attempted to illustrate the varietiea
of the human race. His dissertelion on this
subject makes the shape of tbe skull tbe bads
of classification; and, though more recent in-
quiries have thrown fresh light on the science,
his views have the merit of being not only orig^
inal, but ingenious and acute. In bia work oq
the natural diflTerences of features in persons of
various countries and ages, be explains tbe char^
acteristio form and expression of countenan<9e
fh>m the focial angle. He was tbe first who
gave a correct description of tbe osteology of
we rhinoceros, the dugong, and many other ani-
mals of different types bdonging to living and

dot:^^^^^

^^^^^^^mi

■

V lui&r^

.^ ti^' ^^1

Ulf«,

-1 tif ^1

^^^^^^^^^^^^H 1 1

"^jifi*!^

^jHl 1^

^^^^^^^^M |^ul^L*4i> .

% b ;i viiU

^^^^■■Bf^ §i\i^

^^H

^^^^IPBitiiiu

< ^^1

^^Eh'^i ^'.

^^^K

1^ iviil- ^H

^^^■l

: Willi Uik H

^^^^^^^^^Hl !'"<.

.'1^11'j.L'ili.^:— iMM

^.■l-J'.tL' HL' .H JL^'lM- lli UMi *^|1, i*»»ii ^^H

^^^■pti ¥;u*nl

riii b#ca<uejiftoe

Uidi tffiiTi .A oirtlisAr/ iUmiilaatu^ ^H

^^^^^Hf T^-11. • L .

>1 10 •ocf»|}i

' 'tlil! «l*N**Il.

^^^^^^^Kf

CAMPHOR

«reie yolAlale products oommoDly obtained by
distillatioii from the chipped wood^ roots, and
kftTes of certain aromatiG plants, and coadeuaed
bgr BoblimatioB into a solid form. As known in
commeros^ camphor is proonred only from Ja«
pan and the islands of Formosa, Sumatra, and
Borneo ; bat one qtecies of the trees which pro*,
dnoe It IS said to abound in.some parts of Chi-
na. In Sumatra and Borneo the product is
limited to a narrow range of latitude between
the equator and lat. 8^ N. Two kinds are
known in oommeroe. The oonsampdon of one of
these, however, is monopolized by the Chinese,
vho, by a mere whim, set a value upon it from
f 0 to IQO times the price of the other variety.
The kind they so highly esteem is the Malay
article, the product of a gigantic tree which
prows wild on the slopes of the Diri mountains,
m Sumatra, and. in the territories of the sultan-
ate of Brunai, in Borneo — a tree which attains
a height of more than 100 feet, and a diameter
of 6 or 7 feet. Siebold describes one which
measured 50 feet in circumference. It is known
in botanical works as the dTyobahnop% earn-'
pkora or aromatica. The camphor is obtained
from tliJs tree without employing the process
of separation required in procuring the other
'variety. It is found in concrete masses secreted
in longitndinal fissures and crevices in the heart
wood, and is extracted by splitting the trunk in
pieces and picking out the lumps with a pointed
instrument or the nail, when they are smalL
Some lumps have been found as large as a man^s
arm, but the product of a large tree does not
often reach 20 lbs. ; half this amount is a good
yidd for a middling-sized tree, and in hunting
lor one many are felled and split up with great
labor that fiumiBh no camphor ; hence the high
price of the article. The Chinese, it is said,
pay for it at the rate of (1,000 to (1,200 the
picnl (183 lbs.) ; or, for a very superior qnalitv,
even $8,000 to 1 cwt., while the. Japan article
obtained in their ports, and hence known as
Chinese camnhoivis worth only from .(12 to
(15 the picuL The camphorwood trunks are
Buppooed to be made of the wood of this tree.
It answers w^ for house and ship timbers and
articles of furniture, espedally such as are in^
tended to contain and preserve clothes. It is
Tery easy to work, splits readily,, and is never
attacked by the many destructive insects in the
East, which will so ^eedily devour any European
woods, and even those of the East, except the
teak^ the calambuco, and the camphor. The
young trees produce, instead of the full-formed
eamphor, a straw-colored fluid, which is called
in the East Indies the oil of camphor, and is
used as. an external application in rheumatic
complaints. This is supposed by Dr. Thomp-
son to be the same substance as the solid pro-
duct, the composition of which he represents by
tiie formula CioH»0. But the genuine oil of
eamphor he describes as the product of the same
trees which fumii^ the camphor of European
commerce. This is known in this country and
Europe as the camphor of Japan or common

camphor ; and of this two varieties are recogniz-
ed in. commerce : one, the Dutch, Japan, or tub
eamphor; and the other, the Chinese, or For-
mosa camphor. The latter is principally pro-
dnood in ue island of Eormosa. and Whence
carried in junks to Canton. There it is packed
in square chests lined with lead, and distributed
to the various eastern ports at which we obtain
it. It is a crude article in dirty gray grains,
agglutinated together in lumps, and contamina-
ted with many impurities. The tub camphor
is obtained in Batavia, whence it b exported
in tubs securely covered with matting, and an
outside tub, and containing 100 lbs. or more
of the article. This is in pinkish colored grains,
coarser and purer in general than the Chinese.
Both varieties are probably obtained frt>m the
same tree, the lawnu aamphora of linnmns,
or eamphora qgidnarum of Nees von Esen-
beck — ^an evergreen of considerable size, re-
sembling the linden tree, and bearing a red
berry like that of the cinnamon. Ail parts
of the plant possess the odor of camphor,
and produce* this article when cut into small

Sieoes and distilled. The process is con-
ucted in large kettles of iron, which are fur-
nished with covers in the form of a dome,
in which stalks of rice or grain are placed for
receiving the camphor snbnmations. But little
water is used, and only a moderate heat applied
to volatilize this and the camphor toother.
The latter condenses upon the straw. — All the
camphor of commerce is a crude article, which
requires purification before it is fit for use.
The art of refining it was long monopolized in
Europe by the Venetians, and afterward by
the Dutch ; and it is not long that we have in
this country been independent of the latter for
our supplies of the pure material. The crude
article is introduced together with about l-50th
tiie quantity of quicklime into vessels of east
iron, which serve as retorts, and over which
are placed covers of sheet iron. connected with
the lower vessels by a small aperture. A num-
ber of these stills are placed in a large sand
bath, and, after the melting of the camphor
within them, kept at a uniform temperature,
that the process may go on quietly* The quick-
lime serves to retain the moisture, which would
otherwise interfere with the condensation of
the pure camphor. This takes place undtf the
shelf upon which the cone stands, the vapor
when in excess passing into the loosely affixed
cones of sheet iron, core bdng token to keep
the hole open. The deposit of camphor is in
the form of a circular coke an inch or two thid^
with a hole through the centre. — ^The oompod-
tion of camphor is represented by the fbrmola
CioHsO. Its specific gravity is 0.987 ; its melt-
ing point is 288^ F. ; and it boils at 400*. It b a
semi-transparent white substance, crystalli ring
in hexagonal plates, and with a crvstalline frac«
ture ; soft^ friable, and tou^, so that it is difi^
cult to reduce it to powder. "When moistened
with a few drops of alcohol, it is easily pul-
verized. Its taste is somewhat bitter, and pun*

^H CAMPEOi^rc Am 1

H^ OAlfPU j^l^H

ArutJtiiiiii! i!3 'li'^ii ttufffT'it tT«! Wa* •iinnSlii^ ^^^B

^^^^^M IfiUfti k.

^^^^K. Iit^mi «r

^^^^^^^ii|PiQi trie •itrliu •? UT I'-jrv ^Mi;^7^ ihe

^^^^B|t96U9 Had lOiHV mpUlf alidf^ ufaip'

^^^^K ..,..-.1 A.,- c^uayf mtOtf

^^^B

^^^^H |icrl ft 4lO|* tl>

^^^H

^^^■l — .. «;sthii^b#lti«

^^^H

^^^^^P"

^^^^^^B^t

^^^1

^^^^■^^ .u^rI liurl-

^^^1

^^^Vmd cjaj|4i'jr ui Uu^i ^^

^^KjTttlef 0^ ki Urn tf«lr

^^^1

^^^Bi^ €h}o€^tm^ li n priir.-TTu -

^^^H

^^^^Hpiindiftt Motphcfr It tuwiir e^

^^^H

^^MMaaAnraally;, In liiir>fi dfiaed i

^^^H

^■■dCOL pfCNltltlkm eCKQVllM0fM» iCz3

^^^H

^^H

^^^^■j^JDnllllllpAiJ jT 0|i(Hii L^- - '-^.1 i^J'i't^ Hf-rii'iit^

^^^^B

^^^^BfRlrtMli lIiB brtin It u ^

^^^p

^^^HK fibiemikKi, T>'''*'^^'*~^^^

^^^^1

^^■Mnld «stiiifimtir

^^^H

^^^nUM f tt^ s tlifiir^t'

•T- ^^^^V

^^^Hpillf 'r

^^H

^^^'

iritx^ f* ^^^H

^^^^Ki

.eiu» ■

^^^^^K

' < WAi ■

^^^^^Ki.

n» ■

^^^^^^feli'juii ^T^*.'* *..**^K"kii.'»

id ^^

^^^»if Urn mmmni al?ni; altrl^ tktka m^l

^f» ^^B

^^■■^i^i^ itlAiiiLn,! (Ln iwhV It n>itJUMd of

- :^ii«i ^^H

^^Ki^ i lat0 i^r

1 ftt 3> ^^H

^^U^^ irmtUiid

st^m^ ^H

^^^^^^■jttv.'

Lbi rm fmHUi^ ^H

^^^^^! \\?^.<T^ n Ihiirh

Ij^i ^fmimmi _■

^^_/

^^^^ka:

i^iJi f if (fen fm- ^^H

^^^^Kr

• M«tili» lilf KisMy ^M

^^HKul iUJul<OC Ekll uic^tnAM<Ki

^mAam» ■

^^bliitii as fl ptiU la Urn itdds

^ftUdiWDli ■

■

^^^■hit iniisl^ iif TO^ ma&i li»iuAnft^

C ^ifa-fl, ■

^^^P rl& tel4 ibUc . ^rh

mi ti^i-'i :.,u...^^ .^ctaJQ^ # ^^H

^■ilir

.t oibnt h«v« l>««si todai) (A roekim U; t^it ^^^1

p^''

rmir uarm mmm Ab0ttt90O,(M)O iCM ^^H

B^ ^i^iiMl 4^ U^ 1*^'

CAMPOBELLO

0AHU8

teiiui a oadiedral, aa abbej, and 8 ooUegiate
ebnrches. Pop. aboat 6,000

CAMPO B£LLO, an island at the entrance of
Paasamaqnoddy bay, Maine. It is about 8 miles
long, and belongs to New Bninswick. Between
Head harbor and the nudn ship channel is a
Bght-honse.

OAMPO FORMIO, Oahfio Pomoo, or 0 au-
to FoBiono, a Tillage near Udine in the prov-
ince Frioli of the Austrian dependency of Yen-
ice, on the canal of Boja. A treaty of peace
between Prance and Austria was condnded here
in 1797.

OAMPO LABGO, a town of Brazil, in the
province of Bahia, on the Rio Grande. A pri-
mary school was established here in 1882. Pop.
8 000

'OAMPOBASSO, the fortified capital of the
KeapoUtan province of Molise; pop. 9,000. It
is situated in a ferdle district on the ascent of a
high mountain, 66 miles N. E. of Naples, pos-
sesses a collegiate church, 4 parish churches,
2 colleges, a hospital, an almshouse, and sev-
eral convents.

OAMPOMANES, Pxdbo Rodbigttxz, count,
minister, and director of the academy of history
and mathematics founded by Philip Y., bom
in 1728, died in 1B02. By his talents he ob*
tained an appointment in the post office, and
sained consiaerable reputation by his treatise
^ On the Laws of Amortization,*' in which he
advocated the right of the government to re-
Btrain the alienation of land in mortmain, whidi
met with violent opposition from the clergy.
He wrote also a treatise on the ^* Encouragement
of Popular Industry" (Madrid, 1774), which was
followed by one on the " Education and Encour-
agement of Artisans.'' These met the approba-
tion of the king, and led to the throwincr open of
the American trade,ithe admission of otherports
to the exclusive privilc^ enjoyed by Cadiz,
the institution of a national bank, the admis-
fllonof raw produce duty free, and other impor-
tant changes in the Spanish commercial system.
He filled several public offices, the most impor-
tant of which was that of president of the roy-
al council in 1788. In this capacity he took
measures to bring the gypsies and other vagrants
into comnulsory industry; he alleviated the
funine in Madrid, and gave great encouragement
to agriculture. His efforts for improvement in
the administralion of various public depart-
ments met with success and gained him ene*
mies, whose machinations ultimately oompdled
him to retire from public life.

OAMPOS DOS GOITAOAZBS, formerly
called Sak Salvadob dos Campos, a city of
Brazil on the Parahiba; pop. about 4^000. It
is surrounded by a sugar-producing district,
and was constituted a city in 1836.

CAMPSIE FELLS, a range of hills in
fitirlingshhre, Scotland, reaching from the Forth
at Btinmg to the Clyde at l)umbarton, and
having Loch Lomond on the W. Their ex-
treme length is 26 miles, with an averase
breadth of 7 or 8; and they rise to a heigot

of 1,600 flset, having on the S sides of their
summit the sources of the Carron and Endiick
rivers. Near the E. extremity al these hills Ilea
the battle-field of Bannockbum.

CAMPUS, in Boman antiquity, a oomrnon
public park, or vacant space near the city for
shows, combats, exercises, and similar uses.
Ancient Rome possessed 8 Mmpi. The term
is derived from the ancient Sicilian word for
race-course. — ^Campus Maktivb was the most
celebrated of the eampi of ancient Rome. It lay
outside of the walls of Rome, and consisted of
the level groxmd between the Quirinal, Capitol-
ine, and Hncian mounts, and the river Tibcnr. It
received the appellation Martins from its being
consecrated to the god Mars. It was ori^naBy
set apart for military exercises and conteetsi
Here the comitia eenturiata assembled in mass
meeting, and subsequently the amitia tributa;
here stood the villa publiea for the use cf the
Roman magistrates and the foreign ambassadors,
who were not permitted to enter the city lim-
its. It gradually became a suburban pleasure-
ground for the Roman public, and was laid oat
with wardens, shady walks, baths, a raoe-coime,
and tineatres. Julius Csssar built there marble
halls for the eomitic^ Ag^ppa erected the first
public baths and the Pantheon,^ugu8tus Crasar
the Egyptian obelisk and his own mausoleum, and
Statilius Taurus the first amphitheatre of stone.
Under the later emperors the place became
crowded with public buildings, and sabse-
quently with private residences also. Among
the former, the most celebrated were Domi-
tian's temple of Minerva Chalddia, and An-
toninus's pillar. Under Aurelian, th» Campus
Martins was enclosed within the city boun-
daries. Campo Marco is the name given to
one of the districts of modem Rome on the
northern part of the old Campus Martins. —
Camfus Soklxbatub, the polluted field, a place
beyond the walls of ancient Rome, where vestal
virgins who had been untrue to their oaths of
chastity were buried alive.

CAMSINGMOONS, a Chinese seaport town,
in Canton province, pop. 6,000. It is built on
a small ishmd called Keeow, and has a pretty
good harbor, which was formerly much resorted
to by vessels engaged in the opium trade.

C AMTOOS, a river of Cape Colony, 8. Africa.
It rises in the Nieuwveld mountains, and after a
oourro of about 200 miles enters the Indian
ocean.

CAMUCCINI, Yiomrao, an Italian p^ter,
bom in Rome about 1776, died there B^t. 8,
1844. His most celebrated works were on sub-
jects taken from Roman history. Among them
were, the ** In&ncy of Romulus and Remus," the
'* Death of Cessar," and the '' I>eath of Yhmnia.^

CAMUS, Chabues £txxnkb Loun, a rrench
mathematician and mechanician, bom at Cres^,
Aug. 86, 1699, died in Paris, Feb. 8, or May 4,
1768 ; was educated at the college of Kavarre,
in Paris, afterward pursuhig the office of a
teacher and examiner in the sdiools of that
city. He aocompanied Manpertois and QIairaot

W CAMWOOD

GAXABA fli

f^«lRl'n*rTi

wljJisJi liw Frwwin fondtiri«! t*^fp#-

iiiBcnfi«r^t)iprc a.

iaifvn pf tir

grriifti) faru

at. .

i ,, f ^»»..L«; ..■r ..,1^ ^^l-^M,^v,^^mrJ 4-'

. Ho^ Ht^fidorii wtiiert ^ ho

PICA uC l^e tvmAiI»; --; r •..f»/ri H.., .^* UM

J»i4 Awjjfdittjj t« tlw» fli>rf fli Ibis
afcrj

ndi aAi ticit Sfiftxmb

liiine of Ibis i^rivy pnorll, te
of ic lAvmiti-

OCIJ Uil

Lftwr«i><
the pU^

kuiff p«n Of ili« ioiittMni

Ail tlM» tito4# m tii

E<^||!C»q«)li tMrkm^ to 2«c
di>- ' ' iKNilMini tlmiL» '

nfllQtllfy Of

. s^ :^4 L^y «4^ imcar.ciyiiMi UMOi^i^i liM UU^flf di^<^ .N'^ tsi^m iha ^artc M Uin ,

128

CANADA

OMifffi, or in the dIveetloB iiiaic«M bj tfil
dic^t onrtes of the upper portioii of the river*
The queetion of boundery to the W. as well aa
to the K of Canada requires to be ai^Qdieated
upon by oompeteat authority.— Thoogh Canada
has formed one united provmoe ednoe 1840, the
diatinotlon of Upper and Lower Canada, or Ca«
nada West and CanadaEast^ ia atiU kept up^
for deotoral, judicial, and other purpoaee. The
dividing line between Upper and Lower Cana'*
da oonEnenoee at P<Hnt aa Baodet on Lake BL
Franeta, and runs between the oonntiea of
Gleogary and Presootty in Upper Canada, and
VaudrenU, in Lower Canada, to the Ottawa.:
thenoe along the Ottawa to the Hooee river, and
thenoe due N. to tiie Height of Land. From
Anae au Sabbn the province extends N. W.
to the vpper extremity of Lake Erie (which
is about 10'' further 6. than the starting
point), about 1,486 miles. From this point
the boundary line takes a N. W. direction to
above the head of Lake Superior, a distance of
070 miles, tmaking the total iq)proximate length
of the southern frontier 2,166 miles. The
distance firom the E. extremity of the province
to Quebec is about 788 miles; from Quebec
to Montreal, 160 m. ; from Montreal to the
mouth of the Niagara river, 887 m. ; thence
to Lake Erie, 26 m. ; from theE. endof LakeErie
to the mouth of tJie river 8t Clair, 286 m. ;
thence to Lake Huron, 80 m. ; thence to the E.
end of Lake Superior, 820 m. ; across L&ke Su«
perior to the presumed W. boundary of the prov-
mce, 270 m. The width of the province, for
the reaaons already stated, cannot be accurately
given. Where the gulf of St Lawrence ends
and the river commences, has yet to be deter-
mined by comnussioners for the international

f purpoees of the reciprocity treaty of 1864, by
which American citizena are secured in the
right of fishing in the gulf. At some points^
tms noble river, which ranks amcxog the
finest in the world, spreads ont'to a width of
40 miles ; at others it contracts to one mile. It
has 8 outlets, the principal of which lies be-
tween Cape Breton and Newfoundland; the
narrowest is the gut of Canso, which dividea
Cape Breton from Nova Scotia; the 8d^
consisting of the straits of Belle Me, ^vides

, the Labrador coast from Newfoundland.
This river is navigable for sea-going vessels
aa &r as Montreal, a distance of nearly 600
miles. Above Montreal several extensive rapida
occur. Thev can be descended by the largest
steamers which . navigate Lake Ontario; but
as no force of steam is sufiloient fpr their ascent,
it has been necessary to construct canals, near
the aides of the river, to overcome them.
These canals, with that intended to over*
come the falls of Niagara— ^e Welland— have
been constructed at a cost to the province of
$14,000,000, the whole of them having been
directly built aa government works. By the aid
of these canals, and that ccnstmcted at the Sanlt
Ste. Marie, between Lakes Huron and Superior,
veanlB may desceod from the head of the

ktterblBeinlo'iiie oeean; anft aa ai
fact, aeveral vessels have reoantly gone
Chicago, on Lake Michigan, to Liverpoot—
Lake Ontario^formerly called Skanadariei, In
the Iroquois language, meaning beautiMlake
"^has alength of 180 m., a brMdth of 60, and
a droumference of 600; an average difith of
600 feet, and an elevation of 284 liMt above the
level of the ae& Lake Erie, or aa the iroqimia
were accuatomed to name it, Tefodiarontaong,
has a length of 280 m., a braadtti of 68, and a
oircumference of 700; an average deptli of 260
feet» and an elevation of 666 feet above Ihn
level of the sea. Lake Huron is parttaHy di-
vided by the group of Manitonlin islands ; one
main body of water lying to the & and anotiier
to the N. The N. portion is again divided
into K and W., of which the former oonati-
totes the Georgian bay, with a lengdi of 120
m., a breadth of 60, and an area of about
6,000 sq. m. The N. channel has an area^
exdiiaive o( islands, of 1,700 sq. m., making the
whole area of thia lake 21«000 aq. m. Its
length from a to N. is 202 m., its width
190, and ita average d^th 860 feet Its ele*
vation above the sea. is now^ according to the
measurements of the state engineers of mchigan,
678 feet, 8 feet more than the Canadian fioti-
mate makes it The modem name of this lake
ia easily traced to ita origin. It took the mek-
name which the French cave to the Yendota or
Wyandots, on account of the manner in whidi
they dressed their hair, resembling the ^re, or
wild boar. By these Indians it was called Ka*
regnondy. Lake Superior, the largest of the
chain, has a length of 860 m., a breadth of 140,
a circumference of 1,500, aa average depth of
1,000 feet, and an elevation of 627 £det above
the level of the sea. The Indian name of thia
lake was Algona. Lakes Ontario and Erie are
connected by the Niagara river; Lakea £Ma
and Huron are connected by the Detroit river
or strait, and the river and lake St, Olidr, the
shallow flats of which offer one of the greatest
impediments to navi^pettion by large veasela
which are encountered in tbeae watera. Lakea
Huron and Superior are connected by the
Sault Ste. Marie. At this latter pointy the N.
W. company had a amall canal, on the Canada
side, for canoes and boats, half a centory agow
The height of laud at Portage du Pndrie, near
the source of the Superior, is 671 feet above
the level of that lake. Before reaehing Lake
Winnipeg, there is a fall from thia point of 841
feet> 80 that Lake Winnipeg ia 80 feet bekiw
the level of Lake Superior. — Over the interior
of Canada lakes of smaller siae are prafosely
scattered. A list of some of these, the efteva*
tion of which hasbeendetenxdned by the geolog-
leal survey, may not be out of plaoe. A ehahi
of lakea atretohea across what waa temeriy
known as the Oolbome district, oompriong the
oonnties of Prince Edward, Peterixvo, North-
umberland, and Yiotoria. They eniptgr by
meana of short streams, throng the Otonabae
river. Bice lake, and the river .Tteot^ into lake

lA
(HI

■^

Ltid Oici

<tki.a

rJti!n .^

fnjit

.^*o

■■■it tiU ill Oik tJiaJij

lipVttt^*u ■■ •

Iknot pf i&ns

le^tH; t^ Wii

rji^t.'-^,, ■

ol Ui» Ooor.

f U«f«i Um

f9«r, ^tiiwIiNu a .

M yArJa,

BjMiii <»f oieiii^t^r.

U;C|tl8U(i i, ASOOd^

liBr, liM t^" J^'^^^

. ._Ji0.T6uii^' 1 \r*fk|#

wli0 iti

- buv^l -^

ToTOOto

■ L

* 1 Ic^if' '>bft

mc vfh9

' ^i«

M»(itltWs, .asMU^

rt OitA* 1

'-sr-

itfctnrl I'. r-irdicr

«i/ t»*i*t'

1*^/

1 f*» •^f.

rttv

1- whkL iLiU'^aj^

I'g

trold Jb<.

^CQufil

. - .

' :> IHV l.-\"^^^*M

' -^h.s.sm> jTi.i lUUt **'* — '■. * '-^,\m

ilh m O^mda, dtui uiil

— fL^iiyl U)-lriil i**.. .«, .^ -^,.. .*f<y

: liaii^Uli flf mi

iliH DftRuur to4ji{4 of Eaoil IWI il>riil£«

H^ HDltACHdl* IJ

J tHH"3|firy of t^ ' ffiiivr I [V.,Tii f^/^,

Ff0nv ciroQ w^vv

1 4

mr tUi dc. Lairra;.

bawl«it| ii'tl^ U^^M^ piTiip IK

W^hfU*

a Sim mmbtfPdtk^f^ nt iUk trpn^ m

rtivioiiy

-H#

uf liii(iif«^ It haft 4 K, W. di-

r! ' ' ,.' . . '.\ uaIcii

Itllf^^ .A Aklof

^ :v4 iir it
: llMdt III th{» JM)p)t>

Op ill

oeeiii>i 1 r rsiwb ef Ml*. ^

Mitf n M <^ 1" ^^^ '^* ^n the iHiliifm itf IH» ob

BSD

OAKADA

a leafliiig tribotary of the Ol^wa, hm an ele-
▼ation of 25 feet above Lake NipiBsing, within
8 m. of which its nearest border is situated.
Thus, in order to obtain a navigable passage
the whole distance from the outlet of the Ot-
tawa to the Georgian bay through Lake
Nipisaing and the l¥eneh river, an elevation
of 073 feet would have to be overcome in
the ascent to the Upper Tront lake, and
thence to Georgian bay a &11 of 94 feet;
making a total lockage of 766 feet— The French
river has 4 known distinct outlets in the K. £•
part of Georgian bay, the widest apart of which
are separated by a distance of 14 or 15 m., and
the Indians allege that there is another to the
W. Along its whole length, except about 10
m. of the upper portion near Lake Kipissing, it
has 2 channels, separated at some points by an
interval of 8 or 4 m. The occurrence of islands
in the lake-links of tiiis river often contracts
the channel to a few yards* width. From its
outlets, the general direction of the river is K.E.,
but its course is subject to considerable irreg-
nlaiities, being sometimes in the N. channel
nearly dueW., and at others nearly due S.
Both channels are interrupted by rapids and
falls, rendering necessary in the ascent of the
8. channel 7 portages ; the ascent of the N.
channel is less diffiomt, and in the descent only
2 portages are necessary in either channel. —
The 8d great navigable river of Canada is the
Sagueuay, at the entrance of which is the an-
cient port of Tadousaou which had become
noted in Europe before the foundation of Que-
bec. As it lies farther down the St Lawrence
than Qpebec, it was, for some time after the
discovery of the country, often visited by
French vessels, which did not ascend as far as
Quebec. The river has an average width of
iU>out f of a mile, with high precipitous banks
presenting, with the tall figures and dim shadows
of the succession of mountains which extend as
&r as the range of vision sweeps, a picture
of grand, desolate, and rugged beauty. It is navi-
gable for ships of the line as far as Ghicoutimi,
a distance of 76 m. At this pcnnt, the ebb and
flow of the tide are nearly as great as at the
confluence of the river with the St Lawrence.
The St Maurice, which fidls into the St Law-
rence on the K, at Three Rivers, has been sur-
yeyed a distance of 880 m. It is navigable for
a few miles at its mouth ; after which the navi-
gation is interrupted as far as Grand Piles, a
Sistance of 44 m. from its embouchure; then
then is another navigable stretch of 75 m., on
which a steamer runs. Lumbering operationa
have been carried up this river a distance of
150 m. ; and for this purpose its tributaries have
been explored and surveyed through an area of
over 14,000 sq. m. The valley drained by this
river is as larae as the whole of Scotknd; and
it is estimated to contain as much arable land
as that country. Extensive slides and booms
have been constmcted by the government for
the oonvenience of the lumber trade. The
Beferiamite or Berdmis river, sitnated below

the Sagueuay, la anoCher large tHboiafy of Che
St Lawrence, flowing from the K. ; ^ougfa a
navigable stream, no larger craft than canoes
are found upon its watera. The Rideaa riTer,
which falls into Lake Ontario at Kingston,
running in an inverse direotion to the St Lanr-
lencei from which, near its mouth, it is divided
by a narrow strip of land, was made navigable
for military purposes, as far as Ottawa dty, bj
the supplementary ud of the Ridean caiiaL
The wonc was undertaken by the British gov-
ernment, and cost about $7,600,000. This
canal has long since fallen into almost abeoliite
disuse ; and has recently been conv^ed to the
Oanadian government, who would not have
consented to assume the burden of its mainten-
ance, if they had not received as an equivalent
a large quantity of valuable ordinance landa. —
The x>eninsu]a of Upper Oanada, though well
watmd by a profhsion of smaU strMnna, is
almost entirely destitute of navigable riven.
The Thames, which flills into Lake St Clair,
is navigable for propellers as fiiff as Chatham, a
distance of 80 m. The Grand river, which fidls
into Lake Erie, has by artificial uds been ren-
dered navigable for small craft as &r as Brant-
ford. Lake Simcoe, marked on old French maps
Lac Toronto, lies nearly due K. of Toronto, and
may be said to form the £. limit of the pen-
insula. It has a length of 40 and a breadUi of
80 m., with an average depth of 125 feet It is
divided by a strait from Lake Oonchichin^ on
the N., and is connected by means of the river
Severn with G^rgian bay. The principal
rivers which fall into Lake Huron on tiie N. are
the Thessalon, the Misnsaga, the Serpent, the
Spanish, and the White Fish rivers. Their
mouths range from 15 to 80 m. apart Of the
5, the Spanish river is the largest; it ia the
only one that is navigable, and even it ia not
capable of fioating craft drawing more than 5
feet; by such vessels it is navigable 85 m.
The White Fish river connsts of little else than
a series of lakes. Its upper waters have an ele>
vation of 775.55 feet above the sea. The Mus-
koka has 2 outlets, if not more ; it traverssa 7
lakes in its course, and has 8 for its head wa«
ters, which have an elevation of 1,405.86 feet
above the level of the sea. — The province is
traversed^ in its entire length, by a moontain
chain which divides the country into 9 great
basins, the N. and the S. basin, of whioh the
former is the more considerable in the lower
part of the country, and the less extensive be-
fore the W. frontier is approached. This nmgs^
to which the name of the Laarentian mountains
has been given, runs alon^ the K. bank of the
St Lawrence river, near its margin, from the
Labrador coast to Gape Tourment, near Qaebea
From this point, the range recedes N.. ranning
60 m. behind Quebec, and 80 m. behind Mon-
treaL Thence, following the line of the Ottewa
for a distance of 150 m. firom Montreal, it
crosses that river at Lao du Chat; tiisn
taking the opposite direotion it reUms fi. to
the St Lawrence^ a little below the point at

^^V CAK&DA M ^1

■ #il(ff>iV 7«Ln AtnFii*'*!.^ •.1fL>:«t!kSf\jK«i^ 1t^ tvjiliw IqCd

1Bt^^~'Th^ n'«^V fcint^kiti-ilia niNN^tit ii\ [\irjbil« ^^^^^|

1 ^j •

OKUliril* ^^H

1 \ W ^^

j*f\l\^\r4*l- ^^^M

|;tii4 miiMM ni ^r«r ^^^|

i^'rrir >V**%ijri"-ftift Ti ^^^1

^^^^^^^^^^K 1

i^moiiiiu ''^^ ^^H

e*»»inrf*?T "^ ^^H

imm i v ^^1

^■B^W V , r. < «:^f ipotQ^^

T^rfrtUA :. ^^^1

1%. llitt fptn* ^^H

m^^[^ r

t!jEffn «Jrr^j ^^^1

^^H

^^M

^^^ki U4i< p'<. i^%Lii5 ri«i

^^H

^^Kn lu., ni 1 miMT »!•

^PIB^iiU ^' ^ -'^ ^''''

^S^!^.'!

P [ >mtltfi MTto of modintnln^ m ihi> H*

fcy^ ,.: :',ii ?t, Ijnr*::,L^t. fift^i, ^i jjtMir.« trtwcU

^^^^1

^^Hhnrfti!

^'lil ^^1

^^^Elill; liUi t^t' t^^ Ui#

flm^^^ ftfti 4r\tia ufi^ m tm ■ ■ ii* ^H

■^k iiMliKlinc t^ ^ * ^^^

ii^f^r ooaiMildk sutifloii :i, ^^H

■BsTkpTI} tity Ittt !

mdi9 tlio nmrbtei c»i .4 ^^M

iji ibc Ui^insiiumi rtir.C" ^^^^|

I or ipl^tsml oaetip««li>^ ^^M

^^^Hll.i

V ^ — tmtted III iwwir U »^u ^^H

f^idillioa Ikii4lfloof^ of ^H

. .,.,,^ ...... .^, ^dutigmff IM Iii0 ii^ddi. H

^^Ki

^■kt- ^^

dtfT, Tirinoi iMm^ mndi^n^ '-^ ^M

■■ji/sf , thi^

..mtt^oomf.wUhBf^whmi^. j ji?, ^^H

■JtT

bl«.nftliU«4 Mi t4 Ut^. i i ^^H

^/t'^

I wtifijj^ Sir W U J jffii> E. Ijogsfi 1 . .« .1 E ' ^^H

m ' --^ ^k^u^ Lii4'< i4H<i/f 1"

jim»of ili^Har^okflioH^^ Tii^«(u ^^H

p.... ,. . *u«, i# laHiQt 7MI fi^ ttij,

ji^eefoainili m plftpvi tn sIjoui 1 9*0(1(1 ^H

HHH^ ' iU:tm Ui

ri% L .\ iummm tfiji iljfcfj^ li«idc ilia UktMwm- ^B

^^^■U yju ii»u

^^gfmgih^ -~B«-

litter niitls« n£ mmf lecalktiii. Tb« w2iCiltt fur* ^M

^^K|io gmtei' cu>(l

^^^K of tilt* 'utit^tt^

Uunjin (Erami mlii^^ WtlUm olilla^ AfL\ miS ^M

^^^^■l ii th* Bf^p^ \riiitf)6«,

fmuhh oowmr nfi*l«, jhufW c»>||©«r p^lp% H

^^^^■Pii^v^ TL.* Mm. J «}0

^^^^V>

'jfinV JWiQuirNtniL (f r«al l&'^ *^ ^H

HBHiV^^'

^ IvMi i4jit4ia sbore Uml tb^ |n wu^ ^M

^^Sif lita Wliii l4|ii 4««'iiUitliM> i& U i^^ifS^

0AK4DA

nmtilng fti a gmerd noitlMr^skeil y direotlott,
' divides the proviiioe into 8 great buina, the S.
and the H. XaOn. Sir WilBam £. Lonn has
shown that the palnoioie rocks of the S. bssin
sdmit of being divided natnmlly into 2 snbordl-
nato basbs, bj an antiolinal axis which mnsfa a
north-easterfy direction from Lake Ohamplaifi,
' and strikes the St Lawrence a Mttle below Que-
bec The strata W. of this Hneoflfer a remarkable
contrast to those on the odier or K side. Th^
are nearly horisontal and follow one another
conformably ftom tne lower to the upper
Silurian, and from these latter to the De^
Ionian series. In the £. badn, on the coo-
traiT, the rocks are much disturbed, and are
■rendered cxystalline in many places by met-
amorpbio agency. Beside which, there is a
*want of conibnnability between the lower
and the upper Silurians; and also, as occn^
ling* in Gasp^ between the Devonian and
the carbonifbrous strata. — The Wettem Bcmn.
The rock groups of this basin comprise the
lower and upper Silurians, and, in the western
peninsula, a portion, also, of the Devonian
formation. In an ascending order we have, firat
the Potsdam sandstone, the lowest of the foa-
siliferons rocla; then the caldCnrous sand rock;
the Cbarr limestone ; the bird'fr*eye, Black riv-
-er, and Trenton limestones; the bituminous
slaty strata called the Utica schist; and the
series of shales and sandstones, with subordi*
nate limestone beds, termed, collectively, the
Hudson river gronpl These form the lower
Silurians, developed chiefly alonff the St. Law*
rence, from a short distonoe below Qoebeo,
around the river Ottawa, and in the country
between Lake Ontario and Qeorgian bay. The
Trenton limestone covers the widest area,
and is of the most importance. The upper
Silurians begin with the Medina sandstone^
which sweeps ftom the Si shore of Lake
Ontario, in a thin band, by Queenstown, Ham-
ilton, dM)., to the W. of Owen sound. This
is ibUowed, still ftmher to the W., by the
Ointon and Niagara group of shales and lime*
stones. Next comes the Onondaga group, still
to the W., with its valuable gypsum deposits.
Then fbllows the oonohiferous limestone, occu-
pying a large portion of the N. shore of Lak»
Z^e, and an equafiy lawe portion of the shores
of Lake Huron. This closes the Silurian series.
Of the succeeding. Devonian rocks one division,
that of the Hamuton shales, a series of bitumi-
nous slaty rocks, is alone developed to any ex-
tent in western Oanada. It covers abroad area
in the counties of Lambton, Middlesex, ISssex.
and Kent Here and there it has been found
to underlie small natches of the Ohemimg and
Portage group, so largely developed in the ad-'
Jacent neninsula of Michigan. Most of these
rocks yield good building materials. Litho-
graphic stone also occurs in the Oha^y limestone,
especially around Marm^ora ; and tiie same di-
vision has likewise fhmisfaed some good marble.
The Trenton limestone has also yielded marUe
of exceUent quality. From the Viagaia group

'tlie weOvksown TboroRl isemeitt k ab
and large quantities of gypsum ase
into the States, from Cayuga, Oneida, i
townships situated upon the OooDda^
.of rocks. Finally, in the Devonian
EnniskiUen, dec, many petroleum sprin^i oo-
cur, and also some valuable deposits of aapjhai-
tum.-^rA« Ea$tem Bonn. In the area E. of
the anticlinal axis alreadv alluded to, the rock
divisions comprise the Trenton limestone, the
Hudson river group, and a series of qoartsoat
sandstones and red and green abales, known by
the name of the Sillery group. This group has
not been recognized in the W. portion of the
province. In the E. it forms almost the entire
line of tiie S. shore of the St. Lawrence. It is
succeeded nnconf<»rmably in C}asp6 by upper
Silurian limestones, followed by an enomous
thickness of sandstones and shales baloaging to
the Devonian formation. On these Devonian
Tocks, also in unconformable stratification, rest
about 8,000 feet of coarse sandstones, repre-
senting the lower portion of the carboniferoos
group. More inland, as in the eastern town-
ships, many of the beds belongmg to tlfe Hod-
son river and Sillery groups have undergone
remarkable alterationa. They are converted
into micaceous chloritio, and taloosa sehisli^
and also into serpentines and various feldqi^k-
ic and homblendic rocks. The more import
tant economic minerals of this metamorphie
re^on comprise chi^y the iron ores of Bcnon
and Brome ; the 60 feet bed of magnetic and
titaniferous iron ore of Beauce and Yaodranii ;
the chromic iron ore of Bolton and Ham ; the
argentiftrons copptt* pyrites of Upton ; the ar-
gentiferous galena of the Ohandidre valley ; and
native gold, diffhsed over a wide area. Mag^
nesite, fine marble, slate, &c.^ occur ako in the
district In this region, likewise, and extend-
ing into the western basin, are many empted
masses of igneous rock, forming the pietnreeqoe
mountains of Yamaska, Sheffoid, Brome, BekM,
Montreal, &o,'^Thal>riftandAlki9ialIbrm&'
tioM. Thick deposits of clay and aand, with
boulders or transported masses of gneiasold and
other rocks, cover the formationa of both the
eastern and western basbis in most parts of ths
province. These deponts belong to the transi-
tional period between the close of the terliafy
and the commencement of the present epoch.
They contain some vsluable econondo snV
etairoes, chiefly beds of bog Iron ore^ as in the
Three Rivers district, and in the oomity cf
Norfolk, on Lake Erie; likewise, sheU maris
and peat The days of London, Toronto^ O^
boui^, Kingston, and other plaesa yidd, also^
good white bricks.— rA^JVbrCAsfaiiMJis. This
basin, as already stated, lies to die N. of the
high land or water-shed which traverses the
Laurentian district in a general N. W, ^ttreo
tion. Its gedogy Is stiD very obeoora. Hie
formations known to ocoor within its arsa
comprise the Laurentian series, the Huroniaa
rocks, and the upper ailnriana The lower
flUorian system has not yet been recagntaadt

ci^ii^AOA ^m^^^l

Bltiy-- i|,^ i^i^r**.^,. ^ WV W*in

BMe.

^^^1

^Hn^^^'~

PT--,

^HH^i

■

^^^voiitr w^

^^Bicol

oiil^riRb ic4),&«ii fmii ^^^H

itifr* »tiT9ioilltlitlf1«!^ pirliatJH. 1 . The ^H
aUMqMiist^ 'all iliWi, eiMi. wUom llin ^H

^^^^^HMl tint Slfl^v

"i^ at LdWtr Oiiaodaf wtoil ^^^1

8SA

OAKADA

neater here than in other parts of Lower
Uanada. Wheat raised in this peninsula was
oilaased high enoogh, at the Paris exposition in
1855, to obtain honorable mention. The oli*
mate, except on the ooast, which is exposed to
the cold winds and fogs of the gnl^ is e veiy way
as favorable as at Quebec, and the winter mild-
er* Above the Restigonoh^, there are about 110
m. of coast nnsorveyed. Squatters have spread
themselves over •l^ of the distance. A con-
siderable proportion of the inhabitants of this
peninsula are engaged in flshinsr; they confine
themselves principally to the shore, the deep
sea and mackerel fisheries bein^ abandoned to
American enterprise. — Of the mterior of the
county of Tadousac, which extends on the N.
bank of the St Lawrence, from the K boun-
dary of the province to the Sagnenay river, a
distance, foUowiog the coast line, of about
600 m., but litUe is known. It covers an area
about twice as large as Scothmd. Its features
are mountainous and rugged ; it is watered by
large rivers, and in some places bears an
abundance of pine timber ; the latter fact af-
fording evidence that it is capable of producing
grun. Over the greater part of this extensive
region, the Esquimaux is supreme. Hunters
teU of a hard-wood region bordering on the
Saguenay country. — The valley of the river
Sagnenay covers an area of 27,000 sq. m., and
is estimated to contain over S,600,000 acres of
arable land, lying ohiefiy in the N. interior
basin which has Lake St. John for its centre ; it
is known as the upper Saguenay. It is pro-
tected from the fogs and cold winds of the gulf
by the mountains of St. Marguerite and
other high lands. To the S. the range of
Laurentian mountains^ rising in places to an
unusual height, renders the country, to the
width of frx>m 50 to 80 m., almost valueless^
and until the valleys of the rivers were followed,
it was almost utterly inaccessible. A practi-
cable line of road has, however, at length been
found. Protected by the high mountiun
ranges, the valleys and table knds enjoy a
milder climate than the settlements on the St.
Lawrence, 2^ Airther S. On the shores of Lake
St. John, the climate is said to be less severe
than at Quebec. It is not yet ascertuned how
&r N. in the interior valleys successful cultiva-
tion is possible. Almost every description of
agricultural produce has been grown in the
nelghborhooa of Lake St. John. The Sag-
nenay, to which attenticm has of late years
been directed by colbnization societies in Lower
Canada, already produces grain beyond the
wants of its population. — Golonication societies
form a curious feature in the social and political
economy of Lower Canada. They are, in fact^
joint stock farming associations, with a share
capital, and all the machinery of a directory and
general management There is one at Quebec,
another at L'lslet^ and a 8d in Eamouraska.
That of Quebec has chosen for the scene of its
operations the rear part of the county of Mont-
magny, on the S. ade of the St Lawrence.

These asMMsiatf OBB spHmg out of the gregarlooa
character of the French Canadian popolatiiML
Accustomed to a regularly organized sodeity,
they have no taste for isolation, and when they
move into the wilderness, which they dowidb
the greatest reluctance, and not until the pater-
nal estate has been sul^ected to the minutest
subdivision which will afford a chance of
humble subsistence, they wish to carry the entire
frame-work of the old society with them, tiie
regular parish, tiie church, and the priest being
essential constituents. — ^Between the Saguenay
and Three Rivers very littie land has been bdt-
veyed, in the rear of the settied seigniories, on
the bank of the St. Lawrence. The townships
near Quebec contain, on the slopes of the Lau-
rentian range, some good hard-wood hmd. The
deep streams that intersect this range form no
wide valleys, and there is littie alluvial soil on
their banks. Between the St Maurice and Mon*
treal, the hard-wood land on the Laurentian
slope becomes lighter ; in the valleys, at their
base, sand and clay prevail, and there are
broader alluvial flats along the streams. — From
Cape Chatte to Mitis, on the S. side of the
St Lawrence, no considerable quantity of va-
cant lands occurs. The reverse is i^ue of the
country from the Chaudidre and the Kennebee
road to Mitis. Within this stretch there is a
tract of country, between tiie rear of the adgn*
lories on the St Lawrence, and the southern
boundary of the province, 200 m. long, and
from 12 to 40 m. wide. It contains over
1,000,000 acres of surveyed lands unsold ; uid a
lar^r quantity still has yet to be surveyed.
Being cut longitudinally in the centre by the
mountains of Notre Dame, which here rise in
scattered and detached groups, considerable
portions of it are rugged and poor, the moun-
tain summits sometimes rising over 4,000 feet
above the level of the sea. The best soil, whidi
is covered with hard-wood, occurs in the de-
pressions which intervene between the difiTereot
elevations of the series. The best lands ooeur
along the boundary line of the United Stateei
To these interior lands 6 leading roads have
been made by the government — ^In the next
section of country westward, which lies be-
tween the Chaudi^re and the Richelieu
rivers, in the rear of the seigniories on the
St Lawrence, and which is known as the
Eastern Townships, the mountains <^ Notre
Dame again present themselves in the same de-
tached and fragmentary shape, being cnt trans-
versely by the valleys formed by the Chau-
didre and the St Francis rivers. Here the
valley of the St Lawrence, on the 8. bank, is
about 20 m. wide; and the hilly country, whidi
presents here xad there summits 2,000 feet
nigh, has a width of about 80 m. To the S.
lies a valley, parallel to the great valley of the
St Lawrence, about 80 m. in width, dnuned
by the Chaudidre and the St Francis. It has
an advantage over the valley of the St Law-
rence in point of position, lyhig farther S.,
and favored by a protecting range of broken

OAMAVX

it4t 0^"^ ThU ^t^iimk U ftli<nii tbO Al^^wf>^)kiir\iv r/ Ht/acn T>at '>tr\n, oa vr^ §g

ill

l4Wti»rvDt!< OKI )

M'* t-,lt 1K,

11^ Qiimena rina

nf irmi'i

Umbiired liuia pn^^t til j of OiMiw% «iul liif 1^ n tnM >
tmka Iradt

-1.

(I ir oiiL of roii4iw In l^« rml ftino oivut j

Ibn»«d at MvieraX lua&u. lAfgo mi»fi| atfri>
jjinri: affiji. Tlusrii am #«it&ti

mimpe^ M tif rod ftUitt are liriuuKli* iif bwrnii ^» Cnu|i]Mi% tsnttUisllii^

I h«^ cifilf jii»» midifiieneKJ
fiaic baiSQ opt**^ ?., . ..i^-px.-n

'- •* ^— ^ THa|rUKKlbolt»i>faMtll^y. Tt» III*

i« ki«iSi| ito 0kAAl «4M4i(>'i «

f Oi^ iittl.'##tti4 bl^ UU^^u f^t) yf iU^i \^ y4Air^idui

XIANADA

bay k well watered, «nd the riren afflxd
maoh bydraulio power. Altogetlier, it is iha
brat district of coimtry £. of Lake Huron
tor agriooltaral parposea. A railroad to oon*
nect the Ottawa with the Georgian baj baa
been prdected ; and the goTemmeDt has grant*
ad a wide strip of land, on eaOh nde, toward
Us constmction. This grant waa made in 1858^
bnt the railroad has not yet been oommenoed^
It is propofied to extend it to Quebec. On the
N. and W.of Lake Kipissing, the knd isgood;
bnt on the French river it is rocky and barren.
The timber trade of the Ottawa is immense*
During the 9 years from 1848 to 18fi6 inclusiYe,
iM^OO,000 sq. feet of white pine was sent from
the upper Ottawa to Quebec ; 25^90,000 onbiQ
feet of red pine, which predominates over the
white, and 2,286,690 ibet of other timber. The
whole amount cut during that period would
M little short of 800,000,000 feet It has been
calculated that there is available in the valley
of the Ottawa about 48,000,000 tons of sudi
timber as is now taken to market, and about
180,000,000 tons of smaller size. In other
words, the existing growth, without making
any allowance for additions, would support a
trade equal to that now carried on for a can*
tniy to come. — ^The westernmost section of the
provinoe, comprised within the valley of the
St. Lawrence and the lakes, lies on the N. of
Lakes Huron and Superior ; naving a length of
410 m. from the mouth of the French river on
the E., to Pigeon river on the W. Its uncer-
tain breadth is estimated at 160 m., and its
area is about 84,000 sq. m. Following.the coast
Hne, the length is 600 m., of which 150 m. are on
lake Huron and the river 6te. Marie, and 420 on
Lake Superior. The K. shore of Lake Superior
presents a bold, rugged coast, of which the
cliffs and eminences vary from 800 to l,800i
feet in height. It presents great diversity of
scenery in these varying heights, which rise
dose upon the margin of the lake, deep indent*
ations, sheltered coves, and dusters of Islands.
The harborage presented is ample for every
purpose. The timber, consistiDg chiefly of
spruce, balsam fir, white birch, poplar, and
cedar, la generally of little conmiereial value.
Some of the higher points are bare of trees, and
^e land available for agricultural purposea la
ehiefly confined to the fiats and valleys at the
mouths of the streams. Between the Batchee-
wana and Goulids bavs and the Misslsaga, the
country is fine, producing hard wood on the
ridges, and presenting in Uie broad, altematinff
flats a deep alluvial soil. Among the hara
Food, there is a sufficiency of white pine for
bmlding purposes; the flats are pnnoipally
covered with cedar, tamarack, ash, dm, soft
maple, and birdi, except where small prairies,
bearing a luxuriant growth of grass, intervene.
It is probable that tnis section of country will,
at no distant day, be settled. The whole ooun*»
try, where it haa been surv^ed and explored,
from Lake Superior to Lake iH ipissing, presents,
among the mj^ed and broken portions that in-

tervana, many astenaive vaDaya of esMDent
land, well adf^tedtoaettlement. Andevenfai
the more ragged and le» pToHfia portions
grovea of fine pine timber are frequently inet,
and indicationa of mineral wealth present tbcsn-
sdves. The government surveyor, by whom
this extensive aeotlott of aoontvr has been trav-
ersed, xecommenda that setmneots ahoold
oommence at the west and be carried down
eastward. The finest land In the whole dia-
tanoa occurs from the rear of the vUlage of Bte.
Marie, bounded on the W. by the Birteliee-
wana bay^ and on the £. by the MlaaJaaga
river. It IS easy of access from Lakaa Superior
and Huron and the river Ste. Marie. The valu-
able copper mines on the N. shore <^ Lake Su-
perior nave been almost entlrdy negleoted, and
much has yet to be done in the way of explora-
tion before the extent of the mineral wealth
can be known. The Indiana appear to poaaess
some aecreta regarding the mines; bnt they
perslstentiy refuse to disclose theoL having a
vague fear of the consequences of their domg
so, aa if they were conscious of the wrongs
which the Spaniards infikted on their race in
South and Oentral America and the West India
ishmds, in compelling them to perform the
labor of davea in the gold mines, and dreaded
a sunilar fate. N. of Lake Huron the hilla ooea-
sionally attain an devation of from 400 to 7t)0
feet above the lake. The sar&oes of these hiUs
are generally rounded, but occaaionaUy they
exhibit rugged escarpments with aurfrioea of
naked rock. The slopes are often gentie, and the
valleys wide, the sod of the latter bdng either
a fine sandy loam or a de^ deporit of decom-
posed vegetable matter, with the snbeoil of
blue day. The valleya are somethnea crossed
by ridges, varymg in height from 40 to 150
Iset. The valley of the Spaniah river preocots
Important fscilities for settlement; dl ttie land
bemg of good qudity or bearing a rich crop of
excellent piae, for which a ready market mi^
be found at Chicago and other placea. iSH
sites for the manufacture of timber exist in
abuudanoe.-*Canada la rich in fisheriea; bat it
is a branch of industry which has not yet been
turned to much account. The obatrootiona of
rivers, and the barbarous methoda of fiahing

SuTBued, have done much to rednce the pro-
uctiveness of this source of wedth. Latterly
the government has devised plans for the pro-
tection of the fisheries, and ii^ta to aoperln-
tend them have been appointed. The river
fidteries are hereafter to be leased, and the
revenue derived from this source siven as
bounties to the deep sea fisheries, which the
Canadians have hitherto dmost entlrdy aban-
doned to the French and the Americana. The
produce of the fisheries on the Canadim side
of Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, waa, in
1861^ a little short of $600,000. The kinds
diiefiy taken are trout, salmon, white-fish,
pickoel, and herrinff. It will give aome idea
of the abundance of white-fish In Lake Onta-
rio, If we state the fact, recorded on offidd

OAH^HA

8V7

14011 bMBti, in tfep

fi^ iF>ciLl T^ r^ii ivtbf.ii'i.^uhtii til till. Miir.n^^

i Fo f kit ipTJipo eftHjiri^ !ti Urn ttmm la&i.

irnriii^j

-^ it.

i, ntf Of

^nnA^*^ my! * a#

lod In fti^i:

i«rfl^

ti,

19&

1^:.

«. A

TI1L.1V.— €3

■T U VI

n ft W

»*1 IJffW I . f /

i 1|&3il t «

OAKADA

The great sts^ prodnei of TTpper Canada is
wheat, of whioh the highest average produce
in any township was 26 bnahels, and the lowest
6 bushels. Esqaesing was highest on the list.
—The foUowing is a statement of the exports
and unports from 1660 to 1857, indnsiTe:

Ttan.

Xiporta.

Impofte.

1850

£2,990,428
8,241,180
8^^996
6,608.067
6.812,827
7,047,116
8i)ll,764
«,761,66«

£*.54rt.nlT

1861

6.3i^«9T

1862

^01 1,633

1858

7,eiB,a59

1854

l(\1824ol

1866

fl,f«l,Ma

1856

10.S9fi.i^&

1867

S,&&T,&19

— ^The total nomber of vessels entered inward
from sea at the ports of Qaebeo, Montreal,
Amherst, New Ou'lisle, Gasp6, and Bimonski
was, in 1857, 2,047; in 1856, 1,494; and in
1855, 1,168. The aggregate tonnage of these
vessels in 1857 was 748,425, and the number of

men employed, 80^400. Of these ▼iiili^ QOfl^
with an aggregate tonnage of 477,268 tons, were
from Great Britain; 491, with an amegate ton-
nage of 68,287 tons, from the other £&i£h prov-
inces; 848, with an aggregate tonnage or 88^-
902 tons, from the United States; 812, with aa
aggregate tonnage of 119,028 tons, from other
foreign oonntries. The number of veasela thai
entered outward in 1857 was 1,848 ; in 1856,
1,582; and in 1855, 1,219. A line of ocean
steamers, subsidized by the Oanadian govern-
ment, runs fortnightly between liverpool and
Montreal, during the summer ; Portland being
their western AtUntic port during winter.
This line will shortly be a weekly one. In
point of speed, it has beaten the other lines.
The Leviathan is to run to Portland, Mo., in
connection with the Grand Trunk railroad of
Canada. The following is a statement of the
Canadian and American tonnage engaged in
the inland navigation between Canada and the
United States in 1857:

nrwABD.

OVrWAED.

TOTAXt.

CuMdtao.

IbwmC

o«i««c

gt^wm .,,,,-,,--

1,670,0M
887,654

2,217,777
860,061

1,628,822
866;745

•SiiSS

8,887,829
647,716

••^S?

Bail

ToUl .•

8,057,706

2,4n.888

1,984.067

8,429,822

4.585.6U

4.418,a»

INWARD AND ODTWARD.

OraadUn Bteam.
iSidl....

Amerlean Steam .
▲merioanSaU....

8,298,874)
. 748,899 f*

. 4,480,5471
476,618 f *

Inward and oatward.

Add da do. ofsea-gotngTeaaeli..

4,041,778

iMn^m

8,MS,988

1^479,798

Total Tona, 10^428,785

The Canadian trade with the United States
is greater than with any other oountrv, as the
foUowing statement of tiie course of Canadian
trade in 1857 shows :

VsliM of Bxporta.

▼klM of Imports.

Great Britain

£ a. d.

2,775.611 8 1

218,800 15 9

£ 8L d.

4,889,758 6 6

North American Colontea...
Britlah West Indiea

187,978 2 0
6.705 18 10

United States of America. ..
Other Foreign Ooontriea. . . .

8,801,609 0 6
66,674 16 4

5,068.162 14 10
217,062 14 8

Total

6,862,604 14 8

9,857,648 11 9

In 1851 Canada had only a few miles of rail-
road; now she has, in round numbers, 2,000
m. This extracnrdinary railway development
is due mainly to the aasistance extended to
these enterprises by the government and muni-
cipal corporations. In 1851, an act was passed
by tlie legislature authorizing municipalities to
incur extra-municipal expenditures for railroad
purposes. Previous to that time, an act had
Deen passed pledging government aid to any
railroad within vie province over a certain
leuffth. It was afterward found necessary to re-
peal this statute, on the projection of the Grand

Trunk railway, which extends from Portr
land, in the state of Maine, to Samia, on the
western frontier of the province. A very large
portion of the debt incurred by municip«litiea,
on the credit of the consolidated municipal loan
fund, was for raUroad purposes; and Uie pro-
vincial government has largely increased its
debt and annual expenses for the same purpose.
To avoid the expense of the transpodtion of
freight at Montreal, a tubular iron bridge ii
being constructed across the St Lawrence, at a
cost of $7,500,000. It rests on a series of abut-
ments which are so constructed as to have ^
the solidity of a rock. Those already completed
have borne the pressure of the vast masses of
ice which jam against them in the jroring, with-
out sustaining the least iigury. Tne length of
the bridge is 7,000 feet ; and the structure wiH
be one of the most extraordiniuy works ever
erected by man. Tlie next most important rail-
road after the Grand Trunk, which when com-
pleted will have a length of 1.026 m., b the Great
Western, which connects tne 8. bank of Uie
Niagara river, a railway suspension bridge being
constructed below thefallv'^^ the western
frontier of the province. This road will soon

^^^^^*^^^^^^^ OhMADA ^^^^^^ IM ^^M

^^|^^^_ -^ .

^^^1

^^^^bgl^r-

^^^^H itfiNsfuoii/onQ

^^^^1

^^^^^^^^^^^> ''^Bt^

^^^H

^^^K

t:ri|h b^wki&i: aI ^H

^
"L,.

■

I^Ci

^^^^1

tot tn

^^^1

j^l

^^M

^Hip»Uc.

^^^^^H

^^^^■m Hcoitiivt to U«

ftiJv ' M9 ^H

^^^^^^r -'^b^m^r^'

P]T-;P V4 ■

^^BniJ: ^ :tkv pct>*

t;iliiiu4 ly rfea4i-liiU i^ cLU^Ipn ; -^^ ^^^|

^^^^K! xfn

ffinmicMi^ UlWl oil frii|wr4f *di ^^H

^^HBPttna

■ , u)iici|i3tF*iy IVfi '^ .li ^^H

^^brot Oik ma '

tbtilD ^frj INR' '1* ^H

^H^^ I .1^.. ;-

tiQlEiW iif CAM*, iii«!3\Jf DP^iaoL Tbld Qtim- ^H

^^^H Tbe

^■Pl, .,., unswkl;

^^^EmualJ il ipQiN

^^^Birt nil rQ«

wbek L.*.,,...^ ^'^ ^ii^lt^d uf leknnt ifii, bo- ^H

^^^■'

(iriMa iim i£^ 1 le, 11*114 mi.^m^ U H

^^B|ir?u|ci ooQiMt 1 if m J ri4

ti0» :id«iat 41 lidi^nt A ^H

^^^EjQ^rD^'1 «^-iVf:*rr1 ' .jf-L

iorv^ \wh^t mtj ban?lM0ii ^H

^^^^Bi i^ uu^Ul hid k

nuuK ' dim Ibd Aifci of 5 iiiil ^M

oliii^ i^iOinI ■

ii]|iCN>^i3 TTfjv.Ti vfiCir r*«^*'^tii¥v ]LiTui>c;jMil.HiiiL ^H

^fer^ 1 E^OQ ns^gttfili^llui lfi#naais oT thit

Ilia CtiSluirMt ciJuiolt 10a MiilD«rii*« af Moii* ^M

■■L- <.^i& t»C |iabllD taiuofltlOft in oiw^*

tmxa -' *}-hm etmiaJmJsA umi^ lir.iiOO H

^^K r wm\m ^tSkttaom of Hf^iaiai) «i

^^^^^^_ . f 'm,r-aiif.nit iCKiimli.- tLfctnuii

^^^^^^^^1 1

: :^ tB« Qflltl W r/ ptt|lili^ Alkl t^ ^^^H

^^^^^^Vl^^

^^ - u - i^mbifc^titloaft : ^^H

{ S€% { laa

tR t 1^ ^1

Fifia*. ...,,,,.. ,■,..,-,, iK;?NJ it».f^

:? I

^^^^K mM to tu ' culltlit

c«ii^ib«ttiiu^. [ J4i.«ii| wmpm

■

^^^^^k ^^PP^V* t^t^'l^ .siificnita

Hie mtiuDnxfnt« t»r tlia dilldrcr ^^H

ii!hf»UiliiLii«riif CujiduBrnjUg^ ^^H

^^^^M I it3»i tliir prafli^uci

^^^^K- tocOiiik citl]*r r^

^^^H^.^^

^^Emrl^ttU

'^^olilMlr: ^B

840

OAKADA

*^ irrlting *dl.. ....... ...-

•* " cutnpotii]d **

■ " ge«^frniitbjf»

•* *' hiMtotY^

• " Fnnch gnmmax

" " prnmu^.........

1858, lS5i 1§M. 1359.

7,06«
4,412

B£.6«l
I7*^it4

7^
n,486

!)%jm 60,086

soieai 4fi,859

i,*Tfl r>,oi«
njoo, f*o,ia4

l^fla«l 11,680
9JHH\ 11,324

ie,4.i9 iiflgsio

There were 8Y7 students reoeiying a profes-
Bioiial or nniversit j edocation in Lower Canada
in 1856; 2,170 receiving a classical education;
16,898 receiving an academical education;
15,664 receiving a primary and superior educa-
tion, and 108,404 receiving an elementary edu-
cation. In the academies of Lower Canada
nearly all the teachers, male and female, belong
to some religious order ; and some of the text-
books are of a devotional cast, as for ex-
ample, the Devoir du Okritien, published by the
Christian Brothers. In the Upper Canada
sdiools the Irish national series of books is
used. In Upper Canada there is 1, and in
Lower Canada 8 normal schools for the training
of teachers. Attached to these are modd
schools, where the youn^ teachers learn to ap-
ply the knowledge they nave obtained to the
purpose to whiciftthey have come under an
obligation to devote theur lives. In Lower
Canada there are 97 parochial libraries, con-
taining an aggregate of 57,498 vols. Some of
the educatioiud institutions of Lower Canada,
such as the seminary of St Sulpice^ at Montreal,
possess wealthy endowments, which it is just
possible may some day excite the cupidity of a
legislature, the minority of whose members will
be of a hostile faith. An incipient crusade
agfdnst religious corporations points to such a
result as possible. The power to hold real
estate, and the actual holding of real estate by
such corporations, has been conferred to an
extent which many look upon as dangerous to
the oommonwealUi. While common schools
are supported at the public cost, the higher
branches of education are not neglected. At
Toronto there is a university — the university of
Toronto— endowed with 225,000 acres of public
lands. In 1857 and 1858 buildings for this uni-
versity were erected at a cost of £70,000.
There is also a church of England university —
Trini^ — at Toronto, endowed and supported
by private means. There are Laval university,
at Quebec, and HcGill college, with univernty
powers, Queen's college in Kixiffston, and Vic-
toria college in Cobonrff, both of which possess
imiversity powers. There are beside several
other smaller colleses, especially in Lower Cana-
da. There are district grammar-schools in
Upper Canada; but perhaps they are not very
efficient Of these, there were 61 in 1856.
Connected with the educational system of this
section of the province are tree public libraries,
established by municipd corporations. In
1856 there were 7,558 students at coUeges,
academies, and private schools, in Upper Cana-

da. The Canadians have wisely acted Qpcm the
conyiction that a system of government wbidi
rests on popular suffirage needs, for its soccesB-
fnl operation, a community among whom edn-
cation is generally difibsed. The monicipal
system in operation confers local seif-goveni-
ment, in its most unstinted form, upon viUagea,
towns, cities, townships, and councils. The
system of public education in operation is calcu-
lated to qualify the population to make a right
use of the privilege of local self-government ;
and the municipal council serves as a training
school for some of those who are hereidfter to
take a part in the provincial legislature. — ^Th^e
are 20 daily, 18 tri-weekly, 15 semi-weekly,
and 156 weekly journals published in Canada,
altogether 209. In politics 57 of them are
liberal, 67 reformatory, and 48 conservative.
In relidon 104 are Protestant, 18 Roman Catiio-
lie, and 87 neutraL The journals are issued in
88 different towns. The circulation of the local
journals varies from 500 to 1,500. averaging
about 1,000 copies. The prindpid journals are,
the " Toronto Globe," the "Herald^' of Montre-
al, the "Witness" of Montreal, the "Atlas" of
Toronto, the "Calvinist" of Toronto^ the
" Leader " of Toronto, the Caurrier du Canada
of Quebec, and La Min&rve of Montreal (Rranan
Catholic) ; there are 5 German journals, one of
which is Roman Catholic — ^The revenue and
expenditure of the government during the 8
years ending with 1857, were as follows :

Turn.

R«T«MM.

ExpMditank

18B0

£704,824
843,184
880,581
1,195,178
1369,806
1,019,059

1^107,288

£682,068
SM,6<6

797,125
744,125
9£o8»

1851

1852

1858

1854

1855

9S8,44i
I,a50,n4
1.192,825

1856

1857

Of the revenue of 1856, over £1^000,000 was
derived from customs. The remaining sooroes
of revenue were excise, crown territory, tax ca
bank issues, public works, fines and forfeitures,
casual revenue, land fee ftmd, and the general post
office. — ^In 1862, the gross receipts oftoUa on ths
canals was £84,602 ; in 1858, £95,614; in 1854,
£82,765; in 1855, £81,172; in 1856, £95,89&
During these years, the average net revenue,
exclusive of repairs and other incidental ezpois-
es, was only £t66,661. The repairs more than
absorb the whole receipts. These canals cost
£8,514,000, the interest of which is about
£250,000 ; so that the convenience they affoid
is not obtained without a heavy cost to ^be prov-
ince.— ^The amount of the pubhc debt, diraot od
indirect, is £12,879,295. Of this amount, £6,-
867,564 was contracted for the direct pnqtoses
of the government, chiefly on aAioimt of
public woricB. Of the remainder, £5.800^-
408 was contracted for the purpose of aid-
ing railroad enterprises, and £2,211,828 has
been borrowed by municipal corporations, oo
the credit of a common municipal loan fond,
out of which, as administrator, the govemmenl

CAKADA

•II

If;

mi .

IL fun* *?i»I»fTT H'

,ljlf4.

Ci»r

' I ■ ■ i/]i», lie 1 1

C-. u«fiii|$ UiA B^ dliw OliAlPur^ Cor-

Ui c I .^^ J. -..^^ai^eiQ or tli* i^oentry, Ib tUo b«d«

h --Jiii'/ .if til ft nit'4* wImi v«m Oj4 ciwo«9 ««f iIm

' jdfm Cfcm WM |4kq^ OQ ft

! Wit t»> H*** tip fyh ihh

bar

fif«f t- iiJ^ntJ.

Ills «Wr

'[ii#

! UlbftV^

rttsfe-

auk tlio mcaAt ii

c^.rv

! fntntad

ffuitzoDlw llkai» xo^yyu i

ill ^4i4tr

ftll :

0tablblicd tliii Mil ^''^

tin; i»jii.'r ii| StiO MlV<

ilofilafAtfoiii, ItftSem p&:

pom! m am of tliii *i- , u

ia nim-

84a

CANADA

a kteg^B attorney. The intendant was after-
ward aooorded a place in the supreme council,
which had power to hold its sittings at Three
BirerSf Montreal, or any other place, aa well as
Qaebeo. After the api>ointment of a bishop of
Quebec, serious dissensions broke out between
the civil and eccleriastical authorities, victoiy
sometimes declaring for one side and sometimes
for the other. Bishop Laval was powerfal
enough to procure the recall of a governor, and
the appointment of a successor of his own selec-
tion. The supreme council, on the other hand,
reduced the tithes payable by the Boman
Oatholics from ^ to ^ at which point they
still remain. In 1689 an English fleet, under
Admiral Phipps, made an unsuccessful attack
upon Quebec, and after receiving considerable
damage the fleet had to retire under cover of a
dark night The establishment of the French
colony at Detroit, and the discovery of the Mis-
sissippi by La Balle, are among me principsl
events of this part of the history of Oanada.
—By the treaty of Utrecht, signed April 11,
1718. Louis Xiy. ceded to England Hudson's
bay, Newfoundland, and Acadia (Noya Scotia),
and renounced all right to tiie Iroquois country,
reserving to France only the valleys of the St.
Lawrence and the Mississippi. The terms of
the treaty were sufficiently vague to ^ve rise
to disputes as to the extent of the territories
respectively belonging to each country ; and as
the ambition of neither country was wiHins to
be conflned to the limits which the other wish-
ed to assign it, a final struggle for supremacy,
extending over a period of 7 years, ended by
the cession of Oanada to England and of Loui-
siana to Spain, 1768. The conquered colonists
were guaranteed the free exercise of their reli-
gion, and the right of the Catholic clergy to
continue to receive their accustomed rights and
dues. Whether the subsequent confiscation of
the Jesuits' estates was a violation of this stipu-
lation is a question that has been much dis-
puted. In 1774 the parliament of I^glwd
passed an act to provide for the government of
the province of Quebec, as the new acquisition
was then called. By this act the Iring was em-
powered to appoint a council of not less than
17 nor more than 28 members, for the govern-
ment of the colony. Except for public roads
or buildings, the coundl was not empowered to
levy taxes, and no ordinance which it znight
pass concerning religion was to be valid till it
had received the express approbation of the
king. The criminal law of iSiglandf which had
previously been extended to the colony, was
continued in force. This arrangement con<*
tinned till 1791, when Canada was, by an
act of the imperial parliament divided into 2
provinces, Upper Canada and Ix)wer Canada.
To each a popular assembly and a crown-nomi-
nated legislative council were given. The
crown was empowered to oonflnr hereditary
titles upon residents of the oolony* The legi»>
lature was to meet once every year. The gov-
emorsi appointed by the crown, might reserve

for the pleasure of the sovereSgn any bill wliidi
the legislature might pass. Authoritj was
given to reserve 4 of tne public lands for the
support of a Protestant dergy, the apparent in-
tention being to constitute them enaoviaeDts
of church of England rectories. For this pm^
pose some 8,400,000 acres were aet apart; bot
very few of them were ever actually applied to
the endowment of rectories, the instroctiona to
this effect of the imperial government baviog
been disobeyed ; and in 1854 an act of the
provincial legislature was passed to devotd the
whole of these lands to secular purposes. Thn
the idea of establishing a state church in Cmr
da was reUnqul^ed. Disputes recarding tbfl
interpretation of the constitutional act arose.
One party contended that Canada was in pos-
session of a transcript of the British oonstlta-
tion, and that the advisers of tiie governors in
matters of state should be r^ponsible to the
commons house of assembly. Td» other party
denied the necessity of any accord between the
executive coimcil and the legislatiTe assemblj.
The attempt to make the lo^ government re-
sponsible to the popular branch of the kgialatDW
was not successfiu till 1841, the year after an
imperial act had been passed to unite the prov-
inces under one administration and one legis-
lature. The definite establishment of a responsi-
ble government, in 1841, was effected by a aenes
of resolutions passed by the legislative aasemblrj
in which the other chamber was not invited
to concur. In this shxiple manner was ooDsum-
mated a revolution wnich bears, some tmof!
to that of 1688 in England. But, in 1841, vi^
tory was already achieved for the principle of
constitutional government, before its fonnal
declaration by the resolutions of the popolar
chamber. The antecedent struggle hetwe^
oligarchy and the constitutional principle m
been long^ fierce, and sanguinary. It was mann-
ed by open insurrectbn in 1887 and 1888. The
popular complaints which preceded that^-
break were nomeroxis, but they are^ all refer-
able to the siogle circumstance of an ^'^^^P^
ble administration. In the rebellion, which m
Mr. Louis Joseph Papineau for chief in Lower
Canada, and Mr. William Lyon Hackeiwe »
Upper Canada^ a considerable number of ox&
were lost ; some executions, after the failnreoi
the enterprise, took plaoe ; manvwho had been
implicated in the movement fled for prot«ct^°
to the United States, and several were ille(FJ
banished by Lord Durham to the ishind of l^ef^
muda. There were some serious engagemeoc
between the troops or militia and the insorgen^
and of these the most severe took plaoe atrre^^
cott, where the rebels had taken refoge m »
stone wind-mill, from which they vw« J}?'
mately driven by fire bdng set to oombi^we
matter in the lower part of the buildings J^J
Americans who sympathised with the insarge&ts
took part in the bnttie. An ^e-witnesa in-
formed tiie writer tiiat he counted 110 deafl
bodies on the snow, on the morning after tpe
battie. For tome weeka the Upper Canada IB'

CASAlid

CAVAL fll^H

tfl4fiip&* Oi

.:'_*!* |i*^;> ^^^H

W^ Up (DbkiO^-

^^^^1

HI .

til

tV ■■ : r L^»^ *tt ^^^^^^H

€%> a^!^14j; t call*

fu. ^1

Jtjr tf- 1 4 l\i ITU- :TiT(,.nr<^

L^~* ■ ^^^^^1

Mmt^^ ^H

ml Hn _ ^^H

•r.'>

6hiii%fi«% h ^^^1

Q'l; i>^rti^ ^^^^1

t , •

>r-S ^^^'4 ' ^'^^'y ' ^^^1

^^Bi

'|ittio; tb^ Umljt'J ^^^H

^^^^^^K| uj b 1

Un^«« nltbciffail oas^ ^^^H

^^^k^f^

{.*4isjiK ^^ hm^fvt Uooi L ^^^H

^^BxA^

til) ArflcedTfi^ W VfhalisvQt ^m^ ^^^M

^^B(|tl^ fiiU

^^^^^min^ '

|impc^lr t^itntilt. Tti_*4H!oii^* ^^^^H

^^^^F^

lUk^Uuii 1 ^^^H

^^^Ki

^^H

^^^K' . ^mUfi ^

ttiharti^oi ^^^H

^^^Lj' ' ' 'iti b^tr^'

1 '^r°^^^9<»'*' ' ^^^1

^^^■ftrl

i4» Ui Um3 «w« J^i£rsi> U i4a< ^^^H

^^K

tWl fr lionnl nirrriM 0»^ low ] ^^^H

^B;

I Ll 1 ^^^^H

^^^^^K, roQ of 1SS9^ a rfii

.! with Ui^^\ tlul 1^1 ' . ^^^1

^^^^^^Hi A iniitlnz

^^^K

Itmmd kia ^^^|

^^^^Kr II

Yftrf^fttjot?' ^^^H

^^K

1 iif^'I^'Lii.T-, L. ^^^1

^^^^^^K-,

^^^^^^K '

^^^K JWtA

Diy oiEiil vltli 0^ rifofn r< ^^H

^^^^^^K

tiim, inbfmtptBd riri- ^^^H

^^^^^^Ki

t^iit orttiiiiU fpm. ^^^H

^^^^^^Kj^ ■:.^ . , r,

tit J,00a Eti. U: ^^H

faM} Iff liiwi^r l)i ^^^H

^^^^^B»V rlfi^ni* lt» }*y r.ai'iiimUil li^ par-

IClKllbtfr m Inrl 1 ^^H

^^^^^^K^

luatii. AtH.' ^^^H

^^^B.

lidtwcftEiibQ [ ^^^H

^^^^■. %«re*

k mipfitided t ^^^1

^^^^■^

Tit ff^ntiirj, ^^^H

^^^K

^^M

^^H: iiati^

^^H

^^^■S^iauij-^ hi Nr^ il^V>x>« nfxil lillt^flflir'

lAllfid yu>at i'l M fitpiU/ e^lAiiMur] UmttiisU ^^^H

OANAL

thfastate^ till they now oonitect all ita ^
and are used as roads. The city of Amsterdam
owes its present commercial prosperity entirely
to the fiEUiilities afforded by its ship canal of 51 m.
in length, which connects the river Y, by a direct
channel, with the German ocean. This canal,
one of the largest works of the kind in Europe,
was constructed between the years 1819 and
1825, at an expense of £850,000. Its dimen-
sions are so great that 2 large merchant vessels
or frigates can pass each other. Attention was
given at an early day to the snliject of canals in
tibe Italian states, and the invention of the canal
lock is commonly attributed to 2 of their en-
gineers of the 14Ui century, though Belidor, in
his Ar^itecture hydraulMue, gives the credit
(^ the invention to the Dutch. Some writers
say that Leonardo da Vinci first used locks
on the Milanese canals in 1497, and soon after
introduced them into France. — ^All the countries
in Europe had constructed several canals be-
fore they were known in Great Britain. In
1755 the duke of Bridgewater brought forward
the project of connecting Manchester with
Woreley by a canal ; and when this had been
successfully accompUshed, other works of the
same kind were built in such numbers, that be-
fore the introduction of railroads it was esti-
mated there were over 2,200 m. of navigablo
canals in England, beside much slack-water
navigation upon the rivers made use of in con-

iieotbnwitii the canals. fionthofDorhMiiiik
believed there is not a spot in Eogland 15 m.
from water communication. But the introdao*
tion of railroads has greatly lessened their ii»-
portanoe, and though they still continue to be
used for the transportation of heavy frei^^t,
their day is evidently regarded as having pasaed,
and no new enterprises of this class are any
longer planned. The same remaric may be
made of the canals of the United States. Per-
hups the earliest constructed of these are tiie
South Hadley and the Montague canals, both
undertaken by a company chartered in Massa-
chusetts in 1792. lliey are short canals for
passing the rapids at South Hadley and the
Montague falls, the former 2 m. in length, with
lockage of 40 feet, and the latter 8 m., with 75 ft
lockage. In the former there is a cut 40 feet
deep and 800 feet long in solid rock. The Middle
sex canal, 27 m. in length, connecting Boston
harbor with the Merrimac at Chelmsford, now
Lowell, was completed iu 1808. The Erie canal
was completed in 1825, at an expense of (7,602,-
000. Its locks, all of stone masonry, were ori-
ginally 90 feet long in the clear, and 15 feet wide.
The following table comprises those canals of the
United States and Canada of whidi the cost
has exceeded $1,000,000 each ; it is part of the
larger table in Wm. J. McAlpine^s report to the
K. Y. legislature iu 1853 :

iTAn.

ooer.

Co.! per
tnlla.

WMth

«lmr-

Depth.

LOCKS.

gi" .

HAIOL

LeBfth,

Width,

N>mb<r.

Uft,
§mt.

Erie

New York....

** !!!!

Penn., public.*.

M U
U M
M tt
U tt

" private

a *^ tt

U M

N.Y.acPenn.,

u u

New Jersey..

H tt ^^

Del and Md..
Maryland ....
Ohio

868
68
»T
178
104
89
78
90
60
108
85
82
108
108
48

101

191
807
178

76
147
879

90
103

11
8*

j S.'.vVhmVhj

1D,JKM>,0(«)

T,iKK!i,tHhf
l,!Htf^O0O

2,,„H>,IHMJ

$19,679
19,962
24,948
80,677

iM^647

l^ol6

89,208
21,261
28,149
61,20&

«)',i60
60,200
66,150

80,698

208,708
52,856
15,800
21,067
19,722
84,150

'88!968
84,846
194,444
100,<K)0
166,666
186,868
285,984

40
40

40
86
60
86
82
44
75

66
70
40

60t

45f

90
160
190
120

4
6*

90
100

90
90
60

100
75
76
100
110

100

90
100

150
200
200
200
200

15
15

17
20

22
15

55
46
65

19
117
110

12
8

S3
120

lOT

18
291ocks 1
22 planes;

152
102

27
6
7
9
5

i»4

1,009
671
471

610

1,289

519

900

116

1,674

600

1,185

781

l,9i6

'«6
846
80
48
42
45

Obsmnlsin

Chenango

Central DiviBion

Western do.

Bosquehanna DlyUlon.

North Branch

North Branch Extension ....
Delaware Division

BchuTlkUI

Lehigh

100

Union

Delaware and Hudson

Do. do. enlarged
Delaware and Baritan Feeder

Morris and Essex ......... t - -

( 60

tl40

228

Chesapeake and Ohio

Ohio and Erie

150

Miami

Bandy and Beaver

James Biver and Kanawha. .
Wabash and Erie

Virginia.'.'!!.'.'
Indtona

nilnola .'.'.!!!!
Canada

•» ::;!::;

tt !!!!!!!

Do. da

minois and Michigan.

Wetland

160
600

Bt« Lawrenoe . . . . . . . t «.. - 1 - -

Cornwall

Baanhamois... .

I^Kihine ,,r

The Erie canal as enlarged will measure in width
at level of water 70 feet, at bottom 42 feet ;
depth of water 7 feet^ width of tow path 14 feet.
As will be observed in the preceding table, the
dimensions of canals are very variable, according
to the kind and amount of transportation for
which they are intended to provide. Those of

Canada are built to open a communication be-
tween the great lakes and the ocean; and bjmeans
of them it is practicable for vessels to dear
from Ohicago, at the head of Lake Michigan,
direct for Liverpool The Krie and the Dela-
ware and Hudson are examples of canals prov-
ing of too small dimenfflons for their increasing

QJOSIAL

Tliebf^'

Tier wa fir MYt:

■<K

. ; mUm p«r bud.

lOdnaMoledkalf^n'
mummty^ lav

■•«r^<'r\-

■iimji uij '^fr-^icdl for Hi

*h^ I fro 4idm ^minsf 4i

SD#4t finks nitli tlbii

Utk 0ou&tf y tliQ liAii of

liT 'Ih^ Wtlfli

iwci^n'

1*A ww||r*>||t-'!

■1 M.' rr. ■

^ villi ft g^atlu coir

■i4&««j: ii.4«.

4 la kr upon il«e!r apf^r ht^,
otUiid by gpenkiiff ilia hcl

fwilfw li

846

QASAL

OAKALB

employed to raise water from a low lev-
el to feed the iq>per levels of the oaoal; as
at Chicago, where the water of Lake Hiohigan
is pumped up to flow into the enmmit leveTof
the Illinois wd^ohigancaDaL Inclined phmes,
upon which tracks for canying the boats are
worked by steam power, are aubstltated for
locks upon some canals, as the Morris and Essex
in New Jersey. These have a slope of 1 in 21,
and at the lower end are continned far enongh
under the water for the truck to pass beneath
the floating boat. At the upper end the rails
curve over the dam, which holds back the
water of the upper level, and then slope away
beneath the suitaoe tar enough for the boat to
float on or off the truck. The boats are secured
to the carriage by chains, and the whole is
moved by an endless chain carried by a station-
ary steam engine. Similar planes were con-
structed on the Bhropshire canal in England
many ^ears ago ; one of which was 1,800 feet
long with a perpendicular rise of 126 feet, and
Another rose 207 feet in a length of 1,050 feet
Some remarkable contrivances have been de*
vised in England for passing canal boats from
one level to another with the least possible ex-
penditure of water. By one the descending
boat is made to counterbalance the ascending
one, and the horse that draws the boat upon
the canal is used to move the machinery. — ^The
business of canals is now prindpidly limited to
the transportation of heavy irei^t, as ooal,
lumber, the products of mines and farms. The
expense of moving these upon existing canals Is
60 low, that sudi canals on lines of large trade
will long be able to compete with railroads,
especially those with difficult grades. But for
transporting passengers and costly freight, and
all such materials as are liable to i]\jury by
delays, the business of canals is already super-
sedeid by railriMids. From the report of Mr.
McAlpine, already referred ta it appears that
in 1848 coal was transported on the Chesa-
peake and Ohio canal from Cumberland to
Georgetown, 184.4 miles, at an expense of $78
00 per 100 tons, or 4^ mills per ton per mile,
including interest on cost of boats and fix-
tures, repairs and depreciation, wages, cost
of towing, loading and unloading. On the
Schuylkill, and the Delaware and Hudson ca-
nals, the expense, including all these items, was
$44 54 for 108 m., or 4|V nulls per ton per mile.
On the Schuylkill canal in 1852 the cost was
estimated at 0 mills per ton per mile; and on the
Delaware and Hudson before its enlargement at
5^ mills. The reduction made in tiie expenses
by the enlargement has already been noticed.
Tlie expense on the Erie canal in 1852, includ-
ing wages, towing, depreciation of value of
horses, office and personal expenses, and part
cost of loading ana unloading, is given at 2^
mills per ton per mile. Mr. Sevmour, the late
state engineer, estimated the whole cost at 8^
miUs per ton per mile. The charges for trans-
portation at that time, exoeptlatein the season,
averagedj&A nulls per ton for freight going

east, and 6 ^ miUs for thai going ve0i| not in-
cluding state tolls. — Boats are commonly towed
upon canals by horses, a ringle hone diswing

at a speed of 2ior 8 m. an hour a boat ksttded
withfrom 50 to 70 tons, as easily as a iood of
15 to 18 cwt. upon a good road. Men aieaooie-
times employed to tow boats in fioUand, «
they were in Engjand, on the Thames and the
Severn, till near the dose of the last oeatoiy.
This is BtiU the praotice in China. Steam pow-
er is 6bi ectionable from the ii^Jory to the banks
caused by the wave from the paddle-wheels.
Propellers making less wash upon thebanksaie
employed on oanala that are sufficiently large
to afford them coavenient room. In 1880
boats were introduced upon the Glaagow and
Paisl^ canal in Scotland, designed to run at the
rate of 0 or 10 m. an hour. It was found that
light boats made of thin boiler plate iron, their
length being about tO feet and their width less
than 6 feet, could be drawn by 2 horses with
a load of 70 or 100 passengers at this meed,
without producing a wave that woold harm
the banks of the canaL As the boat attains
this speed it overtakes the wave in front of it,
and nding upon the top of it, the boat and the
wave move onward together, smoothly and with
comparatively light draught of the hmses.
These are changed every 4 m., and are pot on
several times in the course of the day. Thk
method has been practised many years on the
Birmingham canal. It has been tried in this
country, but is not in use. In July, 1858, boats
built to be propdled by steam maAe successful
trial trips from Buffiilo to Rochester. It has
been generally supposed that r^id rates were
unsuitable to canals, but experiments are now
in progress in New York to test the contrary
opinion.

CANALE, a small town in the Rardinian
province of Albi, with important aalt springs
Pop. 8,900.

CAN ALE, AaroKxo, commonly called Oasa-
UBTTO, and also II Toniro, an Italian painter,
bom in Venice, Oct. 18, 1607, died there Aqg.
20, 1768. His fiftther was a scene painto^ uA
educated him to the same profession. Hera-
sided for a time in Bcune, about the year 171),
and there studied the remains of antiqui^, be-
flan to apply the skill with the pencil, which he
had acquired at Venice, in paintmg from nature^
and gained the reputation of an aooompliBbed
artist in that branoh. On his retnm to Venice,
he painted numerous views of that taty^ rqoo-
dudng with great aoouraoy its palaces, ohmch*
es, and canals. The best of these was the view
of the grand oan^ which is now in the galleiT
of the Louvre. Bie spent 2 years in England,
and painted while here an interior view of
King's chapel, Cambridfle. Hia worlm are
found m all the galleries of Europe.

0 ANALE, NzooLo, a Venetian adnoiral, who
flourished in the second half of the 15th eentiny.
In 1469 he was oommaiider of the Venetian
fleet at Negropont (the ancient OhalobX <^
suooeeded in sebdng the Torklah town o£ £noa

CASMfOSA

■ ^!s

•^ '^ a4>.<i ':i ' ■* T-'Jkii-

■ 4 f M nit«*i ill U I

ir; t^om k omo itt£ spart by t^ Bym. Qii4«r El&|f

iiineiftikd AthdO"
LP j^-'j, 4«i!»0; o/Oio TtU^

iLu gvrpi%iBQ£iA» M DMil book (%p ii ikil

iirL

l*j to t-^' «-^/ tv! *V

LACK, r-^ » -^

tills

ITU :*'

■4 UlC llTa-TJ^t

VM eafiUlo flf «

. of t&o (iUsd cif Sdo l*>jr ilitf Tufia^ bi

MSowtid tilt ilo0C of Ibu Gr^oib* tis4ar Wkik

^ iah^^^ rJm*'. I'^iih »q4 ioiMMddl b

w«e tiloim oj* tfUli UioQiiiik!.

ifiLj- r,.iJow...1 ' . ^~ -'I'jf bj ft

I tl^4^ titeek ^OKK ir.itLi <*.-^iru L'i> J ti, igu! fill*

(<uai I aril^ff iiSbrt»«

mt4 VM , ^_ ... _ « ^mitkjiB un lib

(Milro tilfittJ ^ ft cmir vk'iAti^ el 8iiifio% uwir

^ 7Mi MHd

(

fi V.

^^.

'Us

iBiniJtfr, Mid irvt'
frlie^o it« inog li 1

Iiii!, a*jd tii»* wb*

will 4iU.

iom U»i9 Qemaj hka^ ftliucit Um l^Hifttmaij';

mital till! win Olii^lp Mr£tifi<)k, Om ^cii-
ixkrii (fumliiA££tf emiM4Miil ftml wlong mliir
libik, proOndug l^jrMift, Milk m^l at^^tl*. ot

mm ftbcHt df> f^arktln u£ liv cMiarv,

848

OANABT GRASS

0 AKABT BLANDS

\y paired^ They are bred ia immense nmnbers
on the continent of Enrope, and mairv- are im«
ported into the United States from Qermany.
The 2 varieties moet prized by amateurs are the
jonqnU and the meally, which combine the
greatest beauty of color with excellence in
song; the latter have a bright orange cap, this
color pervading the whole plumage, except on
the wings and tail, which are deep black ; the
former have the neck, back, and wings waved
and mottled with purplish gray tints. The
German birds have often considerable green in
their plumage, bearing a stronger resemblance
to the wild bird than do the higher prized
varieties. The most mottled varieties may
be as good singers as those of the purest
colors. The song of the canary is fisuniliar
to every one. With less power, compass,
and variety than the nightingale, it has greater
powers of imitation, a better ear, and a better
memory ; it sings at all seasons, in the
dullest weather, and is equally welcomed in
the palace and the hut. It becomes very
tame, and is capable of attachment to man; it
is easily educated to perform tricks at public
exhibitions, many of which are quite astonish-
ing. Their diroositions are as various as their
colors. This cumate is too severe for the out-
door nataralization of the canary, but its in-
door rearing in cages is very common. They
begin to pair about the middle of February,
and will make a very neat nest if the proper
materials are supplied to them: they wOl also
lay in nests artificially prepared. The time of
incubation is 18 or 14 days ; the number of
eggs is usually 6. The young partake of the
phyidcal characters of the parentfl^ whether gav
or mottled. Their favorite food is canary seed,
to which a little rape and hemp seed may be
occasionally added; they should have light,
fresh air, plenty of water to drink and bathe in,
and free access to sand or gravel ; a sprig oi
chiokweed or a leaf of lettuce will be highly
relished by them. The canary will thrive very
'\well on this food; when breeding, the yolk of
^Miard-boiled egg should be given them. Their
di^VAaaes are due principally to improper or too
i^^p^food; cleanliness and attention to sifting
their ^eed will generally protect them from
P««^*^^ insects.

CANARY GRASS (phalarii Oanariefm$\
an annual ^^^^gg native to the Canary islands,
oulUvated fc^ jts seeds, with which tame birds,
e8pecwllycai^es,arefed. It isgrown on the
isle of Thanet, in ^^ county of Kent,England,
also m parts of xs^j^ France, and Switzerland.
It hasa stalkl to 6> f^^ higj,, topped by an oval,
close-grained panic^^ it requws a goodsoU
and an open country.

CANARY ISLANir^a ^ OAHAms (Sp.
liloB aMiariM),aSpania.»;^l^^yl,j|.jj^^tj^^5Q

*^°' ??]S\t ^'/^ bf Africa, between lat.
27^ and SO^ N., and W Uo ^^ ^go ^ com-
prising a group of "lands of ^^lich the princi-
pal are Tenenffe, Grand Cam. PaW Lan-
zaiote, Fuerteventura, Gomera, <^^ j^ ^^

a total area of about d,400 sq. m., and a ponol*-
tion of about 260,000. The islands are volean*
ic, rocky, and mountainous. The principal
mountain is the peak of Teneriffe, a celebrated
volcano, 12,182 feet hi^h. The water oootms
which traverse the islands are somethnea
swelled to torrents, and at others dry. Al-
lowances made for fluent dryness, the soB,
which is extremely fertile, yields abundant har-
vests, and the dimate, altiiough at times ezoea-
sively hot, and exposed to severe dianges and
to a pernicious hot wind from the African con-
tinent, ia, on the whole, aalubrions. The vege-
tadon of both the tropical and temperate cones
flourishes here in great luxuriance^ and has been
described at length by Alexander von Humboldt,
and by Leopold von Buch. Horses and cattle
are scarce, but other kinds of domestic anlnrmla
abound ; only a few, however, are indigenoQ&
The reptiles are limited to a small scorpioii, a
Bcolopendra, and the frog. Amomr the inseota la
only to be mentioned a species oi troublesome
gnat or mosquito. Among the birds are the
African vulture, the falcon, buzzard, sparrow-
hawk, kite, 2 species of owl, 8 c^searmew, the
goldfinch, the qoail, wren, magpie, and a rich
list of other birds, including the famous Canary
bird, which derives its name from the idands.
([See Canabt Bibd.) The only fresh-water fish
is the eeL Marine fishes are scarce, but whales
and seals are occasionally seen. The products
comprise various kinds of grain, canary seed,
potatoes exquisite fruit, silk and cotton, some
olive oil, tobacco, rosin, wood, hides, ^, and
among those most extensively exported are
cochineal, wine, barilla, orchiUa, and wood. The
exports of wine and brandy were formeriy caor-
siderable ; the produce of wine averaged about
40,000 pipes pntil 1868, when the whole crop
was nearly destroyed by a grape diseasob The ex-
ports have since materially frulen off in wine and
brandy, but have greatly mcreased in oochlneil,
lands formerly occupied by vines and gnda be-
ing now devoted to the production of thla hi*
sect, and the exports having risen from aboat
1,000 lbs. in 1888. to 800,000 lbs. in 1848,
and to 1,500,000 lbs. in 1866. The prodnoe
of sugar, formerly of great importance, has fidl-
en b^ore the competition of the Amerioan and
West Indian trade, and hardly averagea more
than a value of $100,000 annuaUy. Some raw
silk is manufactured on the spot into iSBka and
ribbons ; coarse linen and woolleastaflbare made
for home consumption; the leaves of the dale
pJm are made into hats and baskets; bat the
balk of mannfactured floods la imported ttom
abroad. A fishery on t£e African coast engages
from 40 to 60 vessels, and a great number of
persons; the principal fish taken is bream,
which is salted and largely consumed in the iA"
ands. The foreign trade is dhie^y with Great
Britain, the United States, Hamburg, Franoe,
and the Spanish West Indies. The imports from
the United States have increased firom $88,848
during the year ending Jane 80, 1866, to $89,943
during the same per&d ending Jone 80| 1867;

CM3^s:mA

Gurcsa

lii-,; :. :.»..... i'5'- »^^'^* eu^fl^ Mil «ii^- ^. L^*; Myuaif JMdiC — .^ -^ai«|

ftu

r\l,'«tipl SiSimLU ^\hi^^ - ■ .7 |& ;l^

tilt. ir^H

MUlrLHl llf^ flf|tfiii»

I W:

MiHf

i..ff.t? twi J f^ftiTiiii:-

eaatHr
1I& tijf i

^kisrthMi thorn ^ Urn m&th^iaiiiiitrjIftlMiQ^
caiitt tJiiirfi iln«tcift fhiui th« iibfiri^afts, fifliii«il

liKiftiliAcii^/Maigii4g(»liiiist«, iVii D«wii|*]t(:r«
tm pdNMi^ii fli awin Of^ And aaii il JUf

CJAKjICTRA, ft mmnialu r»^ • '
Qitti&ifDo^ al tl)* 8, btfmiJnifliaa (d" >
Hallo Ut«rilf#i rju Um bouaiUr^^r bclwtitiu Um
fKmkkfm of O^fU tii4 M)fVif 6«ma^ tod
illi£elio« AW^ taw^nl ' ^ "

iOi of &U ^tfirlifttfii Uy» ^7 m. W. K. W. ni

loiibl UiiiMtiuoiriiiDd ni^lei^ of wyiiali flsiir^

vtOiL b .i^is4i*, and tlio

m ihm pott of Qmioaiii, mS pa$ma^ to 11^
aTeTOJIfiff vmpmIh In Ui«< y^tr w^ra Tl, uiiJ Um

■wiii m%^ UfctvodQ«e()i ^4 irli^ iaiMiift(4Ml fa

'i-: ..iu^mfimmlmBim^

iMiii .iM^wkib t^(» IcTtii l# alia

IrtmjuA^ fit

f^:f|Ms dad met!!

ciCUni iibdtrliM &i

ifUitrisrtiwII nitltf(fel,tOi»
li tom^mjm «»*^ ' ' -
Iniv of libes* 41
toddl im&iiiacilj :

likbn «ir the i^ii^r
stnft V iiAikvi^'L

•ar«. liiv pu^

.GAINER

OAHCQimr

gross from this t&M Is T6ry npid« Tiig
nant degeneratioii extends qniokly to the]
boring parts; the uloer increases^ dischi
constantljr a morbid matter that destroTs^the
Borronnding tissae and is absorbed into the ^jrs-
tem ; the oonstitatiQii beoomes generallj af«
liacted, and death finally ensaes from ezhans*
tion. or saoh yitiation of the whole body as to
renoer it nnable to perform thefimetions of life*
The pain from the earliest period is sharp, but
at firet intermitting; in the oonrse of the dis*
ease, however, the asony becomes extreme, and
deam is welcomed by the snfferer as a relieL
Cancer is now no longer, as in former timeS|
snpposed to be purely a local disease. Itia gen-
erally considered a oonstitotional afiection, de-
pending upon a diseased state of the blood, with
a tendency to reveal itself nnder some exciting
eanae, as a blow, for example, in any part of the
body espedally liable to cancer. Jul external
ii\|nries more or less violent, any continued
pressure or irritation, excess in the nse of spirit-
nons drinks, depression of the mind, and espe*
olally a poor diet, are sappoaed to be favorable
to the development of uie disease. Oanoer is
midoubtedly an hereditary affection, as it may
be constantly traced through various members
of the same fiunily, and a succession of genera-
tions of a common origin. It is a disease that
seldom develops itself before the age of 80, al-
though it is occasionallv seen even in inmnts.
That form of oanoer called ^ngna hcBawtoda^
particularly where the eye is its seat^ is by no
means uncommon even in the youngest children.
Women, and particularly iiie unmarried, are
more liable to the disease than men^— In regard
to the treatment of cancer, notwithstanding the
great variety of means which have been and are
still used, the general opinion of the most soien-
tific physicians and surgeons is thi^ it is incurar
ble. It is still a quanUo VMata whether it is
proper to remove cancer by a surgical operation.
Borne contend that the fatal result is hastened
by excision, while others argue that much re-
lief is thus obtained without any such e£fect
All, however, agree in denonndng the use of the
knife when the general system is so fiir affeeted
as to show constitutional symptoms. Thoee
who believe in that peculiar form, called by
them the epithelial cancer, a disease which
shows itself generally on the skin, and especially
on the face and lips, are of opinion that sur-
gical operation is particularly beneficial as af-
fording a means, in this form of the ailment, of
frequent radical cure. For a louff time the old
mode of operation by means of caustic gave
way to the use of the knife, but just now were
seems a disposition to return to the former mode
of treatment The supposed success of an
American of the name of ¥ell, now practising in
London, and who makes use of a caustio com-
pound of diloride of zino and our native blood-
root, has led the profession to reconsider the
efficacy of that method of cure. Dr. Fell has
introduced the novelty of making, in the neigh-
boring parts of the cancer, various incisions, into

the dep&s ctf wUcb he insertspiaeea oflint be-
ameared with the caustic, whidi tim* applied
is supposed to act with greater rapidity and
power. Though the physician and snrgeoa
nave littie ftith hi the efficacy of any meana of
cure, they are undoubtedly able to do much
toward mitigating the aufl^rings of the patient^
and therefore may be consnlted with advan-
tage by those afflicted with this terribly malig-
nant disease.

OANORIN, GsoBOX, count, a Russian atatee-
man, born Dea 8, 1774, at Hanau in Gennany,
of an obscure family of Jewish descent, died
Sept 22, 1845, in St Peterabuig, while minister
of finances, member of the imperial caundl, sen-
ator of the enq>ire, in ftot at the h^gfat of hon-
ors and dignities. He received his eduoatloin in
Qermany, and while a student at €U>ttingeii
published a treatise on minlog intereste whidi
ne dedicated to Catharine ll of Busna. To
that country he soon followed his fother, wiio
had entered the Russian dvil service a fow
years before, and was director of the salt wofka
In Standa-Bussa, in the government of Kov-
gorod. Oancrin began his career under hia
mther, and then passed into the department of
the interior, to which the salt works belonged.
Laborious, well informed, and endowed with a
Q>iritof order and a certain organiahigcapaoitgrt
he published a pamphlet upon the commiasBria^
a branch of the administration at that time no*
torioua fen* its disorder and malversation. Tbla
publication resulted in Oancrin'a transfer from
the ministry of the interior to that of war, and
to the commiBBariat At the beginning of tiie
war of 1812, Banday de Tolly, commander of
the western Bussian an^, offered him the place
of commissary-general. In that capacity, Oaaorin
introduced some beneficent reforms, beside pub-
lishing a small tzeatise on ^^IQlitaryEoooin^y
in Peace and War.*^ In 1818 he was made oom-
missary-general of the whole BuasiaB forces^
and as such partidpated in the campaigns of
1818-'14, and accompanied the emperor Afexan-
der to Paris. In 1815 he negotiated with the
French government in relation to theexpenaea of
the Bussian corps which, after 12ie battle of Wa-
terloo, was for several years to oooopy France.
Oancrin^s integrity in this negotiation being
questioned by his enemies^ he resigned his
active duties as commissary, but remained in
service without a special department During
this time of leisure, he published a woric on
political economy under the titie of ^The
Wealth of Kationsy** in imitation of Adam
Smith and Storch, basing^ proq>erity on the
development of domestic inaost^, Imt with-
out any original ideas. Alexander left the
empire to his successor in great disorder,
the finances especially, the treasury enply,
trade and industry prostrated. The emperor
Nicholas made Cancrin his minister of finanoe.
The first business was to fill the treasury. In
Bussia proper, the flovemment alone baa the
exdui&ye nght of selling Q>iritnoua liquora by
wholesale and retaiL Hitherto the govetiunent

OAiniAOS

GAn^L^fisnic

%^^ ^i^<, t,* ,..* .1,

...V n/ »JkV-«^'"

(ynl% ba tiki b ^

imS wft# fi^i

1*1 T?rtO#<i raiul

'^If^cia tif Ilia

^t dutits e«*cti on ravf ^ ^
Uj btimrv Arc.— ^U 1>« r

>mii wlikli Bavt^ o aiv

hig In 111 in nfur** A..-1 n?^ji|) bi* ^.
'.MfM iljpi^llajj his dej' In ttriH^-

iM' imdjf to l^ 4|^»ii<

bu;

■'^

ua miaaiflocaoft (jf III

oT tW** FItl ii/jjLui*. Tb«i iuiffitf mmm to Mfn

bodi in iltti^:
tloi ffUnd wn

aiii! rtfVnrjin! Ifr

;i ia 1^1^ U lie-

) if mn Im«I a «liiliJ49 tltAlt
.out li^ wMd4 tlt« Utdi6

bin tniii4i Inulv in iMim«4 vu fcii t^^MUii^ ruaeaUUMO Mf « ttic^ tknw uu ibe to^ « wiiil

852

OANDI

of bronse, one of which has a q[>ike to re-
oeive a clay lunp, with a hole in the oentre,
and varioos other exquisite Bpecimens. The
extraordinary size of the oa&aelabra used in
the palaces and temples of the ancients may he
inferred from the specimens in the Lonvre, in
the Monioh glyptotheca^ and in the extensive col-
lections of the Vatican and of other Italian mn-
senms, of which the most remarkable is that of
the Moseo Etrosco Gregoriano, with 43 different
specimens. In the Mnseo Borbonico are sev-
eral specimens of bronze candelabra fonnd at
Hercmanenm and Pompeii, which are mere reeds
or straight sticks, and give a correct idea of the
lamp-stands of the ancients in their original
and simple form. Homer relates that the
palace of Alcinoos, king of the Phsdacians, was
illaminated by lamps supported by golden
candelabra, which represented youths standing
in an elevated position upon altars. Cicero
speaks admiringly of a candelabrum ornamented
with precious stones, presented by one of the
sons of Antiochus to the temple of Jupiter Oapi-
tolinus at Rome. The most gigantic candela-
brum of antiquity was the celebrated Pharos
at the harbor of Alexandria. The artists of
Tarentum were renowned for their admirable
design and execntion of the shafts, while the
candelabrum-makers of M^ua eclipsed all
others in the exquisite workmanship of the or-
namental parts. Those of modem times are sim-
ply chandeliers with several branches, made of
costal, porcelain, alabaster, ^., and support-
ed by a metal stand, generally of bronze. Tet
here and there a genuine candelabrum, after
the model of antiquity, is made for the use of
churches. The candeLabmm of sandstone, 80
feet high, erected Sept. 8, 1811, in Thtringen,
upon the site where, in all probability, the first
church established by St. Boniface stood, ap-
proaches more than any other modem work of
the kind to the candelabra of antiquitv.

OANDI, Oandt, or Eandt (Oingalesc^ Ma^
ha Nuwara^ great city), a town of the island
of Oeylon, and formerly capital of the king-
dom ; pop. 7,000. It stands on the shore of an
artificial fake, in an amphitheatre of beautifolly
wooded hills, near l^e centre of the island, and
since the year 1815 has been greatly improved.
The residence of the British governor nere ia
the finest edifice in Ceylon; and beside this
the town contains the residence of the mijor-
general, the king^s palace, a Buddhist texnple
containing the tooth of Buddha, sevml
churches of various denominations, and a
number of other notable buildings. In the
centre of the lake is a military magazine, and
just outside the town, in a royal cemetery, re-
pose the remains of a long line of native longs
and heroes. The natives are engaged to some
extent in making bricks and tiles, elephants
being employed to tread out the day. The
lake of Cfandi, which was formed by the late
king, and is 1,680 feet above the sea, is a bean*
tifttl sheet of water, about 1) m. in length, and
from 100 to 600 yards in breadth.

OAKDIA

OAl!n)IA, or Cbbis (ano. 6Ma; Tnric J5^

ridi)^ an island forming the sonthem limit of the
Grecian archipelago, and lying between the
Morea on the K. W., Asia Mnor on the N. E.,
and AfHca on the S., belonging dnoe 1669 to
Turkey, and constituting ttw present TuiUah
eyalet of EiridL It extends from £. to W*
about 160 m., across three-fourths of tbe
breadth of the jSgasan, which is entered on the
western side of the island by the channel or
strait of Cerigotto, and on the eastern by the
strait of Scarpanto. It has an average breadth
of 25 m., and an area of more than 4^000 sq. m.
Throughout its entire length, it is nearly
centriJly ridged by a clumi of monntainsi
which send off to the S. spurs terminating in
bluf&y rendering the southern coast inhospit-
able; while to the N. the spurs gradueUy
slope to a low coast, forming several tolerable
harbors, of which the 8 prrndpal are Caneei
Kisamos, and Suda, the last mentioned being
the best the island affords. All these harborB,
however, especially that of Oanea, which was
once excellent, are now, through the Tnildah
neslect of the commercial interests of the isl-
and, and the oppressive taxation of ezport%
being rapidly filled with sand, so that the pree*
ent port of Canea oflfords approach only to
vessels drawing less than 8 feet of water, end
all vessels of greater draught are obliged to lie
at anchor under the lee of a small island, at tlM
north of the port, 6 m. distant. The mountain-
ous chain of Candia is natunJly divided into 8
parts: the eastern, or ancient I>ict»an moxin*
tains, now called Hiti; the western, or andent
Lend mountains, so oaJled from their whitoncos
(being covered by snow 8 or 0 months \sk the
year), now known as the Sphakiote mountains;
and the central chain, andently called Ida,
whose middle and prindpal peak is now
known as the Psilorati, rising to a height of
7y674 feet above sea leveL The coasts of the
idand are very irregular, being deeply indented
by the spurs of the mountain chain. The moon-
tainS) being of calcareous formation, abound
in caverns and grottoes, some of whioh are
highly picturesque. Gypsum, lime, and slate ere
found to some extent. It was in tnis idand that
the £unous labyrinth of the fabled Ifinotanr
was dtuated, which was probably one of these
numerous grottoes, rendeared more intricate by
the art of Daddus, under the directions cl
Minos. Some travellers have placed tibia laby-
rinth in the neighborhood of Qortyna. Cape
Matda, the southern point of the island, is
also the most southern land of Europe, Can-
dia can scarcdy be sdd to have any riversi
the water-shed of the mountdns not exceeding
15 m. in breadth either way to the sea* In the
rainy season of the autumn and winter, torrents
are precipitated from the mountains, but they
dry up in the summer, and the only resources
for the irrigation of the land are the amdl
springs which abound among the hills. The
island is neverthdess tolerably fertile, and were
the restrictions of the Porte on the oommeroe

^^^^^^^V

w ^

^RFopI^ ^

!^^. --.—

i^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^L

^H Qtport

^^^^^^^^K

^1 Urn till

>n^^^^^^^H| ;

^H isrifirc

^H9^p »

^H or- -'

' IU%,

t-1 ' -^s^^^*^ '

^B ft^i'

llgtif

o|r

^H 11..

.,r. s,*

'h:

^^M

^m ii>

^^M

^P S'l

^^H

c«

^^H

^ k.^

^^^1

^h Bo 111

^^^1

H wtDM-' ' • '

^^1

^B oontarv^ t.^j«i^4^i .

^^^1

^1 t!)«* MuhVi^ ,

^^1

H iv'-

^^H

■ hi

^^1

H «"'

^^H

■ ^^

^^1

^ 5IM ;r ,.

^^1

iLii^rt : <M- 1 ■

^^H

<;it^ Ti^klh^'

■ im JF1L ;i •

^^H

9^ ai^xf^nn 1 :

iyf*n^i)

^^1

U^f^ tiSicL-., .

,.UT. t^^

^^H

U>^ i>ir'o«di«lii-

^^H

kit

«-4Kd-

iUU4la -:

^^S^'

' mt

ettiim M

^^H

..nir

TL.

^^^1

r .

Ul£i9

Iii<.

^^H

^ 1^

-' ■ .

^^M

H y^.

^^H

^P *»' -

^^^t

pwk.

^^M

^L 4iTiA£ia

,,,..,. ^ ^ - . • 1 :..

^^^1

^^B iHtli fuvn

nl ttfP Jim.

^^H

"idhtjHTiil nbtiiL

fr;'

pr.

^^1

fi^i

. iiriii^mi:

^^^H

jj ,

■Tftlrml"^

iifV iiLr-H.^j.^ ilk Urtvl^ 111

^^H

tmm ft ]{&« of dilif

^^H

^^- > "

1 . 1.^1 J Jul /^ 1 l.v » rjtrv,-. «>-w-ll| .1

^^H

^^1 V''.

^^^1

^P «^'

^^^^^HH^ft 1

■ ' '■ . -'U Ml

^^^1

^^^^^^^

1 tho

^^1

^^^P

nj^io III

^^^^^^^^

. — io

■

864

OANDIAO

OAKDLE

ig one called affcer St Oaiiharine. Pop. 12,000,
{ji whom 9,000 are Mohammedans, and the rest
Greeks, Jews, and Annenians.

CANDIAO, Jban Louib Philipfb £liba<-
BKTH KoNTOALM DB, a preoocious French child,
a hrother of the margnis de Montoahn, bom at
the oh&tean de Candiao (Gard), Not. 7, 1719,
died in Paris Oct 8, 1726. The ohUd pos-
sessed remarkable powers of memory, although
of a purely mechanical order, and is said to
have been able to read French and Latin at the
age of 8, and Greek and Hebrew at 6, and to
have acquired some knowledge of arithmetic,
heraldry, geography, and hLStory. He died
from dropsjr or the brain.

CANDIDO, PnsTRO, a Flemish pabter and
sculptor, who adopted this name, whUe his real
name was Peter de Witte, bom in 1641 at Bru-
ges, died in 1628 at Munich. His princi-
pal paintings are of a religions character, as the
" Annunciation," " Last Supper," " Christ with
the Disciples at Emmaus," and " Holy Women
at the Tomb of the Saviour." His most cele-
brated piece of statuary is the mausoleum of
the emperor Louis lY., at Munich.

0 Alf DLE, a small cylindrical body of tallow,
wax, spermaceti, or otner fatty substance, form-
ed on a loosely twisted wick, used for a port-
able light Although in our trandation of
the andent Scriptures we find occasional men-
tion of candlesticks, it appears that these were
really lamps for burning olive oil, and not the
supports for what we now call candles. Nor
did the ancient Greeks and Romans possess any
nearer approach to these useful inventions than
the rade torches prepared by dipping strips of
papyrus or rushes into pitch, ana coating them
with wax. The early Ohristians, driven by
persecution into caves and catacombs, ene-
rienoed the want of artificial light, and the first
use of modem candles is generally referred to
their times. It is stated by Eusebius and others
that in the early part of the 4th century, the
emperor Oonstantine caused the whole city of
Constantinople to be illuminated on Easter eve
with lamps and wax candles. In the middle
ages, according to Fosbroke, this kind of can-
dle was in use, some of them bemg of 50
lbs. weight, and containing a twisted tow wick.
The tallow prepared from the fat of animals
afterward came to be used for the manu&cture
of candles, and at a stiU later period tiie similar
product, called spermaceti, of the fluid fat of the
whale. The vegetable kingdom, too, has been
largely drawn upon to fiurnish from its oils,
as those of the palm especially, and of the co-
coa-nut, a solid material for this same use. The
berries also of the corifera, myrica, latifolia,
and angnstifolia, afford a y^Kxy product appli-
cable to the same purpose. The mineral king-
dom, at la^ has been made to yield from the
bituminous coals, in the substance paraffine, an-
other excellent mat^al for candles. Thus na-
ture has provided the most abundant and varied
means, by which man may supply himself, in
the darimesB of night and in the depths of

mines, a substitute for the .VifjtA of the Mm. —
Using the cmdest animal fiats, prepared in tha
simplest manner .by melting and then alr^niJTjg
off the membranous portions which float upoatbe
Borfiace, common dipped oandles have long been
made by introdnoing wicks of cotton yam into
the warm semi-fluid tallow, and when they hsfte
become saturated, taking them out and wiapend-
ing them by one end till the tallow oools; thej
are then dipped again, and again coded, and ao
by each dipping accumulate mere tidlow, tfll
they attain the required size. A miztore of
mutton suet and beef fat is preferred to either
alone, the former giving the desured hardniwB,
and the latter the light, which it affords by reap
son of its greater proportion of oily matter.
Instead of tbe old-fi&shioned method of dipping
by hand, a simply contrived machine baa been
used for this purpose in Edinburgh, oonslsting
of an upright revolving post which carrieB IS
horizontal arms, at the end of each of whidi ia
attached a frame of six rods; firom each of these
hang 18 wicks, making in all 1,296. As the poet
is turned round, each arm comes in succession
over the reservoir of tallow. The frame npon
it is arranged, so that the wicks can be let down
into the tallow. Thus one set after another re-
ceives an application of tallow, and is cooled aa
it revolves around, before its turn comes for
another dip. When the weather is not very
warm, the whole can be completed in abont %
hours. An improvement upon the dipping pro-
cess was the substitution of cylindrical OMralda
of the size of a caudle, made of tin or pewter,
and a number of them arranged in a frame:
moulds of glass have recentiy been substitated
for those of metal A wick is secured throng
the centre of each mould, the tallow is poued
in, and the wick being stretched tight, they are
set away to cooL — ^The most efficient and rapid
method of separating the tallow or lard on a
large scale from the tissues of the flit is that
patented by a partner of the firm of Wilson and
Go. of Oincinnati, and generally adopted ia the
lar^ candle works in the western statea. A
cyhnder is constracted of boiler-plate iron, ca-
pable of bearing a pressure of more than 80 IbiL
upon the sqaare inch, and of the capadty of
1,200 or 1,500 gallons. It is set on one end npon
a strong wooden frame, under which a Ittgo
movable tub is placed. The cylinder is pro-
vided with a false bottom, perforated with hoKflB
for steam to pass, and through this and the
real bottom is a larne discharge hole, opening
into the tub beneatn and olraed by a tS^I
cover, which may be lifted off by a rod whUi
passes out through the top of the cylinder; ia
this top is a man-hole and a safety valve. At
different elevations up the side are coda for
drawing off the contenta and under the ttee
bottom is a steam pipe leadmg from a steam
boiler. The fiats to be purified, and the bones
and other portions of the carcass, are intro*
duced through the man-hole to within S4 Ibet
of the top. The openings are then domSi, the
safety valve is set at toe required preaanr^

■1

■n

^^K^' ^--

, -^^*^f*r^ . , ^^1

^M h

^^^^1

^1 ^

^^^^H

^B ^''

^^^^1

^r r*.

' ^^^^^H

I«.

min%K ttud SlixB es > ^^^H

^^ lit ' '

' v,i-i

li^ mi 9i«(4tet m^^i > ^ ^^^H

^^1 iii_-

H|^

, tK. ■

•ri^vU' >:if •fa.rtniit'ii.H ^^^^^^^H

^^ {m exosliitfil

1 ^^^^^^H

^^^^K I

A prsMcirfi

prr-

^^^^H

^^^^^^P^tiT '

-mfiiio d<^

^^^^^H

^^H^^

n4i diJlitt

r' ^^^^H

^^^ViTk

? ninna

^^^^^1

iHB*r

iSlV

■#-'

hys^r^

1 ^^^^^^^H

r»it ir,iT%

^^^^^^^H

V 4

uyik in it< ^^^H

H du. .

1 ^^^^H

^B iiiriuc^ f»i iDn Uttkiji 1

,' ^^^^^H

^H b b \hCBL dmm GlT

^^^^H

^H ^VQtert itiii alWwsf^

bi Wlt^i

^^^^^H

^B ^ea pyi hiu^

<i*it!,. w

4ir«idr

^^^^H

^« lli^-^ li« i..-niHl ■:

, fct%i^u*, .■ n-; iU

sad nilp::»ur

^^^^H

rn^nii'.* ■, rr "

iJf^lilillBti ri«lt.

water hwiiti

^^H

^^H of thd ^/«(|/

ltl»HQ7> '

^^H

H noditp^

1 ■.Jl.v

H«nkiflK«»^

^^^1

^^V «l4lTll)fJliu .

.,,-., ■

^^^1

■^ Ir'

Elret Gd yetti?yj|9^

^^1

■_ *"■

'jtJsV Lru^ir ttiiri

^^^H

■ *»

^^M

Urn ^\ : ^^k

■f

! «i« 1-1 ^J

h '

irtj-

ri ■

■

thM

*;■'■

^^^1

w --

-The

it,i. M

^^H

«*««■

d of

bdlSusAJt

^^H

^^ jj.'..rv .

,.,!(.

k»

ijf i4iuirlc »ii h

^^^^^^^^^^Bf

auari

L nod imua t#^«di& ; ^^|

^^^^^^^^B 1

f^Tu! f!-it* TTnritf (if dklHl ^^

^^^^^^^K .

'locv alutiUQ^Ufi^ ^H

^^^^^^^^^■» ii

r|o|tlQftfi«rH»T ^H

856

CANDLE

to sperm oanclles ; those made in England are
described as being nearly equal to wax candles.
Beside being prepared from animal fats, steario
acid is obtained in very large qnantities from
palm oil imported from Africa. — ^The largest
candle manofisotorj in the world is that of
Prioe^s patent candle company, at Belmont,
Yanzhafl, and in this palm oil is the principal
raw material emplojea; cocoa-nnt oil is also
imported and used in large quantities. Their
foctory at Belmont covers nearly 2 acres, and
they have laige branch works at Battersea, be-
nde another factory on the Mersey, 4 m. above
Birkenhead, which covers 8f acres^ and the walls
of which are 20 feet high. The companv em-
ploys about 2,000 persons. The amount of their
capital stock is £700,000, of which £612,000
has been paid in. Shops for weavers, carpen-
ters, tinmen, coopers, smiths, both iron and
copper, are included in their great establish-
ments; a steam printing machine also is pro-
vided for striking off labels; and though the
business of these works is to manufacture the
materials for light for others, their own premises
are lifted with gas made expressly for thdr
nse. The nrincipal differences between this
process ana that already described of the
manufacture of stearic acid from tallow are
first in bleaching the oil by exposing it to the air
for 10 or 16 hours^ in a layer only an inch or two
thick, or by the use of bichromate of potash, or
of some other bleaching material. On being
melted by steam the oil is pumped into an acidi-
fying vessel and heated to 850^ F. Concen-
trated sulphuric acid is then added at the rate
of 6 lbs. to the cwt. of oil. After additional
heating and standing for 24 hours, it is put
into large copper stills, and steam is passed
through it, raised to the temperature of 600°.
The od is thus distilled, and is condensed free
of most of its impurities. The product is next
pressed to separate the oleic acid, and then be-
comes the beautiful material so much like sper-
maceti, from which the '* Belmont sperm*'
and *^ Belmont wax*' candles are manufactured.
Composite candles are prepared from the dis-
tilled oil without its being pressed, and a mix-
ture of stearic acid from Uie cocoa-nut oil ; or
this latter is used with stearic add from tallow.
These candles are made with plidted wicks, but
they are of inferior quality to the candles pre-
pared fix>m the more thoroughly purified mate-
rial.— ^The best candles in general use in this
country are made of spermaceti. This sub-
stance, which is fiuid in the whale, becomes
when taken from the animal a white crystalline
mass, composed of a liquid oil and a solid
matter, wmch is the pure spermaceti. The oU
is removed by first straining off so much as will
pass through the bags used as filters. The
sperm is next placed in hempen bass and sub-
jected to machine pressure. After this the sub-
stance is reduced to powder, placed in other
bags, and pressed much more powerfully than
b^ore. 'The spermaceti cakes are next melted
and boiled witli a soda ley, just sufficient in

quantity to fbrm a soap witli the ofl in the
n>erm, without acting upon the solid matter.
The soap fioating upon the snrfiuse is skimmed
o£^ and the sperm is set to crystallize in moulds ;
only, however, to be again ground, pressed,
boiled with an alkaline ley, washed witn water
and moulded into blocks. From these blocks
the candles are moulded as may be convenient.
The moulds require to be heated to the tem-
perature of the melted sperm, and slowly oooled
after filling to prevent crystallization of the
material^ and the same precaution is required
with stearic acid candles. The English are m
the habit of adding about 8 per cent, of wax,
which answers the same purpose of preventing
the material from assuming the brittle, crystal-
line structure. They, and the IVench also^
sometimes introduce coloring matters into the
candles, in so small quantity as not to destroy
their beautiful transparency, nor to affect the
brilliancy of their light. Gamboge gives to
them a yellow tint like wax ; chromate of lead
is used in France for this color, carmine for
red) and Prussian blue for blue. — ^Wax candles
are now little used compared with the other
kinds. They are made by dipping, and by
pouring the melted wax over the wicks. The
shape is given during the process and at its
close by rolling the candles between marble
slabs. The candles are sometimes shaped by
drawing them through a machine made for the

gurpose, as wire is drawn. There is a difficulty
1 moulding wax candles^ owing to the substance
adhering to the interior surface of the mould.
Moulds of glass, however, have been Bueoess-
fully used, greater strength and security being
C^ven to them by incasing each one in a tube <tf
gutta percha. By dipping them for an instant
m hot water, the glass expands sufficiently to
free the candle, which should be extracted as
the mould comes out of the water. Wax re-

auires smaller wicks than other candles, and
bey should be made of twisted Turkey cotton
unbleached. The large wax candles used in
Roman Catholic churches are made by rolling
a sheet of wax placed upon a slab over the
wick laid down upon it, and then giving shape
to them by rolling in the usual way l^tween
marble slabs. Coloring matters similar to those
used for coloring spermaceti candles may first
be melted into me wax. — ^Paraffine candtos are
not yet prepared upon a large scale, but the
practicability of obtaining from bituminous
coals a large amount of oil from which this
beautifU material for candles may be extracted,
has been fully establitshed. It is a true chemical
compound of carbon and hydrogen, in those
atomic proportions which appear most suit-
able for produdng the best light. FVom the
chemical talent which is applied to this sub-
ject on this as well as on the other side of
the Atlantic, and the success already attained,
there is every reason to hope for important
results in the application of this sunstanoe
to the manufacture of candles. — ^little haa
yet been said of the different kinds of wicks

cji^ttm

OAlTDtiSE

inasmuch

nl/ih*«^ '

<Ue«,

till (L liii'i'

ftinit 0901 OB.

fif. wliu csrriii! mw^ tbn esjjile^
«^fir Qii&alU €< (ho Umfi^ ofler
^m, If U f9E II KinvAt nfcnviinN '

roQi UfBciilw Win timnsf^tfT^

»>i

858

OAHDOLLE

OAI^ BRAKE

0 AITDOLLE. AvauBTor Ptbamvb db, a Swiss
botanist, bora in Geneva^ Feb. 4^ 1778, died
there Sept 9, 1841. His father, descended
from a noble Protestant fSuniljr of southern
Franoe, acquired a large fortune by commerce,
and was, during 20 years, a member of the gov-
ernment of Qeneva. Augustin received his first
education at the college of Geneva, where his
extraordinaiy memory attracted much atten-
tion. Up to the age of 1 6, poetry and literature
were his favorite studies ; but subsequenUy he
devoted hmiself to the study of natural history,
especially of botany, in which he received his
firet lessons from Yaucher, and which became
his favorite pursuit. Prosecuting his studies
in Pduis, he became the favorite pupil of Des-
fontaines, and was &vorably notioea by Dolo-
mieu. In 1799, De OandoUe commenced the
publication (^h& first work, ffiatoire desplantei
graa$e»^ of which the 4th and last volume ap-
peared in 1808. At this period, cultivating the
acquaintance of Cuvier, Alexander von Hum-
boldt, and other eminent persons, he became a
member of the phUomathio society, and was
admitted to the circle of learned men whom
Berthollet gathered around him in his house at
Arcueil in the interests of science. Several
very able essays on botanical physiology and
geography were contributed byDe OandoUe to
tiie memoirs published at Arcueil. In 1802 he
held the chiur of assistant professor to Cuvier
at the college of France, and was elected hono-
rary professor of natural hi8tory.at the academy
of Geneva. In 1804 he received the degree of
doctor from the faculty of medicine of Paris,
for which he wrote a thesis on the medicinal
properties of plants, which was translated into
Gennan. In 1808 he made a Journey through
Belgium and Holland, following the seashore
from Dunkirk to the island of Texel; and
observing there the invasions of the sand, he
wrote a remarkable essay '^ On the Fertilization
of the Downs," which was published in the
ISth volume of the " Annals of French Agricul-
ture." The special study of invertebrated aid-
mals having drawn De Lanuurck's attention from
phytography, he intrusted to De OandoUe the
care of a new edition of La Jhre Dranpam.
which was considerably improved, and enriched
by 6,000 additional species of plants, accurately
^described ; a tabto of synonymous botanicid
wnis ; a very ingenious botanical synopsis ; and
allwe additions and emendations required by the
new^e^elopments of vegetable anatomy and
physioipgy* The work was not completed until
1815, but>the appearance of the first volumes
placed De u^doUe in the foremost ranks of bo-
tanical sciexioi^ ftt that time. In 1806 he was
commissioned D;jr Oadore, minister of the inte-
rior, to visit all thixprovinces of the French em-
pire, then including jB^lgium, northern Italy, and
the countries on the Rhi^e, and report upon their
agricultural condition, i^ix years were devoted
to this task, and 6 snooessi ve reports, embodying
the results of his observatjons. were pnbUshea
in the memoira of the a^mtnral society of

the department of the Seine. In 1808 be ob-
tained, by pnbUo competition, the chair of
botanv in the medical faculty of Kontpallier,
and the direction of the botanical gardens, as
successor to Broussonet, of whom he wrote a
biographical eulogium. In 1818 he published
the 1st edition of his ** Elements of Botany*^

!8d edition published by his son, Alphonse de
)andoUe, in 1844), a work remarkable for its
profound analysis and scientific views of meUiod,
which was translated into German, English,
and Spanish. In 1815 he was appointed rec-
tor of the university of MontpeUier ; bat on
the restoration of the Bourbons, he was indnced
to resign, and returned to his native city, where
he was received with great distinction. A chiur
of natural history and a botanical garden were
established in Geneva in 1817, especially for
him; and both were under his direction, in
conjunction with his son. In 1818 he com-
menced the pubUcation of his large work on
the natural system of the vegetame kingdcnn
(JSegni VegetaUlis Systema Jtaturale). Two
volumes only of this gigantic work appeared:
but he continued the same plan in a modified
form, in his Prodromui 8y$tematiS JSegni Vegp-
tabilisj aeu Enumeratio Methodica Ordwum^
Generum, Speeierumque, ^., which ai^>eared in
Paris in 1824, and mUowing years. After his
death, this elaborate work was contanued by
his son, assisted by other very able botanists.
De OandoUe estimated the number of known
species of plants to be 70,000, in his time ; and
the unknown species he beUeved were not less
numerous. He was a corresponding member
of the academy of sciences of Paris, and iu
1828 he was elected one of the 8 foreign
associates; which honor had not faUen to a
botanist since the time of linnieus. Beside
the works already named, he published numer-
ous other books and dissertations of importance.
De OandoUe was not only distinguished by his
achievements in botany, but also by his puUio
spirit. In the earljr part of his life, he todc a
part in the formation of the philanthropical
society in Paris, and of that for the promotion
of national industry, and on various other occa-
sions he manifested the same zeal tor generous
measures. He was a member of the represent-
ative councU of Genevi^ and one of the depu-
ties of the Helvetic diet He was intmiied
with several very deUcate and difficcdt commis-
sions; and his Support sur le% magariM de
vuMstanees contains many luminous ideas on
poHtical economy.

OANE. See Bakboo and Suoab.

0 ANE, or ExN, a river of Bundelcond, fbnn-
ing the boundaiy between Bengal and the
GwaUorand Bundelcund territories. After a
K E. course of 250 m. over a rocky bed, it ftlls
into the Junma.

OA^ BRAKE, aterm applied to the exten-
sive growths of the arundinaria maerotperma^
the most gigantic of the grasses, whidi ooonr in
the southern portions of the United States^ and
are to be found covering vast extents of ooontiy

04tfL4

CAKr^ 910 J

^H ib ir.» Jt4i«i..t r4iti

i*iiid Ktf r.-.+t-«l r-n.! *^if5lK

jn IMSw TliV &'<^ '^ ''^^ f >i't*rj he 4. rTfrmllit'iU ^^H

i .ft

Mftiiifuii^yiUi I

'-n **i J

1^^

JLixiujr ii^ Ul^ ^'' ^^1

i-mm wbk2i woM

iiikt« &ru diMr < ^H

u:J^'

\ '. ' I' .

^^B

, «MdO>

^^ In llui X. ya^ nf ■

L^H 4tQ|r}i^^i:.

/^»d^u'r

j:r^>^i-je-j •^'' ■' >i- ii ■

^H flb^(f|«/i b>

■

H T' '

^^1

, jiTu! T ^B

,: ^

^^1

^^H

UiiHir*

■piriL'] 1

ton f i> ■

H \ u^ih,^']

Lfki la H

. - * iir ^^ ^ - - ^B

-13* Muf tli« fiimm t>f For- ■

■
■

. 4 lltisfki^ zdUiJ 1

^K f^mi Um iuirukf^ I

iddk.^ U. }>:i,^£«;QUnl ta Uitt 04>r' t 1

^H ^dii N ^DimiHivi f^;

'L ir.!iiiy

•ILJM

omfoot ojcfioiiyoa, and tluil a yf^tf kf«o di8^ I

. ' ■ ■ -J ' ■*

.„, ;.^:_. ,.;;^pifl1y, Icv^tK-r icitH Uui 1

«yall iMflMiliiiii 111 AMsti, wJ JffM |

■ la

laitsA, Td«mj T^ri.tfK^-'L/ it-j.i' i 'Jiioii- 1

^^1

. .f

H ^ '

■J

^^H '

--5

mtaiiitTi'f afiii ii» iUv luUo - " 1

^^H

ed Boma m rnvfr^^ttr nl ' > r i 1

^H 1'

■^4-oa%

itti W tniliiUi' Id auUim«Ml w^4o 1

AwtUi

Dotifftimtfyii, nf> ' ^.njiupfj f)ft tJw ni»i3». ■

^^1

rti>i, ^j lU^ a iin^tj-teftlo

th - • 1 tliJiiiaiiriLHjd*.^!^ ^ V" ^i ■

A of m caul)ivt»#l rou^ <»f

1 vni« itsp|inf9Li 1 ■

Liliil, VfiiKnt Lilt Wnit4» a IM!5d H

AT? of %h9 itmMk "Ent^^ I ■
b im, ta did Bcii^ rainier iipoci ]iaiai« m ■

^^1

■u- -l.-.-^, J^U-

^^1

'^l:??*^

OAyaAU^Oi A l0ini cif P^tfu, on o^u of t^« ^M

»a»i^'iqM<*>^ *•/' Uiv f sri*

^|iu|;Dv, &»« ENr C4iroiL 1

CAK6IAGO

OAKKEB

OA^GIAGO, or Oaicbiabo, Litoa, a Genoem

painter, bom at Genoa in 1527, died in Madrid
in 1685. Invited bj Philip II. to his court,
to assist in the decoration of the Escnrial, he
painted in the ceiling of the ohnrch his picture
of " Paradise," his moet admired work.

OANGOZIMA, or Eakgozima, a fortified
seaport of Japan, situated at the head of the
bay of Gangozima, in the island of Eioo-Sioo.
The bajr is 88 m. long, and from 6 to 12 m.
wide,

OANIO ATTI, a town of Sidly, on the Kara
pop. in 1850, 18,000, with extensive mines of
sulphur in the vioinitv.

OANIOULA, the dog star, also called Sirins,
the brightest of all the fixed stars. The days
when it rises and sets nearly at the same time
with the sun are called dog days. It was much
observed by the Egyptians, because the rise of
the Nile occurs in the dog days.

GANIKA, LuiGi, an Italian archsdologist and
architect, died in Florence, Oct 17, 1856, offici-
ated for several years as professor of architec-
ture in Turin, conductea the excavations at
Tusculum in 1889, and those of the Via Appia
in 1848, and wrote on them and also on church
architecture, and on various kindred subjects.

GANINI, GiovANin Agnolo, an Italian paint-
er and engraver, bom in Rome in 1621, died in
1666. He was a pupil of Domenichino, and hia
martyrdom of St. Stephen and of St Barthol-
omew are 2 admirable altar-pieces.

OANINO, PsiNOs OF. See Bonapabtb,
Chablxs Lugisn Jules La^ubxkob, under Lu-

OTXS,

OAKIS MAJOR, a southern constellation
containing Uie dog star.— Oanis Kikob, a north*
em constellation, whose appearance in the morn-
ing twilight gave the Egyptians notice of the
approach of dog days.

OANISIUS, Pbtbus, a German Jesuit^ bom
at Nimeguen, May 8, 1524, died at Freyburg.
in Switzerknd, Dec. 21, 1597. His original
name of De Hondt (the dog) he Latinized ac-
cording to the usage of the time. He took a
prominent part in the council of Trent in 1645,
was selected by the emperor Ferdinand I. for
his preacher, and did not cease until his death
to hurl reproaches against Protestantism. He
was the first who held the office of provin*
cial, or ecclesiastical governor of the Jesuits in
Gennany, contributed powerfolly in spreading
tiie influence of the order in that country, and
established Jesuit colleges at Prague in Bohe-
mia, at Freyburg in Switzerland, and at Augs-
burg and IMllingen in Bavaria. He is the au-
thor of a larger and a smaller catechism. The
best edition of the former is that of Antwerp of
1587, and the most recent edition that of Land-
shut, of 1842. The smaller catechism (InBtitU"
tionf ChriaUanm Pietatu^ nve Parwu Cate^
ehismfu Oottholiearum) has passed through more
than 100 editions since its first publication in
1566, and has been translated into most modem
languages, a new edition of the Grerman transla-
tion having been published at Menls in 1840.

CANITZ vntn DALLWTTZ, Bammt, a Flnu-
sian general and statesman, bom in 1787, died
April 25, 1850, served in the Hesuan and Prus-
sian army, and subsequently, after a ocovention
had been concluded between the army of T<nk
and the Russian army, remained attached to the
latter until 1818, when he returned to Bi^Hn.
He was afterward pnasent as the Prussian dele-
gate in the Russian campaign against Pobmd,
and officiated as ambassador at Constantinople,
Hanover, and Vienna. In 1846, after Btliklw^B
death, he took his place as minister of foreign
affairs, until March 17, 1848, when he tendei^
his resignation in common with the other mem-
bers of the Bodelsohwmgh cabinet In May,
1849, Count Brandenburg sent him to Yienna
with a view of disposing the Austrian govern-
ment favorably toward the Prussian project of a
new German league ; but he £uled to accomplish
any thing. He was the reputed author of ^ Be-
fiections on Strauss^s life of Jesus,^' which ap-
peared at GOttingen in 1887. He was alao the
author of a work on cavalry.

CANKER, a form of aphthous ulceration of
the mucous membrane of the mouth, most
commonly seen in children, and usually con-
nected with derangement of the digestive appa-
ratus. The ulcers §re small, circular, superfidal,
filled with a white thick exudation, sometimes
surrounded by acirde of inflammation, and veiy
sensitive ; they originate in small, har4 red, and
painfhl prominences, which are soon changed
mto vesicles, hence the name ^^ vesicular sto-
matitis.'^ When the ulcers are few in number
they quickly disappear, their cicatrization being
hastened by astringent or caustic applications,
and by the exhibition of gentie apenents. In
unhealthy children the ulcers are apt to be con-
fluent, and tend to spread to the oasophagus wod
stomach; in such cases there may be ccnsider-
able constitutional disturbances, requiring tonics
and alteratives. The predisposing caose of aph-
thed is any thing that enfeebles the By8tem,and the
exciting caose any irritation in the mouth firom
foreign bodies, decaying teeth, or acrid food.
The usual seat is on the inside of the lower 1^
and cheeks, and on the tongue, though they
may occur on ahnost any part of the muooos
membrane. BiUard represents them as tdcezBp
tions of the muciparous glands or fdllidea, but
in many cases they are too superfidal to admit
of this explanation. When they occur in de-
bilitated constitutions, in the course of other
diseases, they form a painful and dangeroos
complication, from their liability to extend and
to take on a gangrenous aspect. Aphthia seem
to occur epidemically in certain seasons. They
are generally only a local affection^ and require
for tibeir removal only local applications j the best
of these is the nitrate of silver, which instantly
changes the surface of the ulcer, and causes a
rapid cicatrization ; other favorite but less pow-
erful remedies are solutions of alum, borax,
sulphate of copper, and various vegetable astrin-
gents. The chlorate of potash, adminiatered
uteroally, is specially serviceable in thiSi as in

■

C-USKJffi WORM ^

^^ 0A3fISB WtMOr

^ tA^r — '

^.i^r'-: t _i^ ,.,r:^,_ ^ . r *!._ I i - ,.*.

*U . ^...T___ .1 _. f _-_ J „.

^^^H

^m 1^:

^m tn:

■ t

^^M

H >J'

^^M

■ ^'

^i^kk ^m

^^U

^m V"

.iW fflact

^^1

J (Jowaj » i'-wJ*

^.r.

. *f<. 5©H • ^i'lirtri

nsi

^m vi..'- .

^^1

■ s

^^M

■ bi-t ~

IHI* t, u>

^^1

H ^^

^^amciGi Aiaiffiara «p^

Atl4 to r

^^1

^H cii

r ^Ju! tliflk'r U>iii tim

b^ft* nf

^^1

■ £u

^H V '

^^M

^H mi

^^H

^H n-

^^^

■ tJ;>

'I'r^ liWl^

^^^

^H <K

ir.irUvaii

^^^ f^Li-iipu

, 1 .^i tk irfi . « t.»i .

^^1

_ ?rf '

; «^ tija iiUM:^ '

^t rr.'.'j.zT,

t Tc It ^1 iilir^urj .

■ >'

H ^''

^^1

■ u.'

^^1

■ "^

,« s*4iL^ l44Vvi C^i tJi«

UM^tur^u >

^^M

■ *r

.iisit^ w^»nm stthor

{nirliaji iif i

^^M

itli«li(idi

Driit

^^^

iOll liOlM,

, [ii!i-v prt of tii»j

^^M

1'.

rry, plew, llta<\ Ami

^ .11 : '

*"^% flti^wtfntiit

L4 I'

^^1

■ *"

.jitfeellttiUsictf

^^M

■ u.

r , .^tificUl^lWof

tor

^^M

H •'

ria vfrUniri4i mrfria

ll*'r

^^M

■ .vr

tLlLiuid iliiodiof

nrr. ,. ■ ,

^^1

■

Aft foUrgraini

v< i«Ma b/ mail

^^1

■

^-- '-■* nl'^n rjrrrjr.i

■ li..'

^^1

H *-

.1.

^^H

■ i

.: i ^tljfift d^^-

Ui •

^^1

unit noif^jr lot

«i.^

l^fWflhlElttMilr ^1

^ Uj ltimlQ(|

iboiBi Oief wwuA 10 tiA¥# 1

0A3SW&

OAmnNG

all man's destmotiTe ingenuUy. Tor fiiUer in-
farmatioQ on these pests, and the best means of
destroying them, the reader is referred to Dr.
Harris's treatise on the ** Insects ii^arioaa to
Y^tation."

CANNE, a viUaffe in the province of Bari,
Nicies. It occupies the site of the field of
Oannffi, memorable for Uie defeat iind fearfiil
slan^ter of the Romans by Hannibal, 216
B.O. The place is still called ^^(fnpodfti&in^pii^
or "field of blood."

OAKNELCOAL. See Goal.

CANNELTON, a town on the Ohio river,
Perry co^ Ind. ; po^. in 1858, 2.500. In the
hills which sorroond it are fonnd oeds of oannel
ooal, lying in nearly horiiiontal strata 4 or 5
feet thic^ and easily accessible. For the pur-
pose of working these beds the American can-
nel coal company was incorporated in 1886,
and to the improvements commenced by this
company Canndton owes its present fionr-
ishing appearance. Its mineral wealth, and
its advantages as a mannfactnring town, have
jxrodnced such a rapid growth of popula-
tion, that although 12 years ago it contained
only 4 or 5 log cabins, it is now the largest
town in the county, and contains several
churches and elegant residences^ a newspaper
office, and a larae cotton factory. This &ctorf ,
which is callea the Oannelton cotton mill, is
built of variegated sandstone, and presents, from
the river, an imposing appearance. It can
manufacture 40,000 yards oi sheetings per week,
lire-clay, limestone, and fine sandstone for
buildinff purposes, are found interstratified with
the coal.

OAKNES, a seaport town of France, pop.
5,557, in the department of Yar. It is regu-
larly built, lies on the road from Toulon to
Nice, and has a fine promenade along the coast.
The climate is unhealthy, but the neighboring
country is fruitful in vines, olives, and oranges.
An active trade is carried on in tnese products,
and eepecially in sardines and anchovies. Op-
posite Oannes lies the St. Marguerite, one of the
2 isles in whose citadel the "man m the iron
mask " was first imprisoned. Napoleon landed
here March 1, 1615, on his return from Elba.
A charmmg villain the vicinity has been for
several years the residence of Lord Brougham.
An EngUsh chapel was erected at Oannes in
1856.

0 ANNIB ALS, a term probably derived from
the Indian language, and of the same family as
the word Oaribee, or Oarib. Oolumbus relates
that he was in great fear of the Oarribals, which
word was probably corrupted into cannibals. It
signifies, as now used, eaters of human fiesh.
This practice is not, however, confined to the
Oaribs. The Greeks knew of tribes andently
who ate human fiesh, and called them anthro-
pophagL In modern times, not only the abo»
riginal Oaribees, but various tribes of the South
sea islands, are given to the practice, which
they generally indulge upon captive enemies.

CANNING, GxoBOB, a British statesman,

bom in London. April 11, 1770, died at the
duke of Devonshire's villa at CMswick, Aug.
8, 1827. HiB frither. who waa of an ancient
franUy of Warwickuiire^ died when he was
ooily <me year (dd, and his education was left to
his mother. She supported herself by perlbnn-
ing upon the stage, until she was again manied.
He was sent, at the expense of an nnoie^ to
Eton school, and from the first evinced the
most decided literary abilities. He wrote
poetry before he was 16, and engaged with
some companions in the publication oia weeUy
periodical, called the *' Microcosm,** whidi was
continued for a considerable time. Trook Eton
he went to Ohristohuroh. Oxford, where he
gsuned high academical honors, and to<^ a
brilliant position as an orator. His vacatjoms
introduced him, by means of the friends^p of
Sheridan, to the conversation of Burke. Fox,
Lord John Townshend, the duchess of Devon-
shire, and other leading personagee of the whig
Kf. It was through their influence, doobt-
that he relinquished his intention ik study*
ing for the bar, to devote himself to politics.
He had not, however, entirely adopted their
political principles, and in 1798 he allowed
himself to be brought into parliament, on the
tory side, by Mr. Pitt* During the whole of
his first session, he had the sagadtr to refrain
from taking part in the debates, and to surren-
der his whole leisure to the carc^ stndy of the
forms and practices of parliamentary assemblies.
This enabled him, when he undertook to address
the house, the next year, to do so with ease
and self-possession, and to produce a marked
effect His success, indeed, so convinced Pitt
of his ability, that the skilfbl minister suffered
him to conduct the argument in several of the
most important subsequent discnssiona. In
1796 he took office as under-secretary of state;
in 1797 he commenced with others the publica-
tion of the political paper, the *^Anti-Jaoobin;"
in 1798 he engaged in T^berforee^s plan for
the abolition of the slave trade; in 1799 he
was appointed one of the commissioners fo
manaffiDg the affairs of India ; in 1800 he mar-
ried Joanna, youngest daughter of Gen. John
Scott, with a fortune of £100,000 ; and in 1801
he retired from office, to participate with Pitt
and others in a most effective parliamentary
war upon the administration. It was daring the
several subsequent sessions, while acting in op-
fKxdtion, that he acquired his highest r^nta-
tion as a keen, saroastio, witty, and eloquent
speaker. Few men have appeared in pariia-
mei^t equal to him in showy declamation, cut-
ting iron V, and sparkling wit On Pitt^ retom
to office in 180i^ he was made treasaro' of the
navy. After a brief retirement in 1808, occa-
sioned by the death of Pitt, he reappeoed in
office in 1807, as secretary of state ror foreign
affinirs, under the adminirtralion of the duke of
Portland, in which position he partioalariy dis-
tinguished himself by the abO^ and sUIl, as
wdH as by the spirited compontioo. of hia
state papers. In 1809 he became involved in a

CAKHING

CiNN^ON

quarrel, growing out of the Waloheren ezpedi^
tioti, with ODe of his colleagues, Lord Gastle-
reogli, whioh led to a dael, and afterward to
the resignatioQ of both parties, together with
that ci Uie duke. During the sossion of 1812
he strenuously advocated the CathoUo emanci-
pation bill, set on foot \>y Mr. Grattan ; and the
final success of that measure of justice and
toleration was greatly indebted to the eloquent '
assistance of Idr. Oanning. He was the same
year returned to parliament from Liverpool,
which city gave him its support again in 1814,
in 1818, and in 1820. In 1814 he was sent am-
bassador to Portugal ; in 1816 he became pres-
ident of the board of control ; and in 1820, to
avoid participating in any way in the trial of
Queen Caroline, resigned his place, and trav-
elled upon the continent In 1822, the respon-
sible place of governor-general of India was of-
fered to him, and he had made his preparations
for leaving England, when the sudden death of
Lord OasUereagh, by suicide, recalled him to
his former post of secretary of state for foreign
affairs. While in this position, in 1825, he re-
solved to recognize the independence of^ and
open diplomatic intercourse with the several
South American republics, and soon carried his
intention into effect. In 1827 he was appointed
premier, greatly to the dissatisfaction of the tory
party ; which, ander lead of the duke of Wel-
lin^Tton, Lord Bexley, Viscount Melville, Mr.
Robert Peel, and others, deserted him, and com-
pelled him to solicit an alliance with the whigs.
He was supported by Lord Brougham, Sir
Francis Burdett, and Mr. Tierney, but had to
sustain a most formidable opposition, which
put in requisition all the dexterity of his logic,
and all the sharpness of his wit Declaring
himself finally, inimical to parliamentary re-
form, and to the repeal of the test and corpo-
ration acts, he was left without a party, and it
was the vigor of his foreign policy alone which
retained him in the ascendant. He spoke for
the last time on June 27, 1827, and the
next month signed the treaty between Eng-
land, France, and Russia, for the settlement
of the affairs of Greece (one of the earliest
poems which he wrote in his youth was on
the slavery of Greece), when he retired for a
chani^o of air to the duke of Devonshire's villa
at C his wick, where he died. A newspaper of
the day, the ** Examiner," which had not been
friendly to him in poUtics, because of his al-
leged want of liberality in the conduct of
domestic affairs, yet closed the announcement
of his death with the following just and beau-
tiful appreciation of his character : " On Can-
ning's genius, it is unnecessary for us now to
descant; our estimation of it has been often
expressed* He was the last of the rhetoricians.
IJad he been less an orator, he would probably
have been a greater man. He followed, how-
ever, the tawdry fashion of his day ; and the
tinsel and finery could not disguise the thews
and sinews they encumbered. Self-complacency
was a prominent feature of his chars^^ter, and

the nice description. Omnium gum dixeratfsee-
ratque arte quadam ostenttUor^ was peculiarly
applicable to him. But if ever vanity was ex-
cusable in man, it was excusable in George
Canning, who, endowed with every choicest
gift of nature, had risen from a low condition
to the highest office in the state, and seen cen-
tred in himself the best hopes of the best men
in the civilized world. We read in the tales
of superstition of men who have made com-
pacts with the fiend ; a Faustus could hardlv
have desired to be more than a Canning. A
fine person for the love of women ; a mind for
the admiration of man ; a golden tide of fortune
which had its slacks, indeed, but no ebb ; and
a death which has abruptly left hi^ character,
as it was gilded with the glow of a world's best
hopes." His " Speeches," with a memoir by R.
Therry, 6 vols. Bvo, were published in London,
1828. He was buried in Westminster Abbey,
near Pitt. — Chablss John, viscount, a British
statesman, son of George Canning, bom at
Gloucester Lodge, Brompton, Dec. 14, 1812;
distinguished himself in the classics at the
university of Oxford; represented Warwick-
shire in the house of commons in 1836; and
on March 27, 1837, after his mother's death (on
whom the peerage was conferred in 1828),
became viscount, and took his seat in the
house of lords. In 1841 he was made under-
secretary of state for foreign affairs, and subse-
quently chief commissioner of woods and for-
ests. In 1851 he took a prominent part in the
great industrial exhibition. In the ensuing
year be became postmaster-general, with a seat
in the cabinet under the Aberdeen administra-
tion. In 1855, on the resignation of Lord
Dalhousie, he was appointed by Lord Palmer-
ston governor-general of India, which office he
still retains (Aug. 1858). The formidable sepoy
rebellion broke out during his administration,
and he was as much censured for his leniency
at the beginning of the outbreak, as for his
severity afterward. His proclamation, confis-
cating the property of the natives of Oude, elicit-
ed a strong condenmatory counter-despatch
from Lord !ulenborough, president of the board
of control, and in the discussions in both
branches of the British legislature was gener-
ally pronounced to be harsh and ill-advised.

CANNING, Sib Gbobqx Stbatfobd. See
Btbatford dk Redoliffb.

CANNON, implements of war for throwing
heavy projectiles, as shot and shells, by the ex-
plosive force of gunpowder. The most ancient
form of the cannon is the mortar, a short and
wide-mouthed piece of ordnance, originally used
for throwing stones, and now applied to casting
bomb shells. Cannon for propelhng balls are
hollow cylinders of gun metal or bronze, an
alloy of copper with 8 to 10 per cent, of tin, or
they are made of cast iron ; and some heavy
experimental pieces have been made of wrought
iron, but the number of this class in actual ser-
vice is exceedingly small. The severe trial to
which the metal is pat when in use requires a

864

OAOTTON

material of great tenaciiy and hardnesa— the
former to withstand the for6e of the explosive
flaid allied to bnrst open the gan, and the
latter to resist the wearing action of the ball aa
it ponnds down upon the snrfftoe it rests upon,
when first strack and perhaps temporarily flat-
tened by the foroe of the explosion ; an indenta*
tion is thns produced, which continually ^ws
lfu*ger, and is soon followed by another m the
upper surface a little in adyanoe of the former,
which also increases till the gun is worn out by
this lodgment, as it is called. Oast iron, in the
improved methods of preparing it, combines the
required hardness and tenacity with cheapness
more perfectly than any other material. But
as formerly cianufactared it was very uncertain
in its character, often being far from homogene-
ous in texture, and at the best estimated capa-
ble of resisting a foroe applied to tear it asun-
der of only 20,000 lbs. to the square inch,
while the tenacity of bronze was rated at 80,-
000 lbs. ; and this beside was regarded as more
to be relied upon for uniformity of character
than cast iron.* Its inferior degree of hard-
ness, howeyer, to cast iron, and its great cost,
limited its use to the smaller-sized pieces, for
which it still continues to be employed ; while
for every thing above field pieces cast iron is
the material in general use, and is likely to take
the place of bronze altogether. In strength, it
may safely be rated as equal or even superior
to that of bronze, as wiU be seen by reference
to the experiments referred to below. Wrought
iron possesses tiie greatest tenacity, but is defi-
cient in hardness. The greatest objection to its
use, however, is the dimoulty of constructing
large masses of wrought iron by continual re-
heating and forging, as new pieces are added
and combined with those previously put to-
gether, without causing portions to change
their texture and undergo a partial crystaUiza-
tion, tiius we^ening the mass without any ngn
of this change being visible. All the earlier
guns previous to the 16th century were made
of wrought iron, commonly of hoops incasing
bars of the same material. It was by the
bursting of such a piece in 1460 that James II.
of Scotland was killed. In recent times
wrought iron has been used with other ma«
terials in experimental guns made by a variety
of methods, as over a lining of steei and over
cast iron; and it has been put together and

* From th« eziveriindiits of Mi^or Wade upon the bronso
mmon cast at Chioopee, Maaaachiuett& in 1850, it would
appear that anlformity of character could hardly be attriba-
tea to bronze caatings. Samples taken from difliBrent parts
of the same gon showed a dllfereaoe of density amounting to
20 lbs. in the cubic foot, and the extreme yariatlon in sam-
ples from different guns amounted to 84 lbs. in the cubio
root; the diiference in tenacity from a capacity to bear
astrain of 28,108 to one of 54,fi81t being as 100 to m ** The
materials used in all these castings are of the same qtlality.
they were melted, cast, and cooled in the same manner, and
were designed to be similarly treated in all respects. The
eanses why such irregular and unequal results were pro-
duced, when Uie materials used and the treatment of them
were apparently equal, are yet to be ascertained.** The
tendency of bronze to separate into alloys of different eom-
position and strength, when cooled in large uufises, was
Ally estibllshed in these experiments.

welded in the form of hoops. As its extranw
tenacity renders it the best material for cannoii.
there is no ouestion but these experiments will
be continueo, till some method has hecn devised
of constructing a gun of perfectly uniform tex-
ture of it, hardened within to redst the batter*
ing action of the ball. The facility with which
malleable iron is now melted and carbonized to
produce cast steel suggests this as a poanUe
means of accomplishing this result. Considering
the improvements which have been made in
all branches of industry, it is a matter of smv
prise that cannon in general are no better essen-
tiflJly than those made 60 years ago. If 10
inches diameter of bore is now their limit^ in-
stead of 7 inches, their strength has not pro-
portionably increased, for the range of the baDs
IS not so great as that of the old 42-poundera.
In our own forts a 24-pounder was tiie maxi-
mum size in 1820. In 1850 the largest guns
were 10-inch bore, carrying balls of 195 lbs.
Attempts have since been made to prodaoe
larger pieces, but the difficulty of rendering
them enduring and safe in use increaaes ao
rapidly with the increase of their oalibeiB, that
little is gained in these attempts. The subject
is constantly receiving the attention of scientific
and practical men, and extended experimenta
upon a large scale have been conducted for
years past under authority of different govern-
ments. Our own has entered into these re-
searches with great liberality, and several im-
portant reports of the officers and engineers
engaged in the work have been made public.
The principal of these is the volume of " Re-
ports of Experiments on the Btren^ and other
properties of Metals for Cannon, with a Descrip-
tion of the Machines for testing Metals, and of
the Classification of Cannon in Service, bv Offi-
cers of the Ordnance Department, 1866." Pro-
fessor Treadwell, of Cambridge, has presented
to the American academy an important com*
munication upon the same subject, in which
he argues the practicability of constrading
very large and efficient cannon, and submits a
method by which this may be done, a sketch of
which will be found in this article. Since the
year 1841, by the regulations of the ordnaaee
department, an officer is required to be in con-
stant attendance at the founderies, while the can-
non are making, to examine and test the metal
before it is used, as also in the first gun made
before another is cast firom it This inspection
has rendered it unnecessary to use exoesnire

Sroof charges in the final proot^ which maj
0 serious injury to the gun without leav-
ing any indication of it ; it has also resulted
in increasing the average strength of iron can-
non from 28,688 to 87,774 lbs. per square in«^
The strongest piece of iron ever cast waa a
sample of Greenwood (Orange co., N. Y.) iron,
brought by the proper number of remelt-
ings to that degree of density which is combin-
ed with the greatest strength. In the sample
the density was 7.804, and the tenacity 46,970
lbs« per inch. Thia method of streDgthening

OAKKON

iron by remelting is a principle developed by
these experiments, made under the inspection
of M^or Wade, U. S. A. The transverse
strength of some iron was found to be nearly
doubled by 4 meltings and castings. From ex-
periments made at the South Boston foundery in
1844, under the same inspection, other curious
fiicts were developed, as that the cohesive power
of iron is augmented by exposing the metal when
melted to an intense heat; *^and that this
power increases as the times of exposure up to
some (not well ascertained) limit ; and that, if
extended beyond that limit, the strength of the
iron is thereby diminished." Experiments
made at the same place upon the relative
strength of cast iron bars 2 feet long and 2
inches square, made from metal kept in fusion
di Cerent periods of time before casting, made it
appear " that the cohesive power of the iron,
80 far as it can be shown by its capacity to re*
si St transverse strains, is increased by its contin-
ued exposure in fusion from 100 to 160, or 60
per cent." The longest time that the iron was
kept in fusion was 4} hours. The results of the
experiments of casting cannon in pairs, one
solid and one hollow, both of the same mixture
of iron, appear likely to cause the old method
of making the cannon hollow at once, which
was abandoned in Europe in 1729, to be reestab-
lished, and the universal practice of casting
the guns solid and then boring them out, to be
given up. By means of a stream of water in-
troduced into the hollow core, as devised by
Lieut. Rodman, the cooling of the interior of
the metal is accelerated, while that of the ex-
ternal part is checked by surrounding it with
heated air. The metal is thus protected from
unequal contraction and consequent strain re-
sulting from differences of temperature. Two
guns, of 8-inoh bore, of the same iron, possessing
hardness and strength in a high degree, were
cast — one solid and bored, and the other hollow.
The solid gun burst at the 7dd discharge ; the
hollow one withstood 1,600 fires, proving in-
destructible by service charges. Another pair
of 10-inch guns burst — ^the solid cast gun at the
20th fire, and the hollow gun at the 249th.
Some curious facts also are observed respecting
the effect of leaving the guns a long time be-
fore trial. Eight-inch guns, cast solid and
proved in 80 days, stood but 72 charges; one of
the same bore, proved 84 days after being cast,
stood 84 charges ; another proved in 100 days
stood 731 charges ; and another that lay 6 years
after being cast stood 2,582 charges. The par-
ticles of cast iron strained in the cooling by un-
equal contraction, are supposed by M^or Wade
to rea4jnst themselves in the course of time, and
assume the position giving the greatest tenacity.
— The largest cannon ever made was constructed
in 1856, by Messrs. Horsfall of Liverpool, and
presented to the British government. It is a
wrought iron gun, made by welding together
oblong slabs of metal 8 feet long by 1^ broad,
laid one upon another in different directions, as
the piece was built up. The whole mass, ready

for boring, measured 15 feet in length, 8 feet
10 inches in diameter at the larger end, and 2
feet 10 inches at the smaller end, and weighed
26 tons. Its construction required the work of

7 successive weeks, day and night, and at times
40 men were employed at once about it The
hammer weighed 9 tons, and in using it especial
care was taken, that the iron should never be
struck when cold or partially so. It was first
bored out 11 inches diameter, then 12^,
and finally 18 inches, for a length of 13^ feet.
No imperfection of any sort was discovered
during the boring — no indication whatever of
crystallization having commenced. When com-
pleted the weight was 21 tons 18 cwt., nearly

8 times that of the Stockton gun, which weighed
7 tons 17i cwt Its outside diameter at the
breech is 44 inches ; at the muzzle 27 inches.
Its capacity is for a ball of 302 lbs. weight, which,
with a charge of 90 lbs. of powder, is expected
to be projected at least 5 miles. An attempt was
made the previous year by Mr. Nasmyth to make
a much larger wrought iron gun than this — one
that should throw a ball weighing ^ a ton 4
miles, with 225 lbs. of powder. By the unequal
heating to which different parts of the great
mass were subjected in the forging, the metal as-
sumed in some places a crystalline form, by
which it was so weakened, as to be considered
unfit for use. It was proposed by Dr. Noad to
endeavor to restore the fibrous structure by an«
nealing. Prof. TreadweU regards these at-
tempts, which are still continued in Europe,
'* to make wrought iron cannon by the process of
fagotine or piling, as a strange engmeering de-
lusion." The tenacity required for cannon can-
not be uniformly retained in iron subjected to
repeated heatings and hammerings. He pro-
poses to obtain the strength of wrought iron by
constructing a cannon of cast iron, the thickness
of the metal being ^ instead of the whole
diameter of the bore, as usual ''Upon this
body he places hoops of wrought iron in 1, 2, or
more layers. Every hoop is formed with a
screw or thread upon its mside, to fit a corre-
sponding screw or thread formed upon the body
of the gun first, and afterward upon each layer
that is embraced by another layer. These
hoops are made a little, say -nnnr P^ ^^ ^^^
diameters, less upon their insides than the parts
they enclose. They are then expanded by heat,
and, being turned on to their places, suffered to
cool, when they shrink and compress, first the
body of the gun, and afterward each successive
layer all that it encloses." By making the hoops
considerably smaller than ttie parts they sur-
round, they accommodate themselves to the
strain, and may, like all malleable bodies, be ex-
tended much beyond their power of elasticity
without fracture. The screwing on of the hoops
is regarded as essential, and also their being
" spliced " to prevent their starting. The trun-
nions are to be welded upon one of the hoops.
Cross fracture is guarded against by the cast
iron body, and also by the outer rings breaking
joints over tlie inner. Prof. TreadweU presents

OAnnsroN

a series of oalonhtiona, ahowiog that a gun of
14 indies caliber, made in the maimer proposed,
and carrySnff a spherioal ball of 874 lbs., will
bear 68,96011)8. to the square ineh exposed to
the fluid, or the pressore of 4,S64 atmospheres.
He also oalonlates that a pressore of 82,000
lbs. to the inch is required to give to a 14-inoh
shot an initial velocity of 1,600 feet a second,
which is only half what the gun will bear;
while, with a gon of this Mze, made of cast iron
alone, its power of redstanceis limited, according
to the ola estimates of the strength of cast iron,
to 20,000 lbs. to the inch, or less than f that
which may be required to obtdn the velocity.
He fiirther calculates that a cannon of any size
may be thus constructed capable of sustdning
the pressure of 4^264 atmospheres, and one so
made of 80 inches diameter— if such were prac-
ticable—would have precisely the thboretical
oapacily of giving to its epherical ball, weighing
8,670 lbs., the velocity of 1,600 feet a second.
A patent has been recently granted to Oapt
Blakely, of the royal artillery, Enj^d, for
constructing cannon upon this principle, using
cast steel instead of cast iron for the body. M.
Thiery* has also proposed a somewhat similar
method, viz. : linmg the interior of the mould
with bars of wrought iron the length of the
gun, set on end, and arranged at intervals of 8
inches or thereabout. When the cast iron is
run into the mould the bars adhere to it, and
the texture of these is not materially affected,
excepting being partially changed to steel on
the surface next the cast iron. The gun is then
to be encased in hoops of wrought iron shrunk
upon it, and the trunnions welded to one of
them. — The Lancaster gun differs from other
cannon in the bore beiuff shaped very much as
in some rifles, in a twisted ellipse or an elliptical
twist. The lorm of the ellipse, however, in the
rifle is but fiuntiy expressed in the 2 opposite
twisting grooves; in the cannon the greater
proportional size of the grooves gives the ellipti-
cal form. These guns were found in practice
in the Crimea to have an immense range, but
they were uncertain in their aim, and enor-
mously expensive, each discharge costing £20.
Some of them burst in the most destructive
manner ; but whether this was owing to their
being too light for their charge and weight of
ball, or to the tendency of the ball to go straight
forward, and thus wedge itself in attempting to
pass the very gradual curve of the rifled bore, is
undetermined. The principle of its construe*
tion seems to be a good one. The ^un invented
by Oolonel Oavall^ of the Sardinian army, is
somewhat upon the same principle. It is double*
grooved, giving abouta three-quarter turn to the
projectile. This is of an oblong form, of cast
iron, pointed at the top, convex toward the
powder, and having 2 ribs runnmg lengthwise
to oorre^ottd with the grooves in the gun. —
The greatest improvement recentiy intr^nced
in the form of cannon, is in reducing the
proportion of metal between the muzzle and
the trunnions, which is found in guns of the

common mould to be largely in exoess. Tbe
weight is thus placed about the breeeh wlMre
the strength is needed. The guns cast bj
the United States for the new steam frigates
are regarded as the most perfect modela yel
constructed. Their peculiar form was pro-
posed by Capt Dahlgren, of the U. S. navy, by
whose name they are generally known. In
length, range, and weight, the 8-ineh shell-gnn
of Dahlgren does not materially differ from the
82*pounder, regarded as the best solid shcyt-gan
on board ship. Those of greater bore are pro-
portionally larger, with range also proportion-
ally increased, as appears by the following data
from the Ordnance Manual:

Leoffth of bora lOQuSlaehs

Weight ^ 68ewt.

Bange at 6* elevation, at 9 feet above water- I « rr* .

level, charge 9 Ibe j"1.7T«3

Jfawy fSi-pounder (Aeovy).

Length of bora 101.91

Weight GTcwt.

Bange at 5' elevation, 9 feet above water- ) « qqa ,. ..

Une,ehMrge91ba. f l,980ywas

A lO-inch Dahlgren has a length of 107 inchea. —
The casting of heavy cannon is rarely conducted
at the blast furnaces where the iron is mudt
from the ores. The quality of metal thus ob-
tained is too uncertain, and is always inforior
in strength to the same iron after having been
several times remelted. The pigs selected at
the smelting establishments are the diffiBrent
grades of foundery iron, frxim the softest and
toughest gray metal to the hardest of tiie same
shade, and tnese are mixed at the foooderie^
and remelted according to the judgment of tiie
founder. As in the casting of bells, several
frimaceEh— reverberatory or cupola—are uso-
ally employed to frimish the metal for a
dngle casting, each supplying, it may be, 4 to 10
tons. The metal, as it runs frt>m these, when
they are tapped, flows through ohannela in the
sand into a reservoir, from which runnen or
channels in the sand lead over the top of the
moulds, which have been prepared in the
moulding bed or floor of the mundery. Aa the
liquid iron flows down these runners, the moulds
are slowly and steadily filled, witiiout air being
conveyed with the metal to disfcurb its quietiy
setUing, or to injure its texture. The same n>
suit is, perhaps, better attained in casting brass
guns, the liquid metal being introduced into tiie
mould at their lower portion. Several cannon
are usually moulded in the same pit. The
mould is in sand enclosed in a huge case of
cast-iron, called a gun box, made in sections,
which are bolted together as they are laid by
the crane one upon another in the pit. Their
shape is a clumsy imitation of the more perfoot
fonn within. The sand which lines the gun
box receives its impresdon fr-om the pat-
tern, between which and each correspond*
ing section of the case, in turn, it is rammed
in small quantities at a time, being tempered
with clay to the proper oonsiBtmcy. The
flat surfkoe of each blodc of the aand mould
which is to coincide with the neixt section, k

CAKNOlf

367

blackened over wkb a waeli of fine diaroool and
clayed waWr, to prevent ndbesion as the differ^
ent sections are movecJ, Bj keeping the traiia-
vcrse aectiQiia ell^^blly ftepamted aa the lootild 13
prepared, the aand projects a little, so that no
metal can find its waj between the sections mak-
ing a fin. The gun box stands in the pit on its
krger end or breech, the gon head, or portion
projecting beyond the month of the piece, and
which is cat off in the finishing, being below
the level of the reservoir of the liquid metaL
The lower section, in which is the moold of the
breeching and the cascabel, or extremity of the
gan, is entire ; the npper sections, commonly 6
in number, are in halves divided longitudinally,
each half containing the mould of one-half the
piece for the length of its section. These halves
are securely bolted together by outside flanges,
in the same manner that the sections are secured
together. The trunnions, which make the axle
upon which the cannon is supported when in use,
are moulded in the second section of the gun
box above the breech, lateral projections in the
box affording room for the cylindrical cavities in
the mould to be filled by the trunnions. The
cavity of the mould is brought into a p^ectly
vertical position by adjusting the box as the
plumb line indicates. Sometimes the whole is
supported by ranmiing sand around the boiL at
others an open space is left around, whion is
covered over above to retain the hot air,
thus preventing rapid cooling. The tem-
perature of this space is sometimes increased
by fires kept burning in it for several days
atter casting. Such is the usual method of
casting solid cannon. By the improvement
introduced by Lieut. Rodman, guns are now
cast hollow of greatly increased strength. A
core formed on a tube of cast iron, which tube
is water-tight and close at the bottom, is placed
in the axis of the mould. Into the bottom of
this tube, through a smaller one placed in its
centre, a current of water is discharged, and as-
cending above the top of the piece constantly
passes off; cooling the interior. — ^When the can-
non is taken out of the mould, it is placed in a
lathe, being secured at one end by the square
block cast at the end of the cascabel, and the
other placed in a collar a little back of the muz-
ele, in which it can revolve. The first operation
is to cut off the head, which is 2 to 8 feet long.
The object of this addition to the gun is, that
the upper portion of the casting, usually the
weakest, may be rejected. The piece, if solid,
is then bored, a steel cutter fixed at the end of
a bar being made to penetrate, as the gun slow-
ly revolves in its frame. When the boring is
completed, the gun is finished upon the outside
by the tools used in turning iron. It is then
taken out of the frame, the square block is cut
off from the cascabel with a cold chisel, and the
tnmnions are dressed with the same instrament.
The touchhole is drilled with a stock and bit.
The piece is then ready to be proved, which is
done in this country by testing the strength of
a cylinder of the iron an inch in diameter and

3 inchoa lung, cut out of the caimoD, formerly
from one of the trnnnion*, hut now from the
barrel near the miizzJe. The sp^^cilic gravity
and other properties of the sample are carefuUy
noted, and tlitae, togoLher with the triola to
which it is subjected, and the hardness of the
metal determined by a very exact method, give
correct indications of the strength of the gun,
without the necessity of submitting it to extreme
proof by firing with constantly increasing
charges, until the piece is destroyed. Indeed
to such perfection have these proofs been
brought, that guns have been selected as of in-
ferior quality from among a large lot, which, on
reference to the books of the foundery, were
found to have been the only ones of the lot
made of hot-blast iron. According to the indi-
cations furnished by the tests, several guns are
usually taken from each large lot of Siem, to
be submitted to extreme proof— the selection
being generally of those that appear to be the
poorest, best, and intermediate qualities. These
are fired commonly with charges of powder
equal to i the weight of the ball, with one shot
and one junk wad over it. The firing is con-
tinued, unless the piece previously bursts, to 500
rounds. Then 1 ball more is added with every
discharge till the bore is filled. The powder is
afterward doubled in quantity, and the bore
filled with shot at each discharge. When it
bursts, pieces are selected for further examini^
tion from thoi breech, near the trunnions and
the chase. Guns are also tested by hydrostatic
pressure, water being forced into the bore wiUi
increasing pressure, till it sometimes bursts the
piece, or brings to light its hidden defects by
opening the small fissures, that were concealed
in the metal It is not uncommon for it to ap-
pear upon the exterior of pieces, of which the
thickness of the metal is 4 inches, exuding
through as a thin froth, which collects upon the
outside and forms drops and little streams. By
this method, the exact pressure applied is known,
and may be gradually inceased to any desired
degree. Sample bars are also cast together with
the cannon, which furnish some indication of the
strength of the metal. The different rates of cool-
ing of the large and small mass, however, render
their qualities somewhat dissimilar.— Bronze
cannon are cast in a mould of loam, the pattern
for which is prepared as follows : around a ta-
pering rod much longer than the gun, soft rope
is wound enclosing it entirely in its coils. Over
this, when brought very nearly to the outer
form of the intended body of the gun (not in-
cluding the breech and the head), is plastered a
layer of prepared clay or of plaster of Paris, and
by causing the rod to revolve against a profile
board having the exact outiine of the gun, the
model receives its shape. The models of the
trunnions are then made of plaster and attached
to it, and the whole is thoroughly dried. It is
then washed over with a preparation of ashes
or other substance to prevent adhesion, and
several coatings of putty loam are laid on
and dried till they resist the point of a knife^

S68

CANNON

OANOS

These f onn the fint layer of the mould. Other
layers of moulding loam are added, till the
whole thickness is about 2} inches. Themotdd
is then encased in iron bands^ and more loam is
laid on over them, to the thickness in all of 4 or
6 inches. Over this are pat on more hoops and
more loam again. The tapering rod is now
drawn out together with the rope and the first
coating npon it, and the plaster models of the
trannions are removed. The breech moold
is prepared in a similar way, and set in an iron
casing called the goblet moiud, which supports
the whole mass. The mould for the head is also
made in the same manner. After being thor-
oughly dried, the 8 pieces are set np in the pit.
firmly secured together, and the joints well
plastered. Seyeral moulds are usually prepared
at the same time, and arranged in the same pit.
The spaces around them are filled in with earth
which is carefully rammed ; the runners for the
metal to flow in being made in this case to lead
over the top of the head, as in casting iron guns.
Such is a general description of the French
method of costing bronze cannon, which is some-
what varied in this and other countries. When
cast, the processes of boring and finishing are
similar to tiiose applied to oast iron guns, when
they are made solid. — (See Abtiixbbt, Cast-
INO) and GuiraxBT.)

CANNON, a central county of Tennessee,
area 220 sq. m., drained by Stone's river and
the Caney lork of Oumberland river. The sur-
face is uneven and the soil generally fertile.
Productions in 1850, 554,49T bushels of com,
66,825 of oats, and 70,077 lbs. of butter ; num-
ber of pupils in the public schools, 990. Cap-
ital, Woodbury; pop. 8,982, of whom 848 were
slaves.

CANNONADE, in a general sense, the act
of firing artillery during a battle or a siege. As
a technical expression in tactics, a cannonade
means an engagement between 2 armies in which
the artillery alone is active, and the other arms
are either passive or do not, at least, overstep the
bounds of mere demonstration. The most celo-
brated instance of this kind is the cannonade of
Valmy, in 1 792. Eellermann awaited the attadc
of the Prussian army on a range of heights, his
artillery placed in front of his troops. The
Prussians drew up on the opposite range of the
hiUs, brought forward their artillery, and the
cannonade began. Several times the Prusnan
infantry formed for the attack and advanced a
little ; but, the French remaining firm, the Prus-
sians withdrew again before coming within mus-
ket range. Thus the day passed, and the next
day the Prussian army began their general re-
treat In. most general engagements such can-
nonades occur. They often form the 1st act
of the performance ; they serve to fill np the
intervals between a repulsed attack and another
attempt to dislodge the enemy ; and they form
tiie finale of most drawn battles. In most
oases they serve more for purposes of demon-
stration than for any thing else, causing by a
great waste of ammunition at long ranges that

almost incre^bly small propoctiMi d faili to
misses which oharaoterixea the artillery pnctioe
of modern batties.

CANNSTADT, a German town in the king-
dom of WOrtemberg, on the Neekar, the seat
of a superior bailiwick, a ibvorite resort of
the peome of Stuttgart, the distance from the
capital being only 8 m. ; also maoh frequent-
ed as a watering place^ the 40 mineral springs
in the town and its vicinity possessing a lu^
reputation for thor salutary effect npon bowd
and nervous diseases. King William oanaed a
beautiful Cursaal to be erected near the prin*
dpal spring, the Wilhelmsbmnnen. Two es-
tablishments for cripples and scrofulous persons
are favorably known abroad, and the mineral

S rings in the neighboring village of Berg are
30 resorted to. The Neokar is navigable near
Cannstadt) and affords fadlities for aa aotiye
transit trade. Manufactures of cottons^ wool-
lens» and tobacco flourish, and the cultnie of
the vine, as well as other agricultural inx)dnetB|
diffuses prosperity among the population. In
July, 1796, a battle was mught near the town,
between the French and the Anstriana. Upon
the ruins of an old feudal castie of the honae
of W&rtemberg, which bore the same name, a
Grecian temple, with the manaoleum ci Ids
queen, Catharine, was erected bv King WiDiitta
in 1819. Many Roman antiquities have been
found in the vidnity.

CANO, AxoNXo, sumamed El Rjloiobzbo(| a
Spanish painter, sculptor, and architect, born
in Granada, March 19, 1601, died there, Oct
5, 1666. He became so distinguished in each of
these arts that his countrvmen called him the
Michel Angelo of Spain, although the title is
due more to his versatility than to any resem-
bUnce in point of genius to the great i1<»«n-
tine. His *^ Conception of the "^orgin,^ in the
church of San Diego, at Granada, is considered
his masterpiece. His works in sculpture and
architecture are also numerous. He was a oon-
temporary of Yelasque^and in 1680 was ap-
pointed court painter to Philip lY. His ungov-
ernable temper on various oooasions brooght
him in danger of the inquisition, and he was
once put on the rack on suspicion of having
killed nis wife in a fit of jealousy, hot was aab-
sequentiy absolved from the charge. On this
occasion his right arm waa exempted friom tor-
ture, as being exeeUent in arte. As an illustra-
tion of his whimsical character, it ia related that
on his deathbed he refused to take the cmoifix
from the priest on account of its bad woikman-
ship.

CANOE (Fr. earu>e), a boat such as is boat
by savages, either by hollowing out a log or by
stretching the skins of animau or the baik of
trees over a light frame. Log canoes are made
of large enze from the white pines of the north
and tiie oottonwood tree of the sonth, and
are nsed principally for transporting fireigbt
npon rivers and smooth waters. Small ones
serve the northern toyageur for short ezoiir-
sioDs; but for long expeditions, and acroas

QAKOSI

ttW

ftt»t»

tn Tirtir ti* iLntV.l'jiii'', Irui ^cu^uf J<t>p *^ll tint oxi^n^l I-^-TiT.Lx <«**iin2 i^t L^-*

' f^qmt^ Um iP^to* Uto;^ *6ir4oJ
i;i i-«tt frrtns tli*^ rititn of i .

^ tt ii in iu>v IlAfdi ciiA0i6«
Iq xh6 firtnt^r, lfe»t U>i'
of ♦*tiifiiiii«r li»rk-^ Til
lti|m1iA#d by iWr ^--v -
OKucb cniirv filfhly r%l

tn tJioi? t^^T^ >rti«t9 Jield A 1*3

r^Mio bon%0 and UiD eonvpciitiJMi* of
ivnd tlio^r fbM Ui tNt'^'^
i fa|titLiilf)ii ivf iliv^r nfltjMn.

''*tliefiifitiiioaru^-. -
,idMtatlioai.iiodv

: ^tUttt b/ ail Jtuiiiiti

Ul«tJcv

Of Uoki

iltltf i!Ai«i wa# rt>e»pd^ Avtlt^d^YA^iifi''

torn J iiKtfo Rj^ji:-

dindiig Hits i &

i^fu mfliuuriiif to lia ii>'

tftia l}k rmlt [mrkt wlUi vtii^

rnj Mfn!v 111 tiiu nl^ .irr.
r

l^rliisus. Xti

WW IktSTOWod

r to tl)» oaiipe-

Ji^wyli litiorotiim wcm driI kfpl wUk tbo olte

T|i., .^ \,„,_i - .■:, .,_-. ^ ^.,.^-_i. . , UM

. r>>iiCThfldr- ■■^,

la ilin Mmc rmik ia

909^ 9iMi.i

ihtimg^init^iiilit&' bul ^il«ii Iii6 *tU|Jw^ {»kmmiwti 4ilMi U btfiitM

870

OAKOK

stodj, the Mholan genenlly aooepted the Judg-
ment of the Jews. Still tbey were quoted with
d^erenoe, used pnblidy, and in one or two in*
Btanoes spoken of as anthoritative and divine.—
The canons of the Greek chnroh doselj oorre-

Sond with each other. The most ancient, that of
elito (A. D. 1 77), contained all the Jewish hooka
ezoeptinff Esther, bat excluded the apocrypha.
With thm catalogue agreed those of Gresory
Nazianzen (A. D. 870), and of Amphilochius
(A. D. 870). Origen^s list indudes all the Hebrew
books, and the apocryphal Baruch. With him
agree Qyiil of Jerusalem (848), the council
^Laodioea (868), and Epiphanius (868). Ath-
anasius omits Esther, and retains Btfuch. The
apostolical canon, of uncertain date, admits 8
books of y[acoabeeBf 1 of Judith, and recom-
mends instruction in Ecdedasticus. The catar
logues of the Latin church coincide with the
Jewidi canon, in so far as they exclude no books
reckoned as canonical bv the latter ; but 2 of
them admit writings which the Hebrews r^ected.
Thus the canon of Augustine (A. D. 876) em-
braces the books Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solo-
mon,£cdedasticuB,l and 2 Maccabees; and the 8d
council of Carthage adopted the same enumera-
tion. Jerome, however, r^ec^ed these produc-
tions, chiefly, it would seem, because the number
of canonical writings must be limited by the num-
ber of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. *' The
church," he said, ^ reads them for the edification
of the people, but not to establish the authori^
of the doctrines of the church.'* The Oatholio
church, following the old Latin version, ac-
cepted the books regarded by the early Jews
as apocryphal, dedlttrinff them to be canon-
ical by a decree of uie council of Trent.
But the theologians of the reformation, Lu-
ther, Oarlstadt, Flacius^ and John Gerhardt,
went back to the Jewish canon, and con-
sidered the apocryphal writings as indepen-
dent and inferior collections. Some Catholic
doctors, as Bern. Lamy, have made a distinction
between tiie Ist and &e 2d canon, the 1st only
being of absolute authority. — ^The canon of the
New Testament was formed upon substantially
the same principles as that or the Old. For a
century the Hebrew writings were the only
Bible the Christians had. The letters of the
apostles were publidy read in connection with
the ancient Scriptures, and were listened to with
the same respect. Gradually such epistles as
were addressed to neighboring churches were
gathered together in small collections ; and later,
other works of a historicd character^ which
might recommend themselves by their mtriufflo
worth or their reputed authorship, were receiv-
ed by such communities as came in possession
of them, and were used in public instruction.
Many years eli^ised before a complete and au-
thorized collection was made. The earliest trace
of a collection of New Testament books is found
in that which Mardon had hi the middle of the
2d century, consisting of 10 epistles of Paul, and
a gospd supposed to have been St. Luke's.
Half a century later the prindpal Christian

teaehers, IrensBus, Clement of Akzandria, and
Tertnllian, agreed in receiving 4 Goepela^ the
Acts of the Apostles, PauFs 18 Epistiea, the Ist
Epistles of Peter and of John, and the Apoca-
lypse. Bespecting the Epistle to the Hewews,
rhilemon, Jude, and 2 Johi^ a difference oi
opinion was raised. At this time^ the hooka
were contained in 2 separate collections^ one
historical, called the Evangel, the otiier epsto-
lary, called the Apostle. The next stage in the
development of the New Testament canon is in-
dicatea by the ancient Svriac trandation known
as the Peschito, which belongs probably to
the early part of the 8d century. This con-
tained, in addition to the books acknowl-
edged by Irenaaus, Clement, and Tertnllian,
the Epistle to the Hebrews, and the letter
of James ; but it omits the Apocalypse, which
dogmatic pr^ndioes were bringiuff into dis-
favor. An ancient fragment, as old, probably,
as the year 200, which was found a century and
a half ago in the Ambrosian library at Ifilan.
by Muratori, and is thence called the canon ol'
Muratori, contains a mutilated catalogue of
New Testament books then received. Li thk
list are mentioned the Gospds, Acts, 18 Pauline
Epistles, 2 Johannean, Jude, and the Apocalypse.
James and Hebrews seem not to have been
included. 1 Peter is spoken of doubtfully,
and words half commendatory are applied to
the "Shepherd" of Herrnas. The accepted Scrip-
tures of this age were held to be of divine an11ior>
ity. Crigen was the first to divide the whole
extant literature of the Christians into dassea,
distinguished as the genuine, the spurious, and
the mixed. The genuine were those written by
inspired authors, as vouched for by trustworthy
tradition ; the crpurious were those that had no
claim to apostolical origm, either firom external
evidence or internal character ; the mixed were
such aa were of doubtful or contested aathonty,
or had met with only a partid reception. The
4 Gospels, Acts, 12 Epistles of Paul, 1 Peter, 1
John, probably also the Apocdypse, he hdd to
be indisputably genuine and sacred. In respect
to Hebrews^ James, 2 Peter, 2 and 8 John, and
Jude, his mmd was in a state of greater or less
uncertdnty. He appears to waver slIso hi his
judgment upon the EpisUe of Bamabaa, caI]iB|
it a catholic epistle, and upon the Bh^herd o?
Hermas, which, in one passage, he dedwes to
be in his opinion *^ divinely inspired,"— so fluc-
tuating in that age was the nne that divided
the canonicd from the apocryphal wriUnga.
Origen's opinion, however, was too individnid
to be received as representing the persuadon of
the church. Ensebius the historian, in the early
part of the 4th century, prepared a catdogoe
of the New Testament Bcripturea, based upon
careAilly studied traditions, both oral and writ-
ten. In his clasdfication ^e Gospels, Acta, 14
Epistles of Paul, and the first Epistiea of John
and Peter, are ranked as genuine and universally
acknowledged productions of apostles. Among
disputed books he mentions the i^istlea ^
Jameaand Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 8 John, which he

OANOIT

871

desigxiAtes by ibe title of cafliolic Epistlea Other
writinga, bow by all deemed apocryphal, he
ooants as sporiooa. To the Epistle to the He-
brews, and to the Apocalypse, Eusebios hesitates
to assign m place, being hiniself inclined, it
would seem, to receive them into the first class
as gennine Scriptures, bat deferring to the popa-
lar sentiment, which was against them. The
canons of the Greek ohurch, that of Laodicea
(A. D. 360-'9), that of Cyril (A. D. 348), that
of Athanasius (A. D. 826), and that of Gregory
Koziaiizen (A. D. 870), agree in accepting all
the books that compose oar present collection,
except the Apocalypse. Athanasias alone, and
perhaps Oynl, included this. The catholic
Efiistles were by this time generally received,
though not with entire cordiality. It is clear
tliat the canon of the Greek church was not
absolutely closed at the end of the 4th century.
The Latin church, which opened the canon of
the Old Testament to the admission of the apo-
cryphal books, enlarged the canon of the New
Testament by the reception of the Epistle to
the Hebrews and the Apocalypse, and thus com-
pleting it, pronounced it closed. The council
of Hippo decreed (A. D. 893) that the books of
the New Testament be 4 Gospels, Acts, 18 Epis-
tles of Paul, 1 to the Hebrews, 2 of Peter, 3 of
John, 1 of James, 1 of Jude, and the Apocalypse
of John. Jerome, speaking of Hebrews, says :
*< It is no matter whose it is, for it is the pro-
doc tion of an ecclesiastical man, and is daily
distingnished by being read in the churches."
For the same reason he would admit the Apoc-
alypse. The council of Carthage repeated
almost word for word, in the year 897, the rule
a/1 opted by that of Hippo, only ranking Hebrews
at once among Paul's 14 epistles. A few years
later this catalogue of tlie sacred books was
confrmed by a decree from Pope Innocent I.,
which may be regarded as deciding finally the
canon of the Latin church. There were still
dirrerences of opinion as to the Epistle to the
Hebrews and the 2d and 8d of John ; but there
was no room for change. The catalogue was
accepted up to the period of the reformation,
notwithstanding the objections of Oosmas, 635,
Jnnilias, 650, Isidore of Seville, 636, and Niceph-
onis of Constantinople, 828 ; notwithstanding,
too, the criticism of John of Damascus, who
wished to reckon the Apostolical Canons among
the New Testament books, and the judgment cS
the synod of Aix, 789, which would exclude the
A[)ocal}T>se. The chiefs of the reformation in
their writinga, and the two Protestant churches in
their ijyTnboLs, in defining which the canonical
S< riptures were, inclined to follow what they aa-
Buined to be the testimony of the Holy Spirit in
thioir hearts rather than the consent of the church
as expressed in ecclesiastical decrees. Luther
rai<?ed a doctrinal test and applied it to the exclu-
sion of Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Apoca-
lypse. But his practice was peculiar to himself.
.Since his time Protestant theologians have paid
much attention to critical studies, and have di*-
tin^uished themselves by efibrts to establish the

genuineness of the New Testament writings
upon grounds purely historical. The eoancil
of Trent, 1545, merely confirmed the canon of
Hippo and Carthage, condemned all dissent^
and set the seal of oecumenical authority upon
the received collection. This mandate of Rome
had its effect upon the Greek church, which
forthwith canonized the Old Testament l^K)o-
rypha, and soon laid aside its doubts respect*
ing the Catholic Epistles and the Apocalypse.
Thus the great body of Christians, Catholic and
Protestant, east and west, with the above ex-*
ceptions, accepted the same sacred Scriptures.
Small sectious among the Protestants have
dissented. The Socinians, in the 16th century,
adopting methods of investigation severely
critical, have thrown doubts upon several writ-
ings whose genuineness had been left uncf tm*
tioned for centuries. The same process has beeu
continued to the present day by theologians of
difierent schools, especially in Germany. The
Swedenborgians, discarding critical methods
entirely, and receiving no dogmatical writing
as inspired or canonical, set smnmarily aside
the decrees of councils and the verdicts of
scholars, and hold that the 4 Gospels and the
Apocalypse are the only Scriptures of the New
Testament written under the full influence of
the Holy Spirit. They also deny inspiration to
the purely narrative and dogmatic writings of
the Old Testament, Chronicles, £zra, Nehemiah,
Esther, and the books of Solomon; finding a
broad line of distinction between these and the
others in their doctrine of correspondences.

CANON, an ecclesiastical dignitary who pos-
sesses a prebend, or revenue allotted for the
performance of divine service in a cathedral or
collegiate church. Canons were originally priests
who lived in community, appointed to assist
the bishop in his duties, and supported by the
revenues of the bishopric. — Skoulab Canons
are those who, in progress of time, have left off
the custom prevalent in monasteries of living a
community life, and have the privilege of en-
joying the returns of their respective benefices.
The obligations of the canons are contained
under the 3 following heads : 1, the duty of
residing in the place where the church they
belong to is situated ; 2, assisting at the canoni-
cal otiices which are celebrated in the church ;
and 3, attending the meeting of the chapter at
tlie appointed times. They cannot be absent
from their benefices for a longer period than 8
months, and are obliged to sing or recite their
oflSce in choir. In their collective capacity
they are called a chapter, and form the council
of the bishop. In each chapter there are dig^
nitaries. The name was originally applied to all
the clergy, but was afterward confined to those
who were connected with the cathedral church,
or to specially privileged churches.

CANON, in music, a species of vocal compo-
sition in several parts, in the form of a perpet-
ual fague, in which the voices begin at inter-
vals, one after the other, so that each voice
sings the strain of the preceding one and all

872

OAirON

OANON LAW

glng different portions of the melody at the
same time. It differs from the ordimurv fbgae
In requiring that the subject be repeated D7 each
part*

CAITON, a Spanish word, ngnifying a tabe,
flue, or pipe, now in common nse in the terri*
tones bordering the Mexican states, to desig-
nate the deep ravines, or gulches, worn in the
hills and monntains by descending torrents of
water.

CANON LAW, the pnblio and general code of
lawsoftheOatholicchnrch. This church dums
to be a perfect visible sodetj, containing within
herself all that is necessary for a complete and in-
dependent organization. Hence she nas her own
rulers, rights, and laws. 8ome of these laws given
byjphrist himself or by the apostles in his name,
^j^neld to be immutable; others have been i>ro-
mulgated by the ordinary ecclesiastical authority,
and can be modified or abrogated bv the power
whence they derive their force. The discipline
or practice of the diurch is therefore partiy nn«
chaogeable and partly chan^ble. The ohanee-
able discipline, deriving its origin from tne
ordinary ecclesiastical power, has been different
In various times and places. An immense or*
ganixation extended over the face of the earth
must of necesnty, while retdnins on all essen-
tial points the same practice and laws, admit in
minor things of those local differences which
are required by circumstances. Hence, beside
the general law of the church, there are in ev-
ery particular country peculiar and local rights,
customs, and practices, which form what is callea
the code of particular or national churches.
These, however, are subject to the supreme au-
thoritv, which can at any lame annul them,
should such a course be judged expedient or
necessary. Thus, beside the general law of the
church, Koman Catholics in the United States are
r^S^ated by the decrees of the councils of Balti-
more and of the provincial councils held in the
different provinces which have been approved
of bv the competent authority. — ^There is also
another source of difference in ecclesiastical
polity. From the very beginning the eastern
and western churches, although agreeing in
the same faith and in the observance of the
same moral law, and looking upon each
other as integral portions of the same church,
have yet observed on many points a totally dif-
ferent ecclesiastical discipline. This state of
things continues to the present day. and the
oriental churches in communion with Bome
retain their own liturgy, and their peculiar ob-
servances. Hence, the canon law of the Lat-
in or western church is different in miunr points
fh)m that of the Greek or eastern.— The ^vi-
sions of eccledastical law can be marked as fol*
lows : 1. The general law of the church, bind-
ing all her subjects of all nations and countries.
9. Laws pecuhar either to the oriental or Lat-
in church. 8. Laws that are observed by only
one particular or national church, belonging to
either of these two divisions. 4. Diocesan regu-
litions which have no fbrce out of the bishop-

ric fbr which they are made.— Osnon law
comprises the general laws for either of the two
churches, eastern or western. Thus there is
the canon law of the oriental and of the Lat-
in church. To the knowledge of this the can-
onist must unite an acquaintance with the par-
ticular laws and customs of his own natton or
province, beside that of the statutes of the di-
ocese to which he belongs, in order to be able
to apply his general rules and prindplea to the
practical cases which may fall under his cogni-
zance. The authori^ whence ecclesiastical laws
derive their force, is held by CathoIi<» to be
vested primarily and principally in the p<^ as
the vicar of Christ. General councils alao pos-
sess the same authority. These are compooed
of all or of the greater number of the bishops
of the church. The decrees of a legitimate
genersl council, that is, one presided over by the
pope either personally or through his represent-
ative, when ratified bv the same authority, tn
binding over the whole church. These are the
two founts of authority from which all general
laws derive their vigor. Patriaroha and pro-
vincial councils leg^late merely fortheportaoa
of the church under their iurisdiction, ihsSi
legisbition being subject to the approbation or
r^ection of the pope. Bishops have the right
to make laws or statutes for their own dioceses ;
these are sometimes promulgated in diocesan
synods, which are composed of the principal
priests of the diocese. — ^As the discipline of the
church has not always been the same, but has
been and is different in different times and
places, so, too, canon law has not always beoi
uniform. Many regulations which once were
of force have been subsequentiv modified or to-
tally abrogated. Hence the <mief difilculty bi
the study of canon law is to discern between
that which is in force and that which has gone
into disuse. — ^The laws of the church have oeen
for the mostpart embodied in collections. These
have naturauy been modified as the^ws them-
selves have suffered changes. The hitrtory of
canon law is a narrative of these diffei«nt
modifications. For some time after the death
of the aposties, there was in all probability no
written collection of laws. The faithfnl who
lived during this period had vividly impreseed
on their minds the decrees and teachingB of tho&b
who had conversed with the Lord, fiut in the
course of time, unruly and rebdiioua i^iriti
began to manifest themselves, and discipfine
suffered many serious violations. As crimes
occurred, decrees were enacted either to punish
the transgression or prevent its recurrence in
the fhture. These decrees generally originated
in the locality in which the crime had been oom-
mitted, and by degrees, through the force of
similar circumstances, were adopted throu^out
the whole church. Thus, in the course ot two
centuries, manv new regulations had been gradu-
ally introducecL and the primitive discipline bad
been more or less modified. This introduced
the necessity of making a collection of theae
new laws, so that all mig^t know their exact

CANON LAW

373

impM, and tins nniformitj, at least on the
leading poJDto of disalplme, might be secure tL
lUnee tlie firat collectiou we meet with is com-
nicml J supposed tdiave been prcmmlgated either
tow^ard the end of the 2d or the beginning of
Eke ^l century. It 13 called that of the Canona
AjmtoliGl, or " A post-f)l ical Canon^,^ ' Tb i ^ nam e
wa- fi^en becosiise these luwci were represented
a* having beeu promulgated by the apostlta.
This, however, is not true of them, at least as
they appear in this collection; for they bear the
e\idcQces of a development of organization not
yet existing in the apostolic times. Most prob-
ably, during the 2d century, the rules given by
the apostles for the guidance of the faithful be-
gan to be committed to writing. By degrees new
regulations were added to them, and the collec-
tion thus graduaUy assumed its present form,
retaining ^q name to which, in a certain sense,
it was originally entitled. Whatever may have
been its origin, it represents faithfully the disci-
pline of the eastern church toward the latter
part of the 2d and commencement of the 8d cen-
tury. All, however, did not agree as to the
number of the canons; the Roman church
recognized only the 50 which had been trans-
lated into Latin by Bionysius Exi^us; the
eastern chmrch, after the council in Trullo,
in the 6th century, received 85. — ^The work
called Constitutiones ApostoliecB^ or "Apostolical
Constitutions," is intimately connected with tiie
collection of canons. It is proved by Beveridge
that it appeared toward the end of the 3d cen-
tury. It does not throw any new light on the
discipline of that period, as it agrees on all
points with tlie canons. — ^The next collection
that we meet with in the East is that which
was produced in the council of Chalcedon, in
the 5th century. It was called the Codex Co-
nonum. It seems to have contained originally
canons enacted in the general council of Nice,
and in those of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, and Gan-
gra. These 3 councils, although not oecumeni-
cal or general ones, had obtained great authority
throughout the whole eastern church, and their
enactments were universally adopted. In course
of time the Codex was enlarged by the addition
of the canons of a council held at Antioch, and
of those of the council of Chal<»don itself and
lastly of those adopted in the next general coun-
cil held at Constantinople. These were the
I>rincipal collections of canon law in the early
centuries. — In the West there seems to have
been no collection of this sort made before the
council of Nice, Custom, the decrees of the
bi-ihops of Rome, which were issued as occasion
required, and those of particular synods, were
the basis of ecclesiastical legislation during the
first 8 centuries. The canons promulgate at
Nice were translated into Latin immediately
after the celebration of the council, and were
observed in the western church, together with
those enacted a short time afterward at Sardica.
iVfter some time 2 Latin translations appeared
of the Codex which was used at Chalcedon ; one
was called iBidoriana^ or of Isidore; the other

prum^ or ancient Id reality, then, up to the
6th century iliere was no re^lar collection of
ecclesiastical laws in the western churchy This
want was at that period supplied by Dionysius
Exiguus^ a learned monk, who pabliihed a cele-
brated collection^ which has ever since borne
hid name. It contained the principal points of
the le^nslation of both bninclics of the church 1
the BO canons of the apostles, then those of
Nice, Ancyra, Neo-CsDsarea, Gangra, Antioch,
Laodicea, Gonstaotlnople, and Chalcedon, trans-
lated from the Greek ; the 21 canons of Sar*
dica, from the Latin original, together wiUi 138
enacted in different councils of Africa. These
formed the 1st part The 2d embraced tiie
decretals of the popes Siricius, Innocent L^
Zosimus, Boniface L, Celestine, Leo the Great,
Gelasius, and Anastasius IL These decretals
were letters sent by the popes to different
bishops or churches, containing those decrees
which they deemed necessary for the mainten-
ance of discipline and the good of religion.
These, as is evident, formed no unimportant
part of church law. To the above mentioned
were afterward added the decretals of the popes
Hilarius, Felix IL, Simplicius, Hormisdaa, Sym-
machus, and Gregory IL The collection of
Diouysius thus augmented was presented in the
8th century to Charlemagne, by Pope Adrian L^
when the former came to Rome. Adrian did
not give it any new public authority ; yet from
the fact of his having presented it, and from the
qtiasi sanction thereby bestowed, it acquired
great importance, and was called emphatically
the Codex Cananum, or code of canons. Such
were the principal documents through which
access could be had to the knowledge of ecclesi-
astical legislation, during the first 9 oenturies
of the Christian era. — ^Thns far the science of
ecclesiastical legislation had advanced in a
regular and more or less tmiform way. The
churchmen had copied the forms of the old
civil lawyers, and many made ecclesiastical
polity the study of their lives. With the de-
struction of the western empire, and the universal
subversion of all the ancient landmarks of civil-
ization and learning, the church law had to un-
dergo some of the calamities of the age. The
barbaric rulers often brought charges against
leading ecclesiastics, either for the purpose of
confiscating the property of the church, or of
revenging the condemnation of their vices; and
as the knowledge of canon law had shared in
the decline of all science, the churchmen were
left unprotected, from a want of acquaintance
with laws which would have extricated them
from their diflScidties. A new collection was
therefore required, and did in fact appear, but
unfortunately the real erudition of the work
was tainted by an inexcusable spirit of imposture
on the part of the author. He gave himself a
feigned name, that of Isidore Mercator (mer-
chant), or Peccator (sinner). It is not very clearly
known who he really was. The most probable
opinion seems to be that his real name was
Benedictus Levita, or the Deacon. If this be

874

CANON LAW

true, Isidore lived at Mentz in fhe 9th centnry.
^e doooments of which this collection was
composed can be divided into 8 classes. There
were some perfectly genuine, and attributed to
their real authors; next, others substantially
80, but ]published under the name of popes
or oounfflls to whom they did not belong:
others, again, were altogether spurious, ana
perhaps invented by Isidore himself Tet even
this last class oontdned onljr in legal form what
already existed in the discipline and immuni-
ties of the church. All the evil done by Isidore
was done to erudition and history, not to the
discipline of the church, which remained the
same as before. The English bishop, Beveridge,
after much erudite and patient toU, discovered
that all the decrees or letters invented by the
impostor were in reality nothing but tissues of
passages selected from the canons of councils,
episties of popes, and works of ecclesiastical
writers, especially of the 5th and 6th centuries.
The age in which Isidore lived was not one in
which a historical fraud was likely to be discov-
ered. He was everywhere held in honor, till
on the revived of letters the new light shed upon
this branch of criticism led at first to doubts
as to the genuineness of parts of his work, and
afterward to the discovery of his imposture. —
During this time the collection of John Scholas-
ticus, who flouri^ed in the 6th century, was
the principal one in the East. Photius revised
it) and added many important laws, and it yet
remains the basis of the legislation of the Greek
church. Up to the 18th century the principal
collections in the West were those of Burchard.
Ivo, and Cardinal Deusdedit. They added
nothing new to the preceding collections; the
troublesome times in which they lived did not
afford much liberty for new le^slation, or
leisure for the study of ancient documents. At
last, however, the light dawned, sciences and
literature began to be cultivated, and Europe
again appreciated the benefits of mental im-
provement To the 12th and 18th centuries
belongs the honor of having initiated this better
state of things; then commenced in reality the
revival of letters and civilization. Law was
one of the sciences which seemed to meet with
most favor in the new order, and formed one
of the most important branches of study in the
rising universities, especially in that of Bologna.
The civil law of we Roman empire became the
iubject of profound and toilsome investigation.
It was natural that in the mediffival society on
which the church exerted so powerful an influ-
ence, her legislation should be an object of the
research of the student, and that canon law
should thus become a sdence to which persons
were to devote themselves exclusively. The new
state of affairs called for a new collection, which
ooiQd be used as a class book. Gratian, a Bene-
dictine monk, a native of Tuscany, undertook
the ta^, and published in 1161 his Oojieardantia
Di$eordanUum Canonum, This was composed
of various texts of Scripture, of the Cananet
ApoitoUei^ of the decrees of general and partic-

ular coundk, of the decretal letters of popes,
of extracts from the writings of the fathers, and
of the enactments of the old civil law of tlie
empire, or of the Frank kings. It received alter-
ward the titie of Decretum^ by which name it is
now known. It labors of course under the great
defect of its time, want of correct historical
knowledge and critical acumen. It oontams
many qMurious documents, which were, for the
most part, taken from the collection of Isidore.
It cannot therefore be relied upon, nor has it
received any public approbation of the ohuieh.
A spurious or false canon receives no new
authority from the circumstance of its having
been incorporated in the Deeretum. With aU
its faults, however, it is a truly great, nay, a
wonderfhl work, considering the age in which
it appeared. Gratian is the fsther of the sdence
of canon law, the bold pioneer, who had the
courage to penetrate this pathless wilderness of
decrees, canons, decretals, decisiona, and in-
structions, to mark out some well-defined
points, and to establish certain signs, to gnide
posterity in theur way. — ^In more recent
times, when general attention had been called
to the inaccuracies of the Jkeretum^ many
attempts have been made to correct it Anto-
ninus Augustinus, a learned canonist of the IMi
century, devoted a great deal of time and pains
to this object. A commission was appomted
by Pope Pius lY. to attend to this important
work, which was accomplished during the pon-
tificate of Gregory XIII. The persons compos-
ing it are commonly known under the name of
Boman correctors. — ^After Gratian many learned
canonists either published new collections, or
improved or commented on those already ex-
isting. Among these were Bernard of Pavia,
Gilbert and Bernard of Compostella. How-
ever, their works lost almost all their impor-
tance on the publication of the collection of
Pope Gregory IX., which introduced a new
era in the science of church legislatiofn.
Gregory has been truly styled the Justinian of
canon law. He saw the necessity of a more
authentic work than that of Gratian, of one
which, by receiving the approval of the legiti-
mate autiiority, should become the public ^e
of the church. He intrusted the execution of
this idea to St. Raymond de Pennafort, a leaned
Dominican friar. He faithfully fulfilled his trust,
and in 1234 promulgated the celebrated 5 booiks
of decretals. These embraced all the laws of the
church then In force^ containing thoee texts of
Scripture which rererred to disciplinary mat-
ters; the decretal letters of the popes, from
Gregory the Great to Gregory IX. ; Uie Oanc-
net Apastoliei; the decrees of the councils, from
tiiat of Antioch to the 4th general one of I^te-
ran; together with many passages of the fa-
then, which embodied generally received cus-
toms or salutanr regulations. In publishing
this collection, Gregory enhanced its value by
giving it the approbation of the holy see, and
commanding it to be received as authentic in
adl ecclesiastical tribunalS| and in all schoola of

CAvmriAw

C<4JI0II10MI EOOft? fiiP^^I

.'i» |lr^^ t<:n*i ir^:^ j»'?-^n In iTtfi

Fip kiEWv-tk'*' ndJtifJ^.i J 11 ^^^^^^H

" ^'..

«tiJ4Mh-^] :

lyr Uo ¥pi*wl-

k t

*? J^^tfll Ifnrr

B 'Dm^eam:^^

^^^^H

■ &Mmmtkm

d,^, -♦^..^ L..1. ,-.u

_«^^ 4,..»

... p.. -^-^.^^,. ^^^H

■ W of ll«

"lifpMt.l.iiTf^^J 1ti*%J<^

illUnlUii

■ '^

^^^^1

■ *''

i.*r toiikjt. ^^^^1

■ T

,t1i9<h«i 11^ ^^^H

■ '«

■'jti ijj LLiijijj n^'/M» ar

u;i

' ^^^^1

■ u..

\hn ^roiL »fiii«fi t^ di6

¥*►

1 ^^^^H

■ IV.

' ' aiof, Qoci

^^^^1

■ f«<.'<l

m, flMBfc^l

^^^^H

■ i*

" ! m-

iiji"-* ;u«

^^^^H

■ I.-

4-111^

T^a^* 11

^^^H

■ *

M©^-

di^-^! .

^^^^H

■ *'

uUoti

^^^^1

p '■"

\r.n1\.

i'i ■ . - .- :. :., ...

, ^^^^^1

\r^ y

oaii aod tivo court* of tlia si ufiivofiii ^^^^H

k i>.

riyieBtttr«ll«^^H

■ .i.

■ *"■

m *''

r% irtfilit*! m m*^^^H

■ m^

^^^^^1

I 1^''

^^^^H

■ T.

^^^H

I r

' ^^^H

P V.

^ ^^^^H

U0ir |l)fd4J9 ^ ^^^H

Ik '

»,, . ^,..

!■■ l/

IL ^M llliEl i; , ^^H

P .

d wuci b tiui ll»i^li3lliiitf|ff>^^^H

JMIMC

' ^^^^1

II *«-. f. ■

' ^H

■ 0. ■

rt-ork

■ <).

t^ftU

fit'

I ^

■ .% lUkl^"*

^LAMJloU^I^- ^H

H |'~

r,i»,pt, ^\.

^^1

~ WllL.-l

^^H

t P''*'-

,'n« 11 jui*

li .

1 "^

rofiM XS^

fi.r

■ '"

'■ ''-TT^lt*

^^^^M

■

xmh-

«i:

' ^H

- Mm

Ui.^...

' ^H

■ a.

^Tlna

Iho motmic'

■ r<

. r.AH

niii! 1, irt^t* T

^^^^1

I V

^^^IniLij.

^^^^H

■ t.-

r, i*t|»r**

' ^^^^1

«tZka, Ui ^ktvh am r^iUliiini

£Mld£kiift of Umc I

ull, AiiU iM&kaj^i* ^^^H

876

OANONIOUB

CANOfiSA

vtte rettding of it, to say matixw and^Jands on
the preoeding evening, the little hours at some
convenient time in the morning, andvespera
and compline at anj time in the afternoon. The
office is obligatory on clergymen in the ma^r
orders, the members of monastic commonities,
and those who hold ben^oes. It is chiefly
composed of the psalter, and lessons from the
Scriptures and the acts of the saints and mar-
tyrS) with hymns, yersicles, and prayers inter-
spersed. A great diversity of offices have been
and are in nae. The one most generally nsed
in the OathoUc chorch of the West is the Roman
breviary.

OAMONIOUS, an Indian chief of the Narra-
ganset tribe, bom about 1566, died Jnne 4,
1647, was the firm friend of the English, and
especially of Roger Williams, whom, to nse the
words of the latter, he loved " as his own son
to his last gasp." 'From him Williams obtained,
March 24^ 1688, the grant of land for his settle-
ment of the future state of Rhode Island.
During his life the Narragansets were engaged
in several Indian wars, but remained at peace
with the white men. Many years after his
death, however, under the famous King Philip,
they became involved in a war with the Eng-
lish, which resulted in their extermination.

OANONIOUT, a small island in Narraganset
bay, in the state of Rhode Ishmd. It is fertile,
and contains the town of Jamestown. On the
southern extremity, which is called Beaver
Tail, is a lighthouse. The length of the island
is about 8 miles, and its average breadth 1.

CANONIZATION, in the Roman Catholic
church, a solemn declaration that a beatified
servant of God possesses a special glory in
heaven, on account of which he is proposed to
the special veneration of the whole church.
After the beatification of the deceased has taken

glace, the principal condition which is exactedf
1 order to go on with the process of canonizar
tion, is that the newly beatified should perform
2 miracles, which must stand the test of a most
rigorous examination and be judicially approved
by the competent tribunaL After this, several
consultations are held, the pope issues the decree
of canonization, and a magnificent ceremony
takes place at 8t Peter's church, at which the
pope officiates in person.

0AN0N8BURG, a post borough of Wash-
ington CO., Pa. It is the seat of JefiTerson. col-
lege, a fiourishing institution with 8 professors,
197 students, and a library of 10,000 vols.
Pop. 627.

CANOPPI, Antoitio, an Italian scen^pidnter,
bom in 1778, died in St. Petersburg in 1882.
He received his first education from nis father,
who was employed as civil engineer by the
duke of Modena, and after occupying himself
for some time with fresco-painting, he was sub-
sequently employed as scene-painter in Venice
and Mantua. Compelled to resort to flight at
the time of the French invasion, he first be-
took himself to Vienna and afterward to Mos-
cow, where he was engaged in the decoration

of many palaces, which, however, were banit
in the great fire of 1812. From th«l time
until his death he was engaged as scene-painter
of the imperial theatre of 6t. Petersbuxig. Hia
most admired efforts in that branch of art were
his architectural scenes for Mozart's ^Magie
Flute,'' and for ^'Semiramis."

CANOPUS. a star of the first magnitode
in the constellation Argo Nam. It is in the
end of the rudder, and is 87^ from the 8. pole.
It is therefore a southern droumpolar star, and
is never visible in the latitude of the northern
states of the Union.

CANOPUS, or Cakobub, in Egyptian my-
thology, a water god, represented on yeaaels of
a ^hencal shape. These vessels were used by
the ancient Egyptians to keep the water of the
Nile in good drinking condition. The worship
of Canopus was superseded under the first Ptol-
emy by that of Scrapie — a Greek inscription in
honor of Serapis at Canopus having been dis-
covered by Mr. Hamilton amid the ruins of
Alexandria. — ^In ancient geography, CuroFos
was one of the most remarkable towns of lower
Egypt, near the most western mouth of tM Nile.
The name of the town is variously ascribed to
the divinity of the same name and to Canopus,
or Canobus, the helmsman of Menelansi who
died in Egypt of the bite of a serpent, after his
return fK>m Troy, and who was buried on the
site of the town.

CANOPY (Gr. jcMiwrrioir; firom nnw^, a
gnat), a net spread over a bed to preserve the
sleeper from msects. In architecture, an orna-
mental projection over doors, windows, te.;
also, a hood or covering over thrones, niches,
tombs, &c. .Canopies are also borne over the
head in processions.

CANOSA (anc. CanuMium\ a town of Naplea,
province of Terra di Bari, S. W. of Barletta; pop.
about 8,000. It contains a cathedral of the 6lh
century, the remains of a gateway near the river
Ofanto, of a splendid amphitheatre, and the tomh
of Bohemond, prince of Antioch. It waasubdoed
by the Romans 818 B. C, until which time it
had been hostile to Rome ever since the Sam-
nite war. It is f requentiy mentioned in andent
classic history, and is spoken of by Horace in
the journey to Brundusium. Herodee AUkns
constructed an aqueduct to supp^ it with
good water. The Romans called the inhab-
itants hilinguet^ as they spoke both GnA
and Oscan. The mule driva« of Cannsinm
were noted for theur skill, and were always
selected by Nero as his charioteers. The re-
mains of the Roman army after the defeat at
CannsB, in the 2d Punic war, took refuge in
Canusium. Canusium was on the direct route
from Brundusium (Brindisi) to Borne. Re-
markable ancient tombs discovered in 1808| in
the vidnity of Canosa, and thecontentaaentto the
museum of Naples, were described by IGllin (Pft*
ris, 1 81 8). They generally contain empty vaaea.

CAN08S A, a small town near Reggio^ in the
dnchy of Modena, Italy. It contidns a oaatle
in which the emperor Henry IV. ^etkum^d

r-- ^-'

CAUm CAMCTTA

' |T«J^,

Tnajiifrtir.. flri pulTrnt ur^r nml

1 TT tsr)tf%-tl

,.^.

»o

»^sJ tlr.cxlK- ^-»i1> 1,1

A^-

llv

Aj.

t»>

ii .L J,

, jI •♦*"» iii^L^ 14;,' ■

• jL -r"

.j tb^ furvW of '

ft tniil

■ 1 '" * .1 * ' ''

•*y,

, .1 miA wenAljT etiQflersAil la kglUiiui»« lasiiiiseffrj^

m JB^T lili old moiidi '

|ft<>d)i w«nt diiiii^
III yin^a^ n viii*

1^ ?inalfird t mfmthfk TlifVsii rn-c

b Hie priiVD qC Qrt^ la f>«mv, If al Mtt «Uu^. ; < *^ »^^ «^

r ia L

I!*TT*n •«»fj?ft»^,

Ji4£iavtt •tmited 111

/rka of 0^

1 #.^ 1 :

HI fmmiptM^i fr»¥iiriCKP) % # Ikmm l^iiU f«««i«lidi^ utiii vl >>iiti« will ^<|^it)iiv «ri

378

OAKOVAl

0AN8XBIN

the 01061 oelebnted. During the revolntion of
1798 he visited Germany, and on his return
retired to his native vill^^ where he devoted
himself to painting, his picture of the '^ Descent
from the Cross'' oeing especially noteworthy.
On his retom to Borne, he produced his ** Per-
seus with the Head of Medusa,'' which by pub-
lic decree was placed in one of the stansi of
the Vatican. In 1802 Niqpoleon invited him to
Paris, where he modelled a colossal statue of the
emperor, which was not completed before 1808,
and aiterward passed into the possession of the
duke of Wellington. In 1805 heexecutedhis*' Ve-
nus Victorious," and in the same year he com-
pleted his monument of Christina, archduchess
of Austria, erected in the church of the Augus-
tines at Vieima. This is considered the master-
work of his monumental productions. He revis-
ited Paris twice, in 1810, when he modelled the
bust of Marie Louise, and executed the statue of
Letitia Bonaparte, for which in 1819 the duke
of Devonshire paid $6,600; and in 1815, when
he removed to Italy some of the works of art
which had been carried to Paris by Napoleon.
His reception at Bome was brilliant; the pope
inscribed his name in the golden volume of the
capital, and conferred upon him the title of
marchese dischia, and a pension of about
$8,000. For hb native village, Possdgno, he
designed a temple after the model of the Par-
thenon of Athens and the Pantheon of Bome,
of which the foundation-stone was laid July
11, 1819. He executed the bass-relief, and a
great altar-piece for the interior, which he had
begun 20 years before ; but his earthly career was
drawing to its dose. Some of lus most popular
works were wrought b^ him shortiy before his
death, as the groupof Mars and Venus, the colos-
sal figure of Pius Yl., the Pieta, the St. John, the
recumbent Magdalen, &c Among his later works
is a Washington, of colossal size, in a sitting atti-
tude, now in the state house at Baleigh,N.C. In
Hay, 1 822, he paid a visit to Naples, where he had
undertaken an equestrian statue for the king.
On lus return, his health became more and
more impaired, and he died shortiy afterward at
Venice. His remains were depodted in the
church of Possagno. The same monument which
he had designed for Titian, was dedicated to his
memorv in 1827, in the church de' Frati of Ven-
ice, and another monument to his honor was
rdsed by Pope Leo XII., in 1888, in the library
of the capitoj.

CANOVAl, SxAinsLiLO, an Italian eccled-
astic and historian, born in Florence, March 27,
1740, died tiiere Kov. 17, 1811. Having taken
holy orders, he officiated afterward as professor
of mathematics at Cortona. In 1788, as a mem-
ber of the academv of antiquities, he contended
for the prize which was offered for an essay on
Americus V^uoius. He opposed the common
opinion that Columbus was the first discoverer
of the new world, claiming that Vespucius one
year before him had touched upon the northern
part of the continent and had landed in Brazil.
His paper gained the prise, but produced much

eoiitrov6n(y. He published an Italiaii trwcbir
tion of Gardiner's tables of logarithms and otJ^er
writings^ and enjoyed also m& reputation of a
worthy eooleBiastic When Alfieri was dyine,
Canoval waited on him to minister to hia
^iritual wants.

CANBOBEBT, FsAHgoiB OsBXAiir ns, a
French general, bom in Brittany in 1809.
Belonging to a good fjaunily, he wa8» in 1826,
admitted to the military school of St Cyr. He
nevertheless enlisted afterward as a priTnte
soldier; but within 4 years reached the miik
of sub-lieutenant. In 1835 he went to Africa,
and served as first lieutenant in the e^iedition
to Mascara. Being promoted to a cq>tainqy,
he distinguished himself in 1887 at the stonn-
ing of Constantine, and received the decoration
of the legion of honor. He displayed skill and
courage in many encounters with the Araba, was
made a mf\{or in 18i2, and lieutenantHX>lQiiel Sn
1846. With the 64tii ree^ent of the line» he
marched against the formidable Bon Haza,
forced sevml tribes of the lower Dahra to
submission, and waa made a colonel in 1847.
Since the revolution of Feb. 1848, his advance-
ment has been rapid. An e:roedition in 1848
against Ahmed Sghir, bey of Constantino, who
had excited several tribes to rebellion, and
another in 1849 against the Eabyles, assured bis
promotion to the rank of brigadier-general ; and
a successful inroad on the Arabs of Kaiah,
whose strongholds he destroyed, added neatly
to his popularity among the soldierB, while it
procured for him the appointment of aide-de-
camp to Louis Napoleon. Aftw the coup i^eiat
he was one of the commissioners sent to the
departments in order to expedite the proaecn-
tion of those who had attempted to resist that
act In 1863 he was appointed general of di-
vision, and in 1854, upon the formation of the
army of the east, he was placed in oofmmand
of the Ist division, set out, March 18, 1664^ for
the Crimea, and was slightiy wounded in the b«t-
tie of the Alma. The emperor having inveated
him secretiy with the supreme command in the
case of an emergency, he assumed that posiUan
after the resignation of St Amand, and defeated
the Bussians at Inkerman ; but shrinking from the
responsibilities of a general-in-chief^ he reogned
his command to Pelissier, Kay 16, 1866. Soon
after, he returned to France, where he was re-
ceived with great distinction by the emperor,
who sent him on a mission to Denmark and
Sweden, and conferred upon him the military
medal of Crimea, and tiie rank of marshal <Kf
France. From the British queen he also re-
ceived the grand cross of the bath. In 1868
he received the command of the 8d of the 6 mili-
tary provinces into which France was divided
by the imperial government.

CANSO, or CAsrsBAU, Gut of, the passase
between Nova Scotia and Cape Bretcm. It
leads from Northumberland strait into the At-
lantic Length 17 nu, breadth 24 m.

CANSTKIN, Kabl Hildebran^ baivo. the
founder of the Canstein Bible society of Halle,

■

(unTAinLe

CAKTAOCaSWS ITV H

H fn

.. (..-.. ^i f ,,.«,.M>yi-.^n. \^^.. 1 i>i;n*?

rrr,.^ 1^... *„,.^,:.,„,i --T-^f of Ibdl DKlfl3IiP> ^1

^^^1
^^^

r^pr*^ iL ^^H

h '"

' 1

H •-'

^^1

1 ^

■ ».

^^H

^^^1

^H ^'

^^1

H ^^

^ r^ ,.^ ^ , ^^H

■ T

^^1

. ■ ' ;

^^^f '

-, flMTohii ilm ©wy

^■f}.

, ) n 1i^ ttlrtr'/M^

ci >«^ » rUa;iv. ^H

^H t-

, nm-mhet^

f^ii tiikBtJi gnbi ^H

■ ii'

; U |j;^aiii1llillt U

DOiitUv inwjiloL All ^ ^H

^^P

KHint^^ .itlDi^« sufwir ^^|

H* wrp' ni'i .ii^^lbur fiMniunhit-*. ^^|

lj.

0f Ibe fTMidinii WM Ihf Tvmlft ^ ^H

-; -T^

tttOiporiW toUV ' ^H

Mlii»irQ4» to ihr. ^H

^ t^-"

. fM^

l&S^ Aih^ ivvt.I. ... ^H

H Dr-tb.i

-^«B*

■ Ut<

. ll...

■ V-

i!id ITm^.' ^H

1 *-'

K \}lU hoc. ^H

■ r>::

H ^'

V tncuuiTjH '

^^^

■ "

\oifm tQfoml

tlio jttMinisila uc ^M

1 i'

ur wUi^r

f^vuT, ±ml tu iJ.i< ^^M

■ t:

■ «&Ui»j

vrhWif iftbetii,

itf ll}* iSft/tit*^ Rfid t:^ ^H

_ ^rn>

k r"'

4/iQiefal

fnftTrtti;^ ^H

■ c

r tfl«i

lOoUlir ^H

H t*

y ±^t i<r>ii llmig*

eiifADQ^ ^iL-ib-jii' ^H

■ '

'^"•d bsriffHpfiS*

irt«4^^ he 4eviiii^ ^H

H > '

n.^ ^ _... .1.^^

rlnocti n imU'Tj ^H

H I"

ti>i;;jm>, fui Lo ^H

1 ''

■iwt*.- iirrjv-Mina^S^ \AV-iJ. lii'

aT<«Wfuli*>. ^1

H '^

! Sirabo ilMdlici yiifti Hi

iibliifiiy^, ^B

, 4« foaifiLi ** ^Lvrk4f4t n** ivlic}

vcirlifiittirtij, ^H

S80

OAITTAGALLO

OASCTSBSUKt

PopeGregory XL a oommendatoiy letter. Oan-
tacuxemis ended his days in his monastio re-
tirement, as did also his wife, who had retired
to a oonvent on his abdication. It is not cer-
tain in what year he died«

OANTAGALLO, a town of Brazil, in the
province of Rio de Janeiro, inhabited b^r Swiss
settlers. The town was formerly rich in gold
mines, which are now exhansted.

CANT ALf an inland department of IVanoe,
mostly formed of theS. part of ancient Anvergne.
It is nearly covered with moontains of volcanic
origin, the highest summit of which is the
Flomb de OantaL The climate is severe, the
snow generally lying on the moontains for sev-
eral months tooether. Ohestnnts are the sta-
Ele article of rood for many inhabitants, who
ve also on buckwheat, rye, and potatoes ; the
wealthy dassesalone nse wheat. The agricultural
portion of the department is on a level plateau
between Murat and St Flour; very small
parcels of arable land being found in the moun-
tainous region. The declivities of the mountains
present fine pastures and meadows, where large
herds of cattle are kept during the summer.
Large quantities of butter and cheese are pro-
duced. There are a few factories of coarse
woollens and linens, coarse lace, copper and
brass, paper-mills, &c Many natives of the
department annually emigrate in search of
employment These are generallv known as
Auvergnats, and distinguished by mdustry and
a saving disposition. Pop. in 1866. 247,665.

OAKTALUPO, a town of Naples, province
of Sannio or Mdlise, memorable for a French
victory over the Neapolitans in 1798, and for
a destructive earthquake, in which many lives
were lost, in 1805.

OANTATA, a somewhat elaborate vocal
composition, ordinarily written for a sin^e
voice, with a thorough bass, and comprising
recitative and air. Its invention has been as-
cribed to Barbara Strozzi, a Venetian lady, in
the 18th century, and also to Giacomo Caris-
simi, pontifical chapelmaster, about 1650. It
originally assumed the form of an opera,
with voice parts and accompaniments of violins
and other mstruments, but was subsequently
restricted to a few melodies, interspersed wiUi
xedtative, and adapted to a angle voice.

CANTEEN (Ft. eantine), a snuOl wooden or
tin vessel, used by soldiers to carry liquors,
cooked victuals, &c. ; also a little coffer or chest
lor holding an officer's eating and other uten-
uls; and, lastly, a public house licensed in
Britishjpwrlsons ifbr the use of the soldiery.

OANTEMIB, DxxETBius, hospodar of Mol-
davia^ bom Oct 26, 1678, died Aug. 28, 1728.
His lather, Constantine, held the same office
from 1685 to 1698, and his brother, Antiochus,
from 1695 to 1701. Demetrius having spent the
early part of his life in Turkey, where he ac-
quii^ not only a high reputation for literary
attainmente, but also for military and politick
ability, assisted in the overthrow of Bassaraba,
the hoi^iodar of Vallaehia, and could only be

prevailed upon by the Turkish government to
become hospodar in his place, by the prospect
of eventually becoming ruler also over the
former counUy. He entered upon his duties in
Nov. 1710, but Turkev having disaDpolnted
him in these anticipations, and the Komans
beinff successful in their first attempts upon
Moldavia, he concluded, April 80. 171L «
treaty with Peter the Great by wmoh Mol-
davia was to become an independent princi-
pality under the protectorate of Russis, De>
metrius to be the hereditary sovereigD, tnd
to fornish to the czar's expedition against
Turkey a contingent of 10,000 men. The en-
terprise, however, was not sucoessfbL The
czar was forced to retreat, but declined to
surrender Demetrius, who followed him to
Russia, where he received extensive domtins in
the Ukraine, with the right of sovereignty over
them, and with the rank of a prince of the Rus-
sian empire. He was also made privy coonoillor,
and in 1720 accompanied the czar on hia expe-
dition to Perma, but illness compelled him to
return. He aided in the establishment of the
academy of St Petersburg, and was a member
of the kindred institution at Berlin. He ▼«
proficient in 11 languages, and the author of
many works on Turkey, Moldavia, and the
Mohammedan religion, the best known of
which is his history (in Latin) of tiie growth
and decay of the Ottoman empire.-— AimoaiitB,
or OoNSTANTiNs DBifBTBiUB, a RusBian poet
and statesman, son of the preceding, bom in
Oonstantinople in 1709, died in Paris in l74i
He was carefbUy educated in St. Petersburg,
took for some time a prominent part in Poli^
ical affiiirs, offidated as Russian ambsaaadorat
various courts of Europe, and gained distinctioa
by his diplomatic, but still more by his literary
achievements. Among his most noted w(^era
his Russian translations from the dassica, and his
8 books of satires, which exerted a great inflih
ence on the development of Rusaan Doetry,and
have been translated into French ana GermaiL
OANTERBURT, a city of Kent, in England,
on the river Stonr, 55 m. byroad, 81 by railway
firom London. The city has no commercial or
manufacturing position. It is one of the bu^^^
of the rich agricultural county of EeDt) aiw
a large quantity of produce is disposed of ben>
A local trade is also carried on with the flQ^
roundinff district Among the pnbUc bnildio||^
beside the churches and the charitable estab-
lishments, are the guildhall, markets, the oe^
com and hop exchuige, and the philoaopbi^
museum. There is a cavalry barrack near the
city. Its principal, celebrity is derived from i^
historical associations, and firom its being the
metropolitan see of all England. The town tf-
isted in the time of the Romans, who called »
Durrocemum (firom the ancient British Do>
wher). It was the capital of the Saxon kingdom
of Kent, and it was here that Augustine baptised
Ethelbert and 10,000 of his Saxons. Tbe^
cathedral, which was restored and beaatified
during the present century, andnow presents ooa

0AHTHAim>E3

CANTICLES

8St

of tbo inoAt beiintifal IntcriDrs io England, was
hrnh in 11 30. The great tower is of rcsinorkabk
beatitj, Tiie winilowa are of painted glass, and
ihQ colors ara exceedingly rkh« The length of
this Doble structure b 514 feet, eitromo breadth
Tl feot The crypts beneath are considerod to
be Ibe ^m&at in Eadand, a[id coiitaia serer^il
chapels. The cathedral was founded by Arch-
bishop Lanfrano, completed by Ansehn, and
consecrated by Archbishop Corbel^ in presence
of Henry I. of England, David, king of Scotland,
and dl the English bishops. Augustin was
the first archbishop, and died here between
6ij4 and 614. The celebrated archbishop,
Thomas k Becket, was mnrdered before the
high altar in 1170. There are numerous mon-
uments in the cathedral ; among others those
to the memory of Henry IV. and of the Black
Prince. There are several other fine old
churches in Canterbury, one of the most inter-
esting of which is St Martinis. In St. Dun-
stan's the head of Sir Thomas More was
found in 1885, which had been buried by his
daughter. There are also various architectural
rel i 03 of past ages. One of the most interesting
of these, the great Augustin monastery, long
used as a brewery, has been redeemed from its
modem uses by the munificence of a pri-
vate individual, Mr. Beresford Hope, who
purchased it, and presented it to the church
as a missionary college, defraying the ex-
pense of the restorations and enlargements.
There are several educational establishments
in the city ; the grammar-school, an endowed
school attached to the cathedral, the na-
tional British and infant schools, a blue coat and
a gray coat school. There are also numerous
charitable institutions. There is a fine hospitaL
By the liberality of another private individual,
Alderman Simmonds, a field, called the Dane
Jolin, containing a high mound, was laid out,
and converted into a very pleasant garden for
public use. The borough of Canterbury is gov-
erned by 6 aldermen, 1 of whom is mayor, and
18 councillora, and returns 2 members to the
house of commons. Pop. in 1851, 18,398.

CANTHARIDE3 (Gr. Koudapts, a beetle),
coleopterous insects of several spnecies, made
use of in medicine. The most preferred is the
cantharU tesicaUyria^ a foreign fly, prooored
mostly in the southern parts of Europe, but to
some extent in all the temperate regions of
Europe and western Asia. A species called the
(7. vittata^ or potato-fly, is common upon
the potato plant of the United States; it is
much used as a substitute for the foreign fly,
and is by many regarded aa equally efficient. It
is even adopted in the pharmacopcaias as offi-
clnaL Other species, too, are known in this
country, and are in some parts of it exceedingly
abundant The potato-flies appear on the plant
in the mornings and evenings of August Dur-
ing the day they disappear in the earth. They
are collected by shaking them off into a basin
of hot water. They are from i to f of an
inch in length, and of a shining golden green

color* — Oanthftrides are impoirted from the ooua-
tries on the Medlterraneaii, and from Bt Feterv
burg. The Russian fiiesi which may be dia-
tinguialied from otlters by their superior s\m
and peculiar copper hue, ore the most esteemed.
In the Iarvi9 etato the can ttiar ides live in the
ground upon the roots of plants. The files of
southern Europe usually swarm upon the trees
in May or Jnne, selecting such as the white
poplar, privet, ash, elder, &c. The early mom^*
ing is the proper time for collecting them, when
they are in a torpid state, and will easily let go
their hold. Persons protected with masks and
gloves beat the trees, and the flies fall upon a
Hnen-cloth spread to receive them. They aro
then deprived of life by being exposed to ti^e
steam of hot vinegar. This method of destroy-
ing them dates back to the times of Dioecorides
and Pliny. When dry they are carefully packed.
If kept in air-tight vessels, they will retain their
properties for many years ; but if exposed, they
will soon putrefy, particularly if reduced to
powder. For this reason they should be kept
whole until wanted for use. Being then pow-
dered and mixed with ointment or lard, they
make a valuable preparation for blistering
plasters. Care is required in its application, as
troublesome sores, and erysipelatous inflam-
mations are apt to follow its use. Internally
administered, the medicine acts as a stimulant,
principally upon the urinary and genital organs;
its use is attended with danger, as it acts in
large doses as a powerful and highly irritating
poison.

CANTHARIDIN, a principle derived from
the alcoholio tincture of the oantharides in-
sect It was discovered in 1810 by Bobiquet
When the strong solution is set aside, the can-
tharidin separates in crystals like plates of
mica or spermacetL These are Tolatilized by
heat and pass off in white yapors, which con-
dense in acicular crystals. Being soluble in
ether, it is used in the preparation of blistering
papers, and the principle being extracted, the
flies are sometimes used io adulterate the genii-
ine article

CANTICLES, or Sono of Solomow (Shir-
JuMJnrim in Hebrew, the turfia rwf atrikorwt of
the Septuagint, the Canticum Canticorttm
of the Vulgate), the 4th book of the Hagi-
ographa, and the 1st of the so-called Megilloth,
has its name of Song of Songs from the superior
beauty of its language and poetry. In a num-
ber of dialogues and soliloquies, written inmost
harmonious verses, it gives a glowing descrip-
tion of the tender, chaste, and faithful love, as
well as of the beauty of two lovers betrothed,
or bride and bridegroom; of rural scenes
among the mountains of Lebanon and HermoiL
among the hills and vineyards of Engedi, ana
in the environs of Jerusalem and Thirza ; and of
love itself^ sweeter than wine, more fragrant
than ointments, which cannot be bought, nor
quenched by waters, nor drowned by floods. It
is ascribed to Solomon, whose palaces, gardens,
chariots, horses, guards, and wives are men-

OAIimCLES

OASTOS

tioned, enhancing by tbe contrast, the ohanns of
calm mral life, fall of song, innocence, and love.
In regard to its form, its plot, and the order of
its parts, as well as to its subject, it has been
Tanoasly classified by ancient and modem
writers; by OrigeiL in the preftce to his com-
ments, as an epithalamimn hi the form of a dra*
ma, which is also the opinion of Lowth 4pd Hi'*
chaelis ; by Bossuet as a legnlar pastoral drama
of 7 acts, giving the scenes of 7 days, of which
the last is the Sabbath ; by others as a collection
of songs or idyls. Dr. Adam CSarke regards it
as a poem m gmerit^ composed for the enter-
tainment of marriage gaests. Its canonicity
has also been amatter of controversy; it seems
to have been in question with the Jews at the
time of the Mishna. Theodore of MonsnestiA,
the friend of St. Ghiysoetom, attaokea it most
vehemently with arguments derived firom the
erotic character of the book, and was severely
condemned for his attacks. Origen, who is said
to have written 10 books of comments on
the Oanddes, containing no less than 20,000
verses, and bis admirer Jerome, are among its
most prominent defendersL supported by the
circumstance that the book is contained in all
the Hebrew copies of the Scriptures, in the trans-
lations of the Septuagint, of Symmachus the
Jew, and of Aquila, and is mentioned in the most
ancient catalogues of the church, commencing
with that of Melito, bishop of Sardis, who lived
In the 2d century, though not expressly by
Josephus. Modem criticism has also questioned
the authorship of King Solomon, and several
Aramaic words^ the vod in the word David, and
the abbreviation of the relative a$ker, ^bc, have
been quoted as evidences against the generally
accepted antiquity of the book, though none of
these is conclusive. But no subject has excited
more and livelier controversies, or has been a
source of more learned and contradictory dis-
quisition and soratiny, than t&e question of the
literal or allegorio and mystio sense of the
book. Many modem critics both among Jews
and Christians, not unsupported by the opinions
of ancient and grave authorities, contend f6r
the literal sense. They also widely differ in the
interpretation of the meaning and otject of the
book. These writers account for its reception
into the canon on the ground of its praise of
faithfiil love, of cot^ugal affection, and the diaa-
tity of monogamy, or of a misunderstanding of
the collectors. The more ancient (pinion, on the
other hand, which is alone repirded as ortho-
dox in both church and synagogue, defends the
allegorical, religious, and sacred character of the
songs. Thus, on the one side the snlject is the
loveof ashepherd. of ayouthfhl Idng, &o., and the
beloved is a shepherdess, an Ethiopian princess,
or, according to Grotius and others, the danghter
of Pharaoh, wife of Solomon ; while, on the other
side, love aj^ars as a spiritual affection, as the
love of the God of Israel for his chosen but
abandoned people, according to the Ohaldee par-
aphrast, the rabbis, and even Luther ; of Christ
for the church, between the soul of the believer

and Ohrist, or as the oonneotiott between fts
divine and human natnre, aoccoding to wn
current in the church. Aben Ezra, a Jeviak
philosopher of the 12tli century, finds in tb
book the hopes of redemption far opDreiaed
Israel; Eeiser, the restoration at tfaeMoauo
law by Zerubbabel and Ezra ; Hug, an attempt
made in the time of Hezelriah to reonite the
remnant of the 10 tribes to Jndah; othen,
the love of wisdom ; the alchemists, evea the
search for the philosopher's stone. Dr. Kinch*
banm, of Cracow, brings the book down to the
time of Hadrian, finds in it the last outbreak d
Jewish patriotism and love of liberty, and in
the harai ba^er the mountains of B^har, n
herocially defended by Bar-Ookeba. Beside
the authors above mentioned, who havewrittea
upon the Canticles, the names of Eraanm^
Le Clero, Bosenmtuler, Eiohhora, Jahn, Be
Wette, Ewald, Robinson, and Stuart, most be
mentioned, as well as those of Mendelffiohn esd
Dr. J. Mason Good, who have published admi*
rable translations. Cf thoee of Jerome only
one is extant.

CAKTIUM, in ancient geography, the di^
trict in Britain which nearly correeponded to
the present county of Kent. The inhabitants
{Oantii) were spoken <tf by Cosar as being the
most civilized of the native British tribes.

CANTO FERMO (IL firm song), a term
applied in ancient church mumc to the einple
chants or melodies sung without aooomiMmi-
ment, or only humonized with oetaves. In
such compositions the notes are of the saine
length, and the structore oi the musio is of the
shnplest kind. After the invention of eons-
teipoint, the melody was harmonized with more
skill and effect, and to such improved species
of vocal composition the name of canto fp^
ratOy or figured singing, was giv^ to dlstia-
guish it from the e(mto/ermo,

CANTON, a town of Canton township, and
the seat of Justice of Stark co., Ohio. It 0
beautifully situated on an excellent miU-stresin
called Nimishillen creek, in the midst of the
finest wheat-growing district in the state ; m
once the completion of t^e Ohio and Feaai^*
vania raih^)&d from Pittsburg to this plaoe in
1862, has increased wonderfolly in size and im-
portance. Bituminous coal and lunestoae ais
found in the vicinity. In 1868, the town ooi^
tained 8 iron founderies, 3 woollen ftetories, J

gun-barrel Victories, a bank, an aoadeoor, ao^
4 newspaper ofiioes.
at from 8,000 to 4,000.

estimated

CANTON, a city of China (lat aS** r N^lW
118^ 14' £.), the chief emporium of the mpa^
and superor in population and wealth to^
other native Asiatic commercial city. In respe^
to the value of its trade, it ranks in the EsetneJ^
to Calcutta. It was, till 1848, tiie sole entrepot
of European commerce with China, and its ooia-
mercial distinction haa been attributed miwy
to the advantages derived from this intercourse ;
but a caieM study of its position and i«j
sources, and of the enterprise <tf its peofae, vm

cAinoir tm ^M

^^^jMf ''^

,*hA.\J,,f

fJrfi ^4Wr? luM4, lnrm£ i> n ^i ^, Vrrr^ .r,r..l .vr t>^... ^^M

■ n{N!«»

^lataiiirt

tf^nf p

.,i

-/ p'.. ,

kp.

^i^ H

'^J»,

,IH p€|l*

rf!^ 9fiJ

Tlw Jjru:-!

J.V-), {JiA^ . ^M

dtvAloiS ^H

^KmT U.LaC| tllA Eltri^r-TUl L9L" 1

ILiU ^^B

^^^^Hl|

«i. Tbo imk tik*

'iif^l TiVtt U^AlKi ' ^H

^^^Ko vmlpiiftU t If Admut ^ . .. . .

... .-r '\ir, ^^M

^^^K niHtsi. Tlicnn t!m ft^ftml «

^^C!..

^ jt/. fij.t-.'^:\ >jfi z-iinrn.'^ti

_„

.,. ^^1

JO.

ti^n*. •o '■ ...irlo'j of ifi\TWM *.' ^^1

'^r '

^^M

^ ,»!?■•

Br, jornwl ^r

^^^B^

* ti# aiiDont* '

oif tlM» baiff)d^«,

Miroa III jmn^i
, mm kStTcMr

^^^^^Viji' '

. 5l^ prrrpTT niit^rt"

■ rjf m^ omijtTi'

. i U**o-

i^uira iif w^^Ai ilitailf fi

-3

^ '^i^^y

iJUf llt>ll 1 «-

•#

-io *AkxT

atTju* >^ uUC And it ti> ^ jiAf f*Mreft-
Una nfibm Etuvpufla i^i i« rMldifili.
•HlOllllftlMlhiJfCf OltqTUr^.^ - ..^tfpkr' * '^- _

m: aauiiMUUM. WifOd ft r«ip«;UiM0 1

ubUnb*

- tfcft

^^^^■jli

-'fM

.1...

, ^ , .

11 Jit f ivi

!i4i U icn&cfnl]/ finty*^ aeil Wfiib'- ^H

gin ., /

r^^iltrwii

iUIoihI fti tU fniiii4aBii vl ii»« ^H

"'"""" J

884

OANTOir

caOf who bATe generally oommerdal and
dwelling eatablishments at Macao and Hong
Kong. For the aooonunodation of the less fortu-
nate European stranger there are a conple of
hotels, conducted on semi-European prinoi*
pies; that is, Chinese in service, chamber accom-
modation, and filth, and European in diet; but
to the curious and hardy traveller, the hotel of
Aoowo aflS[)rds a flur better opportnnify for
acquiring a knowledge of the people and
city than a residence at one of tne princely
honga. Though the Cantonese have been repre*
sented as being of all Chinese tiie most hostile
to strangers, yet it has been the experience
of several intelligent travellers, that a courteous
and cheerful deportment has always secured
immunity from insult in visiting portions of the
city distant from the foreign quarter ; and even
rambles with ladies in company have been ex-
tended without molestation through the coun-
try, around the fortifications of the wfdled city
proper. The walls are 80 feet high, 15 feet
thick at the base, narrowing towaid the top,
built of oblong blocks of sandstone, from 1 to
2 feet in length and thickness, though some
portions are partially of brick. This circum-
vallation forms an enclosure 7 m. in extent, and
is entered on different sides by 12 great gates ;
4 of which are called partition gates, being in
that portion of the wall which separates the
city proper from the suburbs, or portion ao-
cessible to foreigners. The walled city, as
viewed from a conmianding hdght outnde, is
little else than a rusty, irregular, concave plain
of tiled roofs, comers of jutting angles and
horns, red flag posts in pidrs before the man-
darins* houses, and towenng above all, widely
separated, 2 great pagodas. One of these is
160 feet, and the other 170 feet high. There
are 124 josh houses, or small temples, in the
city and suburbs. The streets, about 600 in
number, are narrow and tortuous, and never
designed to permit a European wheeled vehicle
to pass, as they barely afiord a passage for the
palanquins borne on the shoulders of a couple
of men, the only means of conveyance for those
who are not pedestrians. All goods are trans-
ported on the shoulders of porters, who are
to be found in such immense numbers, and
offer their services at such low rates, that the
cost of the maintenance of horses and ve-
hicles is evidently unnecessary amid this swarm-
ing population, which is estimated variously at
1,000,000 and 1,500,000, and, induing the
population of the boat town, perhaps exceeds the
latter estimate. Each street is genen^y w-
propriated to some particular branch of traae
or handicraft; one is called Looking-glass
street, another Curiosity street, and another
'Egg street, where the singular ^ctade is be-
hdd of millions of eggs, chiefly ducks' eggs,
which are prepared for preservation, and form
an item in the foreign Asiatic trade, as well as
in the home consumption. The proprietors of
the various shops are noted for an unusual de-
gree of suavity. When not engaged within, they

are ever seen standing In the door^ways of lli^

establishmentBi and, in an amnsing jnmbU
of mongrel English and Portngneae^ most per-
tinaciously solicit the attention of the paasiog
European. The Cantonese shopkeeper extends
a liberal hospitality to his eostomera; he al*
ways has a refreshing cup of tea to present) or
wine and other refreshments; and if hit ci-
vilities andlarffesaes fiedl to secnre a porohaser,
he parts with his visitor with the Banoe iinM*
ing politeness with which he received hinii
This disposition marks the Canton trader in aQ
parts of Asia. Provisions of aU kinda are
abundant and cheap in Canton; and few large
cities can compare with it in point of aalnbri^.
The innumerable children that enoomber the
narrow pathways, and crowd almost every city
canal boat, attest the wholesomenees of tbe
climate. This swarming life seems to flourish
amid an astonishing amount of dirt : the thou^
sands of women who wade in the filthy rive^
mud at low water, in quest of various moUuaks,
have each generally a child suspended at th^
backs ; and this burden seems to be an invari-
able appendage of a Tankia woman, who, as
she sculls her sampan along, flaps from side to
mde the head of her oomical-looking little off-
spring. This teeming hive of the homaa race
sends forth annually about 40,000 trading ad*
venturers and laboring coolies to different parts
of Asia, and of the latter lately to Anatmlia,
California, South America, and the West Indies.
The temperature ranges from 75^ to 90"* F. be-
tween June and August^ and 50° to 80° in Jan.
and Feb. Snow fell in the city in Feb. 1835,
but had never before been seen by a Uviitt
inhabitant Most of the rain fidls in May and
June, but in much less quantity than dnring a
rainy season in the same latitude on tbe Indun
peninsula. The S. W. monsoon causes a dear
sky, and^ brings a refreshing and invigorattng
air from Oct to Jan* A good deal of un*
healthiness is complained of in the foreicp
quarter, especially among the ladies ; bat ms
must be attributed to their luxurious and heavy
European diet^ and to the entire abaonoe a
suiteble exercise. — The first interooune of
Europeans with this city was in 1517» whsa
Emanuel of Portugal sent 8 ships of war to
accompany an ambassador, who went to Pekio
and obtained permission for his government to
establish a trading post near Canton, which
was ultimately fixed at Macao. In 1696 the
English failed in an attempt to open trsda
there. In 1684 they made another attempt
with a greater number of ships i bat the expe-
dition was abortive through the maohinatioiis
of the Portuguese. The perseveranoe ci the
English finally gained for them a snperior po-
sition in the European trade with Canton, which
they still maintain. Their imports in 18^ before
the opening of other porto to foreign trade^ were
about $17,600,000 of British manufiMtaies^ and
$18,000,000 of colonial produce; with exports
valued at $19,000j000, of which $16^000,000
was of tea. The United States rank next to

CAin'o:^^

OANTTT

885

Qroit Britain in ooimnemai importance ftt
CnQtoa. Hie enterprising mercbaiita of S^etn
wnTQ pio&eerfl of this trade, commencai at
^tvAt risk amid tbe dangers and vioissitades of
tije war of the revolution ; and this comnioroa
in 1&55 gave employment to 90,000 tons of
ftljipping, taking to Canton J2, 750, 000 of Amort'
CAn manul'actnre^ and prodncp, cLieflj coarao
cotton ffthric^ lead^ and giusiijng, and retorniJig
with 111.000,000 of Chinese produoLs,f>f which
$7,000,000 waa of toft.— Oa Miij 26, 1841, the
British, foiling to obtain redress for certain
prievancea, captured the forts which command
the city, and compelled it to pay a ransom of
£0.000,000 to save it fi^m bombardment. In
1847 the British again took possession of the
outer fortifications of Oanton. Again in combi-
nation with the French, they commenced hos-
tilities, Nov. 1857, against the city, which they
captured without much loss, Dec. 29, 1857. An
allied garrison still (Sept. 1858) occupies the city.
CANTON, John, an English savant, born at
Stroud, Gloucestershire, in 1718, died March
22, 1772. Having pursued the study of sci-
ence with so much diligence as to interest in
bis behalf many persons of eminence, he enter-
ed as an assistant, for the term of 6 years, the
school in Spital square, London, and at the ex-
piration of that time succeeded to the master-
ship, in the discharge of the duties of which
he spent the rest of his life. In 1745, the dis-
covery of the Ley den vial turned the attention
of Canton to the subject of electricity, in which
he made several valuable discoveries, almost
si m ul taneously with Franklin. He was the first
person in England who verified Franklin's hy-
pothesis of the identity of dynamic electricity
and lightning. In 1750 he submitted a paper
U) the royal society on the method devised by
h iraself of constructing artificial magnets. This
])aper procured him an election to a member-
ship of the society, and an award of a gold
medal. A paper on the possible elevation of
rockets, one on the phenomena of shooting
stars, another on the electrical properties of the
tourmaline, and another on the variation of the
needle, with appended observations for one year,
and still another on the compressibility of water
with details of experiments, followed each
other in quick succession. This last-mentioned
pAper brought him, in 1765, a second medal
from the royal society. The last paper Canton
ever submitted to the society, was to prove that
the Inminousness of the sea arises from the
j)ut refaction of its animal substances.

CANTON RIVER (Chinese Choo-hianff, or
Pearl river), the lower part of the Pe-kiang, a
river of China. It is navigable inland a distance
of over 300 m., flowing through the provinces
of Qnang-tong and ifiang-see. Opposite the
city of Canton, and for some distance below, it
is filled with small islands, planted with rice*
nn#l defended by a number of forts. It is here
crowded with shipping, and deep enough to ad-
mit vessels of 1,000 tons burden. The ships
of foreign nations, howeveri always discharge
VOL, IV. — 25

and receive their carigoes at Whampoa, a place
13 ra, lower. At a point about 4b m, below
Oiinton the river takes the name of Boca TigrSa.
CANTU", CEaABE, an Italian historian, poet,
and philosopher^ born ia Brisio, Sept* B^ laOS^
educated at Sondrio in the YoltelJina, whera
he taught bellefl-lettrea at a youthful age, re-
sided afterward in Como, and next at Milaii
until 1848. One of his earliest works, entitled
Rit^ionamenti ml la St^ria LoTuharda net Secolo
XYIL (**^ Lectures on tlie History of Lom-
bardy in the 17th Century"), 8vo, Ifilan, ap-
peared in a second edition in 1842-^44, and con-
tained liberal ideas that brought upon tho
author the animadversion of the Austrian gov-
ernment, which condemned him to a year's
imprisonment. During his confinement ho
composed a historical romance, entitled Ma/r*
herita Pusterla (Florence, 1845), which has be-
come very popular. His great work, on which
hb reputation will chiefly rest, Storia UhweT"
Bale (Universal History), appeared first In
1837, at Turin. It has been since revised
and reprinted at Palermo and Naples, and
translated into German. A French transla-
tion by Aroux and Lopardi, was published in
Paris in 1848. The greatest proof of its merit
and success, however, are 8 large editions pub-
Hshed in Turin ; the last edition, carefully re-
vised by the author, reaching 85 vols. 12mo.
The work is divided into the narrative, followed
by volumes of documentary history, and va-
rious illustrative essays by the author, and con-
cludes with tables and appendices giving a re-
8um6 of the whole work. The style is fre^
and vigorous, and yet, after the manner of his
countrymen, elegant and sustained. Cantu has
been a man of great industry and close appli-
cation, for although he uses the works of others,
he is still unhackneyed and free from imitation.
This great history is a monument honorable to
hun and to Italy. He possesses a critical spirit,
and is fully up to the time in which he lives,
and in his judgments on literary and political
characters he seeks to be just as well as independ-
ent The great learning of Cantu is not the only
trait that distinguishes him as an original char-
acter among many of his countrymen less pro-
found, yet better known than he to the English
and American public. He is a friend indeed of
liberty, and has suffered as we have seen in her
cause, yet he is a devoted admirer and practical
follower of the doctrines of the Roman Catholio
church. All these traits combined give a pe-
culiar character to his history, and render
it both interesting and important His religious
Ijrrics are found in all popular collections of that
land of poetry, and are much esteemed by his
countrymen. Other works, for which he has ac-
quired general esteem, are : Pamasso Italiano,
Poetiltaliani Contemporanei^ magglori e minori
(" Italian Parnassus, Contemporary Italian Poets,
ifajor and Minor, &o."), Paris, 1848 ; Stori/i di
Como ("History of Como'O, Milan, 1847; Algiso.
o la Lega Lomharda ("Algiso, or the Lombard
League"), Milan, 1846 ; Letture ffiovanili (^^Ju-

886

OAOTd

OANUTE TEQE 0BEAT

ye&Qe Beadiiig8^')i ^ ▼o^i pnblisbed about
tho same time, a work devotea to popular edu-
cation, which has been translated into several
languages, and has passed through more than
80 editions ; Storia deUa LetUratura Italiana
(" History of Italian Literature '0* Finally, one
of his most popular works is the Storia degli
ultimi Cento Anni Q^ History of the last Hundred
Tears"). It was published first at Elorenoe,
1861, and translated into Frendh by M. Am6d6e
Ben6e (Paris, 1858). It has since passed
through several editions, among which is a re-
cent and revised one issued at Turin. Oantu was
obliged to leave Milan at the time of the event-
ful insurrection of 1848, as he would have been
imprisoned had he remained there. He has
since returned to lifilan, where he is devoted
to historical and philosophical studies.

OAKTU, or Oantubio, a town of Lombardy,
pop. 5,864. It has had iron manufactures ever
nnce liie 10th century, and contains an ancient
church, remarkable for a tall and slender belfiy,
used during the middle ages as a beacon.

OiLNTYRE, a narrow peninsula of Scotland,
fbrming the southern point of the county of
Argyle. It is terminated by a light-house,
whose light is seen at a distance of 22 m.

CANUTE THE GREAT, Knud, or Kntjt, the
5^ king of Denmark of that name, and first
Danish king of England, bom in me former
country about 995, died at Shaftesbury, in Eng-
land, in 1036. He was the son of Sweyn, king
of Denmark, and accompanied his fiU^her in his
victorious campai^ in England. Sweyn, hav-
ing proclaimed himself king of England, died
in 1014, before his power was established, and
appointed Canute his successor there. The latter
was immediately driven out by Ethehred, the
representative of the Saxon line, and fled with
60 ships to the court of his brother Harold,
king of Denmark. Harold enabled him to col-
lect a large fleet in the north to prosecute his
cause in England. He invaded that country
anew in 1015. He fought many battles with
Edmund Ironside, who had succeeded his father
Ethelred, in 1016, and was flnally victorious at
the battle of Assington. After this battle,
Edmund and Canute agreed upon a division of
the kingdom. To Canute were assigned Mercia
and Northumbrian while the Saxon prince pre-
served West and East Anglia. By the death of
his brother Harold, he obtained the crown of
Denmark (101 6). In the same year, and but one
month after the ratiflcation of the treaty of
partition, Edmund died, and Canute became
sole king of England without further resistance.
He refrained m>m murdering tiie children of
his late rival, and sent them to his half brother,
Olave, king of Sweden. He put away his wife,
Alfgive, the daughter of the earl of Northamp-
ton^ and espouscMi Emma, the widow of Ethel-
red the Saxon monarch (1017), on the condition
that their children should succeed to the throne
of England. He made the greatest exertions
to gain the affections of his I&glish subjects, to
whom his Daiush origin was no reoommeDda-

tion« He accordingly disbanded his Damah
army, retaining only a body-guard. He endeav-
ored to blend the 2 races as &r as posable,
and to induce them to live in harmony vith
each other. He erected churches, and made
donations to abbeys and monasteries on tho
scenesof former conflicts and massacres. In a
witenagemote at Winchester, he compiled a
code of laws which is still extant. In this code
he denounced .those who kept up the practice
of pagan rites and superstitions, and forbade
the sending of Christian slaves out of the ooon-
try for sale. Although Canute generally n-
sided in England, he made frequent visitB to
Denmark. He carried with him on these oo-
casions an English fleet, English missionaries,
and English artisans. He promoted 8 Englidi-
men to the newly erected bishoprics of Scaoi^
Zealand, and Fionia. In 1025 he was attacked
by the king of Sweden and defeated ; but m the
night. Earl Godwin, at the head of the EngM
contingent, surprised the Swedish camp and dis-
persed the enemy. His absence from i>enmark,
and the bestowal of so many dignities in Den-
mark upon his "Fnglifth subjects, made him im*
popular in that kingdom. To appease tins dis-
content, he left behind in Denmark his ton
Hardicanute, then aged 10 years, under the
guardianship of his brother-in-law Ulf (1036).
In this year he made a pilgrimage to Boid&
He was weU received there by the pope John,
and by the emperor Conrad IL, who gave up to
the Danish king all the country N. of the river
Eider. From the pope be obtained privilegw
for the English school established in Boid«i
and an abatement of the sums demanded fxm
his archbishops for the paJUum ; and from the
various princes, relief for all English and Difl-
ish pilgnms and merchants, from all illegal tolu
and detentions which they had endured on their
route to Rome. He returned from Rome to
Denmark. In 1028 he made an expedition mto
Korway, expelled Olave, and restored Hsoo,
who swore allegiance to him. In 1029 he w-
turned to England, and his Danish subject
proclaimed Hardicanute king of Denmart
Canute immediately returned to Denmark, pot
down the revolt^ and executed the traitor la.
In 1081, Canute was acknowledged king »
Norway, and laid dauns to the cro^«
Sweden. On returning again to England,^
allowed his son Hardicanute to share with juin
the Danish crown. His reign is very importan*
in the constitutional history of Denmart
Canute issued the first national coinage «
Denmark, and published the first written co«
of Danish law, wherein the custom of pn^«
vengeance was prohibited. He raised to
dergy in their corporate oapadty to * sepsraw
estate of the realm, and instituted the Thinglitt
or royal guard of 8,000 men. Themembe»«
.this body were all men of good family, and nca
enough to equip themselves at their own ei
pense. From them sprang the Danish order"
nobUity ; they were tried only by their pej^
and formed witJi the king the highest ooortoi

canyas^baok:

8ST

jastice. Oantite's last campaign -wii- _„

Duncan, king of Scotland, respecting the pos-
session of Gomberland, bnt before the armies
could engage the 2 kings were reconciled, and
ancient stipulations concerning the tenure of
Cumberland were renewed (1033). Canute
was buried at Winchester. By £mma he had
2 children, namely, Eardicanute or Canute
the Hardy, and a daughter, Gunhilda, mar-
ried to Henry, the son of Conrad 11., of
Germany, emperor. By Alfgive he left 2
sons, Sweyn and Harold. To Sweyn was
given the crown of Norway; Hardicanute re-
tained that of Denmark, and Harold, sur-
nained Harefoot, took possession of that of
England. Canute is most popularly known,
not by his extended rule ana legislative enact-
ments, but by the familiar story of the mon-
arch, the courtiers, and the disobedient sea.

CANVAS-BACK (fuligula foalUneria), a
duck of the family /w%w^, or sea-ducks, pecu-
liar to North America, and celebrated as the
most delicious of all water fowl, perhaps of all
birds, without exception ; though on that point
authorities and epicures differ. The sea and
its bays and estuaries are the principal haunts
of this genus. 8ir John Hichai^dson states, that
the fuligula valisneria, the canvas-back, /uli--
gula ferina^ the red-head, and fuligula rujlr
\orques^ the ring-neck, breed in all parts of the
fur countries, from the 50th parallel to their
most northern limits, and associate much on the
-wat^r with the anatincB. The male oanva»-
back has the region of the bill, the top of the
head, chin, base of the neck, and a^'oining parts
dusky red; sides of the head and whole lengtii
of the neck deep chestnut red ; lower neck, fore
part of breast and back, pitch black ; the rest
of the back white, closely marked with fine
undulating lines of black; rump and upper tail
coverts blackish ; wing coverts gray, speckled
with blackish ; primaries and secondaries light
slate color. Tail short, the feathers pointed ;
lower part of the breast and abdomen white ;
flanks the same color, finely pencilled with
dusky ; lower tail coverts blackish brown, inter-
twined with white. Length 22 inches, wing 94
inches. The bill is bluish black ; the feet and
loGTS are dark date color, the irides fiery red.
The female is somewhat smaller, and is less
brilliantly and less distinctly colored than the
male. This species is not found in any part of
Europe. Its richly flavored flesh is admitted
to be superior to that of any other of the genus.
The canvas-back duck returns from its breed-
U5g places at the north about the first of No-
vember, and during the winter extends its
x\<\is to the southern parts of the seacoast of
the United States. It is not unfrequently shot
in the eastern part of the Great South bay of
Long island, in Long island sound, on the shores
and bays of New Jersey, at Squan beach, Bame-
^at, Egg harborj and in the estuary of the
JJelaware ; but, m all these localities, it is but
a common duck, in nowise superior to many
others, and decidedly inferior to the red-head.

It is only in the Chesapeake bay, about t&e
confluence of the Potomac and Gunpowder
rivers, where it becomes itself the king of idl
wild fowl. This excellence is attributable sole*
ly to the peculiar food which it finds in tliat
estuary, a plant commonly known as wild
celery, botanically as the zostera valimeria, or
talisneria Americana^ which is on no account
to be confounded witJti the sostera marina^ or
common eel-grass. This plant, of which the
canvas-back duck is so fond, that it derives
from it its specific name of valisneria^ grows on
shoals, where the water is from 8 to 9 feet in
depth, which are never wholly bare. It has
long, narrow, grass-like blades, and a white
root somewhat resembling small celery, whence
it has its vulgar name ; although it is unneces-
sary to say that it has no real connection what-
ever with that plant. This grass is, in some
places, so thick as materially to impede a boat,
when rowed through it, by the opposition it
offers to the oars. It is on the root alone of
this grass that the canvas-back feeds. For
these roots the canvas-backs dive assiduously
and continually, tearing up the grass, and
strewing it on the surface of the water, in long^
regular windrows, like hay from the mower*»
scythe. The duck rises to the sur&ce as soon
as he has obtamed the reward of his labor, in
the shape of his favorite root, which he cannot
swallow under water ; and, before he has got
his eyes well open, says Mr. Wilson — though,
with all due deference to the eloquent pioneer of
American ornithology, it may be well doubted
whether so expert a diver as the canvas-back
ever shuts his eyes — ^is robbed of his meal by
the impudent widgeons, or bald-pates, as they
are called in America, which never dive, but,
being equally fond of the root of the talisneria^
depend on their adroitness and agility to rob
the industrious canvas-backs. On this account
the bald-pates congregate eagerly, as far as
they are allowed to do so, with the canvas-
backs ; who, however, live in a constant state
of contention with their thievish neighbors,
and, being by far the heavier and more power-
fiil fowl, easily beat off the widgeons, who are
compelled to retreat, and make their approaches
only by stealth at convenient opportunities.
With the canvas-backs also associate the red-
heads, the scaups, or, as they are called in the
Chesapeake, the black-heads, and some other
varieties, with which they feed on terms of
amity. — The excellence of the flesh of the can-
vas-backs causes them to be much sought after
for the market, but in the waters which they
frequent they are so strictly preserved by the
real sportsmen, who abound in that part of the
country, and have obtained the control of most
of the shores, that the worst methods of poach-
ing are prohibited. The canva»-backs will not
fly, like geese and many of the species of ducks,
to decoys ; and the anchoring of batteries on
the feeding flats, and the sailing after the birds
on their grounds with boats, are not permitted
under any circumstances^ which has preserved

sag

0ANVA8-BA0K

OAOUTOHOHO

thus far this delidoiis fbwl from eztennlnatioik
The ordinanr mode of kUling them is hj shooting
tiiem on the leing, from behind screens^ or
blinds, as they are termed, of reeds, arranged
on the projecting points of land, over or in the
Tidnity of which the fowl are oompelled to fly
in going np and condng down the bay, to and
from their feeding groonds. The velocity at
which they fly, as well as the height of their
course, renders it extremely hard to hit them ;
and a great allowance mnst be made in taking
aim, in order not to shoot far behind the ob-
ject, which will surely be the case if the sight
of the gun be laid directly on the passing fowl
Add to this, that the feathers on the breast of
this duck, as of many others of the fiunily, are
so closely compacted togeUier, of so thick and
elastic texture, and so matted by the aid of the
oil from the gland in the rump with which
the bird lubricates them, that any ordinary
shot, striking on the breast^ as the fowl comes
toward the shooter, will make no more im-
pression than it would on the breastplate of a
French cuirassier. The best and most deliberate
fbwlers, therefore, when they have time to
do so, let the flights pass, and then shoot them
with the grain of the feathers, A remarkable
propensity of these burds is to be attracted, with
a most singular and insatiable kind of cunodtyi
by the appearance of any unusual sight on the
shores ; and anything of this nature will induce
them to leave tiieir feeding grounds, and swim
in great flocks of thousands together, perfectiy
fearless, or rather reckless, to the places where
men lie for them in ambush. It is said that
the scaup, or black-head, can be allured in
this manner more easily than the canvas-back;
and that the red-heads and widgeons, when they
are alone, cannot be deceived at all, tiioug^
when in company with the others, tiiey will
fall into the same error, and accompany the
flocks to their own destruction. Advantage has
been taken of this habit to ensnare the unwary
birds to their ruin, by a system which is called
toling. It is thus practised: A long range of
screens is set up along the shore^ within a few
yards of the water mark, behind which tiie
shooters lie concealed, with small openings at
intervals to permit the egress and ingress of a
small cur-dog, the more like a fbx ^e better, and
so also the odder his appearance and the more
remarkable his color, who is teught to run back
and forward in front of the blinds, performing
all sorts of curious tricks and antics, to attract
the attention of the fowl. 80 soon as this ob-
ject is attained, they will swim up in a body
within easy gun-shot; and so totfulv are they
infatoated and demented by their curiosity, that
so long as the shooter holds himself concealed,
and the dog continues his deceptive gambols, so
long can the stupid birds be drawn up, to re-
oeive volley after volley, until they are deci-
mated or destroyed, perfectiy regardless of their
dead or wounded companions, through which
they will continue to advance on the nraxde of
the gun. The only thing neoeaBaiy to be ob-

served in this wort of shooting b not to over-
shoot the flock, which a novice is sure to
do, so deceptive is the effisct of shooting over
water. The plan adopted by the oldest shoot-
ers is, in taking aim, to see the wh<de body of
the nearest fowl, in a flock of hundreds, in
dear relief above the sight of the gun, and Uien
the chazve will ML into the middle of ths
throng. By good sportsmen, tohng^ and in-
deed any other way of shooting oanvaa-bada
than on the wing^ from points, is hdd rigl^
to be rank poaching. When the rivers begin
to freeze, vast numbers of all these varieties of
ducks congregate at the open air-holes^ and
fearftd slaughter is made of them in hard
weather at such places ; as many, it is said, as
88 canvas-backs having been killed at a mn^
disdiarge of a heavy gun. Wounded canvas-
backs are expert divers, and are extremely diffi-
cult to recover; wherefore it is usual, alwaya
to be accompanied by a good Ifewfomidlaaa
retriever.

0A0UT0H0T70, India rubber, oalled by the
South American Indians eahudiUj the ooncrelo
milky juice of a number of trees and planto found
in Brazil, Guiana, Peru, ^, and in the East
Indies. The poppy and lettuce, and some of the
euphorbisa, afford a dmUar exudation. The
American tree, from which this artide is Biq>-
plied, has been variously named by diflforeoi
naturalists. It is th^jatropha ekuUeaoiLxanm-
us, tifhonia ekutica of Fersoon, and £L cahueka
of Bchreber and WiUdenow. and the hmoea Cfu^
anerm$ of Aublet. The Asiatic trees, wbidi
furnish the greater part of the 8iq>pliea from
the East) are the./£0ttt and ureeo^ emUau The
former is one of the noblest forest trees, its ghih
^ being sometimes 74 feet and ite height 100 fbet.
In Assam, beyond the Ganges, are found inex-
haustible foresto of it; but the quaKtX ^ the
product is inferior to that of the American trees.
The French astronomers sent to Pern in 1785
were the flrst to call attention to this useful ar-
ticle. The tree was afterward discovered by
Frismau in Cayenne in 1751. — ^The province of
Para, 8. of the equator, in Brazil, fbrnishes im-
mense quantities of this artide to oommeroe.
The trees are topped in the morning and dur-
ing the day, a giU of fluid is received in a elay
cup placed at each indsion in the trunk. Una
is turned when full into a jar ; and is ready
at once to be poured over any pattern of day,
or a wooden last covered with clay, the tern
of whidi it takes as succesdve layers are thus
applied. In a dmilar manner candles are
made by accretion of grease around a wide.
As these layers are applied, their drying and
hardening are hastened by exposure to the smoke
and heat of a flre^ and thus the substance ao-
quires its ordinary black color. Dried by the
sun alone, it is white within, and yeiDowiah-
brown without ; when pure, it is nearly odoriees.
Complete diying requires several dsr^' e^MWire
to the sun ; durmg this time the snbrtance is
soft enou^ to recdve impressions fr«na stidc,
and is thus ornamented by variona deiigna.

eAQimTHaiic

putrxr* ^j'^k^A It upoi btlte of eUij la CL*

if Lm')-- • nvHl vaMlf tee^fol fljmn^ lo

The r ■

fiTiiJ '!■ r'r.' .
p.

iti' -. .
If'- -■'

f§l^ \f*nti it, ri*
titr •Trfnt'n, 49 I:,

iMlw^eo f'iUM mt diitii a.'
tfttfipfntroot. tl^ twiUi K'
■saff to Mrm^ wa^Ti ti t; i
MP biiiiiff rviwitii Uttm e

t^iTt Tn jiLt'r. ilQ of ts^'

ofKiii ft On irmpKiminK i'

MteiJBWllillllflii^ ii;
iif 4 cv^of fODIIolf

50 ;^.) — ^It m not otllf
.if lift

E*j©fif ih |}fct 1

^attMi

'ifl««|fS|]i»»

.^4

Leu ttdvmnygc
4^Mtic iQii0» fkiirlci i
lilt tJbraid^r wTiJisb am oAi

tba gain la ulijrilrtieftrboa cjuiMb*

wlilob JiAd liM bisifA tirtiQjfli •
0l«rttf^ fur a imblCMl I '

iu!]ipl0fl i£ v-tii lo ooDJiect villi ll««ILl^ jaijtlp
Urn ffUn till tilt rfv]|^J«d in tMr ofiixcitilfK^; %
lliia ibeet Ihitiitr cut Moc laid vmi4 tlw «a4i
of i liilsAi astlMJcltllf pRMd liifeUiee* H!]i{»t^1|
'* " were ori^iiA% oui^ b tjib rylbilrkJ

Jj- Qdilec Uilt KU17 Ibflo Ni iQpfMiit of«r tiUur
Uib«i^ It «aaQi»t!Mmt0l»9 Iliad lortodorebilli*
wmtcf -pt«4; aad as iln itt«|)^liBi awl l!*c^ of
i^JioiMli wMi «iil[)httr^ for eutni

14^ « Ei^nliitodi of QiOL lU librtkilx ^i^ f^cn^

bokr irm. Tliis el^iib Imoilft nod tlnv«3i Ibmiil

"Tiiiriwt iP|iUiaUi«il]a In tlw aru datt trailoi;

UiM liiiiifeEJod^f (bifj iiaifi» Wtsi uaeJ fur ai-

.^om of opafkisf to Ut» vdttun*

** t-.^ W^ J (if cpHup Ibrf !ui-. .^^ .h
th^ |4acv» of «6«^ t|wo ib4 £u|lkli liU*

890

OAOUTOHOUO

ways the elasticity of eaontchono in gradually
resisting compressioni has oaused it to be
made into bnfrars, which rednce the jar caused
hj the r^way carriages striking together. In
the same way it is used in this comitry in piles
of circular disks for the springs upon wMch tnese
carriages rest; and a patent has been granted
here for laying the rails themselves upon the
same material. By reason of its density and
flexibility, it is suitable for many of the uses to
which leather has been applied ; while its im-
perviousness, and resistance to the action of
substances which destroy leather, give it some
important advantages over this material. This
is particularly the case in the packing of me-
tallic Joints to render them steam-tight. In
thin sheets it has been used for taking impressions
of engravings. In this form it is an excellent
material for covering the mouths of bottles, and
for other applications requiring the exclusion*of
BIT and moisture. In a melted state it makes
lutes that are of service in chemical operations ;
and it may also be moulded and hardened into
ornaments of intricate forms. It makes with
other ingredients a cement, called marine glue,
which is unsurpassed in adhesiveness when
applied to join surfaces of wood, and is not
affected by moisture. Masts of vessels have
been so firmly spliced by its varnish, that when
broken, the fracture is always found to be in
the whole wood. It has been stated that the
timbers of a ship might be more strongly glued
together by it, than they are held by bolts. To
make this glue, a pound of small fragments of
caoutchouc is dissolved in about 4 gallons of rec-
tified coal tar naphtha, the mixture being well
stirred. In 10 or 12 days, when the liquid has
acquired the consistence of cream, twice its
weight of sheU-lac is added. It is then heated
in an iron vessel having a disoharffe pipe at the
bottom. As it melts it is kept well stirred, and
the liquid flowing out is received upon slabs^
and thus obtained in the form of thm sheets.
It is applied after heating it to 248'' F., with a
brush, bein^ kept sufficiently soft after spread-
^?f ^7 passmg iron rollers of the temperature
of 160^ over tiie surface, as may be necessary,
until the loining is made. In England, blocks
of caoutchouc combined with other substances
have been used for paving stables, lobbies, and
halls. The entrance for carriages to Windsor
castle is thus paved. Among we most promi-
nent of the numerous other uses of this valuable
substance, alone or in combination, may be
named machine belting, water pipes or hose,
baths and dishes for photograph and chemical
purposes, coverings of telegraph wire, boots,
shoes, toys, lifb preservers, clothing, fhmiture
covers, travelling bags, tents, beds, water pails.
&C., Ac New uses are constantly discovered
for it, as new properties are developed in the
various chemical and mechanical moaes of treat-
ing the article.— For most of the purposes to
which it is now applied, it is either unoombined
with other substances, or it is in the fonn of a
solphoret of caoutchonc, or what is called the

vulcanized oaoutchonc. To prepare this com-
pound, the crude article is out into little pieces
and thoroughly cleansed from its impurities
and adulterations by a series of washing by
water, steam, and mechanical applications. By
the English process, the little pieces are ground
and torn witn iron teeth in a cylindrical mill of
cast iron, which is so small that 5 lbs. of caout-
chouc make a charge. So much heat is developed
in this process, that cold water introduced to
wash the substance is soon made to boiL It is
then ground dry in another mill furnished with
chisek, which cut into the mass and open a pas*
sage for the escape of tlie confined air and steun,
which burst out with frequent explosions. A
little quick-iime is worked into it in this miH
In other machines it is kneaded and compressed
in various ways, and finally a number of the
balls thus treated are brought together and pow-
erfully squeezed by a screw press in oast iron
moulds, m which being firmly secured the msss
is left for several days. This process is some-
what modified in different establishments. In
some the mill is not used, but the cleaned shreds
are rolled into sheets, from which threads and
thin sheet rubber are sliced by the application
of suitable knives worked by machinery and
kept wet. The sheets are at once ready for the
purposes to which this form is applied, or by
machinery of great ingenuity they are cut into
long threads of any desired degree of fineness.
If then recjuired to be Joined, a dean oblique cut
is made with a pair of scissors, so as to expose
a fresh surface upon each piece, and on tiidr
being brought together and pressed with the
fingers, they at once form a perfect union, pro-
vided no moisture or grease naa reached their
surfaces. As the threads are reeled o£^ they
are deprived of their elastidty by running
between the moistened fiingers of a boy, who
presses them so that they are elongated at least
8 times. After remaining on the reels some
days, the threads are wound upon bobbins, and
are then ready for weaving or braiding. The
threads are of various degrees of fineness, a
pound of the caoutchouc making by one ma-
chine a thread 8,000 yards in length, which by
another machine is divided into 4, making
82,000 yards from one pound. Eli^o braids are
made by covering the caoutchouc with threads
of silk or other material In woven &b-
rics, caoutchouc threads make the warn
while the weft or cross threads are <^ siu:,
cotton, or linen. The stuff is made elastk
by passing a hot iron over it, which causes the
caoutchouc to shrink and regain its elasticity.
Too great extension of the articles, by which
the gum would be stretched so as to destroy its
elasticity, is prevented by making alternate
threads of the warp of the same material as the
weft, so that these shall receive the strain. By
the process of Messrs. Aubert and Gerard, of
GreneHe near Paris, a perfectlv cylindrical
thread is obtained of any size and length. The
caoutchouc after being cleaned is converted into
a paste of the oonsiatenoe of that made with

QAOuwaom

it.
t

rj.
U.
r:

©:m '■■■

^ .^ . ^ I R

--_- -1, Aia*.

^i lira hdl

, ]

0Mi Bfid iu dIjMinMAlile dfbotA mmld b#
STfiftdtfd. The f»it«f>i fntHi Ti•4L^<l ANicmsSii

l^tactUa whoa tr> ^

ftoionkiiM ftfid ftlccilMyil, liiif 0 bm wad with mfiro
0r Kc^ iurtrwi lo ditidmiv 11»m i^bdcD. Th^^j

Sddb wllit tliii «ra»0 isO^l^^ . - - ' ' I lod <w>at-
fltumc, wlucli la «ootiiblBiii ^ ralMtAOitfi

|iiitfuy>d Baot&or prooM 1^ wlitch 1d«4 wiu
Ate lulfaiiauinl, Ul tlm pt^m ^ wliHo kM^ \fiW

II* r - ' Willi

t . « ffehl «iSA Ui0 od^tfcL Olf fi^iliihiitf tbo

c^ ii^iffi! aotaeiot tad liea^^ Bsrtmfn

ihU ttt^ y^olmr nlwiobAl orrif>«ftl«, ism wWh

c*v ' ' ixnpkrisibtiiraolRLljiKiir

^ i ^ o9Eirpoaii4 ot tulpliOf toil

ffPi^tii^jj u.- 1^ Txrrm'jEfc|Jelbr|iiPiPjiDgilliljSliqr

dm^ of rititiiijlr Ihiii «i0mKono dotw, «»d

l^iteli*

tbcj

''^ taut lM4 t *J. Un,**

: jimd, will MT

I iiiT 4 111 ^,'V.ti-^l

liiirM 111 |»^1

camM lurd li«ea iutrwIuA <
0t tdsfSB^md ikiU «id of hmm '
ttecQ AppLtml to pcni

ifi Um untirfug
of M- - ^

^ (ciifufti nasi BipDCta ut

tl>o Aiailfiaifi
so4 lutecmikj

lUAvn u.0i#a

tk*^

*SSnti LIT "»«» ^ ^^

ITHlite

892

OAFB

OAFB OLKAB

England imported fW)m ford^ ootrntriea, fiwm
Jan. 1 to June 1, 1857, 5,488 owt of oaoutohoaO)
and dnring the same period of 1858, 9,155 owt.

CAFE, the extremity of a portdon of land
pn^eoting beyond the general line of the shore.

CAPE AkS^ the S. £. point of the town of
Glonoester, Essex oo., Mass., the N. limit of
Maasachnsetts bay. The whole of the rocky
peninsula forming this part of Gloucester is also
oalled Gape Ann, induoing the village of Squam
in its K E. part. This peninsula is a headland
of sienite, which'forms low hills, over the snr*
fiioe of which the rock is very generally ex*
posed to yiew. The lands are strewn wiUi tiie
greatest profiision of bowlders, many of great
Mze ; and beds of pure white sand are inter-
mixed with the ledges and bowlders. Valuable
quarries of ^enite for building purposes are
worked most conyeniently for diipment The
place is much exposed to the prevalent N. £•
storms ; but it offers a small, well-sheltered bar*
bor among the rooks, where coasting vessels
often take reftige. There are on the shores
of this harbor 2 fixed lights, 500 to 600 yards
apart, and 00 feet above the water. Lat 42^ 88f
18'' K, long. 70'> 84' 42'' W. Distance from
Boston 81 m., N. E. by E.

CAPE BABELMANDEB, formerly called
Jebel-KanhalL is a conical oasaltic rock, 865
feet high, on tneN. sideof the strait of the same
namC) between the shores of Arabia and Abys*
sioia. uniting the Bed sea with the Indian ocean.

CAPE BE ABN, a promontory of France, on
the Mediterranean. On Mount B^am, whidh
forms its summit, is a first class light-house.

CAPE BLAKGO, or Oxfobd, near the fib
W. part of Oregon territory, is near the mouth
of Bogue river on the Pacmo coast.

C ApE BOEO (anc. LUyhmum Frommtorium)
Is on the W. coast of Sidly, 1 mile from Marsa-
la. It is the point of 8io&y nearest to ancient
Carthage, and at an early period became an imp
portant naval station. Thenaval victory of the
Bomans over the Carthaginians, which put an end
lo the first Punic waivwas ffained near this point

CAPE BOJADOB, of western Africa, is
formed by the termination of a range of Mount
Atlas, and until doubled bv the Portuguese in
1488, had long been the 6. limit of European
navigation.

CAPE BON, or Bas Addbr, a headland of
Tunis, on the Mediterranean, is the northern-
most point of Africa.

CAI'E BBETON, a British American colony
B. K of the gulf of 8t Lawrence, lying be-
tween lat 45*^ 27' and 47^ 5' N., and between
long. 69* 40' and 61* 40' W.; area 8,120 sq. m.
It is divided from the mainland by the gut of
Canso and St Georoe's bay. The island con-
tains some high land, and we coast is well in-
dented with harbors. The Bras d'Or is a re-
markable inlet of the sea, which almost divides
the island into 2 parts, and occupies a very
large part of the insuliff outline. It is 55 m.
long and 20 m. wide, and varies from 70 to
800 feet in depth. In it there is an island

oalled Bookzdrie island, xddoh eontiinfl a little
Brasd'Or. Beside these sea-water gnlfii^ there
are several fimh-water Iskes in the island.
Granite is f on nd at the Bras d*Or, gypsum in vari*
ousparts. Coal in large quantities exists in the
IsUmd, and upward of 50,000 tons were raised
in 1851. A rich iron ore is also found. There
are aboat64,000acresof land under cultivation,
producing cereals and root crops^ with YmUet
and cheese. There is a boundless snppl j of
salt and fresh water fish. The inhabitants are
occupied in agriculture and fisheries ; they abe
carry on domestic manufactures of cloth and
flannels. The number of vessela built in 1851
was 24, tonnage 2.598, and of boats 469. The
value oi impcSrts that year was about $160,000,
and of exports $260,000. Entrances, 476 ves-
sels, tonnage 48,848 ; clearances, 877 veoad;^
tonnage 85,570. The vessels employed in the
fishery of 1851 numbered 21, tonnage 468,
with 88 men; and the boats 654, with IJMS
men. The quantities of fish cured were: dry-'
fish, 21,458; salmon, 844 barrels; shad, 28
barrels; mackerel, 9,428 barrds; herring^
6,118 barrels; alewives, 58 barrels; while the
fish oil obtsined amounted to nearly 25 pw oeaL
of the quantity fhmished by the other parts of
Kova Scotia.— The first setdement in the island
was made in 1712, by the IVench, who called it
lile Bovale, and who constructed 8 years altera
ward the fortification of Louisburg, on the
B. K coast. It was taken from them by th«
British colonists of New England in 1745, and
is now included within the government of Nova
Scotia, returns 2 members to the Nova Scotia
house of assembly, and is divided into 8 oountiesi
namely Ci^ Breton, Victoria, and InveniesiL
Pop. of both counties in 1851, 27,580; 11.498
of whom are Boman Cathdic& 8,968 memnen
of the Free church, 8,452 of the chinch cf
Scotland, 2,156 of the church of Eng^d; the
Fresbytwian church of Nova Scotia, 106 ; Ba|>-
tists, 581 ; Methodists, 685; Independettts^ 78;
the rest condstiuff of other denominatiQiii^
with a small sprinluing of native Tn^<M»%

CAPE CABTHAGS, a promontory of N.
Africa, in the Mediterranean. Traces of the
ancient city of Carthage are found near it.

CAPE CATOCHE^ a headland at the N. £.
extremity of the peninsula of Yucatan, Central
America. It was on this spot that the Spaniacds
first landed on the American contineat, and
Beraal Diaz teOs ua that within 6 miles of the
cape they saw a laige town which they named
Grand Cairo.

CAPE CHABLES is at the N. entranoecf
Chesapeake bay, and forms the S. extremity of
Nwthampton oo., Va. N. E. of it, on SmithlB
island, is a light*house with a revolving li^t»

CAPE CLABENCEisa headland att& N.
extremitv of Jones's sound, Baffin's bay. It is
surrounoed by inaccessible mountaina vhoee
summits are covered with peipetual snow.

CAPE CLEAB, a headland of oo. Code, Ire-
land, is on an island ci 1,506 aorea, withali^t>
house on an abrupt chff 455 ftet hi^

OAFS ooAtrr c^aiLi

QJi^E OOLOFT

CATB COAST QABnS, a Cawtt tsit! Dot df

' irifMl If J A pA^v .,ti-i; TT^ i^'nmdl ofiit mhw*
iflSL Tbo ftirt, witkli y tfe» faflil f«i
ibu»d« tw ft ^riDit» fock oitiloeAliit

tto^ tlw M^ jeil iMi itetrUtffii^ tmpo^

'. iodj p«iit8XBla fofticitif

oihmAt^<3femmi^M^it iho lino iMMreiyt

Us wyjii \i€f«md BmAiMk ranlj ■£-'

aB m%m It tl»f!!i lN«i4i ta tbt K^iiAd
ftot^y Tiill2iP{liaQiS0inl1««

Hkd «ii . oBtisoai Afatnnl lii

UUi '- ^^ '*:., emiom^ ilie Ode kad-laabd
Ikv [vattimt. fliii littsr |i#lleii

mA If Kntit^llid4ei|l«4 bj liiin l><3llt uii Uiit

Wff |M>t I^f^ font iiLfjv^yt tkfi Tknrri II r ih» a^ to

kt, ta ^ rbow

|yC*j, bo- ■ . ■ ,•■: .'J ■ : ■ ., 'LiUutt

C?|ijtr, 4.%d tW ftO-CJulwl Q^pfl i^»i Bf iki b IK) iiiii

ir- ' , iinii loiijf. Tf>*

r- ; ■■ {■■ V 'jnaaf Uwi

r,^'. • Mr.. I r I I .' ■..-jViif) iliir

K : r • ■ '■

Cv.

fttni HI L-fi!: rj J'.1 4115 •

I&Ai [#(4M» of

-^ i^-0c4,

Ukitti ciErHitbOraL

Alt' ilTvt MtLaotiisUod Tiili of tritltet

O]. ^< of Mimmvhm^tA CofkUda 0«)i*

DuLd <^rii>^i «tMU»d i7iitMd« Uie <«|»« ta hm»
lokrd'i^ I»AT, jstid IflSf^^;^ 4in ona of Um SDiAMii

IQbt iNiti fmr* 1 6(Ki. ii&u Liif^r KngliA^ itt|f«iUf on,

a0|(i^ ft TPMkk 1 ctf 60 ii&d I ol M taoff,

ttfUt Ul)tftiihittedtl>Mkmilrll&ilM<M0UnOilfl|

VDjikfim of ttik fnirkid', li«^ oa Fo?. % IWL
fl w« iss}it<lAOy nouie itieeiufii£ij#lif lbs irtira

iTiil -. diy cbI iiid^ Iti ^

if7rp.n7 dtooiteriMd, w«i dfsnai
^'*"'"' tan wQOi
.<f tweuno m Mr

Alt ^hui tknm tbii sxtnji

of ll» fTilrL

tnoA ittrt m w»^-
mUf teni mid tl»«

tiik^ «]f ithidi A )iiil« lunljjaliafti

EiblAiuad; Ami Aliidg t^ iliofeft ^

AAli'WiiNrniiKibia Tewinl lliA iir

eeim pi|lo3i-ciloft lad oAk tir*^ « irf ^?m <

Ibrtxi iizt(mi&t)A £cir»ti,

duftulAAle. Ja SAaJwfcl

of mekjf fotnut.
iIwIUaIj

If 0011 HMfc I

pmliii la A. lyrr

Bad fdteti cil 1^.^ ^^'-^ |^.4i^...*<j.^;,.
l^oAd Qif iba <3ifpik Hi* fkf 111 of i^i
wlit» Icn f * i™ A Hgisrt FnrmoAli'im
In iDiitti ' bdt^ Slid Il0 Mib An

dozuA il Ajtroo of tiMi «Xir<

% lliA iiii«tAlflii0A And ivn^iNXldcraTtt^

spoil dM ^oirQ^ ftS»d Uie trlsiki :

irlitt, tiMOUio b liiiliimvci 'miiit; rte irt£au«iitii '
Im^ forskMi mof JiAfbi»% AAt! 1^

sf« {ileAdsol Aod tJbrifiag viUij^ ^'^a

AQd lttMytyil|g peoflliL Ult&r lUiiiif iriP^iA of

«ayfpatt if» HAViwbiii fiahSoit and lit mm
mter* itf AAlL TliifiA Unrm ato Qm itsnmm *

miii^ of Uie tfuit ALifii of UiA Aniaiaiii fttfif
diA&tiefvfaik TlifwIiAloiMiMilliiAalAamismI
to Iff EdnUHkd TTorlolL tiiiii/!dr^4iit<>tl»jv L(v^ia

kaowaiaiU i

Ia IMA T»li4 vj limAr liadiAtiv , 1m» i

b oiii ■rTllttWifif UiAlr liiO^ KtfiUiec tlir l^rv^

TorBMHi ol QcdlKidt nor tha m^jitj of Ftwcv^.

nor llw d^stusniiM sa4 Una A«gRatj of EofUitl '

eciler|)H^ over i»fYl««l UmIt iiiiisA periliiiii ttto^

eihm$ tiiduAiT? to ^ Axtttui K> ifU«fa ii liM

liciu} mm^^l ' -' ; ocilif***

ootciOT viQr^s^ i 1 )i^u &a IfaiA toolliiffiiiuc'^t fnii^
ika Iff A&f^ IwtWMO UL iT IK»' ml 14^11' i

Uttn3iAi!iH|t'o^v{di *.

ymuu^ Gn»t Km, «^ ik^
0* £, I17 t2w aSadUimoimij.

894

GAPE OOLOKY

insoSa to the mdath of the EeiBkamma river
is over 600 m^ its breadth over 400 m. The
formation of the surface is that of a terraced
ooontry rising from the S. coast by a series of
parallel chains of msged and barren mountaina
toward the broad taUe-land which extends from
the Orange river N. &x beyond the tropic. This
table-land is marked off to the S. by a mountain
range sweeping from lat 80" in a crescent-like
form %"* 80' 8^ then K and N. £., where it
connects witih the Amatola monntidns of Oaf-
fraria. Portions of this range are the Boggeveld
(rye-field), Nienwveld (new-field), and Sneeuw
(snow) mountains, the highest peaks of which
rise to an elevation of 10,000 feet above the
level of the ocean. The fiats lying back of this
girdle of mountains have a hard, clayey soil,
without any vegetation except in the vidnitj
of the Orange river. The 8d terrace (going
from K. to 8.) consists of the Bongh Bogge-
veld, the Warm (or low) Bokkeveld, the Cold
Bokkeveld, and the Great Karroo, a sort of
table-land or elevated basin, thinly covered
with an argillaceous soil, largely impregnated
with iron upon a substratum of rock or gravel.
This arid plain, covering an area of over 20,000
sq. m., at a medium height of 8,000 feet, is for
f of the year as hard as baked brick, and almost
without any vestiges of vegetation. Only in
early spring, when the rain, descending in tor-
rents, fills the otherwise empty river beds to
oyernowing, plants appear with surprising
rapidity. The W. descent of the 2d terrace is
formed by the Eamis and Tulbagh chain, which
begins at the month of the Elephant river, in
wild and craggy isolated rocks of most singular
forms, which, coming more doeely together aa
the range sweeps to the £., at last unite in the
compact mass of the Karroo. The 8. descent is
formed by the Zwarteberge (Black mountains)
mnning nearly 400 m. fh>m W. to E., and by a
parallel chain running (under the names of
Zwellendam, Uteniqua, and Zitzikamma moun-
tains) from Worcester 8. £. to Zwellendam,
thence E. about 200 m. to the mouth of the
Great Fish river. The average height of these
ranges is 4,000 feet ; their greatest elevation,
6,600 feet The 8d or lowest terrace is the
coast district, the 8. W. comer of which is filled
by the mgged and precipitous Table mountain
^682 feet), while the Hottentot Holland, or
l)rakenBtein range, radiating near Worcester
from the Tnlbagh and the Zwellendam chains,
sweeps in a southerly direction to the E. coast,
terminating in Oape Hanglip. Between this
range and the Oape peninsula or Table moun-
tains, there extends a broad sandy plain, the
Oape fiats, from which it would i^pear probable
that in former times the peninsula was surround-
ed by the sea. The monntains belong to the
sandstone formation, resting upon a basis of
ffranite. Where the granite nses above the
level of the surrounding country, it gives rise
to many streams of water, but otherwise aridity
prevails. — ^Rivers are nmnerous, but very few
of them are navigable. The more important

flowing Into the sea on the B. coast are the
Breede (Broad) river, the Gauritz or Krysna,
the Gamtooa, tbe 8unday, the Bashman*^^ the
Great Ush, and the Eeiskamma rivers; on the
W. coast the Great Berg river, and the Olifant
or Elephant river. The Oranse river (discovered
in 1777 by Gapt Gordon, and named m honor of
the dynas^ of Orange), having a length of 1,200
m., an average widdi of 1 m., and daring the
rainy season a depth of 50 feet, flows throo^
the larger part of southern Africa from £. to
W. ; but only on its upper coarse is it reached
by the colonv. The Great Eish river (the j^
Ji^ante of the Portnguese) rises about 950 m.
from its mouth. But nearly all the rivers in
the colony have the characteristics of wild tor-
rents, drying up almost entirely at times, or
leaving only shallow pools of braddsh water,
and agdn swelling to a formidable heighL fill-
ing their courses, which have more resemblanoe
to deep ravines than river beds, to thdr utmost
of^acity. In consequence of tneee deep beds,
most of the rivers are not even soitable for the
purpose of irrigation.— The coast is indented by
several bays, viz. : Table bay, False bay, Mossel
bay, Algoa bay, and Waterloo bay. The south*
em coast is ML of reefa^ and a large bank
(Lagnllas) extends to lat. 87° 80^ 8., render-
ing the navigation difficult and dangerooa. —
Two-fifths of the soil of the cdony consist
of arid ridges and sandy nlaina ; of the re*
mainder, a large portion anords excellent pas*
tore for horses and cattl^ but is unfit for
agriculturalpurposes on account of the want of
iAgation. The 8. W. districts are the most fertiki
producing grain and wine in abundance; exten-
sive forests cover the 8. slope of the Uteniqua
and Zitzikamma monntains, but the interior of
the country is not inviting. It oonsista of the
roughest mountain scenery, barren and pMohed
plams, vaUeys without trees or water-oouziaea,
the very pictore of dreariness and desolation,
forming a remarkable contrast to the beantiM
scenery of Natal and Oaffiraria. But these draw-
backs are in some degree balanced by the most
salubrioos dimate to be found in ue world.
For those whose health has been shattered by
the dimate of India a residence at the Gi^ is
an almost unMing cure. During the aummer
(8ept. to April), the temperature varies fh>m
70"" to 90° F., and the atmosphere is steadily
cooled by 8. E. winds. The extremes of tem-
perature in the winter or rainy season are 40^
and eo"". The mean of the year is 65"*. The
defidency and irregularity of rains in the ter*
raced plidns of the interior is one of the greatest
impediments to agricalture. In some trai^ bor^
deriuff upon the Great Karroo, there has been
no ram during 8 years, but when it does oome
it descends in torrents that swdl the smallest
streams to extraordinary naagnitude. — ^The oolo-
nv is not very rich in mineral products. Salt
abounds near Algoa bay and 8ebastian's bay ;
copper ore has been worked within the last 6
or 8 years with conriderable success; iron ore
and coal have also been found; galena in the

CAPE COLONY

district of TTjtenhflge ; mauganesa In th© dia-
trict of AlbsQj. Lime is prepared in large
qnsQtities from foesil shells, of whhh extenstve
beds have been fonnd in tiie district of Ujtea-
hage. — The Testation of the Cap© colony I§
cxtmofdinarj in richjieag and variety. It ia
wholly different from that of tropical Africa,
aiid more bimikr to thj^ of Australia, though
the gum tree, one of the prominent features of
tlie Anstraliaa flora, is wanting at the Gape.
Bulbous plants and heaths grow in beant^ol
varieties, also froteacem^ restiaeecB^ and eupJior-
him. Timber is scarce. Of indigenous fruits
there are few; but all kinds of fruit intro-
dnced from Europe are grown in abundance.—
The fauna comprises a great variety of wild
auimals, such as the eleohant, rhinoceros, hippo-
potamus, Hon, leopard, hyena. Jackal, zebra,
quagga, masked boar, antelope, monkey, rac-
coon, squirrel ; but most of these have become
rare in Uie thickly settled portions of the country.
Only on the immense table-land back of the 8d
mountain range the antelope, elk, springbok,
and elephant still roam in herds of incredible
numbers. Yet even there hunting is very dif-
ficult. The Oape buffalo (Jof Caffer\ a power-
ful and untamable animal, has disappeared from
the plains, and is only met with in the recesses
of the mountains. Ostriches abound on the
Great Karroo. Large herds of elephants are
found in NataL As both sexes of them have
tusks of extraordinary size, they are eagerly
hunted by the settlers. The hippopotamus is
also hunted on account of his tusks, which are
even higher in price than those of elephants.
Of domestic animab only sheep and dogs are
indigenous. Horses, asses, mules, goats, and
cattle have been introduce<l from Europe. Be-
side many kinds of birds of prey, the country
produces pelicans, flamingoes, cranes, ibis, snipe,
quails, partridges, in numerous varieties. Fish
of all kinds abound on the coast and near
the mouths of the rivers. — ^The entire popu-
lation of the colony was, in 1856, stated to be
270,000. Of this number about 120,000 were
persons of color, and 160,000 whites. The
colored population consists of Hottentots or
Quaequaes, Caffres or Fingoes (a nickname
meaning poor people, given to them by their
former adversaries, the Zulu Caffres), negroes,
and Malays, the aescendants of Malay slaves
introduced in former times by the Dutch. The
Hottentots are a weak race, of small stature
(less than 6 feet), a yellow-brownish complexion,
and repulsive features, confirming by their ap-
pearance the opinions of the old Dutch colonists
tiiat they are only a connecting link between
man and monkey. Those living in the colony
have learned to discontinue many of the most
filthy and disgusting habits of their savage
brethren, but are lazy, shiftless, and intemper-
ate. Since, by the abolition of slavery, they
have been put on an equal footing with the
whites, their number has rapidly diminished.
The Hottentot half-breeds are more industrious
and intelligent. The negroes, mostly descend-

anta of former slaves or reaeued from the sIl
traders by the British cmiBcrs, are perhaps ^™"
more ricioua thim the Hottentots, They abhflik
steady labor, and prefer to sustain a vagabond
life by pilfering. The Malajs are industriouB, V
skilfnl, and thriving, but at the same time very ^
passlonalCj vindictive, and violent. They pro- x

fcss the Mohaniniodiiu religion. A cross of the ^

Dutch and Malays, generally named Africanders,
are remarkable for the beautiful forms of their
women. The Fingoes, about 25,000 in number,
formerly inhabited the country 8. W. of Port
Natal, whence they were driven by the power-
ful Zulu tribe. They are rapidly advancing in
civilization. Among the white inhabitants of
the colony the Dutch element liu*gely predom-
inates. While the British for t^e greatest part
live in the towns and cities as merchants, shop-
keepers, military and civil oflBcers, Ac, the large
majority of the farmers are descendants of the
original Dutch colonists. These Boers, as they
are called, have preserved the leading charac-
teristics of their Dutch ancestors ; they are a
sturdy, cool-tempered, steady, and energetic
race; thrifty, industrious, and of good moral
character. The tenacity with which they clmur
to their customs, their local institutions, and
their national character, long rendered them
objects of the strong antipathy of the British, an
antipathy heartily reciprocated by them. But
within the last decade the mutual hatred and
distrust have been greatly diminished. Those
Boers who live at the outposts of civilization in
the immediate vicinity of the savages, are, how-
ever, naturally in some degree savages them-
selves. The Boers are generally well educated,
and there are scarcely any among them who
cannot read and write the Dutch language.
They are also pious and strict observers of all
religious customs. Most of the men are tall and
herculean in appearance ; of the young women
many are distinguished for a sort of m^estio
beauty; but at an advanced age both sexes in-
cline to obesity. According to the 3 principal
products of their industry they are known as
n ine Boers, Com Boers, and Cattle Boers. The
Wine Boers are the wealthiest. Agriculture is
still in a very primitive state, it being impossi-
ble to apply skilful and complicated implements
on account of the difficultv of having them
repaired or replaced. The Cfattle Boers are the
least educated and worst mannered of the whole
class. — According to Herodotus, it is probable
that the Cape of (Jood Hope was discovered by
Phoenician navigators as early as 610 B. 0.
It was 2,096 years later when the Portuguese
Bartholomew Diaz reached it. On Nov. 20,
1497, Vasco da Gama rounded the cape and
pursued his course to India. But the Portu-
guese did not pay any attention to the Cape
country. It was not before A. D. 1600 that
the Dutch East India company established
a colony there, in order to raise provisions for
vessels going to India. In 1652 Cape Town was
strongly fortified. The colony prospered ad-
mirably in spite of continued hostilities betweea ,

QAPEOQLONT

^^BetderB and the nattye tribea. An attack
ja rthe British during the Am^oan reTolutioor
faej war was repulsed, but in 1795 the oolony
was conquered hj the British forces under Ad-
miral IJphinstone and Gen. Olarke. Though
restored to Holland in 1808, it was annexed
once more to Great Britain in 1806, and finiillj
ceded by Hdland in 1814. The wplioation of
the British colonial STstem to theCwpe country,
the curtuhnent of the priyileges formerly en-
joyed by the settlers, the emancipation of the
Hottentots in 1829, and the general tendency
of the British rulers to put the savage native
tribes on an equal footing with the settlers, dis-
gusted the Dutch Boers, who after aprotracted
struggle of more than 20 years succeeded in ee-
tabluddng 2 independent republics beyond the
boundaries of the colony. (SeeBoBRS.) Beside
these movements of the Boers, the history of the
Cape colony under British rule consists main-
ly of wars with the Oaffires. Five distinct wars
were carried on against them, viz. : 1811-12 ;
1819, by which the boundary of the colony was
extended to the Keiakamma river ; 1885, when
the country lying between the Keiakamma and
Kei rivers was annexed to the colony, but af-
terward restored; 1846*^48, in consequence of
which the country between the Eeiskamma
and K&. rivers was constituted by Gov. Sir
Harry Smith as a vassal state under the name
of British Oaffiraria; and 1850-'68, when a
formidable insurrection of the Ca&es, resem-
bling in many respects the Indian rebeUion of
1857, was suppreraed with great difficulty And
after many reverses of the British arms. In
order to tranquillize the Caffres and to keep
them in permanent subjection, the British gov-
ernment established in 1856 and '57 a military
oolony in British Oaffiraria, conmsting of several
thousand members of the German legion, which
had been organized during the oriental war by
Gen. Stutteraeim. Nevertheless, in the spring
of 1858 one of the most powerful Oaffire chie^
tains, Moshedi, chief of the Bosutus, who num-
ber iu)out 20,000 warriors and had been sul^ect-
ed by the British in 1858, rose in arms against
the Orange river republic, and it was anticipa-
ted that he would also invade the neighboring
British province.— Ever since the emimtion of
the Boers great discontent had prevailed in the
oolony because of the want of a free represent*
ative government When, in 1848, the British
government proposed to send a number of con-
victs to the Oape, this discontent grew almost
into open rebellion, compelling the government
to desist from its puipose. It became evident
also, during the Caffire war of 1850, that the
oolonistB were unwilling to sustain a govern-
ment which denied them rights that had been
granted to the inhabitants of other colonies.
Having at last became aware of this state of
things, the British government in 1868 yielded
to the demands of the colonists, and granted
them a constitution which from an £nglish point
of view is very liberal. The colony is divided
Into 2 provinces, the weBtem, oompriidng 8 d&-

virioos ^Mmnties), and the eastern, comprising
10 divisions. The western province tnchideB
the capital, Gi4>e Town. Other important places
are IVynberg^ Oonstantia (whence the ftmoua
Oonstantia wine derives it nameV and Bimon^i
Town. The whole Oape peninsuk (82 m. long^
6 to 8 m. broad) is indudeiinthe weatem prov-
ince.—-The eastern province is a eomparaliv^
new countiy, having hardly been aetaed before
1820, when 5,000 Scottish emigrants were sent
there by the home government. The principal
towns are Graham^ Town and Port Elizabeth.
Every division is presided over by a civil
commissioner, who acts also as reddent magis-
trate, or justice of the peace, posBessing a hm-
ited civil and criminal jurisdiction. Many divi-
sions are subdivided into districts, each witii a
resident magistrate of its own. The districts
are again subdivided into fold cometdea, in
which the feld comets (meaning hidii bailiffii or
chief constables) are the prindpal omoers. The
legislative authority of uie oolony is held by the
governor, who is appmnted by the crown, and 2
chambers called le^slative council and assembly.
Eight members from the western and 7 from the
eastern province, chosen for a term of 10 yean
by the whole bodvof dectorsineach pnmnoe,
upon a general tidcet, constitute the coundl, but
no one csn be elected who is not in posaeesion
of £1,000 worth of landed property or £%fiOO
worth of landed and personal property togetlier.
Any elector may give to one candidate as many
votes as there are candidates to be diosea
The members of assembly, 46 in number, are
dected for a term of 5 years by towns and
election districts. The qualification of electors
is the occupation of fixed property wortii jB2&
The governor may dissolve both houses or oxdy
the assembly. The queen may disdlow any bin
assented to by the governor, within 2 years of
its reodpt — ^The cdonid government oontrib-
ntes to the support of dergpien of most ci tiie
Ghristian denominations. The number of mem*
bers of the principd denominations was ia
1854 : Dutch Reformed 60,000, dnxrch of Eng-
land 12,000, Wesleyans 10,000. Roman Catho-
lics 8,500, Independents 7,000, Lutherans l,50a
—Free sdiools are provided for in eveiy dis*
trict There are dso 2 colleges in the cQlony.
•^The industry of the colony is inconsiderable.
Manufactories of soap, wagons, hardware, and
hats produce scarcdy enou^ forborne conainnp*
tion. The intemd commerce is not yet mnoi
devdoped in consequence of the want of means
of commmdcation, but the import and export
trade has greatiy increased under the Briti^
rale, as may be seen from the following taUe:

TniportSa KKDufli. TomsKVa

1886 4B54l,<M8 £80^ 18MT5

1840 782,424 ^OM 184.44a

1849 944,585 M4,M0 t04.0ia

1850 1,877,101 mjan 9a4.1tS

1858 1,051,607 1,004,884 888^4

18S4 96(1^806 091,808

The exports indude also goods re&qported; the
vdue of the produce of tiie colony exported in
1858 was £782,245. The principal artidea d

Lu Uhi# ftLwr^* »iiiiijJ# iMUi Ik^ UgM^

: ' *;■ ' I'i'R KllIS^i t'-r.LnJ F.'JLllLig t'tllliliriKl

•'■'- — "'Jh-p |»*fk>di III F-'^^'v '

'l^Ont^r, ih^ mw>r^ i^tft^ftTTi /tttr».m-

to pftnk, dbt-

ciremitf frf fill »li-

LWMNl r irbor itt

r ilf%(£!* Df Ifiii TfiBr« tfis d tt^lil-limiMii
nbofu tlio toii^

, lai t&8* IfT. Iff L^t^ru. ii. r_ii? oJk
Ul« tflL, HdJ U CfOWIMNd t^r t illWJ

t It^boQM, II ia cvT ft wfiltkL

k b ft boltl iUvnoooUiiy Of dirk «i&^
i li«B^flilll of Ow&iiUi ttflil

f tlw liagr of G«^tA l^i tHa
V Tliia !i^, wlutm til ? m,

Cd dIT tLl »ljrfn*3«

% Ut0 lM>^^ fitft iu^t. iif tb« WMctfvrtiiii^, Odd
i^ifralHilt

liidM ef £^ tllSMll

ftiid U HIT otHk 1 oewnptpir olllci^ m^ IQ

FVwioli mid (Wsutt) tfsilinnmii, In VIM. C«
Hal, JodcML '^

OAFE ORF^"'-^^^
rtuiHlliftlwaill

;;, hm A good btictbg

iff 4il aiUlf* Ik i* ik& &li« amnirwii** |*ttri of IJi^tfOiiiikym^ m. Mi^

OAFE HATTEBAS

OAFS NOONIAGHO

flboQt 6 m. wideband aorosB its isthmiu extends
a ruined wall^ near which stand the remains of
a town, and a village of huts. On each side of
the cape is a harhor; that on the W. side
affords good anchorage,

GAPl: HATmtAS, the easternmost point
of N. 0., a sandy insolar spit, or narrow heach,
separated from the mainland hy the hroad bay,
called Pamlico sonnd. S. of the capes of the
Delaware, no land stretches so far ont into the
Atlantic as Gape Hatteras. The golf stream, in
its E. and W, vibrations, often flows within 20
m. of the cape, crowding coasting vessels
bound S^ and consequently seeking to avoid
the K E. current, near to tne shore. The dif-
ference of temperature between the hot airs of
the gulf and the breezes along shore and from
the land engender frequent commotions in the
atmosphere at this place ; and no point on the
coast is more noted for its frequent and danger-
ous storms. A light-house is kept HulTL of
the outermost point.

CAPE HAYTIEK, or HAmxir, formerly
Oape Frangais and Gape Henry, a seaport
town on the K coast of the island of HaytL
Before the Haytien revolution broke out it was
a handsome dty, and some traces of its former
elegance still remain. It has the safest harbor
of Hay ti, tolerably delfonded^d a (air trade with
the United States, Great Britain, France, and
Germanv. In 1789 it had 18,500 inhabitants;
before the earthquake of 1842 it had still 9,000.
but in 1851 the population had diminiahed
to about 6,000. In 1854^ the entrances and
clearances consisted of 190 foreign vessels, ton-
nage 80,970, and of 14 coasting vessels, 2,267.

GAPE HENRT, on the coast of Ya., at the
southern entrance of Ghesweake bay, has a
fixed light 120 feet above the level of the sea .

GAPE HORN, also written Gaps Hoobk, is
a headland of an island of the Fuegian archi-
pelago. It is a steep, black rock, with bare and
lofty sides and pointed summits. It was for-
merly considered a very dangerous place to
pass, but the difficulties of '^ doubling the cape "
are now f&r less formidable. It was first dis-
covered by the English navigator, Sir Francis
Drake, in 1578, unless he was anticipated, as
is claimed, by Garcia Jofre de Loaya, a Span-
ish commodore, in 1525, although it was first
doubled by the Dutch navigators, Lemaire and
Bchouten, in 1646, the latter of whom gave it
the name of his native city (Hoom).

GAPE ISLAND, or Gaps IsLijn> Gitt, on
Gape Island, Gape May oo., N. J.^ is one of the
most fashionable watering places in the U. S.
During the summer months it has daily steam-
boat communication with Philadelphia and the
minority of the visitors who throng its hotela
are from that dty. Permanent pop. 600.

GAPE LA HAGUE O^pi^operly written
La Hogue), a headland of Normandy, F^rancOi
is opposite the island of Aldemey. and forma
the N. W, extremity of the peninsula of Goten-
tin, in the English channel. It is often con-
founded with Gape La Hogue, on the opposite

rideofOoteDtln. Near this latter promoiitory:
the united English and Dutch fleets defei^
the French, May 19-22, 1692.

GAPE UNGUETTA, a headland of Euro-
pean Turkey, 2,290 feet in height. It forms the
termination of the Ghlnuas, or Acroceraanian
mountains^ and bounds the £. entrance into the
Adriatic.

GAPE LOOKOUT, on the E. ooast of N. 0.,
has a light 100 feet above the sea.

GAPE LOPATHA is at the S. extremity el
Eamtchatka. At the northern part <^ the head-
land is a mountain, bearing the same namc^
whence the land gradually slopes and narrows
until it terminates in a low and barren tongue*

GAPE LOPEZ, the 8. extremity of the
bight of Biafra, on the W, coast of Africa. It
forms a large bav, 14 m. long, into which
empty several shallow riven and oreeks.

GAPE MAY, a county at the 8. extremity of
N. J. ; area 250 sq. m. ; pop. in 1866, 6,985. lU £.
boundary is formed by tne Atiantio; Delaware
bay washes its W. shore, and Tuckahoe creek
makes a part of its N. border. The sar&oe ia
level and the soil entirely alluvial. The pro-
ductions in 1850 were 84,915 bushels of In-
dian com, 16,834 of wheat, and 11,027 of oats.
There were 8 gristand 12 saw mills. 19 churdies,
and 1,860 pupils attending public scnools. On the
Atiantio coast is a beach, covered for the width
of from li to 2 m. with grass. Through the
numerous inlets which divide this beach the
sea penetrates into the marshes, about 4 m. in
widtii, and forms lagoons or salt water lakes.
In the N. part of the county is a edmilar marsh.
Near Dennisville is a deposit of cedar timber
in the soil to an indefinite depth. From the
ffrowth of vegetation above it, it is believed to
be at least 2,000 years old, yet it is perfectly
sound, and a number of persons are engaged in
digging it up and converting it into po^ shin-
gles, &c. This county was organized in 1710,
and named in honor of Gomelius Jacobse May,
a navigator in the service of the Dutch West
India companv, who visited Delaware bay in
1628. Gapital, Gape May Gourt-house.— Gape
Mat, a headland at the S. extremity of N. J.,
at the entrance into Delaware bay. It haa a
light which revolves once in 8 nunutes, at an
elevation of 90 feet above the sea. See Gaps
Island.

GAPE MOUNT, a river of W. AfKoa, empty-
ing into the Atiantio. The district of Gi^
Mount, with its rivers, lakes, and islands, was
deeded to an English company by the king of
the territory, Feb. 23, 1841.

GAPE NAU (anc. lacinium Prom0ntarium\
a headland of S. Italy, at the E. extremis of
Galabria Ultra, was once the site of a temple
dedicated to Juno Ladnia. Hannibal is said to
have embarked here on leaving Italy, 202 B.O.

GAPE NEDDOGE, a promontory of Maine,
85 m. S. W. of Portland, with a lieht-honse on
Goat island near it, containing a nzed light 88
feet above the sea.

GAPE NOONIAGMO, or Nouhxaqho^ at

OiPE KOETH

CAPE YHRB 18LAOT)S

tlie K* E- extremity of Liiwrence bfly, on the
ooA^t of Afia, not f^ frotn the point where it
approaches nearest to tbo American continent*

QM^E NORTH, a celebrated headland at the
N. extremity of the bland of HiigerOo, Nor-
way, is the northernmost point of Europe. It
consists of a long chain of precipitous rocks
jutting ont into the sea. They are aboat
1,200 feet high, and are crowned partly by a
kind of table-land and partly by pyramidal
peaks.

CAPE NORTH, or Otoo, Otou, a peninsula
at tlie K. extremity of New Zealand, about 2
m. long, and terminating in a bluff head flat at
the top.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, or Oapb Peak, a
bold promontory rising nearly 1,000 feet above
the sea, at the 8. point of a narrow peninsula
S2 m. long, near the S. W. extremity of the con-
tinent of Africa, having the Atlantic ocean on
the W. and False bay on the E., 81 m. 8. of
Cape Town. Lat. W 22' 8., long. 18° 29' E.

CAPE PILLAR, a high mass of rocks, teiv
minating in 2 tower-shaped clifis, at the 8. W.
entrance from the Pacific ocean into the straits
of Magellan, and on the N. W. coast of Terra
del Fuego.

CAPE PRINCE OF WALES, a promontory
on Bohring's sea, the most N. W. point of
Xorth America. It terminates in a peaked
mountain, presenting a bold face to the sea, and
is a dangerous point on account of a shoal which
stretches to the N. E.

CAPE RIVER, or Vaunks, called also, from
a small town near its sourcei Kio de Segovia, is
a river of Central America, m the state of Nic-
aragua and the Mosquito territory. It flows
through a fertile country, and after a course of
250 or 300 m., enters the Caribbean sea at Cape
Graclas a Dios. It is navigable for a considera*
ble distance from the sea, but the upper part of
its course is obstructed by cataracts and shal-
lows.

CAPE ROMAIN, a low and barren point of
land, with a light-house, 87 m. N. E. of Charles-
ton, S. 0.

CAPE SABLE, the southernmost point of
tlie mainland of Florida, and the site of Fort
Poinsett.

CAPE ST. AUGUSTINE, the easternmost
point of South America, on tne coast of BraziL
It was seen by Pinion in 1500, and was the
first land discovered in South America.

CiVPE ST. VINCENT (anc. FramontoHum
S'icram\ a headland at the 8. W. extremity of
Portugal. Off this cape, Feb. 14, 1797, an
English naval force, consisting of 15 ships of
tlie line, under Adnural Jarvis, defeated a supe-
rior Sfmnish fleet

C.VPE SAN ANTONIO. L A high, barren,
and precipitous headland, on the coast of Va-
lencia, Spain. Oa its summit are a convent,
a watch-tower, and several windmills. II. A
lofty and nearly perp^idicular promontory, at
the mouth of the Kio de la Plata, in the terri-
tory of Buenos Ayrea.

CAPE SAN BLA9, a low point of land,
about % m* loag, oo the S. coast of Florida, It
boa a Tevolvin^ light 65 feet high*

GAPE TAmoOR.TMMorK, Taimtb, or Tat-
jfODK, a lieodloud uf Siberia, extending into tbo
Arctic ocean. Next to Severo Vostotchnoi, it
is the northernmost promontory of Asia.

CAPE TINDARO, a headland of SicUy, ex-
tending into the gulf of Patti. The remains
of the ancient Tyndaris are in its neighbor-
hood.

CAPE TRAFALGAR (anc. Promontorium
JunonU\ a headland on the coast of Cadiz,
Spain. It is memorable for the naval battle
fought near it, Oct. 21, 1806, between the Eng-
lish, under Nelson, and the combined fleets
of France and Spain. The English gained a
complete victory, though with the loss of their
commander.

CAPE TOWN, the capital of the British terri-
tory in 8. Africa, lat 88° 55' 8., long. 18° 21'
E., situated at the bottom of Table bay, and at
the foot of Table mountain, about 82 m. N. of
the Cape of Good Hope. The town is well
built and well laid out There is a fortress near
the town of considerable strength. Table bay
is capacious, but the anchorage is rendered un-
certain by the heavy swell of the Atlantic,
which roUs its full volume against the coast
Cape Town is a station for astronomical obser-
vations, and Sir John Herschel passed 2 years
at this port for the purpose of studying the
heavens of the southern hemisphere. There is
a castle and several batteries for the defence of
the town and harbor. The chief public build-
ings are the government house, the colonial
office, the barracks, the exchange, the post-office,
the public library, 3 Anglican and 4 English dis-
senting churches, a Dutch Reformed church ca-
pable of holding 2,000 persons, and a handsome
Roman Catholic church. The streets are laid
out at right angles, and some of them are em-
bellished with trees. Most of the houses are
built of brick, faced with stucco ; the interior is
commodious, and some of them, in the older
parts of the town, are decorated with architect-
ural devices, and have in front raised platforms
called stoeps. There is a capacious public walk,
on one side of which are the gardens of the
government house, and on the other the bo-
tanical garden. For imports and exports of
Cape Town see Capk Colony. Pop. about
25,000.

CAPE VERD, the most westerly cape of the
W. coast of Africa, between the rivers Senegal
and Gambia; lat 14° 48' N., long. 17° 84' W.
It was discovered in 1446 by the Portuguese
navigator, Diniz Fernandez.

CAPE VERD ISLANDS, a Portuguese col-
ony situated in the Atlantic ocean, 820 m. W.
of Cape Verd, between lat 14° 45' and 17° 18'
N., and long. 22° 45' and 25° 25' W ; area, about
1,700 sq. m. ; pop. in 1854, 86,488. The isl-
ands are of volcanic origin, and a volcano still
exists on the island of Fogo. The shores are
low, but in the interior there are high moon-

4oa

CAFE YEBD IBLAllBB

OAPSSnGUS

teiikfl. The ftrcbipelaffo consists of 10 idancb
and 4 islets. The 10 islands are, SaL Boavista,
Hajo, Santiago, Fogo, Brara, Grande, Rombo,
BSo Nioolao, and Santa Lnda; the 4 islets are,
Branoo, Raso, 88o Yioente^ and Santo Antonio.
The soil is dry but fertile. The heatof the son
is great, bat the dimate is tempered by the sea
breezes. The rainy season lasts from the mid-
dle of August to November, and is unhealthy
for Europeans. There is a great want of water
and trees. Sometimes no rain £ei11s for several
seasons, and then the distress of the inhabi-
tants is extreme. In 1882, after a 8 years'
drought, 80,000 people perished. All the fruits
of the S. of Europe and the W. of Africa
flourish here, partiouarly oranges, lemons, mel-
ons, and bananas ; so do rice, maise, wine, su-
ffsr, orohil, cotton, and French beans. Oof-
fee was introduced in 1790. Indigo grows
wild. Goats and fowls are very numerous;
goat-skins are a principal article of export.
Asses are reared and exported to the West In-
dies. The most remarbftble of the wild ani-
mals are monkeys and bisam cats; venomous
reptiles are unknown; whales are found in the
neighboring seas, and turties frequent the coasts.
Salt, which is exported to North America, is
manufactured on these islands. The total value
of exports to the United States for the vear
ending June 80, 1660, was $86,910; and of im-
ports from the United States, $58,709. In
the same period, ending June 80, 1867, the
value of the exports to the United States was
$26,906, and of the imports $64,608, the latter
amount compriong $68,108 of the growth, pro-
duce, and manu&ctnre of the United States,
and $1,896 of the growth, produce, and manu-
fruoturo of foreign countries exported from the
United States. — ^The natives aro docile, indo-
lent, and very religions. The Roman Catho-
lic is the only form of worship. Thero are
12 schools upon the islands. Mulattoes, a
cross between Portuguese and negroes, form
the next most numerous race; tiie whites
constitute about ^ part of the population,
the slaves |. The language is corrupted Por-
tuguese, which the Portuguese call Ungua
creoula. As the sea between the continent and
the islands is beset with haze and fogs during
the matest part of the year, ships sailmg south-
wara generally steer outside of the Oape Yerd
islands. The inhabitants have some commerce
with Africa. The most considerable island of
the group is Santiago, which Is about 60 m.
long and 28 broad in its widest part. It has a
population of about 12,600 inhabitants. The
governor resides at Porto Pra^a, a fortified sea-
port town on this island, with 1,200 inhabi-
tants. The volcano of Fogo rises to the height
of 9,167 feet. The islands were discovered in
1449 by the Portuguese, in whose uninterrupted
possession they have ever smce remained. On
Jan. 1, 1867, were was a military force in the
island of 8,028 men. The receipts of 1867-^68
are estimated at $100,000, and the expenditures
at $140,000.

OAPB VnCCflSNT, a port of entry of Jeffer-
son CO., N. T.; pop. 8,044. It is situated on
the St Lawrence, at the terminus of the Borne
and Watertown ndlroad, and has a steamboat
landing and a ship yard.

OAPE WRATH, a promontory at the 8. W.
extremity of Scothmd. Itcondstsof apyramid
of gneiss, 800 feet hiffh, and surmounted by a
li^B^t-house. The light is 400 feet above the
sea.

OAPEOE-LATBO, Giubeppil an Italian prol-
ate and statesman, bom in ifwlea, Sept. 28,
1744, died Nov. 2, 1886. He belonged to one
of the oldest Keapolitan fjumlies, and when Yerf
young was appomted to the archbishopric of
Tar^to, which gave him the rank and privi-
leges of primate of the kingdom of Naples. His
ecclesiastical advancement did not withdraw him
from philosophical studies, and while devoted
to his duties as a priest of the Roman Oaiholio
church, he at the same time opposed many
of the claims of the papal see. One of his early
writings upon the tribute paid by the kingdom
of Naples to the court of Borne exdted con-
siderable attention. He caused a greater com*
motion by his work against the oelibapy of
priests, an institution which he maintahiea to
have been the principal occasion of the Protes-
tant reformation, ana to be still the main source
of the antipathy to the Oatholio church, felt bv a
great number of its opponents. 'When the levolu-
tionary si^t began to manifest itself in Italy, Ca-

C^Latro directed the attention of Queen Garo*
to the abuses in the government, but he was
not listened to. When tiie revolntion at length
broke out, in accordance with the wishes of the
people he accepted a public office. Upon the
restoration of the Bourbons, Oapece-Latro was
thrown into prison, and marked out as one of
the first victuns of sacrifice. But all parties
deciding and uniting to save him, the govern-
ment was forced to release him, and ofifered
him his liberty as an act of royal clemency.
The prisoner would not take freedom on audi
terms. Befiising favor, he demanded Justice,
and the king found himself obliged to make ex-
cuses to him. During the government of Joseph
Napoleon at Naples in 1808, Oapece-Lairo was
minister of the mterior, and continued in the
position with distinguiahed success under
Joachim Murat. After the flill of this king, the
prelate lost his archbishopric; he withdrew
from public affidrs, and maae his house a place
of reunion for persons of distinguished rank or
wit. His last work was in praise of Frederic n.
of Prus^

0 APEEIGUE, B APTiBTX HonobA BATMOsn, a
French historian, bom in Marseilles in 1801. He
was the school-mate of Thiers and lOonet ; in
1821, the 8 repaired to Paris to study law, but
soon became engaged in historical studies and
politics. Oi»efigue joined the royalists, and be-
came one of the writers of the QuiUdienM
newspaper. In 1828 he attracted some atten-
tion by nisJB^'^ de8 opiraHanBdeParmSel^io^
fwUe en EipagM. The aameyearhe paUiahed

CAPEL

CAPER

401

his first bistorioal book : JEluai Wfr Us inwmora
des Normands dans Us Gaules, From that time
ho pursued, with unfailing activity, his two-
fold task of historian and journalist. In 1827
ho gained considerable reputation bj his ffU-
toire de Philippe Auguste^ which is still con-
sidered his most valuable performance. He has
since been an important contributor to seve-
ral newspapers, most of them in the royalist
interest He has also published numerous his-
torical works. He has thus treated the entire
aunals of France from the 10th century to our
time, the whole forming a little less tiian 100
volumes, one-third of them devoted to the last
75 years. Although they contain valuable in-
formation and curious documents, they cannot
be compared with the histories of Thiers, Mig-
net, Miohelet, Augustin Thierry, and Guizot.

CiVPEL, Abthub, lord, an English royalist
elected to the long parliament in 1640, died
March 9, 1649. He voted for the death of Straf-
ford, and then returning to the cause of Charles
L, raised and maintained a troop in his interest,
and fought against the parliamentarians at
Bristol^ Exeter, Taunton, and Colchester. Cap-
tured in the last city, he was condemned for
treason, and met his death with firmness. He
wrote ** Daily Observations or Meditations,
Divine, Moral, and Political." — His son, also
named AuTHri, bom in 1635, created earl of
Essex bv Charles IL in 1661, was lord lieuten-
ant of Ireland, 1672-'7. Afterward involving
himself among the enemies of the court, he
was arraigned for participation in the Rye-
llouse plot, and was found with his throat cut
in the tower, July 18, 1683.

CAPELL, Edward, a Shakespearian com-
mentator and critic, born at Troston, in Suffolk,
England, in 1713, died in London, Feb. 24,
1781. Under the patronage of the duke of
Grafton, he became deputy inspector of plays,
an oflSco which left him leisure for his Shake-
s[)earian studies. He published his edition of
the works of Shakespeare, 10 vols. 8vo, 1767,
*' Notes and Various Readings of Shakespeare,"
4to, 1775, and the "School of Shakespeare," 3
vols. 4 to. 1783, was issued 2 years after the au-
tlior^s decease. His labors continued for more
than 40 years.

CAPElLLA, Maroiantts Mineus Fklix. a
writer who flourished in the 5th century, but
of whose life little is known. He was probably
a native of Carthage. His principal work is a
curious allegorical medley in prose and verse,
composed in imitation of Yarrows ^SJatyraifenip-
pca and Petronius' Satyricon^ and entitled Sa-
tyr a de Nupiiis Philologia et Mercurii, It
consists of 9 books, of which the first 2 describe
the marriage of Philology and Mercury, and the
remaining 7 treat of the liberal sciences. Co-
pernicus is supposed to have derived a hint of
his system from an assertion in one of these
b )oks that Mercury and Venus revolve about
the sun, and Boethius is said to have taken
from Capella the model of his Consolationes
J*hilo8ophicak The best editions of Capella are
VOL. IV,— 26

those of Hogo Grotius, 8vo, Leyden, 1590, and

Kopp, 4to, Frankfort, 1836.

CAPELlO, Bianca, grand duchess of Tus-
cany, bom in Venice, 1542, died at Poggio, Oct,
19, 1587. In 1563 she eloped with a banker's
clerk, of the name of Pietro BuonaventurL who^
barely escaping from the vengeance of her latlier,
put lumseu under the protection of IVancesoo
de' Medici at Florence. Bianca's beauty and ao*
complishments fascinated Francesco, and al-
though but recently married to Joanna, arch-
duchess of Austria, he caused the fur Venetian
to reside in his palace, attaching her husband
to his household as steward. In 1570, when
the arrogance of Buonaventuri became unbear-
able, he was put to death by order of Francesco,
who, on the decease of his father Cosmo L,
ascended the throne of Tuscany. Bianca pre-
sented him with a son Aug. 29, 1576, which
however was not her own, but was procured
from a poor woman, and in order to preclude
the detection of the imposture, she caused the
assassination of most of those who had assisted
her in its perpetration. In 1577 Joanna of
Austria bore a son to Uie grand duke, and as
she soon afterward died, while sherwas pregnant
with still another child, Francesco was, for a
moment, overcome with contrition and remorse,
and seemed disposed to discard Bianca; but
the cunning woman knew how to beguile her
lover^ and in two months he married her. The
marriage was approved of by Philip H. of Spain,
and solemnly ratified by the republic of Venice,
the official marriage ceremony taking place
in Oct. 1579. In 1582 Francesco's son by
Joanna of Austria died, and as there was
no prospect of seeing her supposed son adopted
as heir to the throne, Bianca endeavored to re-
concile herself with Francesco's brother, the
cardinal Fernando de' Medici, who, in all prob-
ability, would succeed him as grand duke. In
Oct 1587, the 2 brothers and Bianca met at
Poggio, and a few days afterward the grand duke
and Bianca were taken suddenly ill with the same
disease, of which they both died. Bianca had
ever been an object of hatred to her brother-
in-law, and it was believed that Fernando had
poisoned her with her husband ; but there is no
judicial or historical evidence to support the
supposition.

CAPER, the flower bud of a low shrub (cap-
paris spinosa), which grows on walls and ruins,
or on rocks and accumulations of rubbish, in the
south of Europe and the Levant It is very com-
mon in Italy and in the southern parts of France.
It grows wild upon the walls of Rome, Florence,
and Sienna, and is cultivated on a large scale
between Marseilles and Toulon, and also in many
parts of Italy. It begins to flower in the early
part of summer, and flowers continuously untU
the commencement of winter. The buds are
picked every morning before the petals are ex-
panded, and are put into vinegar as they are
gathered. They are distributed according to
Sieir size into difierent vessels and prepared for
the market ; the youngest and the smallest, being

402

OAFEKNAJm

OAPETIAITS

most tender, are the first in qnality ; and henoe
the different sizes are pkced in separate yinegar'
jars, denoting difference of quality and value.
The stems of the caper bosh are trailing and
2 or 8 feet long. The leaves are alternate, ovate,
veined, and of a bright green color. The flowers
are white, large, and b^tiful, i^th a tinge of
red. They are divided into 4 petals, and from
the centre of each flower springs a long tassel
of deep lilac stamens. The brilliant blossoms
give a very gay appearance to the plant.

CAPEBNAUM, a city of Palestine, often
mentioned in the New Testament, and memo-
rable as the scene of many of the works of Jesns.
The neglect of the inhabitants to profit by the
instructions that were given them led to the well-
known declaration of Matt xi. 28. This ancient
dty seems to have been on the W. coast of the
sea of Genesareth ; but travellers have not been
unanimous in pointing out its locality. A long
series of traditions identified it with a ruined
village, known at present as Khan Minyeh, un-
til the 17th century ; since then it has generally
been fixed at Tell Hiim, a spot further N. on the
seacoast. Dr. Robinson inclines to restore the
andent tradition, for reasons which he gives at
length in his *^ Biblical Beaearohes in Palestine
and the Adljacent Begions,'* voL iii., pp. 848-
858.

OAFEBS, WniiAM, D.D., an American der-
gr^an, late one of the bishops of the Methodist
Episcopal church south, bom in St. Thomas'
parish, S. 0., Jan. 20, 1790, died at Anderson, S.
0., Jan. 29, 1866. He received the degree of
A.M. from South Oarolina college, and subse-
quently the honorary degree of I>.D. In 1809
he was received into the S. 0. conference, filling
some of the most important stations in its
bounds. In 1821 he was appointed missionary to
the Indians in western Georgia, and travelled
extensively throughout the state pleading the
cause of missions. The year ibllowiuff he estab-
lished a mission among the Greek Indians on
Hint river. In 1825 he was stationed in Charles-
ton, where he remained as preacher in charge
and presidmg elder for 6 years. For a part
of this time he edited the ** Wedeyan Jour-
nal,*' which was subsequently merged in the
^Zion's Herald," and now bears the name
of the " Christian Advocate and Journal " in
New York. In 1885 he was elected professor
of the evidences of Christianity in the univer-
aty of 8. C, a post which he afterward resigned
to take charge of the ^ Southern Christian Ad-
vocate." After remaining in the editorship of
this paper 5 years, the general conference ap-
pointed him to the office of general missionary
secretary for the south, the north being asdgued
to Dr. Ban^ and the west to Dr. now Bishop
Ames. Tms appointment he held until the en-
suing general conference, during which time he
travelled extendvelyover the south, presenting
the claims of misdons upon tiie attention of the
church. At the first generd conference of the
M. E. church south he was elected and conse-
crated bishop (1846), which ofl^ he filled with

leal and fidelity tmtil his death. The dinnsh
of which he was a member delighted to do him
honor, and hence during his life he ocoapied the
most important and respondble positions in her
gift. We must not omit to mention that the
generd conference of 1828 chose him as its
representative to the Wedeyan connection in
England. He exercised a commanding inflnenoe
in all the ecdesiasticd assemblies of his own
denomination*

CAPET, the nidmame of Huguea, or Hugh,
the 1st kiii^ of the 8d French dynasty. Oou-
dderable difference exists among tiie learned
concerning the etymology of this appellation.
Pasquier derives it from a half Latin word
meaning head or chief; Du Cange, frY)m ehapel^^
a provindd word of Auvergne, meaning a
jester, as Hugh, during his early youth, was
wont, by way of jesting, to throw down the
caps of his companions ; others from eapUo^ a
large head ; others from ehapatusj a man wear*
ing a cope, asacerdotd doak. Indeed, the first
Capetians were abbots of St. Martin at Tours,
and King Robert, the son of Hugh, used to sing
at vespers arrayed in the sacerdotal doak ; the
old banner of the same king was dmply a St.
Martin's cloak.

CAPETIAKS, the 8d race of French kings,
beginning with Hugh Capet Their origin
is usually traced back to Bobert the Strong,
a warrior of Saxon descent, who held in fief
from Charles the Bdd the county of Aqjou
and afterward the duchy of Erimce. He
gained great popularity by his struggles against
the Norman pirates who invaded tianod
during the 9th century. Three of his descend-
ants, Eudes, Robert, and Raoul, assumed the
title of king in competition with the Carlovin-
gian princes; but the crown was not firmly
established in this fimiily until the dection of
Hugh Capet. This appears to have been a kind
of nationd protest on the part of the Oallo-
Erench population against the descendants of
Charlemagne, who then depended on German
princes. The Capetians, severd of whom were
distinguished as able politidans or great war-
riors, strengthened their position by close alli-
ance with &e dergy, and the assistance they re-
ceived from the communes or munidpal dties.
They were 14 in number, and reigned from 987 to
1828, as follows : Hugh Capet, Robert the lions,
Henry I., Philip I., Louis VI. the Fat, Louis
Vn., Philip Augustus, Louis YIH., Louis IX.
or St. Louis, Philip III. the Bold, Philip IV.
the Fdr, Louis X, Philip V., and Charles IV.
From tins mdn stock issued severd ooUaterd
branches, the most important of which are
the following: Robert, the grandson of Hugh
Capet and brother of Henry I. in 1082 founded
the first ducd house of Burgundy, which
became extinct in 1861 ; Pierre, the Btn son of
Louis VI., married Isabelle de Courtenay, and
had 8 descendants who reigned at Constan-
tinople during the 18th century; Charles, count
of Anjou, the 8th brother of bt. Louis, was the
head of the first house of Aigou, which held

OAPIAS

OAPnXAKY VESSELS

403

th§ kingdom of Naples from 1394 to 1383,
Tbe Cth Bon of the holy king, Robert, oount of
Clermont, waa the hoad of tho hou&e of BoTir-
btJD, which sticceoded to tlje French throne ia
1589 J while his grandson, Charles, the brother
of Pliilfp tho Faifj founded the liouso of Vdoia,
which came into posseasion of tho orown on the
extinction of the direct Capetian line.

CAPIAS (Lat eapio, to take) is the name
of several species of judicial writs in actions at
common law, which command tho sheriff or
other officer to take a party or property named.
The capiaa ad respondendum^ which orders the
officer "to take the body of the defendant and
to keep the same to answer" {ad respondenr
dum\ is the writ ordinarily referred to by the
term capias when used alone.

CAPILLARY ACTION (Lat capt7^«*,ahair),
a manifestation of the force of adhesion shown
by the movement of a fluid upon a solid surface
placed partly within the fluid. It is called capil-
lary because it is most striking on the inside of
Tery small tubes — capillary (hair-like) tubes. If
the solid can be wet by the fluid, the fluid will
rise in the tube, or on any surface, as water on
glass or wood. If the solid cannot be wet by the
tiuid, the fluid will be depressed in tho tube, as
quicksilver is depressed in a glass tube. Capil-
lary action has been investigated with great
Care, both by experiment and calculation, but
its interest is chiefly theoretical, its practical
uses and laws being obvious. See Laplace^s
Mecanique celeste^ vol. iii.

CAPILLARY VESSELS, minute vessels in-
termediate between the arteries and veins,
the terminal branches of the former and the
radicles of the latter; they are found in al-
most every tissue of the animal body, commu-
nicating freely with each other, and forming
intricate networks or plexuses, whose inter-
stices are close in proportion to the importance
or functional activity of the organs. Their walls
are composed of a delicate membrane, without
muscular fibres, often presenting on its external
surfiice oblong nucleated cells. The diameter
varies in different animals according to the size
of tho blood globules ; in man it is from the
tttW to the f^y of an inch. The dimensions
are not constant, but vary according to disturb-
ing: causes in the general or local circulation.
The existence of capillaries too small to admit a
blood globule, and adapted only for the recep-
tion of the serous portion of the blood, is not
admitted by the best physiologists of the pres-
ent day, and therefore the idea that nutrition
can only be carried on by means of capillaries
must be abandoned; some tissues, as cartilage,
have no vessels, and yet they are nourished by
tho blood, whose nutrient materials are ab-
Burbed by the tissues nearest tho vessels and
frcjin them passed on to the cells of the non-
vascular stnictures. Such is the relation be-
tween tho plan and minuteness of the capillary
network and the character and function of the
tissue supplied, that it is possible to judge with
tolerable accuracy of the part from which a

ipecimon has been taken ^ The network is the
closest where somo chmigo is to be eff^ected ill
the blood itself^ aa in the longs and glands, and
the most opi^n where tho blood is received
merely for purposes of nntrition of the tUsue;
ia the nervous! centres and the muscles tho net-
work is fine, on account of the required activity
of their molecular changes. In warm-blooded
animals the rate of the capillary circulation is
about i^TT ^^ ^Q ^^^ ^ ^ second, or 1\ inch in
a minute. Comparing this with the rate of
movement in the larger arteries (about 11 1
inches in a second), Yolkmann has calculated
that the aggregate area of the capillaries most
be nearly 400 times that of the arteries which
supply them. The movement of the blood
through the capillaries is principally dependent
on the force of the heart and the contraction of
the arteries ; but the circulation of the lower
classes of animals, and of plants, proves that
there is some power independent of that of a
central organ sufficient to move the blood in
these vessels — a power originating in the ves-
sels and intimately connected with the activity
of the processes of nutrition and secretion. The
capillary circulation may continue after the
cessation of the action of the heart, may cease
in certain parts while the heart is actively con-
tracting, and is constantly retarded and accel-
erated by causes of entirely local character. If
the web of a frog's foot be eiuunmed under the
microscope, the current is seen at one time slow,
at another rapid, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in the opposite, and occasionally
perfectly still, according to the strength or
weakness of the neighboiing currents, from en-
tirely local causes ; if the heart's action be im-
peded, these irregularities will be more marked.
The emptiness of the arteries after most kinds
of death, partly due to the tonic contraction of
these vessels, is rendered complete by the
longer continuance of the capillary circulation*
It is well known that the kidneys, the skin,
and its glands, continue their secretions for a
time after death, which would be inexplicable
without the activity of the capillary circulation
in these parts. In the early embryonic stages
of the higher animals a circulation is seen be-
fore the formation of a central heart, and the
first movement is toward, and not from, the
centre. In the case of the foetus without a
heart, though in connection with a perfect
twin, the circulation is kept up by the capil-
lary power, which, though generaily subordi-
nate to the heart, is sufficient for the mainten-
ance of the circulation without the aid of the
central organ. In many cases of fatty degen-
eration of the heart there is scarcely a trace of
muscular tissue, and yet the circulation may be
carried on for a long time without any serious
disturbance; in such cases a capillary power
must be active. Wherever there is any local
excitement in which the processes of nutrition
and secretion are interested, there will be an
increase in the local amount of blood and a
more rapid ciroulation in the capillaries. The

404

GAPILLABY VESSELS

OAPITAL PUKIBHMEKT

(Mssfttion of fhe capillary power, and the con-
sequent obstmciion of the circnlation, even
though the heart's action be nnimpairea, may
eanse gangrene of the solid tissues; the pro-
longed inflaence of severe cold destroys the lifb
of a j>art by its action on the capillaries ; if the
admission of air into the lungs be prevented
the pulmonary capillary circnlation is arrested
as soon as the blood becomes loaded with car-
bonic acid, and asphyxia is the result, unless a
fresh supply of oxygen be speedily obtained.
Without admitting any contractile power in the
capillaries, or any mechanical lud to the circn-
lation, the motion of the blood through them is
certainly affected by any change in the chem-
ioo-vital relations between this fluid and the
tissues ; the heart sends the blood to tibe cap-
illaries, but its passage through l^em is rapid
or slow aooordkig to the activity or depression
of the processes to which it should be subser-
vient Prof. Draper, of New York, has estab-
lished the following principle, whicn seems to
explain the movement of the blood in the cap-
illaries : ^^ If 2 liauids conununicate with one
another in a capillary tube, or in a porous or
parenchymatous structure, and have for that
tube or structure different chemical iiffinities,
movement will ensue ; that liquid which has
the most energetic affinity will move with tiie
greatest velocity, and may even drive the other
liquid before it.'' The arterial blood, rich in
oxygen, with which it is eager to part, has a
greater affinity for the tissues than has venous
Blood, loaded with carbon ; therefore, on the
above principle, the arterial blood of the sys-
temic capillaries must drive before it the venous
blood, and this in proportion to the perfect
oxygenation of this nuid. In the lungs, on the
contrary, the venous blood, rich in carbon, has
the strongest affinity for the oxygen of the in-
spired air, and must drive before it in the pul-
monary capillaries the arterial blood, already
saturated with oxvgen, and therefore having no
affinity for the chemical elements of the air ;
and this in proportion to the perfection of the
act of respiration. The chemico-vitol actions
of the systemic capillaries, though no more im-
portant to life, are much more complex than
those of the capillaries of the lungs. In the
latter it is a mere interchange between carbon
and oxygen, whUe in the former every organ
and tissue attracts to itself the materials neces-
sary for its own nutrition, and causes a circula-
tion in it in accordance with the above-men-
tioned physical principle. Though tiie capillary
drcxdation is in a great measure independent
of the direct agency of the nervous system, it is
modified by the control exerdsed by the svmpa-
thetic nerves over the smaller arteries, and by the
influence of the nervous system on the molecular
changes in which the processes of nutrition and
secretion consist. Though the blood will circu-
late after the division of the nerves of a pa^t,
any sudden and violent shock to the nervous
centres will instantiy arrest the capilliOT circula-
tion. To use a homely illustration : if we oom-

pare the arteries of the human body to the
main channels through which water h brought
to a city from a distance, the heart being the
source, and the veins to the nndergronna sys-
tem a£ sewers, which convey away the im-
purities and excess of the supply, we may
regard the capillaries as the small pipes whidi
enter every house, on which depends the easy
and regular performance of the essential labois
of every-day life, without which there can be
no contort, cleanliness, health, or happiness.

CAFIS, a province of the Spanish Philip-
pines, forming the N. portion of the island
of Panay; area, 1,680 sq. m.; pop. 210,120.
The soil is exceedingly fertile, and irrigated

a great number of small mountain streams,
'he product of rice is remarkably abundant^
yieldmg in many places as much as 200-fold,
while the land can be cropped twice a year.
The inhabitants are of the Bisaya race, and
noted for their docility of character, industry,
and fidelity to the government The town of
Oapis is a place of considerable native trade ;
pop. 11,620.

OAPITAL (Lat. caput, head), m arohiteotnre,
the head of a column or pilaster; in political
economy, accumulated ana productive wealth,
whether in the form of money, buildings, machi-
nery, improvements on land, or merchandise ;
in geography, the chief town of a state or dis*
trict.

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT (from copirf,
head, the source of life ; hence eajntalu^ any
thing affecting life, as crimen capttdU, capital
crime; pcsna capitalii, capital punii^mientX
in modem law, the punishment of death. A
capital offence by the Roman law imported
omy a loss of civil rights (amisno eivttatu).
In the primitive state of social oraanization, at
least in the earliest condition of which we have
any record, retaliation was the common method
of punishing offences, and this was inflicted by
the individual suffering the ii\jury, or by h&
friends when the injury was loss of life. The
right of individual revenge has not only ex-
isted in the savage state, out has been recog-
nized, and to some extent tolerated, even after
laws have been enacted for the restraint of
crime ; and in the laws of many nations, retalia-
tion, that is, the infliction of the same ugury
upon the offender which he had committed, was
aUowed. — ^Moses prescribed, as the measore of
punishment for corporal injuries, an eye for an
eye, a tooth for a tooth, and life for life, Exod.
xxi. ; Levit. xidv. ; and it would seem, in the
latter case, that any person belonging to the
family of the person whose life had been
token could pursue the murderer and eUay
him. '*The avenger of blood" was a person
having such right of private vengeance, and
not a public officer appointed for that pur-
pose. The only means of escape from this
mode of retribution was by fleeing to certiun
cities of refuge, and this was available only
in cases of what we ^ould call excusable
homicide.— The offences designated by the laws

^^W CAPITAL FCHiamiEKT

^^1

n^ «Q »|i]imV|Nioi U)» i»aa»1 io Uib i^«ivpbl'^^^^|

,i- „. « !' TT.4i.ri.ir niil^tr l«Lit^* tL.i

ill r'»Li .inii finuUr 1»v ilkfl Fitrri'iti Lmp^ ^^^^^|

ijr 0iUiK

"^* ^H

itjitiit!.»^i

^^^^1

^^^^

«blASi%1

^^^H

^M itj

1^ irflVrf:,-

^^^^H

■ ]•

ki tl>Udi t;a^U

^^^H

■ th

Ytym «9ii><i ti*^*fl

^^^H

K A'

, ^^H

HJ » 1 < 1. » ti^ji^^a uir "i

a«l do^eiTp*' .*» no cnafttor

Mialtr

■»'^.' ' r jiiiirilliB4*i"fn

^^^^1

Slbcic<:

'ti»rw«rl

^^^^^^H

nucit f

f I f^nuJllJiT

^^^^H

b#ncfnc

^^^H

teivr/ 7

^^^H

' ^^M

l^t

:4 It/ LL4£ diiuisy! U'

wlud* flii *:iilk«

^^^^M

til.

Uva putiiNlifiyeDt «a

ffromi^r«ii nr*

^^H

itfj: 11:1

Uti Ul'-iL i'l LU. :*-:■ ■ \ ' ''

' ' ' ' •'

1 *^^^^H

llf St^rr

lO^m. wfeo^ ftftpf tri.i

L uke ih ^^H

r ' ■

iicj

a«riiiiii ^^H

uir

:3MdU4 i>l ^^^H

irc.-i

i iiiU4rd»r ^^H

' t. nun a» t . ^^^^H

■ -J..

C'Uii^ ii:»?&i*^ Ii'jl Wii

flrJ-

' ■ ^^^H

■ tu

IV 1

, ^^^H

in apii!'^:

IJ^

j^m ynjiinj^ WW^^^^^^M

w^ ti

rtn4«

WW^ V^MilAAI^^^^^I

111 «, I. I.I. .

■ ^ -„-

\f.^V#Tlirin liair%. ^^^^^^^H

I \Lt

-H

.^maa

eatiiiilwifr'

" ^^1

. TFTB^

W»? I TV«ll 11 ■ ^^^

^^1

Btt^

■ if r^i-ifii^h?"

* iha i^ms^ «i2AM ba 4UAml tJ^utM3l^«* ^^H

^B tr:

:«»ii«arti>-^

t UkbkMf Qif mti6 sfperiar, n bo wmm ihm ^^^^^M

K . .,

. f^ofiiitiif^ <iai«im^flofU Uoau*-

liJiilians iliu «ici^«rprovkiai} b^ vbich

Otw, ' ' ■ '■

ttliPO ii««iiai4'^^H

Bkjf nf dfiktJs vran iVm^dtiMd AfAiaKt Ui<i

unf mur fpci^^^^^l

•fiT Ubite and pucbi, Hi ilaofrfng tliBl tlui
111 feHWid 6ir tliu iQ^uiri i# a ilmcKii-
^ ^— Tfio Mm«ritr of tli« 1i iaUo«

JoQip&jr uj Ufa

0f^HT4li<<0. i^f^tr tUlUot IMUlllbi^^^^^H

iff. Tfm tmtdif iiw ill i?Uiii#^^^H

iai?« Imd bcm digoftfiil brf Uki

L ; . ..4 imsmetiJei!! IWim l^riiu full

^U i^o^^X ]u Urn ^fmmbhi}^ of ¥»!*-

ivrbd.H iofloti* liiMCiiera > julat^^^H

'^ (Nm llio oofwl* IM

^ihlil&ijilCdUcm at i^ritaUutl Jfwtiwv^ grcmiftie om ^^M

_ _■

406

OAPITAKATA

OAPITOLINE GAMES

of the exemption claimed by the chnrch in be-
half of the clei^ and their retainers. (See
BsNXFrr of Olbbot.) It became nsnal, there-
fore, to incorporate in statutes sabseqnently
passed against crimes, a proliibition of benefit of
iiiergy. At the time Blackstone wrote there were
196 different offences which, hj yarions statutes^
had been declared to be felonies without benefit
of clergy. A great amelioration has taken
place in the English criminal law by varions
statates recently passed, particularly 7 and 8
Geo. lY., but the offences are still numerous
for which capital punishment is inflicted. — By
the laws of the United States, the crimes pimish-
able by death are, treason, murder, rape, arson,
piracy, robbing the mail (if it be with jeopardy to
the life of the person in charge thereof), rescue
of a person conyicted of a capital crime when
going to execution, burning a vessel of war,
and corruptly casting away or destroying a yes-
eel belonging to priyate owners. In the state
of New York 8 crimes only are punishable
by death, yiz.: treason, murder, and arson.
Imprisonment in the state prison for life, or a
term of years, according to tiie degree of the
ofibnce, has been substituted in all the other
eases, which in England are punished by
deatb. In the other states similar legislation
has prevailed. Transportation has been resort-
ed to in England as a commutation for capital
punishment m a large number of cases.

OAPITANATA, a proyince of Naples, on
the E. slope of the Apennines, bounded N. and
E. by the Adriatic ; area, 8,178 sq. m. ; pop. in
1856, 884^678. This region on the N. is cov-
ered with mountain ranges; branching from the
Apennines, the principal of which is Mt Gar-
guio, occupying an extent of more than 800
sq. m. The interior and a portion of the S.
part of the province is a low sandy plain, used
only for pastures. The hills are stenle or cov-
ered with forests, but between them are rich
valleys. The chief source of industrial employ-
ment is found in the rearing of sheep and
horses.

OAPITEIN, Jacques £ijb£x Jxan, a convert-
ed and learned African, died at 8t George
d'Eimina, after 1742. Found on the coast of
Guinea by a Dutch captain, he was carried to
the Hague, where he was baptized, and edu*
cated at the expense of a merchant of that dty.
He was instructed in the ancient languages, and
in 1788 studied theology at the university of
Leyden. In 1743 he was appointed mission-
ary to Guinea, but no account is given of his
services in that capacity. He wrote several
works in Latin and Dutch.

OAPITO, WoLFejLKo Fabbxoiits, originally
named EdPsrsiK, a religious refonner, con-
temporary with Erasmus and Calvin, bom
at Haguenau, in Alsace, in 1478, died of the
plague at Strasbourg in Dec. 1541. He re-
oeived his education at Basel; was made seo-
retary to Albert of Brandenbuiig, archbishop
of Mentz; in 1628, became a convert >to the
reformed theology, and devoted himself to its

propagation ; removing to Strasbourg, he entered
the ministry; acted as deputy at fuH the prin-
cipal conferences of the reformers, at Ztlrich in
1628, at Marburg in 1629, and at the diet of
Augsburg in 1580 he was one of those ap-
pointed to present the confession to the em-
peror. He was much respected by his contem-
poraries as a man of sound learning ; his belief;
however, has been made the sumect of some
argument, and he has been accused of a leaning
toward Socinianism ; this uncertiunty with
regard to his tenets created some distrust
among both the Zwinglians and the Lutherans.
OAPITOL, Oapitoliuk, Hons OAPrroLnnrs,
now Oampidoglio, a hill, a fortress, and a tem-
ple celebrated in the history of ancient Romel
The citadel was begun in the time of Tarauinius
Prisons, 614 B. 0., but was not finished nntfl
after the expulsion of the kings. The temple
of Jupiter Capitolinus was erected at the same
time. The hill was wholly consecrated to
Jupiter, except a nook which was reserved for
the god Terminus, who refused to leave the
spot when the other gods did so out of defer-
ence to Jupiter. The temple was destroyed by
fire, 88 B. 0.; was rebuilt by Sylla, and dedi-
cated by Q. Oatulus, 69 B. 0.; it was again
burnt A. D. 69, by the soldiers of Yitellius, and
rebuilt by Vespasian. In the reign of Titus it
was burnt a 8d time, A. D. 80, but Domitian
restored it with great magnificence. The tem-
ple contained 8 brines, consecrated respectively
to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The form of the
Capitol was nearly a s<mare, being 200 feet long
and 185 feet broad, in the piazza or portico
the x)eople were feasted on triumphal occaaons.
The victorious generals went up there in pro-
cession to offer thanks and sacrifice. The
Sibylline books and the most important public
documents were deposited there. Other tem-

Eles were one by one raised on the Capitoline
ilL Among these, the temples of Juno
Moneta, with the mint attached, of Jupiter
Feretrius, of Mars, of Venus, of Fortune, of
Isis and Serapia, were the most considertd>le.
A bibliotheca or library, the tabularium,
atheniBum, and other public buildings were also
in the Oapitol. At the 8. end was the Tar-
peian rock, down which state criminals were
thrown headlong. The principal bmldings of
the Oampidoglio, or modem Capitol, consist of
8 palaces, fbrming 8 ndes of a square, the work
of Michel Angelo.

CAPITOLINE GAMES (ludi CafntoUnil
annual games instituted on the suggestion of
CamilluflL 887 B. C, in honor of Jupiter Capito-
linus, and in commemoration of the preservation
of the Capitol from the Gauls. One of the
amusements at these games was to ofifer the
Sardiani for sale by auction. These Sardiani
are by some supposed to have been Sardinians,
and by others, Yeiians. The games fell into dis-
use, and were revived by Nero, who modelled
them after the Olympic games, and endeavored
to introduce a new method of computation of
time, reckoned, like the Olympiads of Hellenio

CAPIT0IJNU9

chronology, from the qoinqneimial celebration
of the liMi Capitolinu

CAPITOLINUS, Juuijs, a Roman historian,
who lived toward the end of the 3d century,
and wrote the lives of 9 emperors. He is one
of the writers of the Historia Augusta^ in the
editions of whom his works are to be found.

CAPITULATION, in war, the act of surren-
dering to the enemy upon stipulated terms. The
most celebrated capitulation of modern times is
that of Ulm, which was signed Oct. 17, 1805,
and according to which 23,800 Austrian troops
concentrated in and around Ulm, under Gen.
Mack, surrendered, with 60 pieces of artillery
and 40 standards, to the French forces under
Napoleon and Ney. — ^In German constitutional
history, a contract which the German electoral
princes entered into with the German emperor,
before he was raised to the imperial dignity.
The first of these capitulations was exacted
from Charles V. at the commencement of the
16th century, by the German princes who
feared liat the king of Spain would not respect
the limitations put upon him by the constitution
of the German empire. They accordingly drew
up a capitulation, reciting tiie privileges they
demanded, to the observance or which Charles
V. was compelled to swear. The last of these
imperial capitulations was sworn to by the em-
peror Francis II., July 5, 1792.

CAPITULARIES, certain laws enacted under
the Frankbh kings, and so named from the cir-
cumstance of their being divided into capituloy
or chapters. They were issued by Childebert,
Clothaire, Carloman, and Pepin, but still more
extensively by Charlemagne, whose object ap-
pears to have been to harmonize, explain, or
amend the existing feudal codes, and effect to
some degree a uniformity of law in his domin-
ions. These enactments were both civil and
ecclesiastical ; according to Savigny, the latter
were of force throughout the 8 kingdoms sub-
ject to the race of Charlemagne, but the former
were valid only within the state in which they
originated. The capitularies were promulgated
in the public assemblies, composed in Charle-
magne's day of the sovereign and chief clerical
and lay dignitaries, though in earlier times all
those capable of bearing arms seem to have
taken part in them. The laws were inscribed
among the royal archives in the Latin tongue,
and published to the people in the vernacular.
Their execution was intrusted to the bishops^
the courts, and the officers called mmi regii^
who were sent under the French kings of the
first and second race to administer justice in
the provinces. The earliest enactment coming
under the name of capitulary was made by Chil-
debert A. D. 554, and the latest by Charles the
Simple, who died in 929. The first collection
of the capitularies was begun in 827 by An-
Bc^sns, abbot of Fontenelle, and continued
hy lienedict the deacon, of Mentz. It was ap-
proved by various kings and councils, and had
the force of law. Additions have since been
made to this collection, and the first complete

CAPO D18TEIA

edition was published by Vitus Amerpachios at
Ingolstadt in 1546, under the title of Praei-
pum Constitutiones Caroli Magni de Bebua eo-
cUsiasticU et civilibtis. The best edition is that
of Baluze, entitled : Capitularia Eegum Fran^
eorum, &c., Paris, 1677, 2 tom. foL; reprinted
at Venice in 1771, and at Paris in 1780.

CAPMANY Y MONTPALAU, Antonio db,
a Spanish writer, born in Barcelona, Nov. 2^
1742, died in Cadiz, Nov. 14. 1818. He served
in the wars with Portugal in 1762, left the
army in 1770, and joined Olavide in his scheme
for colonizing and cultivating the Sierra Morena,
This enterprise terminated disastrously, and
Capmany removed to Madrid, where he was
chosen secretary of the royal historical academy
of Spain in 1790, and filled several offices in the
gift of the government. He travelled in Italy,
Grermany, France, and England. When the
French entered Madrid in 1808, he fled to Seville,
where he arrived destitute and in rags. Ho
was chosen a member of the cortes of Cadiz, in
which capacity he made himself conspicuous
by his patriotism and active opposition to the
new rulers. His works, which enjoy a high
reputation in Spain, are numerous; among
them are Memorias historicaa sohre la Marina^
Camrmrcio y Artes de la antiqua Ciudad da
Barcelona^ in 8 vols. 4to; Questiones eriticaa
8ohre varios puntos ds historia^ economieay poll'
tica y militar ; Tealro hUtorico-critico ae la
Eloeuencia JSspaJlola; and Dictionario Fran-
ecs-Espailol,

CAPO D'ISTRIA, a city, pop. 6,500, and
county, area 168 sq. m., pop. 43,600, in the
margraviate of Istria, one of the crownlands or
provinces of the Austrian empire. The city is
situated upon a rocky island, 9 m. S. of Trieste,
connected with the mainland by a solid stone
bridge 2,800 feet long. It has crumbled walla
and fortifications, a large number of old di-
lapidated buildings and narrow and crooked
streets. The city is said to have been founded
by the Colchians, under the name of iEgida;
in the 6th century A. D., many wealthy fami-
lies sought a refuge there from the Longobarda
and Avari. Having been conquered by the em-
peror Justinian I., it was named by him Justin-
opolis, in honor of his uncle, Justin L Later it
became an independent commonwealth; was
annexed to Venice in 932 ; conquered by the
Genoese in 1380; was independent again in
1478, until the whole margraviate became part
of the Austrian dominions. The city has a good
harbor, a cathedral and 80 churches, beside 2
convents, a college, and an academy, extensive
salt works, an aqueduct^ &c.

CAPO D^STRIA, or Capodistrias, a noble
fkmily which has flourished on the Ionian islands
from the 14th century, and which is intimate-
ly connected with the early history of the
modem Greek kingdom. I. John Anthony,
count of Capo d' Istria, president of Greece from
1827 to 1831, born in Corfu in 1776, assassi-
nated at Nauplia, Oct 9, 1831. He received a
classical education at Padua and Venice, in-

408

OAPODOBTBIA

OAPPADOOIA

tendisg to become a phjncian, but the political
distorbancea which his country experienced
under Napoleon led him to a political career.
When, after the expulsion of the French hj the
imited Russian ana TorkiBh forces^ the Ionian
idands became a vassal state of Turkey, under
British and Russian protection, Oapo dlstria
filled several public station^ and from 1802 to
1807 united the secretaryships of the interior,
foreign affairs, the navy ana commerce, in his
own hands. The islands havinff been returned
to France by the treaty of Tildt, Oapo d'Istria ac-
cepted a place in the Russian ministry of foreign
amirs, wnere he soon gained distinction. As
a member of the Russian embassy at Vienna in
1811 ; as a diplomatic commissioner at the head-
quarters of the army of the Danube in 1812 : as
a diplomatic agent of Russia in Switzerland in
1818, where he was prominentiy instrumental
in imposing upon the people the federal consti-
tution, which endured till 1848 ; lastiy, as a
member of the congress of Vienna in 1815, and
the principal author of the resolutions of Oarls-
bad in 1819, Capo d^Istria was always found
amongthe firm supporters of absolutism, though
at the same time denouncing the despotism of
Turkey, and secretiy conspiring for the inde-
pendence, or ratixer Kussification of Greece. In
1816 he was appointed secretary of foreign
afEairs in Russia. In 1819 he visited his native
country in order to sound the popular feeling.
The results of his visit were stated by him in a .
small pamphlet, in which he endeavored to
demonstrate that it was the province of abso-
lute governments to educate the people for the
eigovment of freedom. This doctrine was not
at all palatable to the leaders of the Greek in-
surrection, and the movement b^gun b^ them in
1821 was therefore disavowed by Russia so long
as it seemed impossible to turn it to account for
tiie secret objectaof Russian policy. He lost
his office in 1822, and went to Switzerland,
where he succeeded in regaining the confidence
of the Greek leaders. With the consent of the
British ministry and the Russian government^
both desirous to place a devotee of monarchical
order at the head of Greece, he was elected
president or regent of Greece by the nationsd
convention assembled at Damala (1827). Be-
fore assuming the government he went to St.
Petersburg, where, it is generally believed, he
received secret instructions from the Russian
government. He landed at Nauplia, Jan. 28,
1828. For a very short time he commanded the
confidence of the people. Instead of fulfilling
his pledge to form a great national army and
repulse by force the Turkish army under
Ibrahim Pasha, he left the defence of tiie coun-
try to foreign diplomacy, crushed the liberty of
the press, drove the patriots and heroes of the
revolution from pubhc offices^ which were filled
by him with his own creatures, promulgated a
code of laws of the utmost severity, prevented
the election of Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg
to the throne of Greece, and seemed to have no
other object in view except to prepare Greece

for Bosdan annexation. The island of Hydra
became the seat of a violent opposition against
his measures as early as 1829. In consequence
of the French revolution of 1880, insurrection^
aiy movements broke out which oi^y Russian
assistance enabled him to suppress. But at last
he was stabbed by the brothers Ck>nstantine
and George Mauromichalis, as he was enter-
ing the church of St. Spiridion. H. Anausmir,
brother of tiie preceding, bom in 1778, died in
Corfu, in 1857. He was appointed by his bro-
tiier military and political chief of continental
Greece in 1829. Two of the ablest leaders.
Gen. Ohurch and Demetrius Ypselantes, abso-
lutely refrised to recognize his authority. After
the assassination of his brother he assumed the
government as chairman of the board of regen-
cy, and was elected president by the national
convention assembled at Argoa in Dec. 1831.
l^e Russian government assured him of its
ipathies, and he was recognized by the Lon-

don conference of the allied powers. A few
weeks later the opposition became so powerfol
that the great powers retracted their former
action and compelled him to resign. He left
Greece for St. Petersburg, April 18, 1882,
taking the corpse of his brother witii him.

OAPONNIERE, in fortification, a work con-
structed on title sole of the ditch of tiie fortreesi
in order to fiank that ditdi b^ its fire. The in-
ventor of this kind of work is unknown ; it is
said to have been proposed in Italy as early
as 1496, and it is certain that the Italian engi-
neer, PaUavicini, constructed similar works in
1506. The first systematic application of capon-
niSres for tiie defence of a ditch occurs in the
work of Albert DOrer, the German piunter, on
fortification, printed in 1527. He a|mlieB them
in lus circular and quadrangular fortifications in
the same manner as they are now actually con-
structed ; and, indeed, it is hard to believe tiiat
Hontalembert composed his polygonal system
entirely without knowledge of DQrer's work.
The idea, however, was neglected for more than
2^ centuries, during which the bastionary sys-
tem was the only one recognized. In 1777 tiie
French cavalry general, the Marquis de Monta-
lembert| pubMied the 2d volume of his work on
the science of fortification, developing the po-
lygonal system, in which the whole fianking de-
fences of the ditch consist of powerful case-
mated batteries constructed on its sole, in the
middle of each front or side of the polygon.

OAPPADOOIA, an ancient province of Aaa
Minor, between lat. 87' 16' and 89'' 28' N., and
long. 82'' 50' 18" and 39'' £. It was conquered
by the Persians under Cyrus. After the era ci
Alexander the Great, it was ruled by independ-
ent kings until A. D. 17, when it was reduced
to a Roman province by Tiberius. Christianity
was early introduced into Cappadocia, as we
learn by the 1st general epiaUe of St. Peter.
Under the Persians or Macedonians, the prov-
ince was divided into 2 satrapies, Cappadocia ad
Pontum and Cappadocia ad Taurum, called af-
terward by the Komans Cappadocia Magna, also

' OAPPE

CAPSICUM

4(>0

Cappadocia simply. The chief town of Che lat-
ter was Mazaca, afterward CsBsarea, and the
country vas celebrated for its fine pastures and
its enperior breed of horses, mules, and sheep.
Cappadocia shared the fate of the eastern
empire until it fell into the power of the Turks,
in whose possession it still remains^ forming
part of several modem eyalets of Asiatic Turkey.

CAPPE, Newcome, an English dissenting
minister, bcrn in Leeds, Feb. 21, 1732, died at
York, Dec 24, 1800. He studied with Dr. Ai-
kin at Kil worth, and Dr. Doddridge at North-
am]) ton, and at the university of Glasgow.
While with Dr. Doddridge, he became satisfied
of the evidences of revealed religion, of which
he bad formerly entertained doubts. At the
university of Glasgow he made the acquaint-
ance of Adam Smith, Moore, Oullen, and Black.
lie held the pastoral charge of the congrega-
tion of St. Saviour's Gate, York, for 40 years,
lie was the author of several theological works.

C APPELL, the name of a French Protestant
family, noted for the many learned theologians
and jurists which it produced from the 16th to
the 17th century. — One of the most prominent
members was Louis Cappell, bom near Sedan,
Oct. 15, 1585, died at Saumur, June 18, 1658.
He gained a high reputation as professor of
divinity and oriental languages at the university
of Saumur, and as an exegetical and critici
writer. He is principally known, however, as
a disputant with the Buxtorfs, in the Masoretic
point controversy. The correctness of his views
on that subject has been settled by the general
consent of Hebrew scholars that the present
By stem of pointing cannot be carried back be-
yond the 11th century.

CAPRAJA, the Capraria and uEgilon of the
ancients, a small volcanic island of the Mediter-
ranean, between the N. point of Corsica and
the coast of Tuscany. It is about 16 m. in cir-
cumference ; its surface is generally mountain-
oiLs and its principal product is wine. Wild
goats still abound in the mountains. It has
a town of its own name, with a safe harbor.
In 1507 this island was taken fi-om Corsica by
the Genoese, and it js now a part of the prov-
ince of Genoa. Pop. about 2,500.

CAPRARA, Giovanni Battista, an Italian
prelate and statesman, bom in Bologna, May
2 ^ 1733, died in Paris, June 21, 1810. He was
Ui >t 25 years old when appointed by Pope Ben-
edict XIV. vice-legate at Ravenna. He was
ai'terward papal nuncio successively at Cologne,
Lucerne, and Vienna, and in 1792 was made
cardinal. In 1800 he was created bishop of
Jc-ii. Having been appointed, in 1801, legato
a latere to the French republic, he succeeded
ill arranging the terms of the concordat, which
w.-re agreed upon Sept. 18, 1801 ; and in April,
lSif2, that document was promulgated at Paris,
aud the Roman Catholic form of worship was
inati^rated at the church of Notre Dame with
groat splendor. In May, 1805, he crowned Na-
p' leon at Milan as king of Italy. Having return-
ed to Paris as legate of the pope, he died there.

OAPRI (anc. (7apr«E), a BraaH and rocky
Neapolitan island, in the Mediterranean, 8. of
the entrance to the bay of Naples, noted in his-
tory as the place where Augustus resided dur-
ing his illness, and where Tiberius spent the
last 10 years of his life. It is still celebrated
for the beauty of its climate, which makes it a
favorite resort for invalids, especially for those
suffering from chronic bronchitis. The island
is about 9 miles in circumference, and sur-
rounded by steep and inaccessible cliflfe. Total
pop. about 4,000, comprising 2 email towns,
Anacapri and the port of Capri. The latter is
the see of a bishop, and contains a cathedral
and some other churches; pop. about 2,600.
Between the 2 mountains of limestone (the
highest of which is Monte Solaro, rising nearly
1,800 feet above the sea), of which the island
consists, lies a fertile valley, which yields grain,
olives, grapes, and other fruits. The inhab-
itants are engaged in the production of the fa-
mous red and white Capri wines and of oil, in
fishing and in the pursuits of the sea, and in
catching quails, vast numbers of which are
caught every spring and autunm on their passage
from and to Africa. Remains of several of the 12
villas erected by Tiberius in various parts of the
island are still to be seen, and other rcHca of an-
tiquity have been excavated here. The French
under Gen. Lamarque surprised this island, then
in the occupation of the English under Sir Hud-
son Lowe (Oct. 1808), and compelled them to
capitulate within 16 days after the invasion.

CAPRICCIO, in music, literally a whim or
caprice, a term applied to that species of com-
position in which the composer arbitrarily de-
viates from the customary forms and gives free
play to his fancy.

CAPRICORN, a sign of the zodiac, which the
sun enters at the winter solstice in December;
also a constellation formerly in this sign (see
Aquarius). The tropic of Capricorn is the
southern boundary of the torrid zone, at which
the sun is vertical at noon only once a year,
the day he enters Capricorn, usually Dea 20
or 21.

CAPRIOLE, a peculiar leap made by a horse
without advancing, in which, when at its
height, he throws out his hind legs with a
jerk, keeping them parallel and near together,
and showing the shoes. It differs in the last
particular from the croupade, and from the
balotade in the jerking out of the legs. It is
the most difficult of all the high airs in the
manage,

CAPSA, an ancient city in northern Africa,
in an oasis of the desert. Its site is occupied
by the modern Gafsa, 74 miles W. of Cabes.
Tradition ascribed its foundation to the Libyan
Hercules. It was destroyed by Marius in the
war with Jugurtha, but afterward rebuilt.

CAPSICUM, a genus of plants, from 4 species
of which are obtained as many varieties of the
so-called cayenne pepper. The name capsicum
is also applied to the product itself. The genus
is of the 9olanac€(B or nightshade family, and

410

QAFSIAK

OAPSTOB

has no ralatio&wiUi ihe fiunfly ^piptfocem^
\irhioh fiinuflhes the real peppers. The 4 species
refened to are (7. annuum^ O. Jhitescent^ 0.
eeranforme^ and 0. gr&$&um. The first 2 only
are of importance. The first is an annual her-
baeeons plant, remarkable for its hardy natore,
A native of tropical ooontries, in which it thiivea
laxnriantly in dry and poor soils, it is also cid-
tivated in ahnost all parts of the world. It
grows 2 or 8 feet high, and bears a pod or seed-
vessel, called also its berry, of ovate or conical
form, recurved at the end, green when imma-
tnre, but bright scarlet or orange when it ripens
in October, it is used in the green state for pick-
ling, and in medicine when ripe and dried, and is
ground to powder to make cayenne pepper. In
England the dried berries kept in the shops are
called chillies. This variety is imported from
the West Indies, and is supplied from our own
gnrdens. Its product is hot and pungent, but
without aroma. Cfruteaceru furnishes the so-
called bird or Guinea pepper, a hotter and more
pungent and better flavored article, and to some
extent aromatic. The plant is a shrub, best
known in the East Indies. The berries are
scarcely an inch long, and only a line or two
broad. They contain each about a dozen reniform
seeds. — ^The active principle of capsicum, called
eapsicine^ is a volatile liquid, thick when cold,
but very fluid before it disappears by heat in
fumes. The vapor is so pungent, that what is
produced from 4 a grain, when dispersed in a
large room, will cause all present to cough and
sneeze. It is obtained by digesting the alcoholic
extract in ether and evaporating. — Cayenne is
largely employed as a condiment, acting as a
stimulant and aiding digestion. For these prop-
erties it is administered as a medicine ; and it
is also highly useful as a gargle in malignant
scarlatina. In the West Indies, for violent cases
of this disease, the preparation for both uses is
to inftise for an hour in a pint of boiling vinegar
and water 2 tablespoonfuls of the powd^sd
pepper with a teaspoonful of common salt.
When cold, the liquid Ib strained, and given
in the dose of a tablespoonful every half
hour. Oapsicum is sud to relieve the nausea
of sea-sickness. It is also employed externally
as a rubefacient and stimulant, either in the form
of a cataplasm, lotion, or tincture. — ^The com-
mercial cayenne is subject to gross adulterations.
Bed lead and vermilion, or sulphuret of mer-
onry, are the worst materials introduced, and
cases of poisoning are reported from this causey
both the lead and mercury having the property
of aggregating in the system when taken in
small quantiti^ They are added to keep up
the color, which gradually fades with the age
of the capsicum, also to increase the weighty
and to disguise the other ingredients. Ochres
are also employed for similar purposes; salt
also, to improve the color and add to the weight.
Ground rice and turmeric are more hanxuess
additions.

OAPST AN, a machine used on board vessels
for weighing anchor, and ibr other operations

requiring a heavy polL It consists of a vertical

axle with holes around the head, into which
bars, called handspikes, are inserted. The cable
is palssed 2 or 8 times around the axle, and a few
men take hold of the loose end to give it a ten-
sion and keep the capstan clear of it Others
take hold of the handspikes and walk around
with them. The power of a man thus applied
i9 about ecual to the traction of 25 lbs., hangiog
over a pulley, at a velocitv of 8 feet per second.
The capstan is rarely usedi, and when the hand-
spikes are removed, it occupies on deck but a
few square feet. A great^ number of men
may work at a capstan than at a horizontal axle,
and they can act much more rabidly, as they
have simply to walk around pushing the hand-
spikes forward; whereas with a horizontal appa-
ratus, as often as it is turned a quarter of a cir-
cle, they have to take out the bars on which they
act and insert them in new holes before ihey
can act again. Since the year 1820, numerous
patents have been issued for improved capstans.
Most of them consist in making the head separate
from the axle, and adapting eearing, whidi may
be connected or disconnected at will, to vary the
power of the machine as occasions require.
Another improvement, consequent upon the
adoption of cbfun cables, consists in making the
lower portion of the capstan the exact coun-
terpart of the chain, so that each link as it
comes up enters the corresponding recess, and
the chain is thus held more firmly with half a
ton than it would be with 8 tons around a smooth
surface. The capstan is an instrument of the
past, and has already been superseded by the
steam winch on board of a large numl^r of
steamships, and it seems probable that before
long each sailing vessel will have to be provided
with a small steam en^e for doing heavy work
of the sort.

OAPSULE, a name given by botanists to any
kind of dry seedvessel containing many cells
and seeds, such as poppy heads, iic. ; the word
Ib derived from the Latin ecmsuta, a small
box. The pods of peas and beans, &c. are
called capsules, as well as the seed-contaming
vessels or fruit of many other families of plants.
A capsule usually opens by valves ; and hence
different varieties have been named bivalve,
trivalve, quadrivalve, and multivalve. The parts
of a capsule are : 1, the valvea ribs, or divisions
which form the outward sh^ and shield the
fruit externally ; 2, the partition walls, which
form different cells internally; 8, the axis or
columella, which unites the seeds with the inter*
nal parts of the capsule ; 4, the cells occupied by
the seeds ; 5, the proper receptacle of each seed ;
and 6, the seeds contained within the capsule.
According to the number of internal partitions
in a capsule, they have been named miilocu-
lar, bilocular, trilocular, multilocular. Cap-
sular seedvessels are generally dry and hard
when ripe ; and in this respect they are unlike
the pulpy fruit of apples, plums, &c., or the
juicy oranges and lemons. All fruits, however^
are merely seedvessels, and the name capsule

0AFSITLE3

OAPTJCEHDr

4X1

19 uBnallj applied to all dry, hard seedvesseLs
irres^|}^ctiT« of partictila^ forms and families of
plant IS.

CAPSULES, Gelatote, littk bags tnaao of
thin ill 1113 of gelatinGj designed for holding doses
of n^iniioous medicioeB^ so that all being &wal-
lowcd toj^othor, Ihoir tflsto may not bo pj^r-
ceivi iL Bificfrent mothoda are gtvQii of pre-
p-ari'ic: them. One ia to take a dyiinder of hard
woo l, roaoded off atone eod^ and J of ao inch
cVianicur, and dip the end first intoa saturated
warfii solutioa of soap in alcohol to the depth
of \ an inch. When the soap has hardened
iipo'n the wood, it is to be dipped into a
(/uncentrated hot solution of gelatine, and this
repeated according to the thickness of deposit
of gelatine desired. This is to be slipped off
when it has hardened; and the process is to be
repeated to procure another bag for a cover to
uhe first one. When one is filled with the med-
ic ine, the other is applied upon it, and the 2 are
tVL'htly secured together by going over the line
of junction with a camel's hair brush moistened
with hot water. For other methods see Jout^
nal ds pharTna4iU et de chimie^ vol. xvii. p. 204,
and the American ** Journal of Pharmacy," vol.
ix. p. 20.

C APTArN", the rank designating a command-
er of a company in infantry, or of a squadron
or troop in cavalry, or the chief officer of
a ship of war. In most continental armies
in Europe captains are considered subalterns;
in the British army they form an intermediate
rank between the field officer and the subaltern.
Die latter term comprising those commissioned
ollicers only whose rank does not imply a di-
rect and constant command. In the U. S. army
tlie captain is responsible for the arms, ammu-
nition, clothing, &c., of the company under his
command. The duties of a captain in the navy
are very comprehensive, and his post is one of
great responsibility. In the British service he
ranks with a lieut. -colonel in the army, until the
oxi>iration of 3 years from the date of his com-
riii^sion, when he takes rank with a full colonel.
In the old French service he was forbidden to
leave his ship under pain of death, and was to
blow it up rather than let it fall into the hands
of an enemy. The title of captain is also ap-
})Iic'd to masters of merchant or passenger ves-
.s\U, and to various petty officers on ships of
tlie line, as captain of the forecastle, of the
hold, of the main and fore tops, dec. The
word is of Italian origin, meaning a man
wlio is at the head of something, and in this
f^itrs^e it is often used as synonymous with a gen-
eral-! n-chief^ especially as regards his quahties
for command.

CAPUA, or Oapoa, a fortified town, in the
kiiig<lom of Naples, in the province of Terra di
Lavoro, lying in a plain on the left bank of the
Volturno, 15 m. N. W. of Naples, on the high
^'ay to Rome, and 10 m. from the Mediterra-
nean ; pop. about 10,000. The present Capua
d- )o^ not stand on the site of the Capua of anti-
qii ity . The remains of JRoman times are numer-

.0D3. Tho cathedral and the church ddVAnnunf*
^ia(4M are eplendid edifices, and contain many
antique hflas-r«Uefs bnilt in with their walls. la
1803 the town suffered considerably from an
earthquake,— The ancient Capaa lay at a dis-
tance of 2 m, from the modern city. Its origin
and early hifitory are obscure. In 34S B* 0-,
when threatened by the Samnites, the citizens
called in tho aid of the Homans, and wera
shortly afterward compelled to flcknoivledgia
t h e e u preni acy o f Rome. 1 1 snccc^sftiOy related
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, hnt after the battle of
Cannaa (216 B. C), the popular party deserted
Rome and opened the gates to the Carthagin-
ian general The winter spent by the Cartha-
ginian troops in Capua demoralized them
greatly, and was considered by the Romans to
be the main cause of Hannibal^s ultimate defeat.
For the extravagance and effeminacy of its
inhabitants, Capua bore a reputation similar to
6ybaris and Sardis. It was famous for its
manufactory of perftunes, with which the
ungiientarii or perfumers of Capua supplied the
whole empire of the West. It was early cele-
brated for its gladiatorial exhibitions, and
from Lentulus's school of gladiators in this
city Spartacus, the rebel leader in the
servile war, first broke loos© with 70 com-
panions. In 211 the Romans again entered
Capua. All the senators were put to death,
800 of the nobles were thrown into dungeons,
and the middle class of citizens were removed
to a distance from their native place. The
local magistracies were abolished, and a Roman
prefect was appointed to rule over the city.
During the social war the Capuans manifested
the most unshaken fidelity to Rome, and were,
as a reward therefor, refendowed with many of
their ancient municipal privileges. Julius Cajsar
procured the passage of a law during his con-
sulship, 59 B. C, in accordance with which
20,000 Roman citizens were settled in the envi-
rons of Capua. This circumstance conferred a
new era of prosperity upon the city. — The bar-
barian invasions were fatal to old Capua. Grcn-
seric and his Vandals devastated it in A. D. 456.
Narses restored it, but it sank again after the
conquests of the Longobards in southern Italy.
It was finally destroyed by the Saracens, A. D.
840, who reduced it to ashes. A few years
afterward. Bishop Landulfus induced the inhabi-
tants to return and establish a new city on the
site of the ancient Casilinum. This was the
origin of the modern Capua. The ruins of the
amphitheatre, built of tiles and faced with
white marble, are an object of attraction to
antiquaries. The remains of old Capua have
been described by Rinaldo in his Memorie
utoriche delta citta di Capua^ Naples, 1763, and
in Rucca's Vet&re Capua, Naples, 1828. The
site of old Capua is now occupied by the large
village of Santa Maria di Capua, or Santa
Maria Maggiore.

CAPUCHIN, a religious congregation be-
longing to the Franciscan order, instituted
by Matteo Baschi. Matteo was desurous of

412

OAPUDAlf PASHA

OARAOAfi

praotifflng greater poverty than was reqiiired by
the strict mle of the order of St Francis.
Having observed that a painting of St. Francis
represented him with the hood of the habit of
a different shape from thatnsoally worn by the
order, he made one like it and wore it, about
the year 1526« This being condemned by his
superiors as a novelty, he had recourse to Pope
Clement YH., who gave him permission to
wear the hood, and also permitted those who
wished to imitate him to form a congregation.
In 1528, Clement YIL gave them further per-
mission to wear the habit and also a beard.
They were to reside in solitary places, and live
as hermits. When they commenced wearing
their peculiar dress through the streets of Ca-
merino, the children commenced calling after
them Uapttecini^ whence thev were styled Ca-
puchins. The rules of the order are very strict :
they are obliged to recite the canonical hours
without singing, and the matins are to be said
At midnight ; an hour is to be spent eyerj morn-
ing and evening in mental prayer and in silence ;
their food is of the simplest kind, one kind of
meat only being allowed, and on fast davs they
are only allowed a kind of cheese called cotta.
They are not allowed to wear any covering for
their head, and their habit is of the coarsest
description ; nor are any ornaments of gold or
silver allowed in their churches. In 1624, Ur-
ban VUl. caused a new church to be buUt for
them at Borne, near the Barberini palace, he
being a member of that family, and in 1681 the
Capuchins took possession of it. The church
contains the famous painting of St. Mchael the
archangel, by Guldo. This congregation has
supplied many missionaries to Asm, Africa, and
America, and a great number of cardinals and
bishops. It has produced also many illustrious
writers.

CAPUDAN" PASHA, is the title of the chief
commander, or great admiral, of the Turkic
navy, who is at the same time supervisor of the
naval stores and establishments, and governor
of the Turkish islands of the archipdago, and
of some of the coasts of the empire. He is
pasha of 3 tails, makes all the appointments in
the navy, is a member of the divan. Every
summer he makes an excursion with the fleet to
the archipelago to exercise the ships, and levy
the taxes. The title is probably a Turkish imita-
tion of the Italian Capitano^ like many other
terms now usual in the Levant^ and derived
from the times of Genoese ana Venetian in-
fluence in those regions.

CAPUT MOBTUUM, a Latin name given by
the old chemists to the flxed residue of distilla-
tion and sublimation, symbolized in alchemi-
cal writings by a death^s head and cross bones.

CABABINE, or Casbine, a short barrelled
musket adapted to the use of cavalry. In order
to admit of its being easily loaded on horseback,
the barrel ought not to be more than 2 feet 6
inches long, unless it be breech-loading ; and to
be easily managed with one hand only, its weight
must be less than that of an infantry musket.

The bore, too, is in most services rather less fhan
that of the uuantiy firearm. The carabine may
have either a smooth or a rifled bore ; in tbd
first case, its effect wiU be considerably inferior
to that of ^e common musket ; in the second, i
will exceed it in precision for moderate disUinoes
In the British service, the cavalry carry smootli
bored carabines ; in the Bussian cavalry, the ligli:
horse all have rifled carabines, while of th
omrassiers i have rifled, and the remdnin^ {
smooth barrels to their carabines. The artillery
too, in some services (French and British espe
oially), carry carabines ; those of the British are
on the principle of the new Enfield rifle. Car-
abine-firing was at one time the principal mod^
of cavalry fighting, but now it is pnncipally
used on outpost duty, and with cavalry skir-
xnishing. In French military works, the ex-
pression earaibine always means an in&ntr^
rifle, while for a cavalry carabine the wore
nunuquetan is adopted. Several improvementj
in breech-loading carabines have recently beej
made in the United States, and submitted fo*
trial to an ordnance board at West Point (Jul v,
1868).

CABABOBO, a province of Yenezuela,
bounded by the Caribbean sea, and by the prov-
inces of Caracas, Yarinas, Truxillo, and Ooro ;
area 8,148 sq. m., pop. about 100,000. Its capi-
tal city is Valencia, but the province takes ita
name frt)m a village 20 miles S. W. of the capi-
tal, where a battle was fought June 24, 1821,
which secured the independence of Colombis.
It is intersected by the head-streams of the Rio
Portugueza, and produces coffee, cocoa, wheat,
tobacco, and sugar.

CABACALLA, 1£abctj8 Aubeuus Anto:^-
Kus, a Boman emperor, bom at Lyons A. D. 188,
died in 217. He was originally called Baadanos,
but received the nickname of Caracalla, from
a favorite Gallic tunic which he introduced
into Bome. On the death of his father Sevens
at York in 211, he ascended the throne with
his brother Geta, but soon caused the murder
of the latter, and, according to Dion, of 20,000
Bomans who were his partisans, among whom
was the jurist Papinian. He multiplied extor-
tions in order to purchase the favor of the sol-
diery, gave the right of Boman citizenship to
all free men of the empire in order to impose
taxes upon their estates, and admitted l^gyptians
to the senate. He made unimportant e^emtioos
against the Gauls, Goths, and Parthians, and
at Alexandria took revenge for some epigrams
by a general massacre of the inhabitants. He
was assassinated near Edessa on his way to
Carrhss at the instigation of Maorinus, the pre-
torian prefect.

CABACA8, a province of the republic of Yen-
ezuela, bounded N. by the Caribbean sea, £. by
Barcelona, W. by Carabobo, Oi^edes, and Bsr
rinas, and S. by Apure and Guiana ; area 4J^,-
264 sq. m., pop. about 800,000. The N. part
is in general mountainous^ but toward the S. the
surface expands into vast and fertile plaioB.
The province is divided into 16 cantonS) of

CAIlA;Q€IOLr

■

^V^ CABA6A

ftS^W^ ^^¥^ PWfAiC'flt, H''^ '^SC ^ff^^fi^i^

ftr-9 til H

^1
1

^^^^^K^

ijum ibu jurfl ttrm tn «

^iDi(«:iiitii]> ^H

^^^^B9^'

^^V^

^^l

^ J

^■itf 1^'

-^ ^

nil

o4)(lL;4:. wilhuiii mSLit)^ ai. >

^^^^Hf

•■il.

■

^^^^^■f^^-'

la til d.

lo g

J T^'JImI ^H

^L*^

::2 1

^^^^BF

-TO

lAltdlOH tkt ^H

^^^B^Hii

. If*

;r.,ii

^iii iLiv ^m

^^^^^H '

drt'E pirisQiiot*. ii<y Mu

■

^^^l^^kf

rfi, ma^wi &n

Gvrtl^iKnrle^ M^i .-T> nf

! 1

■

' 1

. lU ■

of lib ^1

^^^^HRlit>^n

ULIIJ, ■,

^^^B in t€^e^

lie

In 1-

^^^BL^d r.

I-

fPa

^^^^F^i

M^i

5 I

IR^S^^

. iJ« Cf to*

nkU^ Am emk-

■

---^fTtltil

datu M^ naUfi

■

rtoirj»t;,-j

■*iv

ciiE3STiUnt9« tif iiiUvd,f , u*i4 v*tjTMj{jyri^ i

ud «»!«« ^H

.^(1

•■^■. J

^■^■^.^O^b

iJi-i t^iiilAiiN

LhM^'W

^^kto

414

OiUEtAITES

GABAMKASSA

ot the independent saltan of Mindftna^ and B,
and W. by the sea; area 8,400 sa. m., pop.
42,000. This province is one of me poorest
nnderthe Spanish dominion; it has generally
a sterile soil, and abounds in waste marsh lands.
Its forests are, however, reputed to be of great
Yidoe, consisting chiefly of the finest ship tim-
hsr trees, especially the teak, which is not found
elsewhere in the Philippine Islands. Great
numbers of wild bufTaloes, hogs, deer, civet
oats, and other musk-prodncinff animals are
' found in the forests. Considerable quantities of
gold are found in alluvial deposits on the Ba-
toan river and its tributaries. The bulk of the
population is of the Bisaya race; but there are
several wild tribes : one called Mandaya, which
have very fair complexions, and Spanish writers
say that they are a mixed race descended from
Malay women and some shipwrecked Dutch-
men; another tribe called Tagabaloyo are said
by the same authorities to be descended from
shipwrecked Japanese, and native Mindanese
women. There is a negrito race called Mama«
manua. The inhabitants subnst diiefly upon
sago, fish, and roots of spontaneous growth.
The Spanish are rapidly effecting a beneficent
change in the condition of the semi-civilized
and savage population of this province. Its
only export at present is a small quantity of
gold dust

OARATTES, or K4BArrEs, a sect among the
Jews, whose origin is very uncertain. Some
Jews say that they are the same as the Saddu-

n because they do not receive the traditions
e rabbins ; others that they are reformed
Sadducees, because they accept the doctrines
of immortality of the soul, resurrection of the
body, paradise and hell, which the Sadducees
rejected. Others consider the Caraites to be
the same as the doctors of the law mentioned
in the New Testament. The Caraites them-
selves date their origin from the captivity of
the 10 tribes by Shalmanezer. Wolf attributes
their origin to a massacre among the Jewish
doctors under Alexander Jannnus, about 100
B. 0. Steinschneider, in his " History of Jew-
ish Literature,'' places the oridn of Caraism as
a literary development in Judaism from A. D.
750 to A. D. 900, and says that it sustained a
very important part in the reformation of Jewish
literature. He, however, admits a Caraitic
tendency in Judaism of a much earlier date.
The present principal seat of the Caraites is in
the Crimea and in Austrian Galicia. They
always worship toward the S., because they say
that Shalmanezer carried the 10 tribes from
which they date their origin to the N., so that
they must turn to the S. to face Jerusalem.
The Carutes deny the oral law to have come
from Moses, reject the cabalistic and chimerical
interpretations of the rabbins, and observe the
feasts with greater rigor than other Jews.

CARAMAN, or Kabamah (anc Laranda),
a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the eyalet of Cara-
mania, at the foot of Ht Taurus, lat. 87° 12'
K, long. 33° 5' £. ; pop. about 12,000. It con*

tains the ruins of several beantiftil Bammo
mosques, one of which is of marble, covered
with arabesques, and supported in the inte*
rior by rows of columns. There are sIbo 8 or
4 temples of modem date, a haudsome Anne*
nian onurch, and a Turkish castle enoompassed
by a wall which also encloses about 100 boiueii
Coarse blue cotton cloths and similar &bric8
are manufactured. — ^little is known of the as-
dent Laranda, on or near the ruins of which
the present town was founded in the M
century by Zaraman Oglu, a Turkish chief, after
whom it was named. It was the capital oft
Turkish kingdom until the subjection of Can-
mania by Bcjjazet IL in 1486^hra the seat of
government was removed to Konieb (leonian),
and the glory of Caraman began to fade
Though residing at Zonieh, the pasha takes hh
title from this place. The name of Laranda oi
Larenda is still used by the Christian inhal»
tants of the country and in the firmans of tho
sublime porte.

CABAMAKIA, or Kueaicania, also Kaba-
ICAK, a Turkish province or eyalet in Asia IG*
nor, between lat. 87^ and 8r40'N., long.30»
60' and 86^ 60' E., includine ancient Lycaonia
and a portion of Phrygia M^or, Ghilatia, and
Cappaaocia, bounded W. and 14. by the eyaletsof
Aniatolia and Sivas, S. by Adana, and £. b;
Harash, famous' for its genial climate and for
its tobacco, silk, cotton, sesamum, honey, va^
and excellent firuit. The soil is rich and dry,
yielding abundant harvests ; the vine and fig-
tree, the laurel, myrtle, and clematis, and many
odoriferous shrubs, flourish in profnaon. Tbfi
Taurus range traverses the entire length of
Caramania, and forests of oidcs and pines 100 feet
high cover the mountwn. The principal riwR
are the Kizil-Irmak and the Sihon. la ^
S. W. are a large number of small lakes; al^
mineral springs. Fish abound in the rirers aod
the numerous small streams of the countiT*
The inhabitants are mainly devoted to agricol*
tural pursuits, particularly to the rearing of liT«
stock, the vast plains affording abond^t paa*
turage. The villages of the shepherds are ooo-
posed of huts, covered witii skms; most otbtf
houses are of earth, or of brick baked in tbe
sun, and present a miserable ^>pearaDee.
Trade embraces, beside the products named,
wool, horse and oamel hair, gum tragaca&th,
which abounds in the' mountainous £strict8,
and various other commodities. The exports
are carried on by caravans or through the
nearest shipping ports. Capital, Eonieh. Area
27,952 sq. m. ; pop. about 1,000,000, comprising
a gretit number of Armenians, Greeks, and Jevs,
but chiefly nomadic Turcomans.

CARASINASSA, a river in the presidency
of Bengal. It is a tributary of the Ganges, and
is of interest on account of a superstition at-
tached to it A certain r^jah once killed a
Brahmin, and married his own stepmother-
Nothing could expunge his crimes, sate ahlQ-
tion in a collection of all the holy waters of t^
world. A charitable saint undertook the tasKi

OAEAMHi

OAHAWAY

416

and irom thd aggregation of fluid a liver was
formed, which was so entirely exhausted of its
abstergent powers, that ever afterward it was
called Caramnassa (deprived of virtue). The
Hindoo is careful, if obliged to pass this bale-
ful stream, that its waters shall not touch him ;
OS otherwise aU the merits acquired by a series
of ablutions and other pious practices would be
at oQce washed out,

CARAMEL, a black porous substance, pro-
duced from sugar heated to a temperature
between 400° and 430°. It is also formed
iu the roasting of coffee and chicory. It is
used to adulterate coffee, imparting to it and to
the beverages substituted for it bitterness and
color. It is also used for coloring wines.

C AKAT, the name of an imaginary weight, by
which diamonds are rated ; and also a term used
for expressing the fineness or purity of gold.
Tiie alloy is supposed to be divided into 24 parts
called carats, and its fineness is reckoned accord-
ing to the number of these which are pure gold.
Gold 20 carats fine is 20 parts of pure gold al-
loyed with 4 of some other metal. The term
has been so long in use that its origin is very
obscure. Some suppose it to be derived from
the Greek jccportoi^, a fruit corresponding to the
Latin Biliqua; whence the Arab word kyrat^
a weight. Bruce, in his " Travels," describes a
bean he met with in a famous gold mart of
Africa, which was used as a weight from remote
periods, and which was called ktiara. They
vary little in gravity from the time the pods
are dry, and being much alike they were in
remote times carried to India for weighing
diamonds. As usually employed by jewellers,
the weight of a carat is 4 imaginary grains, of
which 74J^ are required to counterbalance 72
grains troy.

CARAvAGGIQ, Miohkl Angklo da. See

AXGELO DA OaBAVAGGIO.

CARAVAN AND CARAVANSARY, a party
of travellers or pilgrims in the East, and an
edifice for their lodging or entertainment
There may be said to be 2 distinct kinds of
caravans . 1. Commercial caravans, formed of
merchants who are crossing the deserts or
ex[)osed places for traffic ; and 2, religious cara-
vans composed of pilgrims going to some sacred
place for worship. They often consist of 1,000
persons and several thousand camels. They
are under the general superintendence of a
h<iM^ by whom each caravan is divided into a
Lumber of cottors or platoons. There are 6
sub-officers: 1, the officer of the march; 2,
of the encampment; 8, of the servants and
beasts; 4, of the baggage; and 6, the pay-
initster. A military escort and a hybeer or
frade attend each caravan. These caravans
travel mostly by night in the hot season, and
when they do so are guided by means of fires
or lights carried in iron boxes, supported on
l"ri;r poles, and borne at the head of each cottor
or company. Each cottor has a box differing
iu form from the others, and so the boxes serve
aa btandards to enable each pilgrim to know his

oottor. When a caravan is to encamp, the
cottor standards are sent forward and stationed,
and each cottor on coming up must pitch
around its own standard. The places of all,
both in the encampment and march, are per-
manently allotted by the bashd. It was evi-
dently to such a commercial caravan, made
up of Ishmaehtes and Midianites, that Joseph
was sold by his brethren. The religious
caravans are now principally made up of
Mohammedans who make the pilgrimage to
Mecca. Burckhardt, the great eastern travel-
ler, who was at Mt. Arafat when the Syrian
and Egyptian caravans for Mecca were en-
camped ai its base, has given a very interesting
description of the scene. From the top of the
mountain he counted 3,000 tents, while he says
that far the greater number of the pilgrims
were, like himself, tentless. The number of
pilgrims he estimated at 70,000 in these 2 cara-
vans, and the number of languages they spoke
at least at 40. The wife of Mehemet Ali re-
quired 500 camels to transport her baggage in
the pilgrimage. — ^The Cabavansaries of pil-
grims are generally the rudest structures con-
sistent with the purpose of protection. They
are mostly the creations of charity on the part
of the inhabitants of the desert. Sometimes
they are kept to receive travellers for pay,
when they are more generously arranged and
furnished. The first mention we have of such
inns may be that in which the children of Jacob
stopped to rest and feed their asses on their re-
turn to Egypt. The caravansaries for the ac-
commodation of the commercial caravans are
not provided by charity, but are erected at the
expense of the merchants themselves.

CARAVELLAS, a seaport town of Brazil,
on the bay of Caravellas, which opens into the
Atlantic. It is a well-built place, and its har-
bor is the most frequented of any in the prov-
ince. The productions of the province are
exported hence to Rio, Bahia, and Pernambuco.
Pop. of the district, 5,000.

CARAWAY, the fruit or seeds of the carum
earui^ a small biennial plant, which grows wild
in the meadows and pastures of central and
northern Europe, and is cultivated in gardens,
as it is in this country. The root, which in the
cultivated plant resembles the parsnip, is used
for food in the north of Europe. The seeds ma-
ture the second year of the growth of the plant.
They are collected by mowing the stalks and
threshing, which, from the smallness of the
seeds, should be done on a cloth. They are
valued for their medicinal properties, for which,
or rather perhaps for their pleasant aromatic
fiavor, they are introduced into the cakes called
seed-cakes, and into some kinds of sugar plums.
In Europe they are used in confectionary, to
flavor liquors and cakes, and also bread, cheese,
and other articles of food. Their medicinal
action is to stimulate the digestive organs, and
remove flatulency ; they are used also to aid or
modify the action of other medicines. An es-
sential oil, oleum cari^ is prepared by distillation

416

OAfiBAZOHO AdD

OABBOlSr

of the seeds, vMoh poeswes their properties^
and is used to flavor medicines, and correct their
nauseating and griping effects. An oily liquid,
named earvaoroty is obtained by distilling oil of
caraway with hydrated phosphmo acid, and
taming the liq^d back into the retort until it
ceases to hare the odor of caraway. It has the
property of affording immediate relief to the
tooth-ache when introduced into the tooth.
Caraway seed is imported from Europe, and is
also supplied in part from our own gardens.
It is lai^ly cultivated in Essex and Suffolk,
Enffland, being sown on old pasture lands, to-
gether with coriander and teazle. The coriander
ripens the first year, the caraway in the summer,
and the teazle in the autumn of the second year.
OABBAZOHO AOID, calledalso Oabboaxot-
10 and PiOBio Aom, is obtained by the action
x>f an excess of nitric on carbolic add. and also
upon indigo, gum benzoin, resin, aloes, and
omilar vegetable substances. It is a very bit-
ter substance, crystallizing in yellow prisma,
which are volatile, and fuse into a brown-
ish yellow oil. Its chemical formula is
OuH, SlTO^Ot. It has been lately introduced
to notice, is said to be beneficial in intermit^
tent fevers, and is considered valuable in the
dyeing of silks and woollens. It is thought
that if the grass tree, or black bay gum from
Australia, were employed and treated with
nitric acid, as proposed by Dr. Btenhouse, tiie

Erioe of this article might be greatly reduced.
1 1851, in Paris, where it was manufiictured.
it was sold for $2 40 per lb. The yellow ana
green colors produced by this substance are de-
scribed as very beautiful, and not liable to fiide
by exposure to the air, as is the case with
those colors obtained frx>m vegetable dyes.

water in tiie oondenaer. By agitating tiieee

oils with twice thdr bulk ci caostio potash,
and decomposing by muriatio aoid, a ot^orleasoil
is obtained heavier than water, of acid roaetion,
and having some of the properties of creosote,
which it much resembles. Its composition is
Ott HiO, HO, which is that of hydrous oxide of
phenyL Its epeoiflc gravity is 1.06S ; its boil-
ing point SeS"" F. Its taste is buniiiig and
caustic. It acts upon the ddn, and la pm-
Bonous: like creosote, it is used for the tooth-
ache. It GryBtallizes in needles, which sink in
water. The same substance is also obtained by
distilling the««t0rmifa(7aiUK20iw0. Ckrbolleacid
possesses in a high degree the antiseptic prop*
erties of creosote, and is found to be uaofol in
preventing the putre&ctaon of animal matters.
by the action of nitric add it is converted into a
substance called carbazotio acid, which is an im-
portant dyeina material. It is of furthernae la
dyeing and calico printing, by preaerving from
decomposition the extraota of tanning mat-
ters, whichare liable to ferment and be convert-
ed into sugar and gallic adds.

OABBON (Lat earhoy coal), represented by
the symbol 0, one of the most common and im-
portant substances in nature, occurring in a great
variety of forms in the vegetable, animal, and
mineral kingdoms, in the two first named being
by &r the most considerable element. The
charcoal prepared from many snbstanoea bo-
longing to these presents it pure; but the dia-
mond is crystallized carbon, contaminated^
when colorless, by no foreign admixture. In
this form carbon possesses the most brilliaiit
lustre^ and a hardness unsurpassed, wfakdi la
represented upon the mineralogical soale by the
highest number, 10. (SeeDiAMonn.) Carbon ia

OABBOHYDBOGENS, a term applied by remarkable for its allotropic character, preeent-

id ingitse]fundervariousform8,whilestallina8tate

some chemists to combinations of caroon ani
hydrogen, including a large number of liquid
organic substances, as some oils of wines and
non-oxygenous volatile oils; also among solid
bodies the substance caoutchouc, and among gas-
eous bodies the carburetted hydrogen or coal gas
and defiant gas. But by o&ers it is used to
designate those compounds in which the
amount of carbon and hydrogen in each differs
by an equal number of atoms, or by a multiple
number, and which, on this account, are said to
be homologous. Their physical characters are
likewise varied by their amounts of carbon and
hydrogen present, which affect particularly
their boiling point. Thus,

B.P.

PoUto spirit oU, CioHitO^ **

18&a*F.
172.4- *
876* «

Every 2 atoms of CH raise the boiling point
g^o 2'/^ f ^|g is the use of the term, as given by
Dr. Thomson.

OABBOLIO AOID. In the distillation of
the tar obtamed from bituminous matters among
the first products obtained at temperatures be-
tween 800"" and ^OO"*, are some light essential
oils, which collect upon the suifrMe of the

of purity. Beside those named, graphite may
be regarded as one of its fomis^ the trace dtf
other substances met with in its purest qoalitiea
being considered accidental; also sas carbon,
the extremely hard substance which is di^>oe-
ited upon the inner surface of gas retorts ; ttid
lampblack, the soot deposited by highly oomr
bustible bodies, as they are imperfecUy oon-
BUmed. When 1 atom of carbon is oombined
with 2 atoms of oxygen, it forms the oom^
pound, carbonic acid gas, an essential oonatitQ-
ent of solid lunestones and other carb<matea|
and, in a gaseous form, of the atmospherio air.
Its compounds with hydrogen are called carbo-
hydrogens; they occur in easeoua, solid, and
liquid forms. The chemical equivalent of car*
bon is 6, established by Dumas by thediamond^
when consumed in a stream of oxygea gas,
combining with this in the proportion of 6
parts to 16. Oarbon resists the* infiuanee of
many reagents which powerfrdly afl^ other
bodies ; adds and alkalies at ordinary tempera-
tures have no eflEect upon it in its denser forms ;
but charcoal is oxidized in boiling nitrio add.
Neither is it affected by the strongest heat at-
tainable in frunaoes, provided it be protected

OAEBOli

CAEBONAEI

417

trnm t^o fiction of «ir or oxjgen* Pieeos of
Liiorcoal are faond c^ndosted in the cinders of
the blast furoflce^ whic!i have b&cii for 24 hours
<>r more iti the intense beat of its interior,
among melttrig orfi3 and limeatonea, btit pro^
tt cted in some waj from exposure to the oxygen
of the blast. The only indications of volatiliza-
tion or fusion which it can be made to exhibit,
are seen by exposing it in a vacuum to the heat
from a Bunsen'a battery of several hundred pairs
ho arranged in 5 or 6 series as to form 100 pairs
of 5 or 6 times the ordinary size. It is then
vuliitilized, and collects on the sides of the
ve.^sel in the form of a black crystalline powder.
The same effect is produced, but more slowly,
by exposing it to the heat, instead of in a vao-
imin, in a gas with which carbon does not com-
bine. At the same temperature charcoal may
a]>o be bent, welded, and fused, becoming
Softer the longer the heat is continued. It is
ultimately converted into graphite. Diamond
is similarly aflfected. The production of gas
carbon, which somewhat resembles this volatil-
ized carbon, will be seen at the close of this
article to have also furnished some hints as to
the probable origin of graphite. No substance,
unless it be crystallized boron, is more unalter-
able in most conditions, in which other bodies
uu.lergo a chemical change. It is taken up by
borne metals, when these are fused in contact
with it, and its presence in cast iron and steel
iriil)arts to them the qualities that distinguish
them from malleable iron. The most valuable
qualities of carbon in practical uses are its strong
a;iiDity for oxygen at high temperatures, and
its power of resisting in some of its forms the
bi^'h heat of furnaces. The former quality
^ivea to many of its varieties their value as com-
bustibles (see Fuel), and it also renders
carbon a most powerful reducing agent of the
oxi<les of the metals; for which purpose, as
well as for generating heat by its combustion, it
Ls ernjdoyed in smelting furnaces, bloomaries,
iv:c. I ts disappearance as carbonic acid gas adds
creatly to the convenience of its use for this
p'lrj^ose. Its refractory character admirably
a(ia{)tii it as a material for crucibles ; and when
u-^ed in the form of paste of pure charcoal
jM)\vder ground very finely, and applied as a
lining to earthen crucibles, it serves not merely
to protect the contents from injurious contact
with the outer vessel, but also furnishes to these
iho best reducing agent or flux. The black
lead crucibles or blue pots, are in part com-
p>>-;od of graphite, which, when prepared by
{^rinding and mixing with refractory earths,-
powerfully resists even the action of the blast in
liiirhly heated furnaces. Other useful purposes
h» rved by carbon are considered in treating of
the subjects in which this is the principal ele-
ment, as BoNB Blaok, Chabooal, Coal, Coke,
i>iAMOND, Fuel, Graphite, &c. — The peculiar
f.)rm of carbon already referred to as being
found lining gas retorts, and collected in crev-
icivs in their interior, possesses a metallic lus-
tre, and is of mammillary structure, resulting
TOL. IV. — 27

from the aggregation of the vesicles of which it
is <jom posed. It is Bometimes fibrous, resembling
graphite ; its specific gravity is l.VS. Itshard-
nefl3 cTcceeds that of any otiier form of carbon*
except thb dUmond^ It m burned with di^cuJtj
in high heat when exposed to currents of air — a
property which renders it useful for the illumi-
nating points of the voltaic light. Its origin is
commonly attributed to a deposition of carbon
from defiant gas, C4H4, which is generated ia
the distillation of bituminous coal, and ia con*
verted by parting with 2 atoms of carbon into
marsh gas or the light carburet of hydrogen^
CsHf, used for illumination. Dr. Hayes, from the
fact that defiant gas alone deposits carbon in the
form of lampblack, and that only when mixed
with bituminous vapors is the vesicular, brilliant
form obtained, is led to believe that the defiant
gaa is not the agent that produces this sub-
limate, but that it is a product of changes caused
by heat in vapors of hydrocarbons. The bitu-
minous vapors unmixed, as those of parafiine
and other fetty hydrocarbons, afibrding it also,
dosely resembling that found in the retorts, con-
firms this view. Dr, Hayes considers that its
mode of formation may be applied to explain
that of the natural graphitic compounds ; and
that these, and in general, sublimates composed
of vesicular forms, presenting laminas, under
this view, become a class of bodies which owe
their forms to the transporting power of vapors
in motion.

CAKBON", a county in the E. part of Penn-
sylvania, area about 400 sq. m., pop. about
17,000, formed in 1843 out of part of North-
ampton county, and named Carbon from its
mines of anthracite. It is a mountainous dis-
trict, made up of parallel ridges running in a
N. E. and S. W. direction. The largest of these is
the Blue or Kittatinny mountain, which bounds
the county on the 8. E. The coal mines aro
in the smaller ridges N. W. of this. Of these,
Mauch Chunk, at the eastern termination of the
southern anthracite coal field, is the most im-
portant. At the top of Summit mountain the
beds have been opened and worked like a
quarry, the coal lying in a mass not less than
50 feet thick. The Hazleton and Beaver
Meadow mines are in the N. TV, comer of the
county. Anthracite is the principal production
of the county. It is transported by railroads
from the mines to the Lehigh river, and thence
by slackwater navigation and canal, and also
by the Lehigh Valley railroad, down the Lehigh
to the Delaware river at Easton, The Lehigh
river traverses the county across the line of its
ridges; but the mines are only on its W, side,
and from 6 to 10 miles or more distant. The
yield of the mines in this county is about one-
sixth of the whole production of anthracite.
Capital, Mauch Chunk ; pop. about 4,000.

CARBONARI (Ital. carJon^'o, charcoal-burn-
er), a secret political society, which became no-
torious in Italy about 1818, though it had existed
long before. According to some accounts, the first
carbonari were Scotch charcoal-burners, patron-

418

OABBOKABI

ked by Phmcis I., who made their aoqnaintanoe
whUeonahnntingezoarBiontoSootilimd. Again,
it IB said that German oharooal-bnmers estaoiiBh-
ed snoh societies in the beginning of the 1 6th oen-
turj. Howeyer imcertidn the precise origin of the
fioolety, it is probable that the ooonpalion of ohar-
coal-bnming offered inducements to mjsteriona
associations; and at the beginning of the pres-
ent century, when the Neapolitan r^nblicans.
alike opposed to the usurpation of Hurat and
the rme of Ferdinand, took refuge in the
Abruzzi mountains, they organized, under the
leadership of Oapobianca, a oarbouAri sodety,
adopting charcoal as a svmbol of purification,
and accepting the general bans of the traditional
ooal-bamers' ritual with a view of wreaking
reveuffe upon oppressors, or, as they expressed
it in their symbolio motto f ^^Bevenge upon the
wolves who devour the lambs/* Queen Caro-
line of Naples, and the Sardinian mkuster Ma*
l^ella, are mentioned, in addition to Oapo-
bianca^ as the prime movers of the Abruzzi
league of carbonari. The little Neapolitan town
of Lanciano, in the province of Abruzzo Oitra^
numbered as many as 1,200 carbonari, and all
over the Abruzzi new societies were formed,
whose political influence became so marked,
that Prince Molitemi was -despatched to them
by Ferdinand with a view of securing their co-
operation against the French. But tiiie carbo-
nari, although their unwillingness to bear any
forei^ yoke had originally ffiven rise to their
association, leaned more and more toward re-

Sublicanism ; and, especially when the expelled
ynasty was reinstated upon the throne of
Naples, they assumed an attitude of uncompro-
mismg hostility against monarchy. From 80,000
members, the number of carbonari all over Italy
had been swelled in one month (March, 1820) to
the enormous figure of nearly 700,000, including
many persons of education and good family.
A great number, however, became carbonari un-
der the impresrion that the society was a ma-
sonic lodge, unconnected with politics. — ^The
place where the carbonari assembled was called
the haraeca, or coUier^s hut ; the country round
their gatherings was a forest; the interior of
the baracca was called the tendita^ firom the
■ale of coals which the colliers are supposed
to carry on in their huts. Each province con-
tained a large number of such ha/r<icch6 or huts,
and the union of the different provincial huts
oonstituted ^^a republic." The leading huts
were called alte vendite, and had their head-
quarters at Naples and Salerno. Their attempt
to centralize all the huts under one and the
same head proved fhiitless, although some of
the carbonari republics presented an imposing
character of unity. There was, for instance,
the republic of western Lucania, in the moun-
tainous coast district of the province of Princi-
pato Gitra, which embraced 182 baracche or
huts, and had its head-quarters at Salerno, the
chief town of the province. — ^The growing
influence of the order alarmed the conservative
governments of Europe, especially the Bourbons,

as, fiince 1819, the carbonari had put themsehes
into contact with French republicans. The
trial of the Ck>rBican Guerini, who, in accord-
ance with the decree of the alta tendUa^ M
stabbed a fellow-member for having betrsTBd
the secrets of the society, added to the excite-
ment. Previous to 1819, the carbonari socie-
ties in France took their rise prindpaUy from
the eharbonneriea, which flourished espedaSj
in the Franche Oomt6. But tiie movements d
the Italian carbonari, especially the insorree-
tions in Sicily and Sardinia, gave a fresh impuls
to the French fraternity, and under the hds-
pices of Buohez and Flottard, a newmoveiDent
was set on fbot in Paris, in an obscnre ooflee>
house in the rue Oopeau ; and in Buohez' lodg-
ings, in the rue Yieille du Temple, a species d
mUitary academy was established fbr the ben-
efit of the society. Men like Yoyerd'Argensoo,
Lafavette, Lafitte, Dupont de I'Eure, Buonarotd,
Barthe, Teste, Boinvilliera, and other repoblicau
of mark, loined the movement, which adopted
the ritual of the Abrnzri carbonari, with tbe
sole modification, that while the Kei^taQS
had only the one superior division of altaft^
dita, the French carbonari classed themselres
In 4 aenteSy viz. : ventea particulUret^venteieenr^
trales^ hautes ventes, ana 9ente$ tuprhna. TIm
admission to the ventea was also surrounded with
greater formalities in France, although, aflff
admission, the prindple of equality preTsiled,
and, like the Italians, the French carbooan
greeted each other as baru cou$ifu» The stst-
utes of the French carbonari are most striD-
gent. The faintest whisper of the secretsof the

society to outsiders— or ^aidn^, as outsiders *«
called — constitutes treason, and, as sach, is yvsr
ishable with death. No written commnnici'
tions are permitted. The vente tuprime com-
municates with the other rentes by means «
special agente, who exhibit their wt^^^"^.]?
the presentation of the half of a carl whim
is cut in a peculiar manner, and which inw
correspond with the other half transmitteo,
for this particular purpose of identification, to
the other vente» with whom the agent has »
communicate. Among the many symhols, ana
signs, and passwords of the French ctfbon«T.
the passwords tperama^fede^ earitAy had ajr
cial and peculiarly sacred meaning. '^^5i^"w
of the vente suprifM were followed bKndlyi «^
the sacrifices which a carbonaro mnat w^' J^
the interests and principles of the associatiOT
are boundless. In 1819 there w«re aw»
20,000 carbonari in Paris, and their pnnoi*
associations were known under the nainw

la Washington, la Victorieuse, la B^rj J
Sincere, la R^ussite, les Amis de la Vto|VJ
Westermann, &o. But there were nc«;{^ jj
ventes, as no vente could have in^re ^i«
members. From Sept. 1820, w»til Kardi^
1821, a separate committee sat «* ™^ „^
itary aflTairs, as the army contained a W "
ber of carbonari. In 1821 the governm«Q« ^j^
officially informed that the floo*5^^At
26 out of the 80 departments of *«»<*•

C2ARB02rM!E^

(JiLRBO!IIO AOtn

ISflf to liet? - -- '

<^*t^'n.lid

itkliieiuLLV. tl i» K^<iid*Tili<l T'T (U riT tl^mtft

eJb

..*r

Wii<io

a(l4ai»«iMa»JI»

I'^'^miW'

i!i4fU Hi^<-

-. iiu*-

' ^tig dift-''

" .jtii maj ev»!_»i ir^ m-Uii*!, aoA iliL tfiUiu

* iVi>i ^irr. .11- - .-.- - t . . .

In i

/ ^ liuii Om ftity HwU' la itue iif tlio
UAH liT llrsrl;^ iiQ lfci» odiar ftoidft, Mc

IL! :■

iar

ACID, 11 gM dis«»vei»l Iti iTff

ifbufi art* la-

^f rrifh/i^j .»4-|..i ,

'fiv

mAT b* r«i{nff<ifi^

tr*

If-

fWIJi

mMk Atmm^ tlio

^?^ lli^fx% i(f llme^

- f wUdi

t oT McAi tofrMiAvoi 1» oMtMiiiiuiJj

nif .(«»(^«gMi«J i»* iMtiitlUQl«» tOnMii

lOiefr

iii>d t^9 ur^tK
ilac«<l^ Mitu
lug. Li

i«7piit pociibintti ivfil> tlitt f»hQt|ihimiiL

i^ f}lli}#|illCin ' 1 * ' ' ' 'f « tJBJnu Willi

UB^hmsdmX eqpiTilmt ttoi ^ 8!l, and U b hk

Its fPHditit b 110 Ufi4 U} i* Jt iitigr tsi pooml al*
ll»OKt flrr mifer Urom oot iiur !dco anMlMf, dk^

bo »L : jb ezt3«ip;uiililiig ft Ikghi pkii0d tu

tla 1^ w«^ 1 ^p^ud. II w vUlnaut eatiir, ba! liaa a
d^ddod mmt tui^ aoft a pcmgieoA odur. (lii
Ib^ft add r«aettda b itkow^ in ^^nai^ii^
fibai«liii lltinoa papar ivit Flntum b loiOi^
illfllJ^ aiiafOdiliM wfaan li : ^ ' " ' fOr
la fim iimMiirttaii oC 1 p§i* ^d

Willi air, ilk aoMre^r — * - , • . .., it4
Willi H^aot iMKl^ " illisL la lW al-

iittMaibt»ni i£ U tu;...-.^^.^, diflWwl ln firi-
fwtion etasytitue ^^^^ pait by nwMnm, «f?«i
Hi Di<» ^T^!'--! Twii.Mh^, r<ari>ta Uf mtOL Ifc
k ihte vrhkli tomlsJtiaa to

420

CABBONIO AOm

tiiSs enormoTiB absorption, the combustioQ and
decay of organic bodies, and the respiration of
animals, ever make good the deficiency. The
great weight of this gas tends to keep it in the
low phicee where it is generated, though, like
other gases, it has also the tendency to mix
with atmospheric air. Hence it is always pru-
dent, before descending into badly yentilated
wells, to let a candle down to prove the presence
or absence of the gas. It is related by Dr.
Christison, that cases have occurred of men
becoming instantly insensible, even when the
light burned. This may be owing to eome pe-
culiarity of the mixture of gasea not under-
stood, probably to the presence of carbonic
oxide; for it has happened to the writer to
descend several times into air so impure, that a
candle could not possibly be lighted in it, and
to remun with another person long enough to
make many ineffectual attempts to ignite it, and
this with no other effect than a severe head-
ache. In mines it is a veiy common thing for
the men to continue their work in an atmoa-
phere so foul, that their candles ^ out, and are
then relighted from the fire stiH in the wick,
by swinging them quickly through the air,
when they bum a little while and go out, and
are again relighted in the same way. The son
of BerthoUet, the dhemist, who destroyed him-
self by inhalinff the fumes from burning char-
coal, writing down hw sensations at the time,
remarked that the candle was soon extinguished.
The lamp continued to burn, and was flickering,
as he became himself powerleBS to record more.
Persons made insensible by inhaling this gas, may
be restored by immediately dashing coM water
over them. TMs is the practice parsued at the
famous Grotto del Cane at Naples, in order to
restore the dogs, which, for the gratification of
viators, are exposed to the fumes of the gas,
into which they are dipped as into an invisible
bath. Such natural accumulations of this gas
are not very rare, though much that is evolved
from the earth is absorbed by the waters it
meets, some of which are almost as highly
charged with it as the *^ mineral '' waters of the
shops. It is stated by Dr. Thomson that the
Upas valley of Java, so celebrated for its pesti-
lential vapors, is not altogether fabulous, but
that these vapors are derived from quite another
source than the poisonous Upas tree. From a
deep dell immense quantities of carbonic acid
are evolved, which contaminate the lower strata
of the air throughout the valley, and suffidentlv
account for the remains of men and animals
which lie strewed over it. When the air of
wells is too impure for men to descend, it may
be driven out by any of the ordinary modes of
ventilation, by agitating the column for some
time in any way, by the explosion of powder;
or, as suggested and practised by Frof. Hub-
baid, by lowering a vessel contaLiing ignited
Charcot nearly to the bottom. Incandes-
cent coals have the property of absorbing
many times their bulk of this gas, and when
oooled they may be raised up, reignited,

and lowered again. A wdl in which a oazidle
would not bum within 26 feet of the bottom,
was thus purified in the course of an afternoon.
— ^Water readily absorbs carbonic acid, from
which it may be freed by boiling^ fireenng, or
being placed under the e:diausted receiver of aa
air pump. Under the ordinary pressure of the
atmosphere, and at a temperature of 60% water
takes UD its own volume of the gas, and accord-
ing as the pressure is increased, so is the bulk
of the gas forced into the water. It gives a
pungent, pleasant, slightly acid taste, and the
sparkling effervescence seen in bottled liqaors^
in which it has been generated. The gas ob*
tained from powderea carbonate of lime or
limestone, exposed to the action of hydrochlorie
or sulphuric acid, is used to saturate water for
drinkmg. It is generated in strong metallie
vessels, capable of sustaining a pressure of 4 or
6 atmospheres or more. This is the " mineral
water" or "soda water" of the apothecaries*
both improper names, as it contains neither
soda nor other mineral substance. Exposed to
the air, the greater part of the gas soon escape^
and when thoroughly expelled by boiling^ the
water has an insipid taste. Pure lime water
detects its presence in solution, becoming im-
mediately turbid, as the lime seizes upon Ui»
gas, and is converted into an insoluble white
earbonate* But if the gas is greatly in exoeaa,
a portion of this is rediasolved. Not only is
limestone soluble in water impregnated with
this gas, but metallic bodies are also acted upon
by it, and converted into carbonates. As some
of these are soluble and possess poisonons qual-
ities, regard should always be had tothia in the
use of leaden pipes and vessels used for convey-
ing and contaming water, which by any meana
may be impregnated with the gas; and the
copper ffas generators of the draggists should
especiaUv be protected by a lining of tin, gla^
or porcelain. — ^By subjecting carbonic acid gas
to powerful pressure, Prof. Faraday succeeded
in obtaining it in a liquid form. Thilorier re-
peated the experiments, and congealed the con-
densed gas into a solid form like snow. The
pressure used for this purpose is that of 86 to 40
atmoroheres. Sulphuric acid is made to react
upon bicarbonate of soda in strong cast iron cyl-
inders, and the gas is passed through very sEotall
metallic pipes into a reservdr pla^d in a fi«ex-
ing mixture. In this it solidifies. In one of the
early experiments of ThUorier, in a course of
pubUc lectures at Paris, the apparatus of cast
iron exploded under the enormous pressure^
and one of the assistants was so much iiyured,
that he died in a few hours. It was observed
by Thilorier, that when the liquid gas waa al-
lowed to escape into a brass box through a
small tube, the cold produced by the sudden
evaporation of one portion was so intense, that
it served to congeal the remainder of the gas.
This snowy proauct, remelted and resolidified,
becomes a clear crystalline solid like ice. Hav-
ing a low conducting power, it is not so volatile
as the liquid gas ; ana though ita real temper-

CiOfiOHIC? OSIDS

O^EBUKaLS

itUu U^ ^Ttui le c^^^iU^

ilir Umiiiiv Willi H

'>co^t»jiij ii4ii*>* i*i Sk uty*it*u *iiiU' tji lilt? ^'

lliif nhAintwn ite. la ftiiMfiwbJrtil 4?QQMUiiiiiitt|.iir ot. ,> ir.tn
iet«d Ihr tktiiilQ| ilio«lr tl&wn Iiit0 lh» ihtwmi, « eiitttfido nuur iiodamr USi. XVlf

I llieiiui bjr t^ J^M ^
gjiutaUiH^; worm sod »tJidi«»il|j|f

ptSTfttKoi ; Ih^i ►.TTi^t^'li BTi|i|vjr*-.| 11/

rtilttiijr diuttlwlc. And iW mlQ«ral «<ida(

mhmi hh

kUf^rnf t«i14iifl e1)«rpoa} h,

f!^^ t^ mmm t£ • jtrccitMit

422

OABBUBSIS

OABBUBIS

by the andentB. It was probably & blood-red
garnet.

OARBURETS, or Oabbidxs, oombinatioiis of
oarboQ with the metala and simple bodies, as
steel and cast iron, which are oar burets of iron*
The most interestang of these is the volatile
Hqnid. sometimes caUed oarbnret of solphnr
and alcohol of solphnri but now known by the
l^ame of bisolphnret of carbon. It may oonve-
mently be desoribed in this plaoe. It is a heavy,
elear fluid. <^ a strong fetid odor, and very
inflammable. Its specifio gravity is 1.298, its
boiling point 118°. It evaporates with great
rapidity, absorbing so much heat, that quiok-
^ver may be frozen in a tnbe snrronndea with
Hnt wet in this sabstance, and placed in the
exhansted receiver of an air pnmp. Its compo-
sition IB carbon 1 atom and snlphur 2 atoms, or
per cent 16.8 of carbon and 84.2 of snlphnr.
The mode of preparing it is to pass the vapor
of solphnr over charcoal heated to redness m a
tnbe, and collect the floid whidi goes over in
water. It shoxdd be redistilled to free it from
Inoistore and exoess of solphnr. This sabstance
Is particolarly interesting for its strons solvent
power, and the readiness with which it passes
mto vapor. Its volatility has snggested its use
for engines, as a sobstitote for water, and work-*
ing models have been made to ron by it.
The design was to condense it, and use the
game material over and over. It is nsed now
principally forvamishes. and for dissolving caont*
chooc, &o. In medicine it is employed as a stima*
lant, to excite the natural secretions of the skin,
kidneys, ^., to inereftse the animal warmth,
accelerate the poise, to. Reoently it has been
BoccessfoUy applied to indolent tomors, and to
the glands of the ear to remove deafiiess.

OARBURETTED HYDROGEN. Two com-
pounds of carbon and hydrogen are derignated
by this term, one called the light carboretted
hydrogen, and the other olefiant gas. The
former is also known as the fire-damp of the
miners^ marsh gas, &o. It was observed in
ooal mmes as early as 1640. Dr. Franklm, in
1T74, called the attention of Priestley to an in*
flammable gas obtained in this country by stir-
ring stagnant pools. It was first accurately
described bv Drs. Dalton and Thomson in 1811.
It is a colorless gas, without taste or smell, and
neither of add nor alkaline properties* Its com*
position is carbon 1 atom, hydrogen 2 atoms^
0 H„ or per cent, 0—76, H— 26. Its weight,
compatiea with that of air, is 0.666. Burning
bodies immensed in it are extinguished, and it
does not support respiration. It is higldy in-
flammable, bnming with a yellow flame ; but it
requires a high^ heat to ignite it. United witli
oxygen or atmospheric air in due proportion, a
compound is produced which explodes with tiie
electric spark or the^ approach of flame. The
mixture of air to produce an explosion may be
from 7 to 14 times that pf the gas. Water and
oarbonio acid gas resist from the chemical
change. In mines of bitiminous coal this gas
is generated abundimtly, and it also issuee from

&e earth in various parts of the world. Th#
burning springs of Bakoo have already been
noticed in the description of that place. Simi-
lar springs are met wiUi in western New York,
Pennsylvania, and Virginia; and the gas from
some of these is used for illmninating purposes.
The principal interest that attaches to tiiis gas is
owing to the terrible explosions it has caused in
the &glish ooal mines, and which led Sir Hum-
phry Davy and George Stephenson to inves-
tigate the properties of the gas with a view
of disoovering some method of protecting
the miners. Thus the safety lamp was did-
covered, which stall continues to be the most
valuable guard next to tSiorough ventilation.
Oleflant gas, the other variety of oarburetted
hydrogen, was discovered bv some Dutch
chemists m 1798, who gave it this name in con-
sequence of its forming an oily-like liquid with
chlorine. It consists of 86.71 per cent, of car^
bon and 14.29 of hydrogen, and is properly ren*
tesented by the symbol OAH. Its nieciDO
gravity is very near that of atmospbene air,
being estunated at 0.9674-0.9862. The gas pos-
sesses an odor slightly ethereal. Burning bodies
are extinguished, and animals cease to bretfuthe
in it. It bums with a dense white lig^
IGxed with 8 or 4 volumes of oxygen or 10 or
12 of air, it violently explodes by the electrio
spark or flame. Exposed to red heat in aporoe-
lain tube, it is decomposed, charcoal is deposit-
ed, and light carburetted hydrogen or hydrogea
remains. A succession of electrio sparks con-
vert it into charcoal and hydrogen, the Itttter
occupying twice the original bulk of the gas.
It is liquefied under the pressure of 40 atmos-
pheres, when exposed to the low temperatnres
attained by solid carbonic acid and ether in a
vacuum. In this form it is a dear, odorles^
transparent fluid. — Several methods are given
for obtaining it. It results from distilling coal
or fiat substances in dose vessels. Alcohol
distilled with 4 to 7 times as much sulphnrio
acid yields it, and the gas is purifled by passing
it through lime water.

OARBURIS, Kabiko^ count a Gredic engi-
neer, bom at the beginmng of the 18th eentoiy.
atArgostoli,Oephalonia,diedl782. Hereceived
a thorough education at the university of Bdo-
gna ; being banished for someyouthftd but crimi-
nal folly irom Greece, he assumed the name of
Lascari, and entered the Russian service. The
empress Oatharine U. appointed him lieutenant*
xsolonel of the corps of engineers, and intrusted
him with the construction of the work connect^
ed with the statue intended for Peter the Great.
Oarburis procured a monolith conasting of a
block of granite from the gulf of Finland, SI
feet high, 40 feet long, and 27 feet in width.
This block wss imbedded 16 feet deep in a
swamp. The difficulty was how to extricate it
and convey it to St. Petersburg. Oarburis in-
vented a machine for this purpose, and under
his superintendence the block was safely shipped
to the shores of the Neva, and from thence
transported by land to the publio square of BL

■ {UfiOiUrESTTS

OiiBD rL4Y7HQ ^li^^^l

psup

\^^rtKsr ^ Ai>, nf Fr^^i-- f'Xi ^^H

^fCitk»rr u^t,,

tii^ ■

■ 1»^ «»t :vt&«>

iftl.;

^^^^B

■ Uc ' 049

ciM

^^^H

BE!^_ '^

will

I^^^^HTO' ^^^ ' -1, LHitL'^J

C^j'

«br!

^^^H

11^ C- A ". i- .1 .^ J.I i. tiiii firef-

Mid

^^^H

■ Jjif« af iiUUl ptsb 00 iSm

4^/

^^^B

wr^'

K|te«

iit': ••^.

^^^^B

^^^■1' ILlllt^

il tmhi

^^^B

^^Bt.

^^^^^^1

^^K Miiii iJ^ff •J14II4 1^ It ia

il^vttliar

'--itm ^H

*k \jr.^i,'

^^^^^K tiirvi«^li tifiri«

^^^^^B^on, |'«?*-^ !^

^^^^B

jMjt? wlikii are wpvior 1^' ^1 iita ^^^^B

^^■^'

^^^^^^p '

tiiiBt «Dd4»Dt form af ecnii b <lin ^^^B

^'^ 'lrrtit« of tho ^nl» ti^^ ^^ «h a ^^^H

^^^P'

n4w, Thk Dam# 1 ^^^1

^^ftl

!_ _. L-

fill i\m pooa W6s € : .„ . > ^^^H

^^B.

OaOOMCl^

^^^Bl LUfVf

ttHeMi

sndml (inrsni Ar iiifil% ^^^H

5a2K:

^^^^^Br

Irt fell r '

^^^^H^%

Elirr^ie 1

^^^^^K' h lc«UIOto

* ' ■ .

^^^^■^ uMbsi wrrloc

^^^^pf^ . .J r j,M r r^^ j.f, ppjjt « I'ltli^ur, T nvt#

PL41), ^ 1 1

^'fu'^^- ui'.- 1^1^ lor ' ^^^B

^^^Kl "^f tii)d SQ fuuli Gulapiiynf, Tbo

^^^Bl^^ut-* k«lcpt}t»e 100 p&rij^ «iil{4ittr 10

pn»ttU

\tmd( ht^f T^Uo a lUiEniT^ \m ^H

iIm lnvm liiOl &r ^ ^k.^ . . H ' i^^iiHk tlu ^t t)M ^^^M

tMltlOC

iidit ^^H

^^HHI^Kj' -«t«r

iVQOTdiii ^^^

tho ^^H

H|m^309I^iL vi iMf Iwyf V iuut&d^r^ tti^bcL

OABDAMOIC

OASDAXr

of tihe royal household, an item of expenditnre
appears for troU jeux de earUs presented to
Gharlea YL by Jaoqnemin Gringonnetir, an art-
ist As early as the 15th century, an active trade
in cards spmnff np in Germany, and was chiefly
carried on at Noremberg, Angshnrg, and Ulm,
the demand from France, England, Italy, Spain,
and other conntriee prodndng great prosperity
among the mannfactorers. The most eminent
mannfactarer of cards in France in the 16th cen-
tury was Jean Yolay. In England the mannfao-
tore of cards flourished eq>ecially under Eliza-
beth. But no sooner had cards come to be gen-
erally used in Europe, than they were prohib-
ited dv several governments, partly from moral
considerations, the first games, as Landsknecht
in Germany, toMfumet and piquet in France,
being games of chance; partly from oonmder-
fttionsof political economy, as in England, where
the importation of foreign cards was considered
ii\jurions to the prosperity of home manufactu-
rers. The prohibition, however, onlv tended to
increase the taste for cards. In England, under
Bichard in. and Henry Vn., card piayinggrew
In &vor. The latter monarch was very fond of
the game, and his daughter Margaret was found
playmg cards by* James lY. of Scotland, when
be came to woo her. The popularity which
cards gradually obtained in England may be in-
ferred from tne hct that political pamphlets
under the name of ^' Bloody Games of Oards,"
and kindred titles, appeared at the commence*
ment of the civil war agdnst Oharles L One
of the most striking publications of this kind
was one in 1660 on iLq royal game of ombre.
In *^ Pepys's Diary.'^ under the date of Feb. 17,
1667, it IS stated that on Sabbath evenings he
fi>una ^ the Qneene, the Duchesse of York, and
another or two, at cards, with the rooms fbll of
ladies and great men."— The marks upon the
suits of cards are supposed to have been origi-
nally intended for a symbolical representation
of the 4 different dasses of sodety , hearts repre-
senting, according to this supposition, the cler-
gy, spades the nobility (It tpada^ a sword), dubs
the serfs, and diamonds the dtazens. The figures
originated with military and historical associa-
tions. So we find the kings in the first Fr^ch
cards representing the monarchies of the Jews,
Greeks, Bomans, and French* The queens,
Inavea, the ace, and the number of the cards,
were based upon nmilar ideas; but many
changes and modifications have taken place at
various periods, according to the customs and
tastes of different countries. Breitkopf 's Ver*
9ueh de$ Unprung9 der Spidharten is one of the
most profound dissertations on the subject,
Binger^s " Beseardies into the History of Phiy-
ing Cards*' was published in London in 1616 ;
Leber's Modes hutariques mir lee eartee djouer^
in Paris in 1842 ; and Ohatto's ^' Facta and Spec-
ulations on the Origin and History of Playing
Cards,'' in London in 1848.

CARDAMOM, a name rather vaguely ap-
plied in commerce to the aromatic seeds of
various East India plants, of the natural order

Bbigiberaeem. The ^fuvfuw of IHoaooridea, and
amomi uva of Pliny is probably the round car*
damom of Sumatra, Java, dsc, the fruit of amo*
fMim cardamomum (Willdenow's linn,). The
variety from Madagascar is known as the great
cardampm, but other varieties fit)m Java and
Ceylon are also called by the same name by
some authorities. The cardamom of the phar-
maoopodias, and the best known in this country,
is that frx>m Malabar. It is the product of the
reneahnia eardamamum of Bosooe, a peren-
nial plant with a tuberous root, growing wild
in the mountains, and cultivated by the natives.
The seeds are exported in their capsules, which
are also aromatic, but are rejected in the use of
the article for medicine. Cardamom seeds are
valued for their aromatic and pungent qualitiea,
and are much used to flavor various medicines
and cordials. The natives of the East use them
as a condiment. One variety, known as grains
of paradise, Guinea grains, and Malagueta pep-
per, is imported in seeds from Guinea, and also
from Demerara, where the negroes have intro-
duced and now cultivate it ^e plant is prob-
ably the amomum Melegueta of Boscoe,
though one of the varieties found in the Eng-
lish markets is from the A, grana paradiai of
Sir J. £. Smith. The negroes use the seeds as
seasoning for food, and in Africa they are high*
ly esteemed among spices. Their flavor is hi^ilj
pungent and peppery. In England they find an
extensive use for giving a factitious strength to
adulterated gin and other liquors, and frequently
appear as one of the iuflredients of the so-called
*^ gin fiavorings." (See Gin.) They are also ad-
mmistered as medicine in veterinaxy prac^oe.

CABDAI^, GiBOLDCO, an Italian savant and
physician, the illegitimate son of a jurist and

Shydcian of Milan, bom at Pavia, Sept^ 24, 1601,
ied in Rome, Sept. 21, 1576. When young he
joined the order of St. Frands, but abandoned
it afterward. Devoting himself to the study of
medicine and philosophy, he obtuned his d^ree
of M.D. m 1625, practised his profession for acme
time, and auoceadvely officiated as professor of
mathematics and medicine at Pavia and Bologna.
He published a treatise on mathematics, Are
magnOf which gained for him a high reputa-
tion in that branch of science ; while in the
medical profesraon he ranked equally high, the
king of Denmark ofiering him, but in vain, a
professorship. While on a visit to Scotiand, be
was hailed as a great physician, and said to have
effected some famous cures. Pecuniary em*
barrassments driving him away from Bologna,
lie repaired in 1570 to Bom^ where he spent
the rest of his life, honored with the friendship
of Gregory Xm., who settieda pension on him,
and caused him to be admitted a member of
the college of physicians. He was noted as
much for his eccentricities aa for his abilities^
and his writings as well as his life present a
curious combination of industry and absnrdity.
His most £unous treatise, De SuhtiliUUe. is di-
vided into 21 books, which are taken up by the
various brandies of scientific, philosophical,

.1 T^A* '^■rA'^-m'.,^

^^^ CAnWGAS 42ZI H

t of tdai lEiti, and

iDti^ilbi ^^^1

*f-i *n- f b«^-

WlMlai; ^^M

iGSCltJOtf

latiivrfJir ^^H

-ilile. A

§mhi.fni\- ^^^M

^^^ t2i«

^^m
^^M

'ulaikiuiLfmilTO '"<

^^^H

-^fhfiRpio*^^^

l-r. 'ti. ^H

■t.

.11 «

,m .

sirl ^L, „ ^^^H

Fy.

(

mJijt^. At t. ^^^H
1 ^rrM o?i ^^H

L P.

■ir. ; T,

<>iiTji4|]||i3 a lllVMTr. ^^^H

B ^u

T.L- .

imtaci, lu3iri*Ter, fir ^^^|

^^H

H\- :

My took pin* ^^H

^^H

UrP«iJ*JI ...—

Bradni^ ii^&^ ^^H

^^^

hd*'Tfm«%^

aiil*<)oIiand of ^^^1

iiMt I'^tLTdlTJP'il

Wj.II^^ti. ^^^H

cU'j^a^ au it. ^^^^1

Wi"

r^'^^y mh} f^'. ^^^H

1 r,i

Inn 11

lit Wn^ WM Toliml^l^ifd Briidc^^ ^^M

■

£,

1 l^flflt^ tl.'

A TTHmKi tyf l2irt Lftc»*> c^r I'otiini.int iV» m ^^^^B

J0--

^^1

^^H

V|[V

^^^

El f>.'

^^H

pr-*'

♦ji linjiiiri^ni

^^1

A pro4tif$bi Hit ( r

^^1

^f 470 litf^ifi *•-«

hUa iif ilji<^''!>^lL:o* ifk^ ^^H

^^1

'^ cmttbf ¥tr

it-Unttf^, ^^M

^HH

^''

inftsioua irwp ).

^ TiUldn H^' ^^1

te«, iiiuiiagQ

uavltlt «^ii mioii^if if».

, t^jSDAiiilod o PfQrt*t&arUiii, Uii UiJi ^H

CABDIGANSHIBE

CABDIKAL

piiyflege was iHthbeid from him^ aody a0 the
public thoughVanJitttly. The ezoiteznent ere*
ated by this amiir and bv bis sobsequent xois-
vndeiBtanding wilih aaother officer also of the
name of Reynolds) had hardly sabrided, when
he fought a duel with Oapt Harvey Tnokett
(Sept. 15, 1840), beoanse this officer had cen-
sured his conduct in the '^Morning Chron-
icle " newspaper. Capt Tnokett was wounds
ed, and Lord Cardigan tried before the house
ci lords, but, although aoquitted, public opin-
ion was against him. ma reputation, how*
ever, as an accomplished cavalry officer, and
the satisfaction which the duke of Wellington
ezpr»»ed in 1848, with the efficiency of the
11th hussars' regiment, which was under Lord
Oudigan's charffe, led to his promotion. On
tiie outbreak of the Crimean war Lord Car*
digan was raised to the rank of nugor-general,
and appointed brigadier in conunand of the
light cavalry brigade. This brigade constituted
the celebrated " six hundred," whose charge at
Balaklava will long be remembered as one of
the bravest yet wildest feats, perhaps, ever told
ci in the history of war. On that occasion
(Oct. 26, 1854), Lord Cardigan is said to have
received from Lord Luoan, his brother-in-law^
an order to capture certain guns fr^m the Bu»«
sians. A mile and a half had to be traversed,
under fire, before the enemy could be met, ana
the Russian forces stood in formidable array in
every direction. The enterprise seemed hope*
less. Cardigan, however, led on the charge,
and actually took the guns, his men cutting their
way through the infantry support and through
the cavalry, and then back again, under the
play of the Russian batteries, but with fearfrilly
diminished numbers, the survivors not exceed-
ing 150. As the hero of this daring exploit,
Lord Cardigan was received with great enthu«
dasm on his return to England, and appomted
inspector-general of the cavalry. The cnarges^
however, subsequently alleged by the Crimean
oommissioners, tended to reduce the high es»
timate placed upon his services.-— In appear*
ance Lord Cardigan is the beau-ideal of a light
dragoon. Though 61, he carries his years witii
an arrogant ear of Juvenility. His fnme, though
slight, is well proportioned and knit, and he is
gay and dauntless in bearing.

CARDIGANSHIRK, acounty of South Wales J
area, $98 sq. m., or 448,887 acres; pop. in 1851,
70,796. The county is mountainous, except in
the K.E. near the sea, where it is flat The riv-
ers are small, and there are several small lakes.
Slate is the prevailing geological character of
the county. Veins of copper, lead, and anc are
found. Some domestic manufactures of wool-
len are carried on; oats, butter, and slatea
are exported. Remains of oasties and religioua
houses are fr^uent, as are drui^eal remains
and Roman encampments.

CARDINAL (it. incardinare, used synony-
mously with intitolare^ to commission), original-
ly, any clergyman bearing an official appointment
in a principal churoh. By degrees, however, the

tifie became the ezdunve dedgnatios of ffae
principal dergy of the Roman churohf who^
as the naturfd counsellors of the pope^ ac-
quired an influence and consideration c4f a su-
perior kind. Thus, in process of time, an
ecdesiastical senate was formed to advise and
assist the sovereign pontiff in the government
of the church; and the constitution of this
body was continually perfected until it was
ultimately fixed in its present form by Pope
SixtusV. The dignity of cardinal is the highest
in the Latin dhuroh, after that of pope^ who is
elected by them alone. Cardinals have also the
rank of secular princes, bdng classed with ele^
tors, and next after kings. Tneirinrignia (beside
those worn by bishops, which aU cardinala, even
those who are not in sacred orders, are entitled to
use) are a purple mantle, a scarlet hat, and a riAg
of sapphire set in gold. They are divided into
8 classes, cardinal bishops, cardinal priests, and
cardinal deacons; and the maximum number of
these 8 classes is respectively 6, 60, and 14w In
the 1st daas belang the bishops of the 6 sofflra-
wi sees of the Roman province, via^ €>stia»
f orto, Albano, Tusoulum, Sabina, and Pneneste.
Their titie arose from the circumstance thai
they were obliged to offidate pontifically on
certain days in the greater basilicas of Bome^
and were inaugurated or incardinated (tnconii*
nati) into these fhnctions, and hence ranked as
the chief of the cardinals, who were, aa stated
above, the clergy of these prindpal oburoheeL
The <»rdinal priests were ori^nally the arch-
priests who pi^ded over the clergy attached
to the principal churches, of which there were
already 26 at the dose of the 6th eentury. The
cardinal deacons sprung from the regionaiy
deacons, of whom there were originally 7 and
afterward 14, each one having charge over the
poor in a certain district of the city. In mod-
em times the cardinal priests are very frequent-
ly archbishops and bishops. Each one. how-
ever, derives his titie from a particular church,
and in that church he has special jurisdiction.
The cardinal deacons may l^ priests, deaoon%
or subdeacons, or even inferior clerks. They
are generally men who have devoted their hvet
to the study of law, diplomacy, and statesman-
ship, and are employea in the temporal affairs
of the Roman court Every cardinal, whatevw
order he may have received, exercisea quasi-
episcopal Jurisdiction in his church, gives
solemn benediction, and issues di^>ensations.
Those who are jPp^ts can n^ve the tonsure and
minor orders. They take precedence of aU prel-
ates, even patriarchs, and haye a decisive voice
in genwal councils. The appointment of a cardi-
nal rests exclnnvely with the pope. The num-
ber is never quite filled, and there are always
some reserved inpetto^ to be announced when
a death occurs or any other suitable opportunity
presents itselt It is customary to i4>point a
few cardinals recommended by the principal
Catholic sovereigns, who are called crown car-
dinals. The constitutions of Sixtus V. and the
of the council of Trent direct that the

o^mmjA t&unB

w \

^iwl fh^m o«P'(t' '

iitfjMl dlv^fAiid of ike

Did po4ilii

Xcurs IT

i tai*fiAr

■ I'tm- of

id I

.ALyr.

niEii of tl« itnUJiitii tftalai Wio^
-^- " !ril Tditfeni tif tliP TJ, S,

:ij| biJKBtLi, tH Uldir tliiil

. .. — .« ^p^.4«t!«l a lAi^ »bM^ of lili
tlii racHovirflf diEMA riildeboni

i^pud ooiLiamidliiif r«f«UiiiMifl,

Aidirnflnvirii] ffiitflm'^'^ '

ill thd buj .

It COODti'

rJtjm tot 4
s In 19193, c*i

til €lli^^;T«l*

r-r>rn) of llii

in UiA nnQiiij

» T ju/ « v»'i,

ihi. iIfJa

. lUULiJI f HI. u

mm lliQ liKTt^

•' iLtitj !irn til

III

't>

rl*

tier oTdotiEraiis^. tiM UnS. yl 1«» l»A «nUi

Tim lAi^i tifi|i«M ' (O

dtfl^rvi* p<M|ii(]Q* a'.r.,rM>ic.K 'J '>'■ i^<-n«i ^'j U«

428

OABDS

posite direcdons, bo Hiat ftt e&oh siaroke some of
the fibres of the toft are booked on one card
and some on the other: this is called the tear-
ing positioo. After all the fibres are hooked
on, one of the cards is reversed, and at the next
stroke the card which moves in the direction
pointed ont bj its own hooks strips firom the
other all the fibres; this is eallea the strip*
pmg position* Plat cards have been need by
hand m the manner jnst described. Cylinder
cards and the carding machine were invented
in the 18th century by Lewis Paul of Korth-
ampton, ^gland, and were much improved by
Sir Bichard Arkwright The cotton or wool is
in general passed throngli 2 carding machines
before it is ready for the next operation ; these
are c^ed the breaker and the finisher, and
the onlv difference between them is that the
teeth of the last machine are finer than those
of the other. The principal parts of the most
improved carding machine of our time are: 1.
A main dram, 86 inches diameter, with a cir-
cumference velocity of 20 feet per second; it
IB covered with strips of cards parallel to the
axis, laid on at a small distance from each
other, and moves in the direction pointed out
by the teeth. 2. Top cards, or narrow, flat
cards, which are stationary above the main
drum, a^d parallel to its axis; they rest by
their ends on the frame of the machine,
are tangentiid to the drum, and their distance
from it is nicely regulated by screws. The teeth
of the top csfds and of the drum are in the
tearing position. 8. Two feed^roUers, 1} inch
diameter, velocity 2i inches per minute; they
are on a level with the axis of the drum, and
on the nde which moves toward the top cards.
4. A large runner or cylinder, 6^ inches diamo'
ter. 14 feet velocity per second ; it is tangential
and parallel to the drum, and is atuatod be-
tween the feed-rollers and the top cards ; the
teeth are in the tearing position. The dmm
moving from right to left, the large runner
moves from left to right 5. A smidl runner,
8^ inches diameter, 7 feet velocity ; it is tan-

E' 'al at the same time to the drum and to the
runner, and stands between this and the
rollers ; it moves from left to right, strips
thelaige runner at a velocity of 14-|-y==21 feet,
and is stripped by the drum at a velocity of
20-— 7=18 feet. 6. A doffer cylinder, 14 inches
diameter, 27 feet velocity ; it is parallel to the
drum, and turns from left to right ; its teeth are
in the tearing position ; it stands in front of the
top cards. 7. A doffer knife, like an ordinary
comb ; it has an up and down motion in con-
tact with the doffer, which it strips of all its
fibres, thus forming what is called a fleece.
8. The funnel through which the fleece passes,
and where it is contracted into a ribbon. 9.
Two pairs of drawing rollers, and 2 deUvenr
rollers. The width of the machine, or len^^
of the various cylinders, is 8 feet. The strips
of cards on the runners and dofiTer are placed
spirally. Sometimes small card cylinders, called
squirrels, are substituted for the top cards.

This madiine operates as Mows: The vod
or cotton to be carded, afker being arranged
in the shape of a sheet in another maciiiiM, to
engaged between the feed-rollers, llie fibres
are taken off by the drum and carried to the
larce runner, which takes off the loose fibres
ana is stripped of them by the small ndler,
which returns them to the drum* The dnm
carries them anew to the krge runner, bat tbej
are booked more firmly and move onward to
the top cards ; some of them remain therei, the
others are completely extended and reach tfas
doffer, which takes off a portion of them ; tboM
are stripped from it by the doffer kn]]b an!
form the fieece; the others are carried roosd
again to the runners and t(npi cards. At emk
passage some are taken offl From time to tims
the t^ cards and cylinders are cleaned of ths
fibres accumulated in their teeth. The machins
cards 2 lbs. 5 oz. of cotton per hour.— Tbs Kl-
CHINS FOB HAKiNG Oabds was the inyeniiQa
of Amos Whittemore, of Cambridge^ Haas., tost
which he took a patent in 1797. An Enc^i^
patent was issued in 1811 to J. 0. Dyer. A
fillet of leather is prepared of equal JhwA^^i^
throughout by drawing it between a (^'finder
and a scraper, which takes off all inequaHtiesL
One end of the fillet is then placed between 2
feed-cylinders, and is guided laterally by rdlenk
These are acted upon at intervals, and eadh tims
they move they carry the fillet sideways the
distance between 2 hooks. When it is neces-
saiy to place the hooks in obUqne lines, the mo-
tion described is combined with a motion of the
feed-rollers. After each motion of the fillet of
leather, a fork brought down at the proper ang^
pierces 2 holes in the leather ; a piece of a hard«
drawn steel wire is &d in; a small block of
steel descending upon it holds it firmly; the
wire is cut off; 2 sliding pieces of metal bend
it up against the sides of the block, and Uio
points are pressed into the holes in the leather.
The blocks and other parts spoken of recede
out of the way, and other parts oome for*
ward to drive the staple in and bend it to the
required angle. All these operations are ^
feoted by means of rotary cams acting npcm
the ends of levers or of rods, some by their
periphery, some by their sides, as is usual in ma-
chines for manu&oturing small objeota which
require to be submitt^ to numerous and
complex motions.--*Kearly 100 patents have
been granted by the United States for improve-
ments in cards, carding machines, and card*
making. About 5 new ones are now iasued
every year.

OABDS, Hanttvaotubs of. Flayiog and
address cards are prepared fitnn card-board^
made by pasting a sheet of cartridge paper be-
tween 2 sheets of white or colored paper; or
for ornamented backs, aheets may be printed
with the intended dsagn* Oardboarda of extra
thickness may have 2 or more sheets of esr-
tridgo paper interposed. As ordinuily mads^
the first process, called mingling, is arrangiDg a
sheet of cartridge paper between each pair of

CABD8

CAHEER

4SS

sheets in ft Team of ^ite demj paper. The
pile thoe made is called a bead, rlaced on a
table at the left hand of the paster, he drawa
diovrn the top sheet, and broahes it over with
paste; thea the cartrid^ paper, drawn down
on the pasted snrface, is treated in the same
way, and its sor&ce is immediately covered
with 2 aheets drawn down at once npon it The
upper one is pasted for the next cartridge paper,
and so on till the head is again made up. It is
then snbjected to the action of a powerful hy-
draulic press, by which the water is expelled
from the sheets. Removed from this, each
outside pair is successively taken ofl^ one
board at each end of a copper wire, and sus-
pended on lines 24 hours in a heated room to
dry. The boards are then passed between
etiif cylinder bmshes, by which they are well
rubbed and partially polished. They may next
be varnished on the side to be the backs, thus
making them water-proof and less likely to be
soiled. They are then rolled between a warm
iron and a paper roller, as in the process of
calendering, next between 2 polished iron
rollers, next with smooth sheets of copper
interposed between the cardboards, and finally
they are subjected to a pressure of 800 tons.
The boards are thus made straight and even, and
receive a finely polished glazed surface. If not
intended for playing cards, they may now be
cut into the required sizes of address cards. To
be enamelled, they receive an application of
china white, or silver white, (a very pure variety
of white lead,) which is first mixed with water
cont^ning some fine size, made from parchment-
cuttings boiled down. This application, being
smoothed over with a badger's hair brush, is
first dried, then rubbed over with flannel dip*
ped in powdered talc, and finally polished with
a close-set brush. — ^The old way of painting
playing cards was by the use of stencil plates,
with openings corresponding to the spots, each
plate comprising many cards, so as to cover a
cardboard. Through these openings the color
was introduced with a brush. The court or
face cards required a stencil for each color, one
being applied and then another, the open spaces
in each being where the color used with it be-
longed. The operation somewhat resembles the
printing of colors on cloth. (See Oauoo.) A
cardboard, when thus painted, was cut up into
its separate cards. The English manufacturers
receive the print of the ace of spades from the
stamp office, this being the duty card, costing
the manufacturers Is. sterling. But if the cardS
are for exportation, no duty is required, and
the duty card in this case bears a printed no-
tice, forbidding its use in Great Britain and
Ireland, under a penalty of £20. Printing haa
succeeded to the use of the stencil, and the
process in use for applying difierent colors, is
by blocks, essentially the same as those of the
calico printer. The colors are carefully pre-
pared of the best materials— French lampblack
for the black, and Chinese vermilion for the
red— each ground in oil — Of the 4 prin-

cipal card manufactories in the United States, 1
is in Philadelphia and 8 are in New York. Mr.
Levi, in the latter city, has the largest establish-
ment. He employs 100 hands, has a 25 horse-
power steam engine, and all together has
$40,000 worth of machinery. Every week 250
gross of packs are turned out of this factory.
The largest demand for cards is in the south-
west, each pack is used only once or twice,
and then thrown away ; a great number are
used once on board of our westerp steam-
boats, and then thrown away. See Cabd
Plating.

0 ARDUOOIO, Baetolommeo, an Italian paint-
er, born at Florence about 1560, died in Madrid
in 1610. He painted the frescoes in the palace
cloisters and the ceiling of the library at the
Escurial. His greatest work is the " Descent
from the Cross," in the church of San Felipe, in
Madrid. He also wrote a book on painting,
published at Madrid, 1633.

OARDUOHI, ancient warlike tribes, the an-
cestors of the present Koords, who inhabited
the mountainous regions between Mesopotamia
and modem Persia, now named Koordistan.
They were famous for their skill in archery,
and baffled all the attempts of Persian mon-
archs to subdue them. The retreat of the
10,000 Greeks, after the battle of Cunaxa, lay
through the country of the Oarduchi, and
was harassed by constant attacks from the na-
tives. Xenophon gives a complete account of
their habits and modes of life in his history of
this retreat.

CAREER, in horsemanship, both the ground
that is proper for the manage and a course, and
the race of a horse which does not go beyond
200 paces. The original use of this exercise
was for purposes of arms, in the tilt yard. A
horse, to be perfect in his career, should spring
at once to speed, increase his momentum at
every stride, and be at his utmost at the mo*
ment of reaching the extremity of the distance.
—In arms, career signifies the course which is
run, in the tilt or tournay, by two knights, from
the place at which they sit on their horses, fac-
ing one another, with their visors closed, tlieir
shields hanging about their necks, and theur
lances in rest, awaiting the signal given by the
words Lamez alter ^ " Let them go," and the blast
of trumpets, to that where they encounter in
the middle of the lists. The great merit of the
career, in the horse, is to spring at once, at the
sound of the trumpet, before feeling the spur,
to his full speed, and to increase or maintain
the impetus to the very moment of the shock ;
for, in exact proportion to his delivering his
maximum of weight and speed against the horse
opposed to him, or relaxing it, and meeting his
adversary panting and blown, will be the effect
of the charge. The beauty of the career, in
the rider, is to deliver the point of the lance
horizontally, or, as it is technically called,
fairly, against the visor or shield of his antago-
nist, so as either to unhorse him, or to break the
spear to spUnterSj at the same time sitting so

480

CABfiME

finnly blmself as to cedstthe blow of the op^
ponent's lanoe, and with so good a hand aa to
prevent the charger he rides from swerving or
g(^ down in the shook. To unhorse the ad-
TersaiT, himself nnshaken in hia seat, is the
crowning glory of the career. To break the
lanoe crosswise on his person, fiailing to strike
him with the point, or to strike him with the
point on the leg, thigh, right arm, or anywhere
except on the shield or crest, is the greateat
bxHt To be nnhorsed, or to lose a stirmp, or
to let fall the Lmoe, was to lose the career.

CAR^ME, Louis Aittoink, a French oookp
bom Jane 8^ 1784^ at Paris^ died Jan. 12, 1888.
His family was so poor, that when a mere boyi
be was sent oot by his father to try his lock in
the great metropolia He found admittance to a
low cook*shop, where he worked for his livinff.
At 16 he became assistant cook at a &shionabTe
eating-house, and, through bis natural taste^
made rapid progress in his profession, which be
studied scientifically. In 1804 he bad reached
enoh a degree of proficiency, that be entered
Prince TaUeyrand's kitchen, where be accom*
pliahed wonders which gained him an nniMU>
alleled reputation. In 1815 be consentea to
eerve the pinoe regent at London, but, unable
to reconcile himseli to the climate of Eng^d,
be left the prince at the end of 2 years. Rnssiai
whither he was oslled by Emperor Alexander, waa
equally uncongenial ; neither could he remain
permanently in Yieima, where be prepared sev*
eral banquets for the emperor. He also evinced
bis talents at the congresses of Aix la Ohapelle^
Laybaoh, and Verona^ remiUned some time at
the court of WOrtemoerg, and finally returned
to France, where his services were secured by
Baron James Rothschild. Oar^me waa indeed
an artist in bis line^ always eager for progress
and improvement ; he peculisrly excelled in
pastry, and the general arrangement of serving
the table. Most of bis earnings were devoted
to culinary researches, and to publicationa
expounding the mysteries of a calling which
be raised to the dignity of an art. His most
important book ]sLepdtiiH&rpiUore8que,Tlilv»'
tnUied by 128 plates, bat the most useful are
Ze euisinier^ and Le p4ti$aier Fa/ri$ien, His
special erudition is evinced in Le maUre d^hd^
tel Franfaii^ a comparison between ancient and
modem cooking.

OARENNAO, a French commune and vil<*
lage, in the department of Lot, 85 m. N. N. £•
fcom Cabors ; pop. 1,122. It has an ancient
abbey, of which F^n^lon was the bead when be
was made arohbiBhop of Oambrai, and a tower
in which he composed a portion of his works.
Freestone is wrought in its environs.

OAREW, Thomas, an English noet, bom in
Gloucestershire about 1589, died 1639. He
studied at Oxford, and afterward became gen-
tleman of the privy chamber to Oharles I. He
enjoyed the friendship of Ben Jonson and other
poets of the day, and at court be was much es-
teemed for the vivacity of hia wit and the ele-
gance of his manners. He wrote sonnets and

OABET
aiBorona poetiy, and a tnaaoM 'aafc to

by Henry Lawes, called

It was perforated by the king and noblea, al

Whitehall, in 1688, on Bhrovo Tuaaday.

0 ARE Y, AxioB, an American anthorsBS, bom
in 1822 at Mount Healthy, near OindmiatL Sha
bad bat the alight advantages of ednoatkiiLfbr*
Dished by an oooaaional aljUmdancie at a coimtzy
schooL She first attracted attention hr aome
sketches of rural life, pnbtishedin the ^ "SftdiaDd
Era,'' under the aigiutee of Patty Lee, and has
aince been a frequent conlzibotor toporiodicak
In 1850 a vdume of poems, thej<nnt wotkof tew
self and her dsterPhcsbe, appeared in PfaHadd*
phia. This waa followed m 1851 by lier lo-
mantic poem of " Hnalco,'' by *^Lyra and other
Poema'' the next year, and by a new oollectioa
of poems in 1855. During the same P^^odj
ahe has published, under the title of ^^€loTe^
nook," 8 series of dcetchea of western lifo aad
Boenery, and abo 8 novels, the first of wbieb,
entitied '^ Hagar, a Story of To-day," appeand
in 1858, and was quickly succeeded by ^ Mn*
ried, not Hated," and ''HoUywood.''— Ptes^
en American poetess, the younger aster of tbs
preceding, bom near Oindnnati, in Obkk Sbs
baa contributed finequently to periodioala, aad
also pubUahed in 1854 a volume of *^ Poems
and Parodies."

CARET, GxoBas Savhui, an English dia*
matio poet, bora in 1745, died in 180T. Ha
waa first intended fw a printer, but beomie as
actor, and spent 40 years in oompoaiK aad
singing popular and patriotic songs. He was
the author of certain fiiroes by wMcb he pn^
cured a precarious subsistence.

0 ARET, Hbnbt, a poet and musician, was a
natural son of Qeorge Seville, marania of HaHr
fitx. ^' God save we King" has been attrib-
uted to him, and the baUad of ^* Sally in our
Alley" is his. The various talenta of this gen>
tieman did not procure him a eomfintable
subsistence, and, in a fit of desperation, he
killed himaelf in 1748.

OARET, HxNBT Chables, an American po>
litical economist, a son of Mathew Car^, boa
in Philadelphia, Dec. 15, 1798, waa edneated ai
a bookseller, entering his father's stove at the
early age or 8, and remained there, iTi{n|rHtig
Ms elementary studies in literature with raa*
nees, until his mcjority, in 1814, when he be-
came a partner in the firm. Thia asaodatioa
contanued till bis father retired in 1821. He
then became the leading partner in the ten of
Oarey andLea, and subsequently in that of Garey,
Lea, and Oarey, in their tmie the largest pubhih*
inff house in the country In 1824 be eafcab-
liobed the system of trade 8ale& now tlw grest
medium of exchange between American book*
sellers. In 1885, after an eminentiy snccesifol
career, he withdrew from this buatness, to em*
ploy his larfle capital in industrial enteriniBea
From an cany perioda carefol observer of pub-
lic affidra, and espedally of whatever conoanied
the industrial prosperity and progress of the
ooimtry, his intMest in sulgecta of politioal

CAHrY jM ^^H

f ^M ^•f, ip^tk>i b^

^^^^^Ei

^^H

^Hv

^^^^^1

^^M

^^^Hlf?'

^^^p

pf^ilial

^Bfe'

L tii*tr':!,r«-l

ocmuee^id wUli bit le^j ^^^H

^^K

iirtif tiif

^^^^■t

^^^^1

^^^^^^^Et'<

^^^^^^^KTi

OAKICT, KA-nfFir, TO AmwHi^R |inMUI»«r ^^M

1 ^^^^^^1

^^^b tnJ ft.'^

.# fats ikstaiv of«OMti00, liv B^! ^^H

^^Hb

•flU, UlU^iH&i

JfttifT Iv^Ui lt£> ISI% ^^^H

^^^B»

:-4ty t^ia

^^^H.

4£U1

^^^k

ullj

piT.iiri'm by tlui {MP3.M < » loU wa» ^ ^^^^|

omI

^^^Hbr • ' «* i^ij '

^^■ihalthffF

ite41»Beai&iiilh#rft«tiflftt)aiiiti}p>*FiW' ^^H

^^^HhnrraiKieiCL

T^rftfi^f^ i^'^ ''' * '^'^'^ *^±iihliiJied ft new ^^^H

^^iny mhi.

1.4 tlii» "^ ^ JcHimil,'' w%m ^^H

^■■iRIliip^rtA

tim

nuHmntt of Uiii ocff*-' ^^^^H

^^^■^^' "ilt'-rLh^i

..rti!

1 4 ^tiick« till t1i« pfu4lim}i0t mid ^latot ^^^H
t « laowiyi Iq 17'M lij Aa imlkfjuait foe UkiL ^^H

^^^^^^Bu

^^^^^Ki

i.'ii;'

Qmfjr iriit oiTvlgivAl l«f(/iri> Sl^c lioiide oCodi^ ^^^|

^^^^^Bt«'

. jC

fiMitMi a&d hfmsmom iif tbfl« body apmniltlid to ^H

^^^^^Hi

^^^^^^^V*"

a**TTHi

^^^^^^^^Hto >je i

1 . *: ...

^^^^^■1^ fUQl) *i^U. IIi» tl*

Mktb«adTi^gri*lelkiQMjAXuliiiiibtf]c>«d ^^M

^^^^^^^Hklff .ijt. '.rv

i k n

^^^^^F"

Uto

^^^^^^v*

. Uut

^^K

^^^^^^Kr-

UTS,'' ti^iV I'P*

mldplik. Ill 9\mit i luoiitliif aft«r Lb Mriv^l ^H

^^^^^Ku

f TjiNtiii*"

tk» Hud

482

OASET

OABGILL

Colonel Osborne, the editor of a rival Journal,
and received an injory which confined him
to his house for more than 16 months. After
this he attempted with several partners the
publication of uie ** American Museum," a mag-
azine continued with excellent ability, but little
success, for 6 years. In 1791 he married, and
began buriness as a bookseller, on a very hum-
ble scale. During the prevalence of the yellow
fever, 2 years later, he was a member of the com-
mittee of health, and active in his study of the
disease and attentions to the sick ; and the results
of his extensive observation were collected and
published in his "History of the Yellow Fever
of 1793,*' which passed through 4 editions. In
1796 he was one of a few citizens who united
under the direction of Bishop White in the
-formation of the first American Sunday-school so-
ciety. In 1802 he published an edition in quarto
of the Bible, and storeotypins not then having
come into use, the entire volume was kept in
tvpe to supply the demand for reimpressionfl.
At his suggestion also the booksellers and
printers of &e Union met in New York, to form
an association similar to the book fairs of GeI^•
many. The plan did not succeed, but it was the
germ of the subsequent trade sales. He engaged
warmly in the discussions concerning the U. 8.
bank, writing articles for newspapers, publish-
ing pamphlets of his own composition, and dis-
tributing tiiem freely at lus own expense. In
1814 appeared his " Olive Branch, or Faulte on
both siaes, Federal and Democratic^" designed
to harmonize the 2 furiously antagonistic parties
of the country, pending the war with Great
Britain. It passea through 10 editions, and is vet
regarded ashigh authority in regard to the polit-
ical history of that period. In 1818 he published
his Vindicia EtbemiecB, an examination and
refutation of the charges against his country-
men, made by British writers, in reference to
the shocking butcheries alleged to have been
committed b^ them in the rebellion of 1641.
From this tmie forward he devoted himself
almost exclusively to politico-oommercial pur-
suits, publishing in 1820 the **New Olive
Brancn," in which he endeavored to show how
harmonious were the real interests of the various
portions of society ; and in 1822, ** Essays on
Political Economy.'' This, in turn, was fol-
lowed by a series of tracts, extending to more
than 2,000 pages. The object of all these pub-
lications was that of demonstrating the neces-
sity for adopting the protective system, as the
only means of promoting the real interests of all
classes of the community, whether farmers,
traders, or manufisu^turers. Enthusiastio in the
prosecution of any work in which he allowed
nimself to become engaged, he devoted to the
examination of this Question all the powers of
a vigorous mind, ana thus contributed largely
toward bringing about the change of publio
policy manifested in the passage of the tariff
acts of 1824 and 1828. Highly publio-spirited,
he was active in the promotion of all the publio
works of his city and his statOi from the oom-

menoement of his American career down to
the inauguration of the system of intonal im-
provements, which led to the oonstmotion of
the Pennsylvania canals. Eminentiij philao.
thropio, he was ever active in the protaotioa of
education, and in the formation of asBoeUtions
having for their object the relief of those who
ivrere unable to help themselves. Pew men
have lived more generally respected ; lew have
died more generally regretted by the oommnnitj
in which they had lived and moved«

CARET, WnxiAM, a Baptist misdonary and
oriental scholar, born in Paulerq>nry, XorUh
amptonshire, England, in 1761, died at Seram-
pore, June 9, 1884. He was the founder, m
connection with other ministers, of the first
Baptist misfidonary society. In 1793 he devoted
himself personally to the missionary work, anc
embu-ked, accompanied by his wife and sister,
for India. On his arrival, he fixed the soene of
his labors at Mudnabatty, but was not permitted
by the Indian government to make a permanent
esteblishment there. He next removed to tb«
Danish settiement of Serampore, where b«
esteblished that large and succeasful miasicmary
post of his denomination, which has been th»
theatre not only of his own labors and death,
but of the toils of Ward andMarahman, that dis-
tinguished oriental scholar, and Englidi trans-
lator of Oonfucius. Carey became an unremit^
ting student of the orientid languages, and lived
to see 40 different oriental dialects become th%
channels of transmission for Ohristianity to
as many tribes. In addition to these labon^
he teught in the college of Fort William the
Bengalee, Bansorit^ andMahrattelangnaffee, and
furnished to the Asiatic society, <^ wTiich he
was a member, many valuable papers on the
natural history and botany of India. He
brought the Scriptures within the reach of
many millions of human beings.

OABEZ, Joseph, an eminent French printer,
bom in 1753 at Toul, died in 1801. He mate-
rially contributed to the progress of the art,
being considered one of tlie inventors of the
stereotype method. He was a member of the
legislative assembly, and subsequently distin*
guished himself among the volunteers of 1793^

OABGILL, DoNiXD, a Scotch Presbyterian
and Covenantor, and a leader of itie Camero-
nians in and after the Sanquhar dedaratioo,
bom in the parish of Battray, Perthshire^
about A. D. 1610, executed in Edinbuigh,
July 27, 1681. He was educated at Aberdeen,
entered the Scotch church, and was minister of
Barony parish of Glasgow, some time after the
divirion among the clergy in 1650, until the
restoration of the English church by'Cbaiies
IL m 1661, when he refused to accept cdlafkm
from the archbishop, and to oelebrato the king^
birthday. He was banished beyond the Ti^,
but paid no attention to the act. In 1668 he
was called before the council, and peremptorily
commanded to depart When indulgence was
proclaimed to the Presbyterian mimstera, he
refused to accept it^ and made a stand with

CAECK)

CARIBOU

48S

others at BothweB Bridge against the royal
forces. Though severely wounded in that con-
test, and compelled for a time to flee to Holland,
he was again in Scotland in 1680, and with
a like-minded enthusiast named Hall, lurked
around Queen's Ferry for several months, eluding
the vigilance of the authorities, until June 3,
when both were arrested, and Hall killed in the
alfray. On the person of Hall was found the
violent paper known in the ecclesiastical histo-
ry of Scotland as the " Queen's Ferry Covenant.*'
On June 22, with Cameron and others, he made
the famous Sauquhar declaration. In the Sep-
tember following, after he had preached to a
congregation in the Torwood, between Falkirk
and Stirling, from "Is Christ divided," &c., he
pronounced excommunication against the king
and other state dignitaries, because they had
usurped the supremacy of the pure church of
Scotland. He was now excommunicated, and a
reward set on his head. In May, 1681, he was
apprehended at Covington, Lanarkshire, and
conveyed to Lanark on horeeback with his feet
tied under the horse's belly. From Lanark he
was taken to Glasgow, and thence to Edinburgh,
where he was hanged and beheaded for high
treason.

OARGrO (Welsh earg, a load), the goods,
merchandise, or other effects which constitute
the freiglit of a ship. The lading within the
hold is called the inboard cargo, in distinction
from what may carried on deck. The person
employed by merchants to take charge of a
lading and to dispose of it is called a supercargo.
Carj^o U also a Spanish and Italian word.

CARtlEIL, foiENNE DK, a Jesuit missionary
among the Huron and Iroquois Indians in Can-
ada, He first visited these tribes in 1668, ob-
tiiined a complete mastery of their languages,
was regarded by the savages both as a saint
and man of genius. The date of his death
is unknown, but he was still laboring with un-
(liminished activity, though with little success,
in 1721, when Charlevoix left Canada.

C ARIA, an ancient country situated yJ the S.
"W. extremity of Asia Minor, separated from
Phrygia and Lydia by the mountains Messogis
and Cadmus. It was intersected by low moun-
tain chains, which ran far out into the sea, and
formed several spacious bays. Its chief river was
the Micander. The valleys between its mountain
chains were fertile, producing com, grapes, oil,
and figs. The Carians, according to Herodotus,
were not the aboriginal inhabitants of the re-
gion, but a branch of the Pelasgic race, origi-
nilly seated in the islands of the ^grean. When
Minos had formed a navy, and subdued the
/P^gacan isles, he transplanted them to Asia Mi-
nor. In after times Greek colonies repelled the
Carians from their coasts, and built cities on
their promontories; while the Lydian kings,
Alyattcs and Croesus, subdued the inland coun-
try. On the overthrow of the Lydian mon-
arrliy, the Carians became subject to the Persian
yoke, and when the sceptre of the Persian was
broken they passed under the sway of Alexan-
VOU IV. — 28

der. Later their territory was successively an-
nexed to the kingdom of Egypt and the kingdom
cf Syria. After the Romans had vanquished
Antiochus, they gave Caria to the Rhodians
and Attains in reward of their fidelity and ser-
vices as allies ; and on the conclusion of the
Mithridatic war, they ultimately annexed it to
their proconsular province of Asia. The con-
siderable cities of the country — Halicamassus,
Cnidus, and Miletus — were the work of Greeks,
not of Carians. The Carians had the same re-
ligion as the Lydians and Mysians. Their lan-
guage was of the Lydian stock, and accounted
barbarous by the Greeks of historic times.

CARIACO, the largest of the Grenadine
group of the Windward islands, being about
21 ra. in circumference, situated in lat. 12° 30'
K, long. 62° 30' W., between St. Vincent and
Grenada, possessing 2 bays on the N. side, and
a town named Hillsborough.

CARIBBEAN SEA, that portion of the At-
lantic lying between Cuba, St. Domingo, and
Porto Rico on the N., Venezuela and New
Granada on the S., the Lesser Antilles on the
E., and Guatemala on the W., and communi-
cating with the gulf of Mexico through a chan-
nel about 120 m. wide, extending from the W.
point of Cuba to the E. point of Yucatan.

OARIBBEE ISLANDS. See Antilles.

CARIBOU (tarandus rangifer^ or cervus to-
randu9\ the American reindeer. Of this ani-
mal several varieties have lately been recog-
nized. Concerning the reindeer Dr. J. E. Gray
observes that it varies exceedingly in size. In
the British museum there are specimens vary-
ing from 8 feet 6 inches to 4P feet 2 inches at
the withers ; but that distinction is very trifling
in comparison to what really exists, Richard-
son observes that there are 2 well-marked per-
manent varieties of caribou that inhabit the
fur countries ; one of them, the woodland cari-
bou, confined to the woody and more southern
district, and the other, the barren ground cari-
bou, retiring to the woods only in the winter,
but passing the summer on the coast of the
Arctic ocean, or on the barren grounds so often
mentioned in his work. The large Siberian
variety is ridden on by the Tnngusians, and
they also use them for draught, as the Lap-
landers do the smaller variety. There is a
large variety in Newfoundland, and throughout
the British provinces of Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick, which have extraordinarily large
and heavy horns. It is observed by Dr. Gray,
quoted above, that the horns of the Newfound-
land variety, some of which are preserved in
the British museum, greatly resemble those of
the Siberian animal ; but Pallas observes that
the American species difier from the former in
the structure of the hoof, and are absolutely
American animals. The tame reindeer of the
Laplanders is, according to IIofi*berg, at the
end of his back an ell and a half high, and his
length, from horns to tail, is 2 ells, while
from the navel to the backbone he measures f
of an elL If these ells are to be understood

484

CABIBOU

as measures of an English yard, the estimate
is inmiensely exaggerated, since the animals in
the English zoological institntion, and else-
where exhibited, do not approach that size,
which is folly eqnal to that of the great
American deer, called elk in the west^ the wa-

Siti of the Indians; while the true reindeer of
omestication does not exceed the English red
deer, if it equals it^ in size. On casting his
coat, tiie hair of tiie reindeer is brownish yel-
low, but, as the dog days approach, it becomes
whiter, until it is at last almost entirely white ;
this, it must be observed, is spoken of the do-
mesticated animal Bound the eye the color is
always black. The longest hair is under the
neck. The mouth, tail, and parts near the
latter, are white, and the feet, at the insertion
of the hoof, are surrounded with a white ring.
The hair of the body is so thick that the skin
cannot be seen when it is put aside, for it stands
erect, as in other animals of the same genus,
but is much thicker. When the hair is cast, it
does not come away with the root, but breaks
at the base. The horns are cylindrical, with
a short branch behind, compressed at the top,
and paJmated with many segments, beginning
to curve back in the middle, and are an ell and
a quarter long. A single branch sometimes,
but seldom two, springs firom each horn in
front, very near the base, £reqaentiy equalling
the length of the head, compressed at the top
and branched. The distance between the tips
equals the length. This description, both of
the horns and colors, differs in every respect
from the wild caribou of North America. The
color of that animal is, in the summer, a rich,
glossy, reddish brown, oecoming more grizzly,
especially about the ixead, neck, and belly, to-
ward the winter ; but it never becomes any
thing approaching to white. The antiers of
the woodland caribou, on rising from the head,
curve backward and then forward in a seg-
ment of, perhaps, the 6th of a circle for about
half their lengtn, or somewhat less ; then curve
backward again, and again forward, making in
the upper sweep nearly a semicircle. They
have no backward branch or spur whatever,
except one short point dose to the tip. The
main branch of the antiers is cylindrical, much
smoother than those of the red deer or wapiti,
and at the upper extremity has 2, 8, or 4, but
seldom more than 2, sharp cylindrical spikes.
That, however, which constitutes the main dif-
ference between the antiers of this animal and
of the tame reindeer, or, indeed, of any other of
the deer tribe, is this: that while on the upper ex-
tremities of the horns are rounded spixes, the
lower branches are broad palmated surfaces.
The lower of these, or brow antier, which is
the principal defensive weapon of the animal
curves downward over the eyes, and is several
inches in breadth, with many sharp spurs, or
points, round the lower border. The second,
or superior process, which shoots horizontally
forward from the point where the two curva-
tures of the main antier meet, is longer than

the lower or brow antier, and looks as if it
were more so than it really is, from the direct
line in which it projects, instead of being de-
flected downward. The forward points of ibe
brow antler, the sur-antler, and the upper tips
or extremities of the whole, are as nearly as
possible in a right line. The measurement of
a medium-sized set of antiers, from Newfound-
land, in the possession of the writer, is as fol-
lows: extreme width from tip to tip, 1 foot
4^ inches; length of the exterior oarvatDre,
from root to tip, 2 feet 8 J inches; direct
height 23 inches; girth at the root of the
antier 6| inches ; at the insertion of the upper
prong 4 inches ; length of palmated brow anUer
11 inches, breadth 8 inches, processes 7 in nmn-
ber ; length of the sur-antier 12 inches, breadth
8 inches, processes 8 in number, very strong and
sharp. The prongs of the upper extremity are
irregular, one antier having 8, the other 2
points. The caribou has a short tail, like the
scut of a hare or rabbit, and entirely diflTerent
from the long flag of the red deer or wapiti.
The hoofs have an immense spread, owing to
the extension of the defb of the hoof through
the cornet, and far up the pastern of the ani-
mal, which gives it, when running over soft
snow, or, what is worse, over a crusted aor&ce,
a support almost equal to that of a snow-shoe.
The average weight of the woodland caribou is
from 250 to 800 lbs., that of the barren grounds
caribou from 90 to 180 lbs. ; those of Spitzber-
gen and Melville island do not exceed 125 lbs.
The reindeer of Norway and Sweden are dimin-
utive as compared with those of Finland and
Lapland, which again yield to those of Spitz-
bergen, which last are not hdf the size of the
woodland caribou of North America. It will
probably appear, on further investigation, that
there are at least half a dozen distinct varieties
of this curious animal; as it is wholly anom-
alous that the domesticated species should have
fallen off in size, the universal tendency of
domestication and culture being to morease the
size of all animals, and to produce diversity or
variegation of color. — The reindeer of Lapland,
in domestication, feeds wholly on a species m
lichen, peculiar to the country he inhabits, for
which he roots under the snow with his nosei
after the fashion of swine. He will eat no driea
fodder, unless it be, perhaps, the river horsetail,
equUetum fluviatile. To the Laplander the
reindeer is invaluable, being in fact his ox, his
sheep, and his horse, in one animaL He is
too valuable to kill, .in general, although his
meat is delicious ; but the milk of the herds is the
principal support of the owner and his family;
while, as an animal of draught, its speed, en-
durance, and its particular adaptation to trav-
elling on snow, render it the most valuable,
or one might say indispensable, of creatures
to men dwelling in the high frozen latitudes.
The ordinary weight drawn by this brave little
animal is 240 lbs., but he can travel with 800.
Their speed would be incredible if it were not
attested beyond the possibility of doubt. In

CAKTES

CAEmTfifTA

4nH

a race of 8 in light sledges, started by Pictet in
1709, when he went north to observe the tran-
sit of Venus, the 1st performed 8,089 feet 8,-^^
inclies in 2 minutes, being at the rate of nearly
19 miles in the hour; the 2d went over the
ground in 3 minutes, and the 8d in 8 minutes
iiud 26 seconds. The endurance, however, of
the reindeer exceeds its speed, which has been
ea.^i]y outdone by the American trotting horse.
It is not unusual, it is credibly recorded, for the
reindeer to do journeys of 150 miles in 19 hours;
and the portrait of one is preserved in the palace
of Drotingholm, in Sweden, which performed
800 miles in 48 hours, conveying an officer
^vith important despatches, and dropped dead
when the astonishing feat was accomplished.
— To the natives of North America, the reindeer
is known only as an animal of chase, but it is
a most important one ; there is hardly a part of
the animal which is not made available to some
useful purpose. Clothing made of the skin is,
according to Dr. Richardson, so impervious to
the cold, that, with the addition of a blanket
of the same material, any one so clothed may
bivouac on the snow with safety, in the most
intense cold of an arctic winter's night. The
venison, when in high condition, has several
inches of fat on the haunches (a state of things
Ttry unusual in the American deer, eeroiis Vir-
gikianus, which, although a highly flavored
meat, is usually lean and dry), and is said
to equal the venison of the best fallow deer of
the Euij:lish parks. The geographical range of
tlic caribou is over all the northern parts of Eu-
rc )[>e, Africa, and America ; and it is observed
by Mr. Bennet, that they are spread abundantly
over all the habitable parts of the arctic re-
:jions, and neighboring countries, extending in
the new continent to a much lower latitude than
in the old, and passing still further south on all
tlie i)rincipal mountain chains. In America the
bouthern limit of the reindeer appciu^ to be
about the parallel of Quebec, across the whole
continent ; but the animal is most abundant be-
tween 63° and 66° N. lat It has been found,
but this is probably accidental, in that singular
mountain region known as the Adirondac Uigh-
1 inds«, in the north-eastern part of the state of
2sew York, within 60 miles of Albany.

CARIBS, or Caribbees, an aboriginal tribe
of South America, originally in possession of
tJic smaller West India islands between Porto
l;ico and the gulf of Paria. They were com-
pelled to leave the islands after the arrival of
tiio Europeans. A small number of tliem are
still found in Trinidad, Dominica, and St. Vin-
cent. The race is also found on the shores of
Central America and on tlie South American
continent, along the lower Orinoco and the
Caroni.

C AUIC A, a remarkable tree found in the tor-
rid regions of America and Asia, and classed
in the natural family of the eucurhitacecB, It
arrows to the height of 20 feet, and bears a yel-
low melon-like fruit called the papaw, which is
eaten with sugar or salt and either raw or cook-

ed. Its milky juice forms a cosmetic, and also
keeps worms away from the tree. The leaves
are employed as a substitute for soap, and ropes
and webs are prepared from the bark. It is
said, also, that the flesh of animals which are
fed upon the papaw is peculiarly tender.

CARIGNANO, a town of Piedmont, remark-
able for its manufactures of silk twist and con-
fectionery. Carignano gives the title of prince
to the present royal house of Savoy. Pop.
7,873.

CARILLO, Braulio, a Costa Rica states-
man, bom in 1800 at Oartago, was assassinat-
ed in 1845. He was a member of the federal
congress of Central America, and afterward
elected governor of Costa Rica, of which state
from 1838 to 1842 he was dictator. His dic-
tatorship, although absolute, was of advan-
tage to Costa Rica ; for while he repressed all
revolutionary tendencies with a strong hand,
he devoted the energies of an active mind to
the advancement of the material interests of
the state. He adjusted its foreign debt, built
roads and bridges, and above all, introduced
the cultivation of coffee, which has now become
the great staple of the country, and has raised
it from the poorest to be the richest state of
Central America. As dictator, Carillo dis-
pensed with ministers of state, transacting all
of its public affairs in person, with only the
assistance of his wife.

CARIMATA, an island of the Malay archi-
pelago, lying oflf the S. W. coast of Borneo.
Its N. extremity is in lat. 1** 33' S., long. 108°
49' E. ; area 153 sq. m. It has no permanent
population, but is resorted to by the Bajans or
Malay sea gypsies, for the purpose of collecting
tripang, tortoise shell, and edible birds^ nests.
It has several prominent mountain peaks, one
2,000 feet above the level of the sea- Between
this island and Billiton is the Carimata passage,
a route for large ships during tlie S. E. monsoon.

CARIMON, Great and Iittlb, 2 islands of
the Malay archipelago, situated at the K ex-
tremity of the straits of Malacca, a few m, S.
of Singapore. The larger has area 72 sq. m.,
the soaaller about 6 sq. m. ; the former has a
scanty population of about 600 Malay fisher-
men, and the latter is uninhabited. Both
islands have a very sterile soil ; but are sup-
posed to be rich in tin ore, some fine specimens
of which have been recently found upon Little
Carimon. According to stipulations in the con-
vention of 1824 between Great Britain and
Holland, the Dutch claim paramount sovereignty
over these islands.

CARINI, a Sicilian town, pop. 7,000, in the
province of Palermo, and 12 m. W. of that city.
It is beautifully situated on a small river of the
same name, and has a fine old Gothic castle.
Kear Carini are the ruins of the ancient Hyccara,
the birth-place of the courtesan Lais.

CARINTIIIA, or Karnthen, a small duchy
of Austria, forming part of the government of
Laybach, in the kingdom of lUyria, It is a
mountainous tract of country, divided since

486

OAKINnS

CABLETOH

ldi9 into 7 mrolea. Elagenfarth is the capital,
where the diet of Oaridthia is held, which h
composed of 80 members. The Drave is its
principal river^ and the Elagenfarth or Worth-
Bee the only considerable lake. There are
some mann&ctares, and there is a consider-
able trade in grain and cattle in Garinthia, bat
the principal wealth of the country is min-
eral, the great lead mines of Austria being lo-
cated here. Area, 8,984 sq. m. Pop. 846,150,
of whom 18,000 are Protestants, and the rest
Catholics.

OARINUS, Mabottb AuBBLnm, the elder of
the 2 sons of the Roman emperor Garns, who
conjointly snoceeded to the throne on the
death of their father, A. D. 284. His brother
was supposed to have been murdered on his
return from the East, and Oarinus, ruling
alone, became one of the most profligate and
cruel of the Roman emperors. The soldiers
haying rebelled, and proclaimed Diocletian,
Oarinus collected the troops that were in
Italy and marched into Mceda to meet Dio-
cletian, and quell the revolt A decisive
battle was fought near Margus, in which Cari-
nus gained the victory, but in the moment of
triumph he was slain by one of his own officers,
whom the vices of the emperor had outraged.

0 ARIPE, a town and valley of Venezuela, in
South America, 40 m. S. £.from Gumana. The
valley is noted for a cavern frequented by a
species of night-hawk (caprimulffu9\ the young
of which are annually destroyed in great num-
bers for the sake of their fat, of which excellent
oU is made. The cave is of limestone forma-
tion, 2,800 feet deep, and for some distance 60
to 70 feet high. Humboldt visited and de-
scribed this cavern. The town is the principal
station of the Ghayme Indian missions.

GARISBROOKE, an agricultural village.
once a thriving market town, of the isle or
Wight, CO. of Southampton, England, situated
at the foot of a hill, near the centre of the
island, in a parish of its own name, H m. S.
of Newport. Pop. of paridi in 1851, 6,T12.
Under the independent lords of Wight it was
the capital of the island, and afterward became
the residence of the governor, who occupied a
handsome mansion within the precincts of a
mined castle of great antiquity, crowning the
hill back of the village. This castle is supposed
to have been founded before the Roman inva-
sion ; was taken by Gerdic, the Saxon, in 680 ;
enlarged by William Fitzoabome, a relative of
William tlie Gonqueror, and first lord of
Wight^ in the 11th century, and after many
additions completed in the time of Elizabetn,
when it covered an area of 20 acres. It was
the place of confinement of Gharles I. after
his removal from Hampton Gourt, and a
window is pointed out by which the royal
captive made a fruitless attempt to escape.
After his execution it became the prison of his
2 youngest children, the duke of Gloucester and
the princess Elizabeth, the latter of whom died
here. A rained Gisterdan priory, founded by

Fitzosbome, occupies an radnence opposite
the castle. The priory church is now parochial
and the other remaining portions are oocaxned
as sheds and stables. The village has an
infant school and several chapels for diasoit-
ers. The parish contains in£mtz7 barracks^ a
house of industrv for the whole idand, a wdl-
arranged juvenile reformatory, and some large
com mills on the Medina river.

GARISSDil, GioTAKNi GiACOMO, an Italian
composer, bom at Venice in 1682, died at a
very advanced age. He was living in 1673.
He was for a number of years director of the
pontifical chapel at Rome, and at his death kCt
an enormous number of compositions, oonoss-
ing mostly of oratorios, masses, and cantatas,
but a smaU proportion of which were ever pub-
lished. We are indebted to Gariasinii for o^
chestral accompaniments to sacred musiq
and for great improvements in the recitative.
He was also one of the first to write cantatas.
His melodies are distinguished by grace and
roirit) and his harmony is wonderfully efibctiTs.
Mis style, perfected by his pupils, Buonondm,
Bassani, and Scarlatti, is considered tlw
foundation of the music of the 18th oentmy.

GARLEE, or Koleb, a village of Hindo-
Stan, in the coUectorate of Poonah, presidency
of Bombay, 40 m. E. of Bombay. It is remark*
able for a Buddhist cave-temple, hewn from
the face of a precipice, about f of the way
up a steep hill, which rises 800 feet above
the plain. A noble arch spans the entrance to
the excavation, and on each side <^ the door ii
a screen work, covered with naked male and
female figures carved in alto-riUevo. In front
are 3 lions placed bade to back, on the top of a
pillar; around the portico are several well exe-
cuted figures of elephants of great suee, eadi
surmounted by a mohout and a howdab, con-
taining 2 persons. The length of the temple is
180 feet, and its width 40 feet It has a doable
row of sculptured pillars, terminating in a
semicircle, and with its high arched roo^ ia not
unlike the interior of a Gothic cathedral Near
it are several smaller excavations, apparent-
ly intended as cells for monks or hermits.
These are much dilapidated, but the temple is
in good preservation. The only olject of devo-
tion to be seen is the mystical chattah or
umbrella.

GARLEK, EmuA SomniyT, a Swedish novel-
ist, bom in Stockholm, 1810. Her first marriage
was not a happy one. In 1841 she was married
to her second husband, G. Garlen, a poet and
novelist. She was 28 years old when she pub-
lished her first novel, '^Walden^nr E3ein.*' In
1861, an interval of only 18 years, she had al-
ready published her 22d work, each in several
volumes. Her subjects are usually selected from
the lower ranks of society, and her descriptions
are more nearly transcripts of real life than ef-
forts of the imagination. Some of her works
have been translated into English, and publi^ed
in this country.

GARLETON, an eastern county of Upper

OAKLETON

CARLISLE

48?

Canada; area 898 sq. m.; pop. 81,897. It is
traversed by a railroad extending from Prescott
on tlio St. Lawrence to Bytown on the Ottawa.

CARLETON, 8iB Guy, Lord Dorchester, a
British general, bom in Ireland m 1724, died in
180S. He distingaished himself at the sieges
of Loaisbnrg, Qnebec, and Belle Isle, and was
wounded in 1762, at the siege of Havana. In
1772 he was made governor of Quebec. On
the nomination of Bnrgoyne to the command.
he threw up his commission, but was appointed
the same year lieutenant-general, and succeeded
i:^ir Henry Clinton as commander4n-chief in the
American colonies.

CARLETON, William, a popular writer of
Irish stories, bom in oo. Tyrone, 1798. A peas-
ant's son, he had obtained only an elementary
education, when at the age of 17 he was received
by a relative, a priest who kept a boarding school
at Glasslough, where he remained 2 years. He
went to Dublin with only a few shillings in his
pocket, and after straggling a number of years
was brought into notice by his "Traits and
Stories of the Irish Peasantry." This was fol-
lowed by other works, both pathetic and hu-
morous. Several of his best works are of an
anti-English partisan character.

CiVRLI, Giovanni Rinaldo, count, an Ital-
ian economist and antiquary, born at Capo
a Istria in April, 1720, died in Milan, Feb. 22,
1705. In 1744 he was appointed by the senate
of Venice to the professorship of astronomy
and navigation in the university of Padua, and
placed at the head of the Venetian navy. Af-
ter ably discharging the duties of these offices
for 7 years, he resigned them in order to devote
himself entirely to his favorite studies. In 1754
he published the first volume of his great work
on political economy, Delle monete^ e delV inr
stituzione delle tecche d'ltalia^ in 7 large vols.
4to. In 1765 Leopold, duke of Ttiscany,
placed him at the head of the council of public
economy, and of the board of public instrac-
tion. He was, however, relieved from the labors
appertaining to these offices several years before
his death, though still retaining the emolu-
ments accraing from them. During the leisure
which the generosity of his patron thus affi:)rded
liiui, he completed and published at Milan in 5
vols. 4to his Antiehitd Italicfu^ a work on
the literary and artistic antiquities of his coun-
try, which has been much eulogized by Italian
critics.

CARLI, Denis, a Catholic missionary, born
in Reggio, was sent in 1668 to Congo by the
con^egation of the propaganda, with father
^Michel Angelo Guattini and 14 other friars.
Their healUi could not long endure the heat
of the climate and the fatigues of the mis-
sion. Carli, after bearing up for a long time
ngfiinst a severe malady, was obliged to return
to Europe. He wrote an account of his trav-
el^ which was translated into French, English,
arid German*

CARLIN, Thomas, one of the pioneers in
Illinois, and a governor of that state, bom in

Kentucky in 1790, died Feb. 2, 1852. He
removed to Illinois in 1818, and gradnal*
ly accumulated wealth, and became known
and respected among the scattered population
about him. He was elected governor in 1838,
and retained that office for 4 years, during a
period of unusual and violent political excite-
ment. Illinois, having engaged largely in inter-
nal improvementfl, suflfered severely from th«
commercial revulsion which was then paralyz-
ing the whole country. She was much in debt,
and had within her borders no syiecie, and no
available means of payment. The discussion
of the slavery question, too, was then furious, and
had just led to the tragic death of E. P. Lov^oy.
At the same time the Mormons took up their
position at Nauvoo, and poUticians were beg^in-
ning those movements for partisan ends, which
seemed likely to throw the state into anarchy,
and which ended ere long in the violent death of
the Mormon leader. That Gov. Carlin, amid
such a condition of affiiirs, was 8 times reelect-
ed to the chief magistracy, affords a sure indica-
tion both of his popularity and his force of char-
acter.

CARLINA, a name given to a common genus
of the thistle, from a tradition that its root was
shown by an angel to Charlemagne, as a remedy
for the plague which prevail^ in his army.
The carline thistle is found on dry sunny hiUs
in most of the countries of Europe. Several
species of it are mentioned in botany.

CARLINO, Carlo Antonio Bertinazzi, acel-
ebrated harlequin, bora at Turin, 1718, died 1788.
He entered the Sardinian army at an early age,
but at the death of his father, who was an offioen
he quitted the service, and taught fencing ana
dancing. His favorite occupation, however, was
playing comedy with his pupils, and his success
in it suggested the idea of making it a profession.
At this time the harlequin of the Bologna theatre
ran away from his creditors, leaving the man-
ager in great perplexity. Bertinazzi undertook
at a moment^s notice to act in his place, and the
public did not suspect the substitution until
the 4th peiformance. His success in Italy was
so great that, in 1741, he was invited to Paris,
and succeeded there. He had a remarkable
faculty of dramatic improvisations.

CA!RLISLE, the caoital of Cumberland co.,
Pa., on the Cumberland Valley railroad, is
a hiandsome town situated in the great lim^
stone valley enclosed between the Kittatinny
and South mountains. The surrounding country
is level, productive, and highly cultivated. The
town is well built, with wide and spacious
streets, a public square, on which stand the
county buildings, and public edifices of a supe-
rior order. Dickinson college, in this place,
founded in 1783, and now under UtiQ care of the
Methodists, is one of the oldest and most flotuv
ishing institutions in the state. There are 11
churches, 4 newspaper offices, a town hall,
market-house, bank, and young ladies^ seminary.
Half a mile from the village are a school for
cavahy practice, and barracks for 2,000 men,

488

OABLffiLB

OASIiOS

built in ITiTTt chiefly by Heesian troo^ made
prisoners at Trenton. Four miles N., in a yal-
ley of the Bine nuHintains, are Oarlisle snlphnr
apringSf a pleasant Bommer resort. Daring the
whiskey insurrection, in 1794, Gen. Wash*
ington had his head-qnarters at Oarlisle, and a
few years preyions Hi^or Andr^ passed some
time here as a prisoner of war. Pop. in 185i,
about 6,000. «

CARLISLE (ano. Lugwoallio or Luguvallwni)^
the county town of Onmberland, England ; pop.
in 1861, 26,688 ; 800 miles N. N. W. of London,
by railway. It is sitnated on the river Eden, and
is a handsome town, owing to the improvements
of late years. There are a custom-house, a news-
room, a market, and a handsome railway station.
A fine 6-arch bridge has been built over the
Eden. There are several institutions for benev-
olent purposes. The cathedral church is a
structure of the middle ages, not remarkable for
size or beantv. There are 4 other churchesi
several chapels, an endowed grammar-school,
British, nationtJ, and infant schools, 2 literary
institutions, a mechanics' institute, a library,
and a savings bank. The castle was built by
the Normans in 1092, and many parts of it are in
excellent preservation. It is still used as a gar-
rison fortress. The city is one of the oldest in
England, and was a Boman station. Its prox-
imity to the border made it important as a
military station in the border wars between the
English and Scotch. In the civil wars Oar-
lisle sided with the king, and it declared for the
pretender in 1746. The inhabitants are princi-
pally employed in manufactories of cotton goods
and ginghanos, founderies, hat factories, and dye
works. It is connected with the Sol way frith
by a canal which gives it a share of the coasting
trade. It gives the title of earl to the Howard
family, and is a bishop's see. The municipal
government is administered by 10 aldermen and
tiiirty councillors. It returns 2 members to
parliament, and is the centre of a poor-law
union.

OARUSLE, Sm Akthont, an Englbh sur-

SK>n and physiologist, bom at Durham, 1768,
ed in 1840. He was surgeon of Westminster
hospital for 47 shears, and was knighted by
George IV. He was the first to introduce the
practice of holding public consultations in cases
requiring operation ; and also to substitute the
Btraight-bladed amputating knife for the crooked
one of former days. Hois chief work is his
** Essay on the Disorders of Old Age."

0 AKLISLE, FmEDKBio Howard, 6th earl o^ a
British statesman, bom in May, 1748, died Sept.
4, 1826. In the house of peers he first dlis-
tiiignished himself by his recommendation of
oonciliatory measures toward the American
colonies. He was one of the 8 commissioners
appointed by George III. to visit America, and
endeavor to restore peace. Accompanied by
Gov. Johnstone and Mr. Eden, he set sail in
1778. The mission was unsuccessful in its nuun
ol(ject, owing to the settled determination of
the colonists to effect their entire separation

from the British crown. From 1780 to 17BS,
he was viceroy of Ireland, afterward became
lord privy seal; in 1791-^92 opposed the policy
of Pitt in resisting the aggressions of Ctttharine
n. upon Turkey; in 1792 he abandoned his
opposition to Pitt, and si^ported tbe war
against the French republic He was a warm
partisan of the union with Ireland, and op-
posed tbe enactment of the com laws in 1815.
He published in 1801 the '* Tragedies and Poems
of Frederic, Earl of Oarlisle,^' which Byron
commends in the " Hours of Idleness,*' while
in ^ English Bards and Scotch Reviewefs " he
launches a sarcastic couplet against his noble
uncle and guardian, who bad in the mean time
offended him by refusing to introduce him to
the house of lords. — Gxobos WnxLuc FasDKnio
HowABD, 7th earl of Oarlisle, and grandson ^
the preceding, bom April 18, 1802, became earl
Oct. 7, 1848, previous to whicn,as Lord Morpeth,
he had travelled extennvely in the United States.
He was a long time attach^ to the British em-
bassy at St Petersburg. In the reformed house
of commons he represented the West Biding of
Yorkshire, and under the Melbourne miniatiy
was secretary of state for Ireland. In 1841 he
was defeated in the West Biding by his conser-
vative opponents. In 1846, under the adminis-
tration of Lord John Bussell, he was appointed
commissioner of woods and forests, and chan-
cellor of the duchy of Lancaster. He was th«
first of the whig nohlemen of the official class
to give in his adhesion to the views of tho anti-
corn law league. In 1866 he delivered before
the mechanics' institute at Leeds 2 lectores,
since published in pamplilet form, on tbe life
and writings of Pope, and on the United States.
Previous to the late eastern war, he made a
tour in the east of Europe, and published his
"Diary in Turkish and Greek Waters." On
the accesdofi of Lord Palmerston in 1865, he
was nominated lord lieutenant of Ireland, which
office he held till the resignation of the Pal-
merston ministry in 1868. A work from his pen
entitied "The Second Vision of Daniel*' was
published in July, 1868.

OABLOOE, a kmd of isinglass, made of the
sturgeon's bladder, and used chiefly for clariiy-
ing wine. It is imported from Buasia.

OARLOS, DoK. L Infante of Spain, son of
Philip n., bom at Yalladolid, July 8, 1646, died
July 26, 1668, in prison at Madrid, and was
buried in the nunnery of the Dominican con-
vent El EeaL His mother, Maria of Portugal,
died 4 days after having given him birth. '
He was sickly, and as he grew up, was sab-
ject to violent bursts of passiim, which his
father hoped would be subdued by the disci-
pline of the university at Alcala. But as this
proved of no avail, he was considered xna^X for
the throne, and in 1663 his cousins, the arch-
dukes Bndolf and Ernest, were wpointed in
his stead presumptive heirs to the crown.
When Alva was appointed in 1667 governor of
Flanders — a post to which Don Cams had as-
pired-—the iimmto's exasperation led him to plan

CAHLOS

CABLOVINGLfLKS

an assault upon Ms father, and to perpetrate
0D6 upon hia nnde Don Juan, in oonseqneoce
of Tirhich he was pat under arrest, Jan. 18,
1568, and snbseqaently transferred to the prison
where he died. His death as well as his life
gave rise to many conflicting mmors. The in-
compatibility of temper between a rigid, iron-
hearted man like Don Philip, and a morbid,
impulsive youth like Don Carlos, the fact that
the inflante had been engaged to Elizabeth of
France, who subsequently became his step-
mother, his sympathy with the revolt of the
Netherlands, and his hatred of Alva and the
other ministers of his father, all conspired to
invest the melancholy fate of the infante with a
halo of romance, which has been poetically
treated by Alfieri, Campistron, Otway, and
others, and above all by Schiller. II. Oablos
Mabia Isidob, pretender to the crown of Spain,
son of King Charles IV., born March 29,
1788, died in Trieste, March 10, 1855. Many
of the opponents of the constitutional regime
which was restored in 1820, gathered around
Don Carlos, hoping that, after the decease of his
childless brother Ferdinand VII., he would
ascend the throne. But these hopes were
frustrated by Ferdinand's marriage with Maria
Christina, and by the abrogation of the Salic
law, which placed Isabel upon the throne.
In 1832, when Ferdinand was supposed to
be on the eve of death, the Carlists succeeded
in extorting from him a decree reestablishing
the Salic law, and thus excluding Isabel ; but
he recovered his health, and the fraud prac-
tised upon him was immediately redressed.
In 1833, when Ferdinand died, Don Carlos
proclaimed himself king. Maria Christina, the
regent, branded him as a rebel, and concluded
with Britain, France, and Portugal, the so-
called quadruple alliance, the practical effect of
which was to expel Don Carlos and Don
Miguel, the champions of absolutism, from
Spain and Portugal. On July 1, 1834, Don
Carlos left England, whither he had fled,
and smuggling himself into Spain, succeeded in
kindling a civil war in the northern provinces,
which raged for several years, Don Carlos elud-
ing the vigilance of his opponents until 1839,
when he was compelled to leave the Spanish
territory and to betake himself to France,
where, upon his refusal to renounce his claims,
he was, by order of the French government,
detained at Bourges. The decree which ordained
his perpetual expulsion from Spain was, by
unanimous vote, confirmed by the cortes in 1836.
In 1845 he adopted the name of count of Mo-
VmA, abdicated in favor of his eldest son the count
of Montemolin, and on receiving permission
to leave France, took up his abode in Austria.
— His first wife was Maria Francisca de Assis,
daughter of King John VI. of Portugal, who bore
him 3 sons, Don Carlos in 1818, Don Juan Car-
los in 1822, and Don Fernando in 1824. His 2d
w^ife, whom he married in 1838, and who surviv-
ed him, is Maria Theresa, infanta of Portugal and
princess of Beira, widow of the infante Pe-

dro, of Spain, and mother of the infante
Sebastian of Portugal HI. Cablos Lms Ma-
bia Frbnando, the eldest son and heir of
Don Carlos the pretender, bom Jan. 81,
1818. In 1846 he left Bourges, where he had
resided with his father, and took np his abode in
England under the name of the oount of Monte-
molin. In April, 1849, he made an attempt to
introduce himself in disguise into Spain, but he
was arrested, detained from April 5 to the 10th
in the citadel of Perpignan, and on April 15 he
was again in London. On July 10, 1850, he
married Maria Carolina Ferdinanda, a sister of
the present king Ferdinand 11. of Naples.

CARLOVINGIANS, or Caboungianb, an
illustrious imperial family who, during the 9th
and 10th centuries, gave sovereigns to Ger-
many, France, and Italy. Their origin is
traced back to Arnulf and Pepin of Landen,
2 powerful Prankish lords of Austrasia in the
beginning of the 7th century, while they de-
rived their name from Charles Martel, the con-
queror of the Saracens at the battle of Poitiers,
in 732. This hero, the son of Pepin of Heristal,
was the founder of the greatness of his house.
Satisfied with the titles of duke of the Franks
and mayor of the palace, under the weak Mero-
vingian kings, he ruled with an absolute power
the Prankish kingdoms of Austrasia, Neustria,
and Burgundy. His son, Pepin the Short, ct)n-
fining within the walls of a convent the last of
those kings, Childeric HI., assumed the royal
title, and his grandson, Charles, afterward
known as Charlemagne, having extended his
conquests as far as the Garigliano on the S.,
the Oder on the N., and the Carpathian moun-
tains and the Theiss on the E., restored the
western Roman empire, and consequently styled
himself emperor. This Cariovingian empire,
consisting of a motley assemblage of nations
brought together by conquest and decidedly
hostile to each other, could not long outlive its
founder ; it began indeed to totter on his death,
and then gradually fell into ruins. Its final dis-
ruption, taking place in 888, was followed by
no less than 9 separate kingdoms; the most
important of which, Germany, France, and
Italy, continued for a while under the sway of
the descendants of Charlemagne. We subjoin
a list of the sovereigns of this family : Empeb-
ORS. Charlemagne, 800-814; Louis the Weak,
or D^bonnaire, 814r-640 ; Lothaire, 840-855;
Louis IL, son of Lothaire, 855-876 ; Charles
the Bald of France, 876-877; Charles the Fat
of Germany, 877-687. This was the last of
the actual emperors of the Cariovingian dy-
nasty ; but several princes, most of them in the
feminine line, Guy of Spoleto, Lambert, Arnulf
of Carinthia, Louis and Berenger of Italy,
boasted of the empty title. — ^Kjnos of Geb-
VANT. Charlemagne and Louis the Weak were
followed by Louis the German, 840-876; Louis
the Younger or of Saxony, 87d-882 ; Charles
the Fat, 882-887; Arnulf of Carinthia, 887-
899 ; Louis the Child, 899-911. To the extinct
house of Charlemagne those of Saxony and

440

OABLOYHZ

OAJBSI£BJJ>

FnaooniasQoceeded.— KnrosoFEBAHOB. The
OarloTingians here are styled the 2d race of the
FrankiBh kings, and saoceeded the Meroyin-

fians ; Pepin the Short, 752-768 ; Charlemagne,
6&-8U; Looia the D^bonnaoe, 814r-8i0 ;
Charles the Bald, 840-877; Louis the Btam*
merer, 877-879 ; Louis III. and Carloman, 870-
884; Charles the Fat of Germany, 884-888;
Charles IIL, the Simple, 898-928; Loois IV.,
D^Oatremer(altramariniis), 986-954; Lothaire,
954-986 ; Lonis Y., the Idle, 986-987. On the
death of this prinoe, Hugh Capet was elected
king by the nation, to the ezdusion of the law*
fal heir, Charles, aoke of Lorraine, the uncle
of Loois y. Hngh was the head of the 8d dy-
nasty, called after him Capetians. — ^Einos or
Italy. Charlemagne, 774-781 ; Pepin, his son,
781-812 ; Bernard, 812-^18; Louis the D^bon-
naire of France, 818-820 ; Lothaire. 820-855 ;
Louis n., 855-875 ; Charles the Bald of France,
875-877 ; Charles the Fat of Germany, 879-
881 ; Guy of Spoleto, 881-888 ; Berenger,
888^94 and 905-924; Lambert, 894-900;
Louis, 900-905 ; Huffh of Provence, 926-947;
Lothaire, 945-950; Berenger IL and Adalbert,
950-961. On the death of Adalbert, the king-
dom of Italy was united by Otho the Great to
the Grerman einpire.

CARLO VIT^ Cabloyioz, or Oablotztza, a
military frontier town or captaincy of Austrian
Shivonia, pop. about 5,800, in the district of
Peterwardein, with a cathedral, 8 churches, a
Greek seminary, a lyceum, .a Boman Catholic
academy, a brisk transit trade and fisheries,^ an
eztensiTe export trade in wormwood and wine,
the quantity of the latter exported in some
years amounting to 1,800,000 gallons. The great
wine mountain in the vicinity of Carlovitz yields
the best and strongest quidities of Hungarian
wines. The Carlovitz red wines are especially
renowned. The town is the see of a Greek
archbishop — ^the only Greek prelate of that
rank within the Austrian dominions. A peace
was concluded here in 1699, for the term of
25 years, between Austria, Poland, Russia,
Venice, and Turkey, by the meduition of
England and the Netherlands. By the tenns
of this treaty, the emperor of Austria received
Transylvania and Bacska; Busda, Azof; Po-
land received back Podolia, the Ukraine, and
Kamieniec, but ceded some Moldavian towns.
Venice retained the Horea, and Turkey re*
miuned in possession of Temesvar. During
the revolutionary era of 1848-'49, Carlo-
vitz was the focus of the Servian rebellion
against Hungary, and the theatre of collision
between the Servians and the Magyars, and
at a later period between the Hungarians and
Austrians.

CARLOW (ano. Catherlogh\ a county in the
province of Leinster, Ireland ; area, 846 sq. m. ;

gop. in 1851, 68,075. It is level except on the
., where the BlackstidrB and Mt. Leinster
ranges give arusged charaeter to the district.
The rivers are the Slaney and the Barrow.
Carlow is of granite formation, covered in the

plains by bedb of gravel and eropptog o«t In
the eminences of Mt Leinster and the BUA-
stairs. It is well known for its agricQ^taral
character and produce. Out of the whole area
of the county there aie but 81,000 aores nnool-
tivated, and cereals, roots, and greoi crops are
^wn luxuriantiy. The history of the eounty
is, tcom its central pontion, dosely eoBnected
with that of the English conquest and tlie Irldi
struggles to recover their independence. In
1798 Carlow was the seat of important move-
ments. The present condition of the popula-
tion is much improved by the presence and ex-
ample of the proprietors, and the conseqnenoe
is seen in the skilM and productive ooltivation
of the land. The antiquities are the eroralecltft
and the cathedral at Old Leighlin^ a castle of
the Butiers at Clonmore, in &ie preservaftioii,
and several other remains in variooa parts
of the county. The towns are Carlow, Tnl-
low, and Bagnalstown. There are 59 timH^wmI
schools, attended by 6,900 pupils of both sexes.
— Cablow, a parliamentary borough, town,
parish, and capital of the above-described coun-
ty, 56 m. S. W. from Dublin by raUway ; pop.
of borough, 10,292. The town is situated at the
confluence of the Burren with the Barrow.
The principal edifices are a fine oourt-^hoaae, a
gaol, a parish church, a Boman Catholic cath^
oral and college, 2 nunneries, a lunatic aaylnm,
infirmary, hospital, work-house, barracka, and
2 bridges. There are several dioceaan acnd na-
tional schools. The population are largely oi-
gaged in the provision trade. There are aev-
eral flour mills, and it is an important market
for agricultural produce of the county. The
castie, of which the remains are still extant,
built in the 12th century, was the nodens of
the town, which was made a borough in 1206.
CABLSBAD, a Bohemian town within 70
m. of Prague, famous as a watering place. It
takes its name from the emperor Oharies IV.,
who, in the middle of the 14th ee&tory,
waa the first to avail himself of the healing
power of the springs, and whose statue adorns
the market place. Next to Charles IV., the
greatest benefactor of the town waa a Scotch
nobleman, the earl of Findlater and Seafidd,
who laid out some beautiful parks. An obe-
lisk in his honor was erected in a beantiiid
forest acyoining the town. ExcursionB are fre>
quentiy made to this spot and to the auxroond-
ing mountains. Many eminent men, as Hofi^-
land, Beraelius, Friedrich HofiQnann, A. G.
Werner, and, above all, Goethe, have been ^
frequenters of the pkoe. The chief ingredients
of the springs are sulphate of soda, oatbonate
of soda, and common salt; and the prini^Nd
springs are the Strndel, MohlbrunneD, and
Schlofisbrunnen, having reqfiectively a temper-
ature of 165^, 188^ 147S and 182« P. The
waters are efficacious in liver and kidney
diseases, and in a variety of other complainta.
After the termination of the Carlsbad season,
many of the visitors resort to the waters of
Teplitz, Pranaensbad, lachl, to. Sinoe ISiS,

Qjuoisrip

.# iK.. *,r

|kr\r t'u.l^iiVrilif^lirarii^l ^irri .-tL/1 TwiM 1 - ^«<tr. li» lfiV\

• L'1S»K>.» IM

lUi-

yi^^» >, UMftig|ii wia^d b T19T mooh tuieJ
» i M#-i»ii^ and iltitiloriinj, fn'^m

tii itir^fl, 14,-

»- t'^-^t * *--

At-^.

1711 Prottttfxnu, it:g n^imi
u It DOlib Bouuii iMrvGUD^

rttJkar d^kfitMigr fal lii« fi£iiiit||nii J»yiff9fia|^C nB
Ul6 town.

bL Bft* 41 , imJ tea- 13^ iift*> i*' HO E^

OQ ttiO 1^^ ■!><] £. bj tka riniVil*^ • ^ > ii <-«r!r i^ru ^^

Cktfi lw» liioim^^l ^m MO fin Id 1 - ' ^ '- ^ **^

tin fa I^USl ftfid 302,631 b IB^*

fcnai y tk-Jlj m IfoQ, QnpfMift aftd Jtoii — ^^

Araonil Umi pCJblk Jinknl, ft

442

OARLSTADT

CABLTLB

servatory. The exports are oopper, iron, oorn,
salt, and timber. The opening of the uotbacanaL
-vhioh unites the lakes of Wener and Wetter and
the Baltic with the Oattegat, has had a favora-
ble effect npon the commercial activity of Carl-
stad. The town and its vicinity are noted
for fine advantages for fishing and shooting.
Pop. in 1856, 4,128.

OARLSTADT, Ain>BXA8, a German reformer,
bom at Oarlstadt, in Franconia, abont 1488, died
in Basel, Dec 25, 1541. He adopted the name
of his native town, but his real name was
Bodenstein. He took his degree of DJ). at
Wittenberg, was appointed professor in that
university, and snbseqaently advanced to the
dignity of canon, dean, and archdeacon. From
the very commencement of the reformation he
was one of its firmest and most zealous adher-
ents. In 1519 he held a controversy at Leipdo
with Eckius on the doctrine of free will, in
which he proved himself so decided an antago-
xdst of C^olicism, that he was soon after ex-
communicated by the pope. This severity on
the part of his opponents, and his own ardent
and impiilsive temperament, hurried him into
a course, in 1521, which Luther and Melanch-
thon severely condemned. He entered the
great church of Wittenberg at the head of
an infuriated multitude, and destroyed the cru-
dfixes, images, and altars of that venerable
fime. He rejected the title of doctor, abandoned
his professorship, applied himself to manual
labor, and afiSrmed that learning was useless to
biblical students, who ought rather to toil like
him, with their hands than waste their time in
the acquisition of improfitable knowledge. Af-
ter Luther's return from the Wartburg, how-
ever, the old order of things was restored in the
church of Wittenberg, but Carlstadt went 2
years afterward (1524) to Orlaraunde, a small
town in the electorate of Saxony, where he forci-
bly took possession of the pulpit, creating disor-
der, which was again denounced by Luther. Ex-
pelled from Saxonv, he brought forward the
question of the real presence of the body and
blood of Christ in the eucharist, avowing him-
self the antagonist of Luther, and defending the
extreme Protestant view of that doctrine. Sus-
pected of sympathizing with the peasants^ war
in Franconia^ he continued to give umbrage to
the authorities, and led for several years an
unsteady nomadic life, imtil, reduced to ex-
treme poverty, he appealed to Luther, who
generonsly granted him assistance and a domi-
cil near Wittenbeig, under the condition that
he would refrain m)m giving utterance to his
religious opinions. Having quietly spent about
8 years in agricultural and commercial occupa-
tions, he again came forward in 1528 with sev«
eral violent publications; and to escape f^m
the indignation of Luther, against whom he was
believed to have planned conspiracies, he betook
himself to Denmark, East Friesland, Strasbourg^
and finally to Ztkricb, where he was kindly re-
ceived a^ assisted by ZwinglL He was ap-
pointed archdeacon in the latter dty, and from

1684 to the time of his death he oflldflted as
preacher and professor of theology in BaseL
Oarlstadt was a man of considerable leftmio^
but his impulsive temperament unfitted him for
practical main. He nad a numeroos body of
followers in Germany, who were denominated
Garlstadtians or Sacnunentarians. He ms the
first Protestant divine that entered into the
nuptial bonds.

OARLUEE, a municipal borough and jparieh
of Scotiand, county of Lanark, on the Clyde;
pop. of the parish in 1851, 6,288 ; of the town.
2,845. There is a handsome church here, and
since the introduction of the cotton mannfactnre
the place has increased rapidly. The banks of
the Clyde in this vicinity are fiamousfor or^ards,
some of which are of vast extent The antiquary
Mijor-Gen. Roy, and the sculptor f^mesc,
were natives of this parish.

OABLTLE, Joseph Daorb, an English oritfi-
tal scholar, born in Carlisle in 1759, died at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1804. He was edn-
cated at Cambridge, and elected fellow of
Queen's college, where in 1794 he was ap-
pointed professor of Arabic. He was afterward
chaplain to the embassy at ConstantinoplcL and
collected there valuable Greek and Syriae MSS.
He projected a revised edition of the New Tes-
tament with the aid of these KSS., but did sot
live to complete his plan. He was the author
of a translation of an Arabic history of Egypt;
a volume of translations of Arabic poetry from
the earliest times to the extinction of the odiphs;
a posthumous volume of poems descriptive of
the scenes of his travels; and an tuofiniflhed
edition of the Arabic Bible.

C ARLYLE, Thomas, a British author, bora in
1795, in the parish of Middlebie, near Uie ham-
let of Ecdefeohan, in Dumfiriesahire, Scotland.
His father was a small fanner of that district,
and his mother descended fh>m a fiunfly of the
same neighborhood, both being represented as
persons of extraordinary native sagacity and
force of character. He was the eldest of their
children, and received the best part of his edu-
cation at home, though he enjoyed, beside, the
advantages of a school at .^man, and of the
university at Edinburgh. At school he fynned
the acquaintance of Edward Irving, then in his
16th year, and on a vidt to the tocher, ** fresh
from college, with prizes, high character, and
promise," and full of '^ hope, Joy, and healthfnl-
neas without end." As Carlyle was but 14, there
can be no doubt that the extraordinary mind of
Irvinff, ^* opening a whole wonder-land of
knowledge," exercised apowerfnl influence on
his dawning faculties. He has left a record of
it in the beautiful and touching sketch of the
fiunous preacher which he contributed to ^^ Vn-
ser's Magazine" in 1885, when the **lbid Cir-
cean draught of popular applause having mad-
dened his intellect, death fell upon & dis-
eased and prematmrely aoed body." ^ But for
Irving," he says, "I had never known what
the communion of man with man means. His
was the freest, brotherlies^ bravest human son}

OAELYLE

mine ever oame in oonUot with : I call him, on
the whole, the best man I have ever foond in
this world, or now hope to find." Thia was an
honorable witness of friendship at a time when
the reputation of Irying had fallen under the
world's contempt, as that of an impostor or a
madman. At college, however, Carlyle was
chiefly distinguished for his attainments in
mathematics, and the pursuit which he proposed
to himself was the Ohristian ministrj. But he
rummaged the college libraries in the search of
all kinds of knowledge, and made himself fa-
miliar, as few young men have done, with for-
eign languages and the old English literature.
Ilis summer vacations were passed in rambling
among the hills and moors of his native land.
For 2 years after leaving college, about 1820, he
occupied himself in teaching in the family of Mr.
Charles Buller, when he became convinced that
not the ministry, but general literature was his
true vocation. His first work was a translation
of Legendre's " Geometry," to which he pre-
fixed an ** Essay on Proportion ; " and the next
the "Life of Schiller," the beautiful prose, fine
criticism, and manly sentiment of which must
have convinced his friends that he had rightly
chosen his calling. It was originally published
in the "London Magazine " for 1823-4, to which
Hazlitt, Hood, Lamb, De Quincey. and Allan
Cunningham were contributors. At the same
time a translation of Goethe's Wilhelm MeUter
appeared, and astonished the critics by the fa-
cility with which the ease, the power, and the
grace of that remarkable work had been trans-
fused into another tongue. It was followed, in
1827, by the "Specimens of German Romance,"
wherein tlie exquisite tales of Tieck, Jean Paul,
MusiBus, and Hoffmann received for the first
time an adequate English dress. He had been
married the previous year to Miss Welch, a
lineal descendant of John Knox, who brought to
his home the best virtues and graces of the es-
timable Scottish female character. Residing for
a little while in Edinburgh, they then removed to
a small estate at Craigenputtoch, in the wildest
part of Dumfriesshire, which he has described
in so earnest and poetic a spirit in a letter to
Goethe, with whom his translations had brought
him into correspondence. "Our residence," he
says, " is not in the town itself, but 15 miles N.
W. of it, among the granite hills and black mo-
rasses which stretch westward through Gallo-
way, almost to the Irish sea. In this wilderness
of heath and rock, our estate stands forth, a
green oasis, a tract of ploughed, partly enclosed,
and planted ground, where corn ripens, and
trees afford a shade, although surrounded by
sea-mews and rough-wooUed sheep." He then
proceeds to paint a charming picture of rural and
domestic comfort. " Piled up on the little li-
brary table." he does not forget to add, " are a
whole cart-load of French, German, American,
and English periodicals, whatever they may be
worth." It was in this solitary, but delightful
retreat, that Mr. Carlyle began his papers for
tlie "Edinburgh Review," the first of wluch that

appeared was the essay on Jean Paul, which
was followed by that on German literature,
and then by that on Bums. These alone, had
he put his name to them, would have given him
a nrst rank among the writers of English.
Their profound thought, their searching analy-
sis of character, their deep fountains of noble
sentiment, their sinewy language, and their va-
ried learning, stamped the author as not only
one of the great thinkers, but as one of the most
eloquent writers of his age. All the while he
was engaged on lesser articles for the " Edin-
burgh Encyclopaedia," among which those on
Montaigne, Montesquieu, Pitt, and Nelson are
ascribed to him. He wrote also for the "For-
eign Quarterly," and for the magazines. In the
intervals of leisure, a run over to Edinburgh
brought him into contact with Wilson, Jeffrey,
and other literary celebrities, whose conversa-
tion, doubtless, recreated and quickened his
spirits, as well as his mind. In the course of
the years 1838-'34, he published in " Eraser"
the most peculiar and remarkable of all his
works, — the quaint, the whimsical, the pro-
found, the humorous, and the poetic " Sartor Re«-
sartus," in which beseems to have poured all the
accumulated treasures of his mind and heart.
Under the eccentric guise of a vagabond Ger-
man philosopher, and on the homely topic of
the philosophy of clothes, he has brought
together much of the deepest speculation,
the finest poetry, the noblest morals, ana
the wildest humor that his or any ago has
produced. The strange conceits of it, and
the barbario rudeness of the style, not un-
touched with more than barbaric splendor,
repelled the booksellers from it, as fr^m
some huge, unknown bomb-shell, charged with
all manner of combustibles. Nor did it readily
find a public, when published, but, like many
other new things, had to create its own au-
dience. Since tlien it has come to be more en-
thusiastically and fitly appreciated. During the
negotiations for the printing of " Sartor," Mr.
Carlyle removed to London (1834), and has
continued to reside there in a suburban neigh-
borhood at Chelsea. His marked originaUty
won him many admirers, while his genial-
ity and humor made him many friends ; and,
from the publication of "Sartor" up to the pres-
ent hour, his pen has been recognized as one of
the great powers of English literature. It was
not, however, till the year 1837, when he
brought forth the " French Revolution, a His-
tory," that his name was attached to his works,
and he becxmae known beyond a select and in-
ner circle. While he was preparing that mar-
vellous production, it is said, the manuscript of
the Ist volume was burnt, and he was com-
pelled to go over the vast field of reading and
labor which it embraced anew. Not so much a
" history" — as it supposes in the reader a con-
siderable familiarity with the events which it
Erofesses to portray — as a grand collection of
istorical pictures, painted with fire and dark-
ness, it may safdy bo pronounced the most

444

OARLTLE

OABMAiONOLA.

loridly Tivid and fearM piwseiitataoii of tbat Bta-
pendous epoch which has yet been made. The
most animated deliiieatioiis of Thiers are tame
beside it, and the most brilliant sketches of
Lamartine mere oatlines in oharooal and chalk.
But it has tins defect, that the philosophy of it
is oontemptaona and mocking, and it depicts
the varied and gigantic characters which stalk
across the scene, not so much as responsible
and living mortals, as the mere mechanical
implements of some tremendous and irrenstible
destiny. The honor of collecting the *' Mis-
cellanies" of Mr. Oarlyle belongs to Mr. R. W.
Emerson, of Ooncord. Mr. Oarlyle^s stndies for
the ^ French Bevolataon" deeply interested him
in social problems, the first froits of which inter-
est appeared in the '' Ohartism" of 1889. It was
his first dash at the great practical questions of
the day, which showed that, althoogh he had not
considered them as profoundly or as hopefully
as he ought to have done, he had yet laid them
close to his heart. They were interrupted
for a time by a series of lectures which he
delivered in London firom 1887 to 1840, to nn-
merous and excited audiences^ on "German
Literature,*' the "History of Literature," the
^'Revolutions of Modem Europe," and "Heroes
and Hero-Worship," the last of which alone has
thus far been pnbushed. It was an evidence to
most of his readers of two things: 1, that the
strangely abrupt and tortuous style, which was
perhaps very w^ adapted to the peculiar objects
of "Sartor" and the "French Revolution," was
now a chronic malady with him; and, 2,
that the beautiM reverence for silent intellec-
tual force which marks his articles on Goethe,
Bums, 8chiller, &c^ had been converted into
a worship of mere force of will and strong ani-
mal impulse. The tendency to this substitu-
tion was already to be recognized in the loud
preference for Danton and Mrabeau in the
"French Revolution" to Robesmerre; but it
was made more obvious still in the "Heroes,"
and in his next work, " Past and Present"
In 1845 he edited, as they had never before
been edited, with some indght into the grand
character of the man, the " Letters and Speeches
of Oliver GromweU," 4n which work his
literary career appears to have culminated.
The "Latter-Day Pamphlets," which appeared
in 1850, and in which he resumed his discus-
mons of social questions, are only remarkable
for a violent imitation of himself, and not of his
better self. The "life of John Sterling," in
1851, evinced some return to his ancient and
genial methods both of expression and thought,
but the subject was scarcely large enough to
arouse his powers. His "Collected Works"
were published in London in 1857-^58. The
first 2 volumes of the " Life of Frederic the
Great," of iVussia, to which he had been de-
voted for several years past, was published in
Sept 1858. A "Memoir of Mr. Oarlyle, with
Passages selected from his Writings," was pub-
lished by Thomas Ballantyne in 1865. He has
been moat elaborately characterized in an artide

in the ^'Westminster Review," wUle in Mr.
Bayne's "Ohristian life," on the other hand,
there is a vehement but honest assault upon
the unevangelical spirit of his writings. But
the time has hardly come for a perfect and
truthful appreciation of his geniua, and of its
influence upon the moral and intellectual des-
tinv of the 19th century. His entire sig-
nincance has not yet been developed. In the
opinion of many, he has given a new turn
to the whole of English thought and orit-
idsm. He has imparted to the art of writ-
ing a nobler tone, opened it to a -wider
range, infused into it a profounder spirit;
no one more than he can quicken the im-
pulses of young writers, as with the aonnd
of a trampet — no one lead them to richer or
better sources. If his wild and objnrgatoiy
manner has somewhat corrupted style, his lofty
and suggestive thought has stimulated aenli-
ment; if his scheme of philosophy is imperfect
as a whole, his occasional and disconnected
views are full of grandeur, of beauty, and <xl
trath ; he is not always the safe guide,* bat is
alwavs an invaluable help; and though oar be-
nevolent feelings are repulsed by tiie stem and
remorseless indifi'erence to the individnal which
shows itself in his later worln, we may still
discover beneath the incrustation of soom and
callousness which has grown over him a noble,
fiery souL

OARMAGNOLA, a Sardinian town, pop.
about 18,000, on the river Mella, in the prov-
ince of Turin, famous for its extenmve trade in
oiks and for its silk Mrs, which annually take
place in June. The town is on the railway line
between Turin and Nice, contains several fine
streets and public squares, 5 diurches, S con-
vents, and a hospital.

OARMAGNOLA, Fbakobsoo, a fiunona eon-
dottiere, whose real name was Bnssone, bora
about 1890, in the above-described town of
Oarmagnola, the name of whicli he adopted.
The son of a peasant, he was a herdsman in his
youth ; but enlistiuff in the service of the duke
of Milan (Filippo Maria Yisconti), he rapidly
rose in rank, and aided his master in rosin-
ing a great part of Lombardy, and in extsMing
his possessions. The duke, however, became sus-
picious of his loyalty, confiscated his property,
east his wife and children into prison, and
banished him ; upon which Oarmagnda entered
the service of tlie republic of Yenioe, from
which he received the appointment of general-
issimo. He wrested Brescia from the duke of
Milan, and entirely routed his army at the
battle of Maoalo in 1427. After the batde he
released his i)risoners, which was frequently
done at that time by eandoUierit but incurring
the suspicions of the Venetian senate for doing
so, and his subsequent military operations not
Iffoving successful, he was recalled to Yeaic&
under the preteiet that his advice was needea
for affiurs of state, placed under arrest, aooosed
of treason, put to the torture and beheaded.
May 8, 1482.

CARMAGNOLE

OAEMINB

C ARICAGNOLE, a song of the French reign
of terror, oommeDcing with the words :

MadanC Veto <h>oU promia^
each stanza ending with :

J>an«on9 la CarmagnoU^
Du canon I

— The same name was also applied to the revo-
Intionary costume worn by many of the terror-
ists. It ia further applied to Savoyards in
Paris, who are supposed to have emigrated from
Carraagnola; and the same town, whether
justly or not, ia also supposed to be in some
manner associated with the origin of the two
first* named meanings of the word.

C ARMEL, a range of limestone hills in N. TT.
Palestine, terminating at the sea by the promon-
tory of Mount Oarmel. Oarmel is celebrated for
the fertility of its sides and slopes, and although
coltivation has ceased, enough remains in the
timber, the wild olive, and the pasture, to bear
out its ancient repute. It is the scene of some
of the great events of biblical history, and was
the retreat of the prophet Elijah from the tyr-
anny of Ahab and the hate of Jezebel. The
brook Kishon runs at the foot of OarmeL

CARMELITES. Mt. Oarmel appears to have
been a favorite place of resort for Jewish asce-
tics, and often furnished a secure and solitary
retreat to the prophets Elijah and Elisha.
After the Christian era, hermits were fond of
fixing themselves in the same region, and hence
appears to have sprung np among the Carmel-
ites the tradition Uiat their order was founded
by the prophet Elijah upon Mt. Carmel. The
most trustworthy historical account of the foun-
dation of this celebrated order, is that given by
the learned Bollandists. A crusader of the 1 2th
century, Berthold of Calabria, made a vow in
the heat of battle to embrace a monastic life if
he obtained the victory ; and the battle being
won, fulfilled his vow by retiring to a cave on
Mt. Carmelf called the cave of the prophet
Elijah. He was accompanied by some others,
and their increasing numbers made it soon ne-
cessary to build a monastery. Berthold's suc-
cessor obtained a rule from Albert, patriarch of
Jerusalem, which was confirmed by Honorius
III. in 122f4. Under Alanus, their 5th general,
the Carmelites migrated to Europe, to escape
from the persecution of the Saracens, and a
modified rule, suited to the western cUmate
and manners, was adopted and approved by
Innocent IV. This order, which was very
severe, extended itself widely, and gained a
hiirh reputation in Europe. The female branch
of the order was founded by F. John Soreth,
in the 15th century. In process of time,
great relaxation having been introduced into
tlie rule, St Teresa, and St. John of the Cross
(1562) set on foot in Spain a reformation, on
the basis of the original rule of Albert, as mod-
ified by Innocent IV. This resulted in a divi-
sion of the order into 2 branches — one of the
niUder, and one of the stricter, observance. The
number of monks in the milder observance is

now about 700 ; in the stricter, about 1,200.
There are 90 convents of Carmelite nuns, in
each of which the number is restricted to 21.
One of these convents is in Baltimore, having
been transplanted from the lower counties of
Maryland, where It was formded in the latter
part of the 18th century. The Carmelites of
Baltimore formerly kept an academy for young
ladies, but they have recently given it up, and
with some few necessary exceptions, keep the
strict rule of St. Teresa. Notwithstanding
their austere life, it is remarkable tliat they
generally enjoy good health, and frequently
attain to a very advanced age.

CARMER, JoHANN Hkinbich Kasimib, count,
a Prussian statesman, born at Creuznach in
1721, died at his estate of RQtzen, near Glogau,
in 1801, celebrated for his law reforms, which,
under the name of Allgemeines Landrecht (gen-
eral civil law), became the new Prussian code
of law, ratified by Frederic William IL, June
1,1794.

CARMINE, a pigment of a brilliant scarlet
color, prepared from the boiling solution of coch-
ineal by adding alum and carbonate of potash or
soda, and boiling for a few minutes. The liquid ia
strained, and allowed to stand for some time,
when the combination of cochineal and alumina,
called carmine, is deposited. Oxide of tin is also
made use of to obtain a similar precipitate. The
separation of the precipitate is hastened by the
use of some albuminous matter, as white of egg
or fish-glue, by the coagulation of which the
cannlne is collected. Several processes are in
use for the preparation of the most beautiful
carmines. Tliat made by Madame Cenette of
Amsterdam is said to be of so brilliant a hue as
to be almost painful to the eye. It is thus given
in the Annates de Vindustrie : Two poimds of
the finest cochineal in powder are to be put into
a vessel containing 6 pailfuls of boiling soft
water ; and the boiling is to be continued for
2 hours, when 3 ounces of pure saltpetre, and
soon after 4 ounces of binoxalate of potash,
are to be added. After 10 minutes the boiling
is to be discontinued, and the liquor is allowed to
stand for 4 hours. It is then to be drawn off
with a siphon into fl|Kt glazed dishes, and left
for 8 weeks. A coating of mould forms upon
the surface, which is to be nicely removed in one
piece ; or if any fragments remain, they must
be taken out with the greatest care. The liquor
is again to be drawn off with a siphon, leaving the
cake of carmine in the dish, when it is to be care-
fully dried in a clean shady place. — As carmine ia
desired to be used principally as rouge^ for imitat-
ing the soft blush upon the fairest cheeks, it is an
especial object to obtain it of tlie highest degree
of perfection ; and so delicate are the processes
of the French that the result is affected by the
condition of the weather, and the best carmine
is only made on bright sunny days. Sir Ilum-
phry Davy relates an incident of an English
manufacturer agreeing to pay £1,000 to a
Frenchman for the secret by which the latter
made so superior an article ; when it appeared

446

OABMOS

OABNXADES

that the on|j dtffereaoe in the two modes of pre-
paratioxL, was that the Frendhman always seteot-
ed sach fine bright weather as the Englishman
oould not hope to command in his own oonntry.
Oarmine was aooidentally disooveied by a Fran«
cisoan monk at Pisa, in preparing a medicine of
cochineal and salt of tartar. The beaatiM pre-
cipitate, however, was soon fouid to be much
better adapted for giving a rich bloom to the
cheeks of fair maidens ; and hence it soon as-
sumed an importance which it stiU retmns.
Its nse is extended to the manufacture of the
best red inks, to silk dyeing, to the prepara-
tion of artificial flowers, and as a pigment in
water colors and mioiature painting. Its high
valne has rendered it an object to prepare it of
different degrees of purity, according to the

ratity of alumina mixed with it; and it is
adulterated by mixing with it more or less
of the cheaper vermiiion. As the pture car-
mine is wholly soluble in ammonia, these
ingredients are easily detected, separated, and
estimated.

OABMOE, or Ejlbmox, an island of Norway,
lying at the entrance of Bukke fiord, in the
iSiorth sea, 21 m. long, average breadth 5 m. ;
pop. 6,890.

OABMONA, a Spanish town^ pop. in 1852,
16,121, 18 m. from Seville, is a place of much
antiquity, and was once strongly fortified. It
stands on an isolated hill, surrounded by old '
Moorish waUa, has venerable churches, a uni-
versity of Saracenic architecture, several manu-
factories, and an annual £Eiir»

0 ABNAC, a village of France, in the depart-
ment of Morbihan, pop. 8,888. Near it are
more than 5,000 granitic obelisks of dmidioal
origin, which stand perpendicularly in 11 rowa
parallel to the coast.

OAKNATIO, an ancient province of British
India on the E. coast of the peninsula. Its
limits are ill defined, but it is commonly thought
to extend from Oape Oomorin tolat 16"* N., and
from the coast line to an average of about 80
m. inland. The province is separated into 2
parts by the eastern Ghauts, which run par-
allel with the coast, and which cause a con-
siderable difference in ^imate between the
table-land and the sea-board ; the latter, in dry
weather, is the hottest part of India, the ther-
mometer sometimes standing at 180"" in the
shade. The rivers of the Oamatio are the Pan-
nair, the Falau:, the Coleroon, and the Yaigaru.
The inhabitants are chiefly Hindoos. The Car-
natio includes the cities of Madras and Pon-
dicheny, beside the important towns of Arcot,
Madura, Tai\}ore, Trichinopoly, Nellore, and
y ellore. It was formerly included in the do-
minions of the nabob of Aroot, and the conten-
tions arising from a disputed succession first
brought the French and English into collision,
and ended by the subjugation of the Oamatio un-
der the British influence, which was completely
effected in 1801, when the reigning nabob Aiim
ul Omrah transferred it to the East India com-
pany on condition of receiving a penuon equal to

I of the revenue, and of his chief officials bdng
provided for. The Oamatio has as one ct the
wealthy provinces been the cause of endless
native war&re and bloodshed, by whidi, who-
ever was victor, the unhappy (^tivator suffered
in the end; as each successive ruler, feeling his
tenure uncertmn, only cared to make revenue
while the power lasted, an example whdch was
but too closely imitated by his nnscrapulous
ministers and officials. The OamAtic is now in-
cluded within the administration of tlie presi-
dency of Madras. The principal occupation of
the inhabitants is agriculture, the land bdnff
held either by Brahmins who cultivate it b j hired
labor, or by the fimner himself. Bice is the
chief production, of which 2 crops are taken
off the same ground in the year, if the fadlities
of irriffation admit it. Ootton is grown in
favorable situations, and upon the high land in
the interior of the province millet^ sngar, and
indigo are raised.

OABNEADES, a Greek philosoper of the
sceptic school, considered as the founder of the
so-called 8d academy, born at Oyrene, 217 B. O.,
died at the ase of 85 or 90. Of the incidents of
his life very nttie is known, but of his brilliant
qualities as a philosopher and a rhetorician,
tnere is abundant testimony in the works of
classic authors. In Athens, at that time the
metropolis of art and science, he became a
student of the stoic and sceptic doctrines,
especially those of Ohiysippus, of whom he
afterward became the most formidable op-
ponent. He had essentially a critical mind,
powerful in analysis^ but weak in synthesis.
WhUe Ohrysippus taught the absolute identity
of human reason and the intellectual power
pervading the universe, thus constmcting a
philosopmcal system which bears a stnmg re-
semblance to modem pantheism, GameadoB
hastened to destroy all illusions on the supo^
human nature of the soul, and maintained the
absolute acatalepsy, or absolute incapabiHty of
the mind to comprehend any subject beyond its
own human sphere. So direct was hia antag-
onism to the doctrines of Ohrysippus, that hels
said to have remarked : ** Without Ohrysippus
there would be no Oameades.^' Whether it be
true or not, that whenever he ventured into a
philosophical debate with Ohrysippus, he took a
dose of hellebore to stimulate his mental fi^cnl-
ties, his eloquence was considered so iiTe8iatn>le^
his log^o so forcible, that more than a oentuiy
later Oicero said : '^ B^im I would not care to chal-
lenge in debate, but would rather propitiate t^iwi^
and implore his silence." Pierre ^ayle called
Oarneadea a destroying angel in pMloB(^y,
and said that his eloquence mdted every
thing like wax. One fact is related showing,
indeed, that in some instances the eloquence of
Oameades was dreaded like something demoni-
acal. In 162 B. 0., when he had been sent to
Bome as one of 8 commissioners of the Athenian
commonwealth, he undertook to give the Boman
barbarians a sample of hia dialectic powers. He,
therefore, one day made a speech in favor of

CARNEADES

CARNEUAN

447

justice, and the next daj one in opposition.
His argumeoU on either side were so convinc-
ing, and seemingly unanswerable, that the se-
vere Cato became afraid lest the public mind
should be corrupted by such an exhibition of
plausible arguments for immorality and injus-
tice as well as for morality and justice. In
order to get rid of the dangerous example,
Cato insisted upon a speedy settlement of the
diplomatic business for which Cameades had
come to Rome. In his blunt rectitude, Cato
was unable to comprehend that excessive men-
tal refinement to which the Greek philosophers
had attained, and which enabled them to handle
the sublimest conceptions of the soul as so
many intellectual toys. In private life Car-
noades seems to have been very respectable, ac-
cording to the moral standard of his age. The
character of his philosophy, as compared with
the abstract metaphysical theories of his adver-
saries, would seem, however, to point to more
worldly propensities. That he was an active
politician, appears from the fact of his having
been a diplomatic agent of a country in which
the closest attention to public affairs was the
only road to public office. He enjoyed life, and
detested that singular sublimity of sentiment
which led some of his stoic opponents to com-
mit suicide in order to dissolve their individual
souls into that of the universe. When he was
tuld that the stoic Antipater had taken poison,
hecxclfumed: "Has he, indeed? Why, then.
it is time that I too take — ^" His friends started
back, but Cameades, after a short pause, added,
witli cheerful smile ; " . . . that I, too, take a
good glass of wine," Still the enjoyment of
life never lessened his philosophical zeal. It is
stated that he was frequently so absorbed in
meditation that he forgot to take his meals.
lie was not an author, so at least says Plu-
tarcli, but transmitted his doctrines to his dis-
ciples by word of mouth, like Socrates. It is
to Clitomachus of Carthage, one of his disciples,
that antiquity owed the preservation in writing
of his doctrines. — So far as the philosophy of
Carneades is known by the statement of Sextus
Empiricus, its substance may be condensed
thus : Every perception is a certain change or
movement in a sensible being, bringing to con-
sciousness first itselfl and secondly some object
without. In respect to the object, the percep-
tion is either true or false; in respect to
tlie one who perceives, either probable or im-
probable. There exists no test (criterion) to
decide on tlie truth or untruth of a perception,
that is to say, on the relation which the per-
ception bears to the object by which it is
caused. Tliere is no objective certainty, or a
guaranty that real existing things are essentially
reproduced by the human perception. Hence
no apodicticai assertion, whether affirmative or
negative, is justifiable. Nay, this very assertion
tliat there is no certainty, does not convey any
certainty. But whatever the relation of human
percef)tion to reality, to man himself the mere
probability, the test of which lies within the

limits of his mind, is sufficient for all practical
purposes. The probability of a perception
stands in proportion to the closeness with
which it corresponds to a chain of other per-
ceptions previously tested and sifted. — ^Thus
much may be designated as the affirmative or
dogmatical portion of the philosophy of Car-
neades ; the practical portion was his criticism
of the then existing philosophical systems. The
force of these criticisms, which was estimated
so very highly by his contemporaries, is based
merely upon the supposition, not contested at
that time, that the affirmations and negations
of human language comprise all existing possi-
bilities, so that if both should be refuted, a non
est would be proven. A simple " either — or"
is the whole working capital of this method of
reasoning, which constituted the glory of the
sophists of old. Thus, for instance, Cameades
pretends to prove the non-existence of God by
the following strain of reasoning : God is either
a rational and sensitive being, or he is not. If
he is, then he would be subject to sensations
agreeable and disagreeable, to likes and dislikes;
but if so, he would be a changeable being, and,
as such, liable to destruction. On the other
hand, if God is not a rational and sensitive be-
ing, then he could not have been the creator of
reason and sensation. Again: God is either
finite or infinite. If the latter, then he would
be motionless, and therefore inactive; if the
former, there would be something that was
more than he, because limiting him. Again;
God cannot bo either with or without virtue.
If he be witliout virtue, he would be wicked ;
but if he had virtue, he would be human, be-
cause virtue has existence only as the opposite
of sin, and could not, therefore, be a property
of a being. in which such a contrast is out of the
question. — By similar arguments Carneades gets
rid of all general ideas of morality, hnman
rights, duties, &c. But when he seems to have
destroyed every thing, he suddenly turns round,
concluding that all these arguments prove
merely that absolute metaphysical knowledge
is as unnecessary as it is impossible — tliat man
ought to be satisfied with probabilities and ex-
pediencies, which are amply sufficient to secure
his well-being. Thus, after all, the net result
of his scepticism, which in his time terrified so
many grave philosophers, is but a snug little
piece of practical business philosophy, a self-
complacent smile at the fruitless efforts of
those who are striving to solve the deep enig-
mas of divinity and humanity, or persuading
themselves that they have succeeded in doing
so.

CARNEIA (Gr. Kap»€ia\ a national festival
of the ancient Spartans, celebrated in honor of
Apollo, and in the Spartan month Carneios,
The festival ksted 9 days, during wliich the
Spartans were not allowed to enter upon a hos-
tile campaign.

CARNELIAN (Lat, eamis, flesh), one of the
numerous varieties of the quartz family of min-
erals. (See Agats.) It is found resembling

448

OARISELIAIir

OABNIVAL

flesh in its oolorsi whence its xiame. By ez-
posare to the son and bakiiig, the colors are
deepened. Together with agateflicarneliazis are
quarried in gr^ quantities in different parts of
Hindostan, particularly in the region of 0am*
hay, whence the name commonly i^[>plied to
them all of Gambay stones. They are also
brought to the lapidary workshops at this
place from different parts of Guzcvat, to be
worked up into round and flat necklaces, beads,
bracelets, armlets, seals, marbles, chess men,
studs, rings, &a, which make the most impor-
tant commercial item next to doth, and give
employment in their manufacture to nearly
2,000 people, in 75 large and 25 small workshops.
The information relating to the quarrying aM
working the stones is from the accounts sent
on from India with the specimens for the great
exhibition in London in 1851. Between the
Bowa Gk)re and Bowa Abbas hills, on the plain,
are small mounds, in which the stones are
quarried by the Bheels of the district They
sink shafts, and excavate horizontal galleries,
working underground with lamps. The stones!,
beinff brought to the surface and sorted, are
purchased of the miners in the village of Rut-
tunpoor, by the contractor or his agents. When
a considerable quantity is collected, a trench is
dug in a field 2 feet in depth and 8 in breadth.
In this a fire is made with the dung of goats
and cows, and upon it earthen pots containing
the stones are plaoed in rows. The fire is kept
up from sunset to sunrise, when the chatties are
removed, and the stones piled away. These
once a year are carted to Nemodra, then sent
down the river in canoes to Baroach, and thence
in boats to Oambay. The manufacture of beads
from the rough stone is thus conducted: The
stones, brought to a convenient size, are chip-
ped into a rounded form upon the point of an
uron, standing inclined in the ground. Another
workman then takes them, and fixing a number
of equal size in wooden or bamboo clamps,
rubs them on a coarse, hard polishing stone;
they are then transferred to another man, who
secures them in damps, and rubs them on all
their sides against a ground polishing board,
smeared with a composition of emery and lac.
The final polish is given by putting several
hundreds or thousands of the bejods into a stout
leathern bag, about 2 feet long and 10 or 12
inches in diameter, with some emery dust and
the carnelian powder obtained in boring the
holes through the beads. The mouth of the
bag is tied up, and a flat thong is bound around
its centre. Two men seated at opposite ends
of a room then roll it back and forth between
them, keeping up the operation fh)m 10 to 15
davs, the bag being kept moistened with water.
When the beads are wdl polished, they are
passed to the workmen who bore the holes.
This is done by means of a steel drill tipped
with a small diamond, the work being kept wet
by water dripping upon it. — Carnelian is a
common minem in many localities in the Uni-
ted States; but inasmuch as the working of

rough stones is not practised in- this ^
they are not regarded as of any valoeu

CABKIOOBAR, the nortiiemmoet of tbe
Nicobar ishmda, in the bay of Bengal* ft is
about 40 m. in drcnmferance, low, densely
wooded, and very fertile. A settiement was
formed here by the Danes in 1760, but was
soon abandoned, on account of the onbeidyu-
ness of the dimate»

0 ABNIOLA (Qer. JTmin), a duchy of Ana-
tria, in the government of Layboch, kingdom of
Illyria, between lat 45'' lO' and46'* 20' N., k»g.
IS'' 60^ and W 25' £.; bounded N. by Garin-
thia, E. by Styria and Croatia, S. by Croatia
and the district called Hungarian litto-
rale or KOstenland, W. by the drde of
Goertz; area, 8,845 sq. m.; pqp. 505^886, the
bulk of whom belong to the Slavic raoea. It k
a mountainous region, traversed by brandies of
the Camiolan Alps, abounding in oarioaa grot-
toes, caverns, and imderground passages, and
presenting many snow-capped sumndts, seversl
of which are about 10,000 feet hi^ Itis Bo-
ther so well watered nor so fertile aa the nei^
boring districts of the empire, the only river of
note being the Kulpa, and the lakes beuog
mostiy very small. The southern part produces
fruits and a fine variety of flax; bees and alk-
worms are extensively reared, and in s<»ae dis-
tricts, wheatbarley, and the grape are lugdy
cultivated, with minerals, Camiola ia tidily
Sifted. Its famous ouicksilver mines at Idria
once produced upward of 1 6,000 c wt per annum,
and still yidd from 8.300 to 8,500 owt Iran,
lead, cod, marble, clays, and predoiui atones
are also found. There are manumctures of iron,
steel, fine linen, wodlen, flannd, worsted stock-
ings, lace, leather, wooden ware, &a The ex-
ports comprise severd of the above artides, to-
gether with hats, glass, wa^ wine, and flour;
and the imports, salt, oO, coffee, sugar, tobaooo,
cloths, cattle, and fruit The inhabitants are
temperate and industrious. The Lutheran re-
formation made great progress here at fuist, but
was diecked by vigorous efforts, and Boman
Oatholioism is now the predominant re]igi<HL
— Oamiola was subdued by the Bomana at an
early period, and was occupied by a fflavic tribe
in the 6th century. It was Christianized In the
8th century, became a margraviate nn^ the
successors of Charlemagne, was governed alter-
nately by the dukes of Austria and Carinthia,
and in the 12th century was erected into a
duchy. It was then held by the powerful
dukes of Tyrol, until the extinction of that
family in 1835, when it passed into the hands
of the counts of Goertz, who were sncoeeded by
the house of Austria in 1365. By the treaty of
Vienna in 1809, it was ceded to France, and
incorporated in the kingdom of Qlyria; but
restored to Austria in 1814w Camida has been
divided since 1849 into 10 districts. Laybach
is the capital, and the Camiolan diet| composed
of 82 members, assembles there.

CABNIYAL, a festivd observed in most
Boman Catholic countries immediatdy be-

'rtir4mf»f»»-'r-"

CAmiVAL

.T_.f I.- T,.™ l^ ^^J.

v4 tV^JUM'

,t* ^Lhasm!k»M iiniftijiiiii^ 6:

460

CARNIVAL

rach quantity and choice as to meet the caliber
of every purse; costly bouquets of hot-house
flowers being ranged side by side with the wild
growth of the Campagna. The bonbons are
not so abundant, but stUl are used extensively;
while ^e confetti, which are nothing but pellets
of lime about the size of a pea, are scattered in
myriads, and form quite a serious weapon of at-
tack, especially if suddenly dashed into the face
as they often are from the hand, or blown out
of a tin tube. The coating flies oflf these con-
fetti into lime dust, with which 4)er8ons become
so covered from head to foot as to resemble
millers. A few years since, a young Eng-
lish nobleman^ noted for his eccentricity and
senseless prodigality with his money, was in
Rome dunng the camivaL Hiring an apartment
on the Corso, he literally choked it wiUi bonbons
and confetti, and for a single feat filling a large
barrel with these missiles, aided by his servant,
he dragged it into the balcony, tipped it upon
the balustrade, and watching his opportunity
showered down the whole of its contents into
a passing carriage. The confectionery and lime
pilk fell with such force, that they started a
panel in the bottom of the vehicle, filled it com-
pletely, beside nearly smothering the occupants,
and scaring them out of their wits by the unex-
pected avalanche. A complaint was entered
against him, and his fun suddenly stopped by a
notice from the police, that if he played such
antics again, he would be obliged to quit Rome.
Every day of the masquerade the Oorso becomes
more crowded and more animated, till on tiie
last the number and spirit of the masks, the skir-
mishes of bonbons and lime dust, and the shouts
and enthusiasm of all, surpass description. Of
the mass which elbow one another through the
crowded streets, the greater part are in their
ordinary garb, though disguises are common
enough not to attract any piurticular notice.
Among the most usual masks are punchinellos
with enormous noses, and protuberant backs
and stomachs ; harlequins in particolored vest-
ments, with daggers of lath ; and pantaloons
indulging their usual propensity for thieving by
snatching bouquets from the hands of those in
passing carriages. Quack doctors are numerous,
with catalogues of nostrums for all imaginable
diseases, and lawyers in gowns and wigs whose
demeanor Portia could scarce excel. Some of
the masks carry an inflated bladder on the end
of a stick, with which they deal noisy but
harmless blows. Beside the carriages such as
are seen every day, many are put together for
the occasion merely, and consist of frame-work
resting upon wheels, and made to assume various
shapes, such as ships or moving forests. Old
dwellers in Rome compare the insignificance of
the present carnival with its splendor in the
past, and tell of pageants representing eastern
monarchs followed by their trains of African
slaves; cars of victory with laurel-crowned
GsQsars ; Roman processions copied fVom those
of the ancient city ; the triumph of Bacchus,
surrounded by Silenus and all his crew or

drunken fauna and delifi<Ki0 Baochanak, which
used to parade the Corso. — ^Every dav of the
masquerade there is a race by spirited horses,
but without riders. About 5 o'dock prepara-
tions begin for the running of these animahi
Mounted dragoons trot up and clown the
Corso, the carriages are withdrawn into by-
streets, and pedestrians alone are IdL Meazn
while the horses which are to run have been
brought to the starting-iioint in Uie Piazza del
Popolo. Each one is held by his groom in &
showy uniform, and they are kept witiiin bounds
until the hour for starting arrives, by a rope
stretched across the Corso. So impatient are
the animals, however, so fully excited bj tht:
tumult of the scene, that it b almost impossible
to prevent them ^m leaping over the rope
and dashing onward, while in their struggles
they do frequently get their fore feet over,
dragging their grooms after them. The horses,
as before observed, have no riders, bat are
goaded on in the race by metal buls full of
sharp points, which are fastened to Uieir trap-
pings, and at every motion pierce their flesh ;
as they feel these irritants they dash madly
forward, and the faster they run the more
cruelly are they goaded. Ixistancea have oc-
curred in which horses, discovering the canse
of their torment, have stopped short in the
race, but generally as soon as the cable k
thrown down they rush with fury through the
Corso, the crowd opening to give them a pas-
sage and closing up behind them, until they are
stopped by a piece of cloth which is Bii:^>ended
across the street near the Venetian palace, at
the Ripresa di Barberi, so called from Barbary
horses being the original racer& At this point
the ju^es are assembled to decide upon the
race. Goethe, who visited Rome in 1788, says
that carriages were then allowed to remain in the
Corso, and their presence rendered it so narrow
that horses often dashed themselves against the
wheels and were instantiy killed.-~Spea]cing of
these horses, Madame de Sta^l, in her '' Corinne,'"
says : " They arrive with neither bridle nor sad-
dle, their backs only covered with brilliant 8tn&,
and conducted by gayly dressed grooms^ who
manifest the most impassioned interest in their
success. They place the steeds behind the
barrier, and their impatience to be finee is ex-
cessive. This ardor of the horses, the cries of
the grooms, make at the instant of the barrier s
fall a real dramatic act. The horses dash for-
ward, the grooms cry 'Room ! room I' with in-
describable transport. They accompany their
steeds with gesture and voice as long as thej
can see them. The horses are as jealons of
each other as the men. The pavement flashes
fire beneath t^eir hoofs, their manes stream
upon the wind, and their desire to gain the
prize, thus left to themselves, is so great th.it
some on arrival at the goal drop dead firom the
fury of the race. One is astonished to see these
loose horses thus animated by personal passions
They reach the Venetian palace, and it is worth
while to listen to the exclamations of the

■

ilU

iU^^t

^^^^^^^^Bl^^ ^'^'*' '

♦ho

fv,n

'ff«^/ti? I

rr*".

ff,i

^^^^^^K;i

■

^^^^^^Bt^

^^^Ht'

^^1

^^^^^^^^^H^

^BIBtV^OiidJ Lli^

, Ul!

1 tli3U*tJur nLJi

^L'^VOJ^

*1-

^^im ^

,\|iL' Pill' Ui» IMir^rUi^) t I UUiilliJji^ M^k'r^lJ,'' ^^^^^t

452

CABNIVORA

CABNOOHAK

pery nnd scaly fish upon which they feed ; in
the hears, tiie jaws are mnch longer, and the
molars are flattened and tahercnlar, mdicating
the ftr less carnivorous propensities of this fiean-
ily. The carniyora, in proportion to their ap-
proach to the typical felida^ whose food, when
swallowed, is so like their own tissnes that it
is ready for speedy assimilation, have a short
intestinal canal ; in the lion it is hnt 8 times the
length of the hody, and has very few internal
folds, and a very small csecnm, while in man it
is 5 times as long, in the horse 10 times, in the
sheep 28 times ; snch is the relation between
the organs, that the form of the teeth indicates
the character of the intestinal canal, the arma-
ture of the feet, the mode of progression, and
very nearly tibe habits and mode of life of
an animal. The lobes of the liver vary in num-
ber from 4 in the badger to 8 in the lynx, with-
ont any apparent physiologicol reason; the
hepatic dncts correspond in number to the lobes,
and the common dnot, before it enters the in-
testinal cavity, frequently receives a pancreatic
duct; the gali-bladder is always present, and
in the uniaa is of great ^e ; the pancreas and
spleen do not differ, except in form, from these
oiigans in other mammals ; the chyle is so noted
for its opacity and whiteness, that the discov-
ery of the lacteals was made in these animals
long before they were seen in man. The car-
nivora belons to the sub-class gyreMephdla of
Owen, in which the cerebral hemispheres are
the largest developed (except in man), extend-
ing over a portion of the cerebellum and the
olfactory lobes ; in this arrangement they are
next to the quaarumanay or monkeys; the hem-
ispheres have well-marked, though simple con-
volutions. The organs of sense are well devel-
oped; in the diurnal camivora, the pupil is
round; in the cats it is elongated vertically,
and in a very bright light almost linear, but it
is round in the dftfk, causing the brilliant tape*
turn of the posterior arch of the choroid to ap-
pear like a ball of fire ; the large size of the
mastoid process, communicating with the cav-
ity of the tympanum, indicates considerable
acuteness of the sense of hearing, necessary for
animals seeking their prey during the stillness
of night ; the sense of smell, especially in the
eanida, is very acute, and the pituitary mem-
brane is extended greatiy by means of the com-
plicated convolutions of the turbinated bones ;
the sense of taste is probi^ly not very acute,
and the tongue of the cats is covered in its mid-
dle portion with homy spines, well calculated
to tear the fiesh from bones. The kidneys in
some families^ as in the bears and seals, are
much subdivided, resembling a bunch of grapes ;
in the oats the divisions are hardly perceptible.
In the civets and allied genera, there are gland-
ular follides, which secrete a peculiar odorous
substance, sometimes exceedingly fetid; the
glands are usually situated near the anus, and
the excretory ducts open between the rectum
and the geni&l oiigans. The testes are generally
pendulous and external, but in the seals they

remain permanently within the ahdominal cav-
ity; the eeiieulm seminales do not exists bat
organs resembling the prostate and Ck>wper's
glands are genenuly found ; in almost all tnera
is a bone in the penis, the hyena forming an
exception, it is said ; the teats are abdominal,
ranging from 4 in the lioness to 10 in the bitch ;
the placenta is zonular, surrounding the foBtna.—
The geographical distribution of the camivora
is very extensive, but the largest and most de-
structive species are confined to the tropics of
the old world ; the tiger is limited to Aaa, the
lion to Asia and Africa, the cougar to America;
the largest bears fr^uent the arctic regions,
and the largest seals the antarctic waters. The
camivora fulfil an important purpose in the
economy of nature, by Keeping in check th^ in-
crease of the herbivorous animals, whose ooont-
less numbers would otherwise destroy vegeta-
tion, and thus cause their own and a general
destmction. Guvier associated, nnder the name
eamasfderSy the cheiroptera, insectivora, cami-
vora, and marsupials; excluding the latter,
whidi form a sub-daas by thenoselvea, many
more recent authors adopt a somewhat similar
classification. Prof. Agassiz, in his recent ** Es-
say on Glassification,'' divides mammals into S
orders, fnarsupialiOf herhivara, and eamkorOy
the last the highest in the scale. Prof. Owen
divides his sub-class gyrene^hdla into the 8 pri-
mary divisions of muHlata (including the ceta-
ceans), unpttlata (pachyderms and ruminants),
and unguteulata (camivora and the monkeys);
the last beinff the highest in development; in
the unguieulaUL the sense of toucn is more
highly developed through the greater nmnber
and mobility of the digits, and the smaller ex-
tent of covering with homy matter ; in tJM car-
nivora, he places the digitigrades at the head,
then the plantigrades, and lastly, the pinni-
grades ; and among the digitigrades the jelida
are placed highest, whose retractile claws and
long and narrow hind foot make them the most
perfect and typical form of the camivora.

CARNOOHAN, John Mubbat, an American
surgeon, bom in Savannah, Ga.. in 1817, de-
scended on the mother's side frtmi Gen. Putnam,
celebrated in the war of independence. He was
yet a boy when he was removed to Edinburgh,
thecapitalof hisfather'snaUveland. Aftergrad-
uatins in the high school and university <^that
city, he returned to the United States, and en-
tered the office of Dr. Valentine %tt, of New
York, as a student of medicine. After taking his
degree, he again visited Europe, and passed sev-
eral years in attendance upon the clinical lectures
of Paris, London, and Edinburgh. In 1847 he
fixed his residence in New York, and commenc-
ed the practice of the profession, in which nu-
merous brilliant and original achievements have
gained for him an honorable name, both at
home and abroad. In 1851 he was appointed
surgeon-in-chief of the New York state emi-
grant hospital, a station he still holds. In 1852
he successfully treated a ease of eUphantiani
Ardbum by ligature of the femoral arteiy. In

^■p

PHH

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K^^ • » i '" ' • 1 ' 1 '

Ttfl^^^^^^^^fc ^^^^B

^^^^^^^^^^^HriPin

^^^^^^^^^^H^i' ^^^^^^1

^K . ^M

^^^^^^K'

_. ^^1

^^^^^^^^^^K

HifMrt)l«Bttj|iu. ^^H

^^^^^^^^B

( .- . - i »><il idl ui ^^^^^H

^^^^B;

^^^^H"

^^H

^^K.

]«^ _^H

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 *'

-ui fiftlifr Euii ^^^H

^^^^^^^K)T. U42-l^£: Xii>jLA» ^ini^^FTrtTT ,'.

^^^^^^1

ji* ^^1

^^^^^H^'

^^^H

^^^^^^^^^HJ

V't: «tAi>i nvU']*^iI{'>U itlMI^ ,>' ^^^^M

^^^^^Kr

oJ^iorted ia tite perf«imiiiie« m ^^^H

^^^^^Bw

'f*i>«i bo IimI do clnt^^ '- ^^^H

^^^^^^■l''

-; iTtu i^liif ^o hf% ^^^H

^^^^^^K^

i ir fi*JniiiibUl^«m u- ^.. . — ^^^H

^^^^^Ei>

.ad nm KUkfoulf airui^ n> ^H

^^^^^^K-. .

It u»>%i FurT^triiltJ Ijj ^ dt ^^M

^^^^^fci

|v«riifip«itlii ^H

^^^^^^K»

^^^^^K^ -

^^^^^^v

^^^^^Ct

1 b«liif ^^M

^^^^^B9^

orm^ ^^^^M

^^^^^^'

'ii^^rntiU* C<irEioA ^^^H

^^^E

tirraif^j^ iu>l wail ^H

^^^Kkz] u

u. i'Oiio ittViainiljaf j ^H

^^^B|[oc>'.'

iOA orgsiijR^ TJoCatj.** ^H

^^^H^ ■!

^^^^

^^^^^vW-

^^^^^m.

^^^^^^^H 1

' :: ti r;i] niit'.cv i«i>il ifif ^ ^i tho ^^^^^M

^^^^Kj

^^^^^^H^'

: oor^ ftJjrJ ^00% Itb §f- ^^^1

BB'

j?r^'

11 trMMSOTM^Ir.' ^^H

454

OARNOT

CAROLINA

parte. Bnt the directory waa threatened hj
ttotiona, and eapecially ij the rojalists; 8 of
its tnembers concluded that the omj meana of
aaviog the republican goyermnent waa a coup
d^itat ; they performed it on the 18th Fracti-
dor, and aldiongh Oamot waa far from being a
royalist, he waa condemned to transportation*
He avoided the sentence by concealing himself
for a while in Paris, then escaping to Switzerland,
and afterward to Germany, where he wrote a
memoir to vindicate his conduct. After the
16th Bmmaire he returned to France, and was
i^pointed minuter of war in 1800; bnt being
unable to agree with the new master, he prompt-
ly resigned. In 1802 he was elected to the
tribunate, where he voted against the estab-
lishment of the legion of honor, the consulate
for life, and especially the empire. The speech
he delivered on this last occasion breathed the
most generous spirit of independence, and
caused a great sensation. On the suppression
of the tribunate he retired to private life, and re-
sumed his scientific pursuits. But in Jan. 1814,
when disasters were coming on France and the
emperor, he addressed a noble letter to Na-
poleon, proffering his services : " I staid away
aslongasyonwerepro^erous; now that mis-
fortune has come, I do not hesitate to place at
your disposal what little ability I may stUl pos-
sees." Napoleon at once intrusted him with
the command of Antwerp. For years the su-
preme director of military affairs, he had gdned
no advancement in the army, and was still
merely a mi\jor ; Napoleon had to promote him
to the rank of general, passing him through all
the intermediate degrees at once. He glori-
ously defended Antwerp until the treaty of
Paris, April, 1814, and returned to the capital,
where he published a MSmoire au roi, full of
liberal opinions and wise advice. On Na-
poleon's return from Elba, he appointed Oamot
minister of the interior, which post he held
for 8 months, during which he unwillingly
received the title of count of the empire,
but never bore it. After the rout of Water-
loo he almost alone preserved his self-pos-
session, and suggested energetic measures
which were not adopted. " I have known you
too late,*' said Napoleon on his departure. A
member of the provisional government, his hon-
esty waa not a match for Fouch6's shrewdness.
On the second restoration he was again out-
lawed, and retired to Warsaw, then repaired to
Magdeburg, where he died. His writings are
numerous; beside his various political papers,
he haa left disquisitions of great interest on
several pointa of science, especiaJly on fortifica-
tion. A Ml and excellent biography of Oarnot
was TOiblished by Arago (Paris 1887).— La-
zkSM HiFPOLTTX, aFrcuch statesman, the second
son of the preceding, born at St. Omer, April 6,
1801 . He waa of liberal opinions, became a dis-
ciple of St 6imon, and wrote the Expontion
ghikraU de la doetrine Saint Simonienne^ the
authorship of which was^ with his consent, as-
cribed to JSazard. But as soon as St. Simonism

aasamed the form of a religious creed, Camot
parted with his friends, and became a journalist,
and the chief editor of the Bwu$ encyelaipSdigue.
He was also intrusted with the publication of
Gr^goire's and Bardre's Memoires. He was elect-
ed to the chamber of deputies in 1839, and re-
elected in 1842 and 1846. After the revolution
of Feb. 1848, he was minister of public insane-
tion until July 5, and improved, aa such, the
condition of the teachers, rendered the normal
schools free, and established free lectures. In
1848 he was elected to the conatitoant^ and
March 10, 1850 to the l^rislative assembly.
After the coup di'etat of Pec. 1851, he left
France; during his absence, he was elected
a member of the corps Ugialat^^ but refused to
take the oath. He was re-elected in 1857, but
again refused to serve.

OARNUNTUM, an ancient Celtic town in
the N. part of Pannonia, on the Danube, near
where Hainburgnow stands. It was an im-
portant military pass under the RomanSi who
made it at one time a station for their fleet on the
Danube, and raised it to the position of amti a»-
cipium according to some inscriptions, of a
colony according to others. During the wars
with the Marcomanni and Quadi it was for Z
years the residence of Marcus Aurelius, who here
composed a part of his **■ Meditations." It was
destroyed by the Germans in the 4th century,
was siterward rebuilt, became once more a
Boman military station, and was finally destroy-
ed during the wars with the Magyars in the
middle ages. Its remains are very extensive.

GAHO, Annibale, an Italian poet, bom at
Oitta Nuova in 1507, died in 1566. In 1543 he
entered the service of Pietro Ludorico Farnese,
who 2 years later was made duke of Parma, and
who sent him several times on missions to the
emperor Charles Y. When the duke was
assassinated at Piacenza, Caro fled to Parma,
where he was kindly received by the new dnkc,
Ottavio Farnese. He then became secretaty
successively to the 2 brothers of Ottavio, the
cardinals Banuccio and Alessandro. He died
whUe in the service of the latter, having been
his secretary for 18 years. His works were not
printed till after his death, some of them as late
as 1588, and a volume of his letters, edited with
notes by Mazzuchelli, in 1829.

OABOL (It. carolOjtkBODg of joy), originally
a song sung as an accompaniment to dimcing,
but which in England serves to designate a
ballad for Christmas.

GABOLAN, TuBLovoxz, an Irish musical

gmius born in the, county of Westmeath, in the
tter part of the 17th century, died in 1738.
Having lost his sight when a child, he studied
the harp, and in after life not only maintained
himself thereby, but even became famous.

GABOLINA, North, one of the original
states of the American union, situated between
lat 88° 63' and 86** 83' N., and lone, r5«> 25'
and 84^ 80' W., having an extreme length of
420 m. from E. to W., and an extreme breadth
of 180 m. from N. to S. ; area about 45,000 sq.

iiORTU OAROCnrA

4a&,

h» ^1 |E;n[rj rkV> Miir*/^. Tp {> Sv^ir^r\^.A X ^.% 1r. /»r>**i»,

r .■»TT» ^ ti

.■t TftTT»1'«rlr+ dw/.-^fJi f'lt" AilfjMl ,

Uj.

UfllJ

III

I rMiwUdiiritliifi ItfuM iJwiu^ iiL iMif pUlii iltiffUijg iku jwmf l^m^ifrm

456

NOBTH OABOUNA

10,867; births for the same periocL 16,648;
marriages, 5,275. The occupations of the free
male popuktion over 15 years of age in 1850
were: commerce, trade, manufactores, mechanic,
arts and mining, 20,613, of whom 12,444 were
employed in manufacturing establishments;
agriculture, 81,982 ; labor not agricultural, 28,-
560; sea and river navigation, 1,659 ; law, med-
icine, and divinity, 2,268; other pursuits re-
quiring education, 8,447; government civil
service, 570 ; domestic servants, 46 ; other oc*
cupations,247; total, 139,887. There were 1,981
paupers in the state, who were supported at an
annual cost of $60,085. The number of persons
convicted of crimes of various grades during
the^vear 1850, was 684. — ^The rivers of North
Carolina are numerous, but in consequence of
shifting sand-bars at their months, and of rapids
in their descent from the hilly regions to the
low country, they are not generally well adapted
to purposes of navigation. Gape Fear river, the
most important stream lying wholly within the
state, is formed by the junction ot the Haw and
Deep rivers, which nse in the N. part of
the state, and unite in the S. £. comer of
Chatham co. The Cape Fear follows a zigzag
course, the general direction being a little £. of
S., for about 250 m., and empties into the
Atlantic near Cape Fear. It is navigable for
vessels drawing 12 feet of water up to Wil-
miiigton, 84 m., and for sloops and small boats
to Fayetteville, 120 m. from its mouth. The
Koanoke has its source in the S. part of Virginia,
where it is formed by tlie confluence of the Dan
and Staunton rivers, passes into North Carolina
in Warren co., and taking a serpentine course
with a general S. £. direction, empties into
Albemarle sound. It is 150 m. long, navigable
for small sea vessels for 80 m. from its mouth,
and for steamboats 120 m. to Halifax. By
means of a canal round the fails, very smml
boats are able to ascend to the Dan and Staun-
ton. The Neuse river rises in the N. part of
the state, takes a circuitous course in a general
S. £. direction, and empties into Pamlico sound.
Commencing a short distance above Newbem,
it gradually spreads out into a lagoon or semi-
circular bay. It is navigable for boats up to
Waynesborough, 120 m. from the sound. The
Tar river also rises in the N. part of the state,
between the Neuse and Roanoke, and with a
course generally similar to itiose rivers, empties
into the Pamlico river and thence into Pamlico
sound, and is navigable for steamboats to Tar-
borough, 100 m. The Chowan rises in Virginia,
and with a course a little £. of S. empties
into Albermarle sound. It is navigable for
76 m. Among the other rivers worthy of
mention are the Yadkin and Catawba, which
rise in the W. part of the state, and running
S. reach the Atlantic through South Carolina. —
North Carolina has an extensive coast line,whichf
commencing at Little Biver inlet, on the bor-
ders of South Carolina, runs nearly K to Cane
Fear, thence N. £. to Cape Lookout^ence in tne
same general direction to Cape Hatteraa, and

thence N. to the Yirnm&Iiiio,aduiUB0e cif i
ly 400 m. About midway between 0^»e Few and
Cape Hatteras is Cape Lookout Twoopeabaj^
Onslow and Raleub, are formed by these capea.
Along the whole length of the ooast are sandy,
barren, desert islands, ranging from^ m. to S in.
in width, traversed by nnmerons inleta^ which,
with few exoeptious, are not navigable. From
these islands ahoala extend far into the ao;,
which render the navigation ot this coast ex-
oeedinglv dangerous. OapQ Hatteraa forms the
headland of the dangerona triangnlar island
beach which separates Pamlico eonnd from the
ocean. The dangerous navigation in the vi-
cinity of Capes Fear and Lookoat is saffidently
indicated by the names of those points. A
series of narrow, shallow lagoons, nDed with
constantly changing sand-bara, extend all along
the coast south of Cape Lookoat between the
mainland and the sand islands. In the^.K
part of the state, above Cape Lookoat, are 2 ex-
tensive sounds, Pamlico and Albemarle, and
one of lesser magnitude, Currituck, wbiok are
cut off from the ocean by the islands or Band
bank before referred to. Pamlico soond, whidi
is the most S., extends from S. W. to N. £. 66 m.,
and is from 10 to 20 m. in width, with a depth
of 20 feet, and terminates westwardlj in the
wide bays of the Neuse and Pamlioo rivers.
There are a number of shoals within this sound.
On the N. it connects with Albemarle and
Currituck sounds, and on the S. K with Bsl^gh
bay by Ocracoke inlet, the only navigable inlet
N. of Cape Lookout. Albemarle sound, whidi
is 60 m. in length, and from 4 to 15 broad, ex-
tends W. into the main land, and is not eon<
nected with the ocean except throogh Pamlico
sound. Its waters are nearly fresh and not
affected by the tides. It sends off a nomber
of branches, or little bays, on either side, which
extend from 10 to 15 m. inland. Curritadc
sound extends N. from the mouth of Albemarie
some 50 m., passing beyond the limits of North
Carolina into Virginia. It is tcom 2 to 10 m.
in width, and runs parallel with the ooast, from
which it is cut off, like Pamlico, by narrow
sand islands. It connects with the ocean only
through Pamlico sound. — ^From 50 to 80 m.
inland from the seacoast, and induding the
turpentine region, the country is level and
abounds in swamps and marshes; the streams
are sluggish and muddy, and the land sandy
and barren, except along the banks of the
streams, where it is very fertile, produdng
good crops of rice, cotton, tobacco, and maixe.
The Great Dismal swamp, of which an aooount
is given in the article Boo, extends N. from
Albemarle sound into Virginia; area 160,000
acres. Between Albemarle and Pamlioo sounds
is Alligator or Little Dismal swamp, which is
about as large as the other. Further S. are
Catfish, Green, Gum, and other swamps, simi-
lar in character to those already mentioned.
Within these swamps are a number of small
lakes. It is estimated that the swamps of
the state altogether cover 8,000,000 aores.

^V WOftTa Q&KUUSid ^^^H

^^^^^H

^^^^^Bl

^^^1

^^^^^P N

^^1

^^^^P" "

^^1

^^^^H?

^^1

^^H retfiatry ^

^^K^^

^^H

^^M

^^^^^^T^IP

^^M

^^Kv«ry |^>

^^1

^^fc M -

^^^Krdl''

^^^■||r^ -''-3. Itain' 0/ N'Jii iiUL>\

'1 ^1

^^H

^^^^^^^^Kii

^^1

'Via ^^1

^^M

^^^^P^ rrv'.E'v'-ri • T* i/u^twun ' ■■ pfm_, 3:r rrriC'-^i ri h i

rn^ib ^H

^^^E iii«tiiii» f n>til ' dt di flixiit to ( «]al b btittmiiioQ* pom]

tvuil- ^^1

^^^^K.^w.r. ^ k ,U r,.i \.]*.-.^r^U.. . ...l|i.. Ft.^..

^^1

^^^^^^u^

^^^Ki

^^H

I'a ^H

^^^^HlJ U^vvFvu {Jm« »itfW ia 11 uinik to '^

^^1

^^^^B TU!^^*':1t 1- 3^f!Htfi3 00 M M^t

^^H

^^^^Hr ' ' ' id< UnOi'

^^^^1

^^^Ki

^^^^1

^^^^K' ':L«1* ffuri.

^^^1

^^^Hps f«- ooK

^^^^1

^^^Bij

^^^^H

^^^^^B [-fsJJLl-'l'

^^ft luad df

^■» Mifc^is:-

^^■inUjr 9^ ^^

^^^^«.f 1-

■

^^^^^^^^^fei

' ' u> ^^1

468

NORTH GAROLIKA

Blaok and other monntains, elsewhere noticed ;
the Swannanoa gap, a deep pass in the moun-
tains between Morgantown and AsheviUe ; the
Catawba Falls nearbj; the warm springs of
Bnncombe cc, Piunted rock, and a cnrions rock
called ^^the Chimneys," in the same Ticinitj ;
the Gingercake rocK in Borke co.^ a cnrions
pile of stone on a rooky- eminence, m the form
of an inverted pyramid, commanding a fine
view of a ravine from 800 to 1,200 feet deep.
The mountainous regions of North Carolina,
abound in grand and picturesque scenery. —
Ihe dimate of the state is as varied as its
surface and products. In the low country
the atmosphere is hot and humid, and in the
mountainous region it is cool and dry. In the
interior it partakes somewhat of each extreme,
according to locality. The mean temperature
of Raleigh for the year is 60°. — It will be seen
by statistics noticed elsewhere that the people
of North Carolina are chiefly occupied in agri*
cultural pursuits, though commerce, manufac-
tures, and mining are carried on to some ex-
tent. The most important branch of manufac-
turing is that of spirits of turpentine, which is
produced by distillation from crude turpentine,
or the sap of the pine tree, the pinui paltutru,
a long-leaved pine yielding the sap more freely
than any other variety of the pine family.
There is an immense extent of territory in
North Carolina covered by this species of pine,
extending from a point near the line of Vir-
ginia across the entire state, and indeed beyond
tiie state to the gulf of Mexico, and varying in
width from 80 to 80 m. This belt of land is situ-
ated between the swampy country along the
coast and the hilly region of the interior, and con-
sists mainly of a level, sandy barren, so unpro-
ductive that few of the proprietors grow as
much grain as they require for their own con-
sumption. Occasionally, however, the ground
is undulating, and in some places low and wet,
where a mixture of deciduous trees and occa-
sional veins of clay are found. Although the
**piny woods,*' as the natives call the turpen-
tine forests, have been settled by Anglo-Saxons
about as long as any portion of the United
States, yet the roads are very poor, being the
merest openings through the woods, and gene-
rally without bridges across the streams. The
pine trees which cover this tract are from 8 to
18 inches in diameter, with straight trunks
which run up 25 to 80 feet without a limb, at
which height their evergreen foliage forms a
canopy so dense as to nearly shut out the light
of the sky. The turpentine is procured by cut-
ting boxes or pockets in the treOs near the
ffround, with a long, narrow-bladed axe made
for the purpose. These boxes hold from 1 to 8
pints, and are formed by giving the axe a down-
ward stroke, the lower lip of the box being
horizontal, and the upper arched, while the bot-
tom is from 8 to 4 inches below the lower lip.
From 1 to 8 boxes are made in each tree, ac-
cording to its size. The sap runs only in warm
weather. The boxes are cut from November to

March, one man cutdng from 50 to 100 per
day. The sap begina to flow finely aboat the
middle of March, and is ooDeoted from the
boxes by means of a peculiar ladle, and deposit-
ed in barrels. The sap soon congeals so as par-
tiallv to close the cellular tissues of the wood,
so that in order to re^ew the flow, new sur-
face must be exposed once in 8 or 10 d^s,
which is done by taking off a thin shaving hm
above the box. This hacking process is carried
on from year to year, until in some of the older
pineries the axe marks are extended so high Tip
the trunks that ladders are used in the fbrth»
scarifications. When the trees are so exteo-
sively hacked, a lai^ proportion of the mp
congeals before reaching the boxes and adheres
to the trees. This gum is occadonally scraped
off and put into barrels, and is known in the
market as *^ scrape," being of an inferior qoallty,
and worth only half as much as that taken from
the boxes, which is called '^dip.^ Consider-
able quantities of cmde turpentine are shipped
to the N. and distilled; but the principal pro-
portion is distilled in the state, the larger
proprietors of turpentine forests haTing stsSis
of their own, to whom the smaller ones sdl
their product in its cmde state. The stills
used are not essentially different from the
ardent spirit stills in common use, have a
capacitv of from 6 to SlO bbls., and run throng
2 batches a day; i. e, a 20 bbL stUl runs
40 bbls. of sap, producing about 6 bbla. cf
spirits of turpentine, and 23 bbls. ci rosin,
w hen the spirits of turpentine are drawn oS|
the residuum, which has the appearance of dirty
molasses, forms the rosin of conmieroe, an ar-
ticle not in sufiSdent demand to bear long
land transportation ; so that, with the exception
of those distilleries near railroads or navigable
streams, the rosin runs to waste, and remains in
congealed pools of thousands of barrels, where
^^ its appearance," says Olmsted, ** is very beao-
tiful, firm, and glare, varying in color, and
glistening like polished porphyry.** When the
rosin is to be saved, it is drawn off into vats of
water by which the chips and rubbish contained
in the cmde turpentine are separated from the
rosin, which is barrelled for market. Toipen-
tine will not pay for wagon transportation more
than 80 miles. The turpentine lands are
valued at from $2 to $20 per acre, and from
500 to 1,000 trees grow upon an acre, contain-
ing, on an average, 2,000 boxes, and producing
from 12 to 16 bbls. of turpentine, or 2 bbla. ^
spirits and 8 of rosin. A turpentine forest,
with ordinary treatment, will last 50 years;
the trees are then felled, cut up, and roasted,
or charred, in kilns, producing tar. of which
pitch is a concentration obtained by boQing.
The long-leaved pine is of slow ^wth, the
rings on a stump of this variety, 7 uches in di-
ameter, indicating an age of 85 years. Aftca-
the removal of these trees, a second growth of
bastard pine starts up n^dly in its place, but is
of littie or no value either for turpentine or
timber. The labor in the turpentine forests b

Ii0imf €AJ»7TiJ^A

' H

Vr^-^^

--' . -,^..^ -. . - ^ --:^,

5 _. Awvi. ♦^i. ._i

^^^^^^^H

^^K*

^^^^^^^B't

■

^^^^^^^^^B 4

^^^^^B^'

^^^^^■•y.'

> ^I^lry flit! f:-

^^^^^^^Vr

^^^^f r

M«« ^^H

NORTH CAROLINA

pablio fonds, and $16,715 from other sources.
There were 216,454 white persoiiB in the state
hetween 5 and 20 years of age, so that less
than i the children of the state attended school ;
80,428 free adnlts cannot read and write, of
whom 26,239 are white males, 47,827 females,
8,099 free colored males. 8,758 females, and 840
of foreign birth. These ngores are from the U. S.
census for 1850, since which public education has
considerably adyanced. A system of common
schools was inauffurated in 1840, at which time
only 14,847 children were returned as attend-
ing, primary schools; and including those at
coUeges and academies, the whole attendance
did not exceed 20,000 scholars. In 1858 an
efficient general superintendent was appointed,
and reappointed in 1855, who is responsible to
the legislature and board of literature, consist-
ing of 4 members, of whom the governor is
ex officio president From the superintendent's
report for 'the year ending Dec. 81, 1855, it
appears that there were 120,000 scholars in the
common schools, and about 11,000 in colleges,
academies, and private schools. The state is
divided into school districts with local directors,
the districts in each county being under the
direction of a board of county superintendents,
who report to the state superintendent. The
average length of schools is about 4 months in
the year, and the average wages of male teach«
ers $21 per month, females $18. The school
ftmd in 1855 amounted to $1,588,995 46, yield-
ing annually about $120,000 increased to
$180,000 by sales of lands^ taxes, &c., and is
distributed among the counties according to
their federal population. The counties raise by
taxation about $60,000. making the amount
annually devoted to public schools $240,000.
On July 1, 1857, the school fond had in-
creased to the nominal value of $2,156,745 42.
— ^The census of 1850 reports 1,787 churches
in the state, viz. : 604 Baptist, 786 Methodist,
151 Presbyterian, 64 Free, 51 Episcopal, 29
Christian, 81 Friends, 16 German Reformed,
49 Lutheran, 7 Moravian, 4 Roman Catholic,
4 Union, and 1 Tunker. The church prop-
erty of the state is reported at $905,758, viz. :
Baptist, $205,090 ; Methodist^ $292,608 ; Episco-
pal, $112,840 ; Presbyterian, $172,580; Chris-
tian, $10,575 ; Free, $16,860 ; Friends, $8,075 ;
German Reformed. $17,500 ; Lutheran, $29,-
525; Moravian, $84,000; Roman Catholic.
$5,900; Tunker, $100; Union, $650. Total
church accommodations, 574,924^ viz. : Baptbt,
201,797; Methodist, 222,687; Presbyterian,
64,280; Christian, 11,600; Episcopal, 15,245;
Free, 14,870; Friends, 18,220; German Re-
formed, 5,725; Lutheran, 19,750; Moravian,
8,000; Roman Catholic, 1,400; Union, 1,200.—
The constitution of the state was fbnned in
Dea 1776, and modified in 1885, and again in
1857. It provides that every white male citi-
zen, 21 years of age, 1 year a resident of the
coun^, who shall have paid a tax, shall be a
qualified voter. The cocecutive department is
vested in a governor elected by the people for

a term of 2 years, an advisory council of 7 mem-
bers, secretary of state, treasurer, comptroUer,
and a superintendent of common schools, all
chosen by the legislature. The governor must
be 85 years old, worth $5,000, and have been a
resident of the state for 5 years. He has a fur-
nished house and $8,000 per annum. The
legislature consists of a senate of 50 members
elected for 2 years, and a house of commons of
120 members for the same term. Benaton
must possess each 800 acres of land in the
county from which they are chosen, and mem-
bers of the house of commons 100 acres. The
legislature meets biennially at Raleigh on the
2u Monday in November^ and an apportion*
ment of representatives is made once in 20
years, that of the commons being based on
federal population, and the senate on taxation.
The Judiciary is vested in a supreme court,
consisting of a chief justice and 2 associates,
holding 8 courts each year, and superior or cir-
cuit courts, there being 7 circuits and as ma^y
judges, who hold court twice a year in each
county. The fudges are all elected by the
legislature in joint ballot^ also an attomej-gen*
eral, the former during good behavior, and the
latter for 4 years. The supreme court is merely
appellate in its jurisdiction. The judges of Hk
superior court have complete equity jurisdic^on.
The salary of the supreme court judges is $2,500,
and of the superior court, $1,950, and $90 for
each court (over 12) held on a circait. One
peculiar feature of the constitution provides
that ^^no person who shall deny the being of a
God, or the truth of the Christian religion, or
the divine authority of the Old and New Testa-
ment, or who shall hold religious principles in-
compatible with the freedom or safety of the
state,^' shall hold any civil office. No clergy-
man, engaged in his calling, can be a member
of the legifidature or of the govemor^a oouncil.
— The last report on the finances (Nov. 1856)
shows a state debt of $5,209,848, the annual
interest of which is $812,591, and prodncdve
property held by the state amounting to $4^61 6,-
274. The receipts and disbursements for the
2 years endiug Nov. 1, 1856, were as follows : In
treasurer's hands Nov. 1, 1854, $55020 79 ; re-
ceipts of literary fund, $829,826 85 ; receipts of
public fund, $8,826,1 12 94 ; making the total re-
ceipts $4,211,060 08. The disbursemoits for
the same period were : f^om literaiy fond, $896,-
665 59; public fund, $8,657,988 21; total,
$8,954^603 80, leaving a balance in the treasnxy
of $256,456 28. The income of the public Amd is
from the sale of bonds and loana, from dividenda
and interest, public taxes, taxes on bank stocks,
and attorneys' licenses ; and the principal items
of expenditure are, for the executive and council
of state, about $10,000, the judiciary about
$80,000, interest about $800,000, printing and
agricultural societies, $7,500. The Hteraiy fund
receipts are firom entries of vacant lands, hank
and railroad dividends, retail licenses, and auc-
tion dues; and some of its disburaementa are
for the support of common schools, and the

^^^H ^^B Noara cAnoijHA 4&i ^M

^^^^■n' 1 ndifi. Till' ; . ^H

^^^^^^^^^^^H ^^^^^1

NORTH CAROLINA

SOUTH CAROLINA

Una became a royal government, the Ung hav-
ing porohased from the proprietors } of their
immenBe domain for £17,500, to whidi £6,000
was added for arrears of qnitrents; the re-
maining eighth was retained by Lord Carteret,
who surrendered his right of jorisdiotioi^ but
not of soil The coonUy was sacoesnvely
governed with indifferent snocess by Bar-
rington, Johnston, and Dobbs, till 1765, when
it had guned considerable accessions to its
poptdation from a d51ony of Presbyterians from
the N. of Ireland, who settled in the N. W.
part of the state, a party of Moravians who
settled between the Yadkin and Dan rivers, and a
party of Highlanders who located near Fayette-
ville. Tryon was the next governor, and early
in his administration the contest between the
colonies and the home government on theqpes-
tion of tasuition began ; when the assembly (1769)
declared against the right of Britain to tax North
Carolina, while unrepresented in parliament, he
dissolved it During his administration there
was a formidable insurrection on the part of a
large body of poor uneducated people, who
complained of uigust taxation, and finally refus-
ed to pay any taxes at alL They called them-
selves the "regulators.'' With 1,000 militia
he met 8,000 regulators, whom he defeated,
near Great Alamance, a tributary of the Haw, in
which some 200 were killed* Out of a large
number taken prisoners 6 were executed for high
treason. After this defeat the insurgents took
the oath of allegiance, and shortly thereafter
Tryon was succeeded by Josiah Kartin, the last
royal governor of North Carolina. Disputes soon
arose between the governor and the assembly,
and the breach was widened by the persistence
of England in taxing the colonists without tiieir
consent. The governor sided with the crown,
as did the regulators, whom he had conciliated.
North Carolina sent representatives to the first
continental congress, Sept. 1774^ and its dele-
gates united in adopting the declaration of colo-
nial rights, which the assembly approved, and
that body also appointed delegates to the next
congress. An association for the defence of
' colonial rights was formed in Mecklenburg
CO., which took such decided ground as (May,
1775) formally to renounce alle^ance to the
crown, and to declare their independence of the
British connection ; but this feeling was not
general, and counter-combinations were formed
to sustain the royal authority. Alarmed at the
threatening state of affiiirs. Governor Martin
retired on board a man-of-war in Cape Fear
river, July 17, 1775. A convention was held,
Aug. 20, which authorized the raising of 8 regi-
ments of troops, subsequently increased to 5,
and taken into colonial pay by congress. A
proclamation was issued by Gov. Martin
from on board ship forbidding their meeting,
which the convention denounced as scandalous
and scurrilous, and ordered it to be burned by the
hangman. The loyalists were quite strong, espe-
cially among the regulators and Highlanders.
A body of 1,500 loyalists^ under McDonald and

McLeod, who had been oommlaaiciied bjllar^
attempted to reach the coast and j<Nii Gtn. Clin-
ton, but were met by the patriots onder Caswell
and Moore, and routed with the kes of McLeod
and 850 prisoners, including McDooald. The
common men were dismissed and the offioen
retained. In April, 1776, the North Garolim
convention authorized their delegates to onitt
with the other colonies in a dedaratioa of iode-
nendence, which took place in the following J olj.
North Carolina ordered 4 more reguneots to
be riused, and the Hiriilanders and regokton
to be disarmed. In Dec. 1776, the prow
adopted a state constitution, and elected Kid-
ard Caswell as governor. The oolonj fur-
nished her quota of men, but, beyond the pc"
tisan warfieu^ between the patriots andlojalks.
was not the scene. of military operations ^
1780. Encouraged by the success of the Bri(-
iak in Georgia, a oarty of 700 N. C. loyally
marched to join tne royal cause at AugibU
In their march they were attacked by a p^y
of patriots from 8. C, under CoL PicteDS, vlio
routed them, killing their leader, and captori^g
a number of prisoners, 70 of whom vere tricJ
and convicted of treason, and 5 of the most in-
fluential actually hanged. In 1780, 2 largepar-
ties of loyalists rose in arms, one of which vfij
attacked and dispersed by Gen. Rutherford, snd
the other, 800 strong, reached the British posts.
Oct. 9, 1780, a body of loyalist militia, under
Gen. Ferguson, were met at Eaog's morm^
by a party of mounted backwoodsmen omct
Shelby and Sevier, and defeated after a severe
engagement, with the loss of 150 killed Cmfl^^
ing Ferguson) and a greater number vouik^w-
The survivors (800) surrendered, 10 of themo^
active and obnoxious of whom were hangw
upon the spot. The only engagement of now
in the colony after this affair, until the oodc-j'
sion of peace, was the battle of Guilford Ooort-
House (March 15, 1781), though much skimisu-
ing was carried on between small parties of loy-
alists and patriots: The forces engaged mf
Gen. Greene at Guilford amounted to ^r,
men, of whom 1,600 were oontinentala, «nfl^
remainder mainly undisciplined militia, a^^
British, under ComwaUia, were discipiD«;
troops, about 2,000 strong; and the result «
the engagement was the defeat of Greene, ij''
British loss on the field was upward of !>^;^
- - ■ - - *^ than 4^'-'

formed m 1787, was r^ected by North Caro-
lina in 1788, but finally adopted in 1789. . . ,
CAROUNA, South, one of the mf^
southern states of the American Union, he* ^,
tween lat. 82° and 85^ 10' N., and long. 7^ /^
and e3<» 80' W. The state has the form of .»«
irregular triangle or wedge, with the coast n
for its base, and GeorgU and Korth C«ro^
for its converging sides. Its extreiw IWJ;
from Little Biver inlet on the E. to Ch«tW
river on the W., is about 240 m., and its gr^^
est breadth, from the mouth of Savannah nv«

U?*. fvffi»»Kr

SOUTE CABOUXA

^iUHi«n

jmr^ T'

Hii .N.M In^*' a'Ui* ini;i\W,liH\ g H T Ji/ ^ \S ,^ l,A\ll -i JmiV U ZiVXl IL TUkiT, LTl'ilJ LMj^-iCl*

SOUTH OABOLINA

ton Harbor, St. HelenA sonnd, and Beanfort
harbor, or Port Royal Entrance, beside a num-
ber of small inlets. Charleston harbor, where
the principal commerce of the state centres, has
a difScnlt sand-bar at its entrance. Beanfort
harbor, which admits vessels of 24 feet draught,
is one of the best in the southern states.
Stone inlet, a few miles S. of Charleston, admits
vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet of water, and was
resorted to during the blockade of Charleston
in 1T75. St Helena sound, is a spacious opening
10 m. long and 8 broad. A number of smau
islands skirt the S. coast of the state, which are
shut off firom the mainland by narrow chan-
nels, which afford inland steamboat commu-
nication between Charleston and Savannah.
These islands are low and flat, and produce the
black-seed or sesrisland cotton, the best loiown
to commerce. Bice is also here produced in
large quantities, and tropical fruits begin to
flourish. — ^The topography of the state resem-
bles that of the other states along the S. E.
coast, but the mountainous district is not rela- .
tively so large as that of North Carolina. The
coast for about 100 m. inward is flat and sandy,
with a light soil, covered by pitch-pine forests,
traversed by sluggish streams, and interspersed
with numerous swamps. This portion of the
state is of aUuvial formation. Beyond this plain
is a belt of low sand-hills called the middle conn-
try, which is moderately productive. West of
the middle country is a belt called the ridge,
where the land rises abruptly, and thence con-
tinues to ascend, exhibiting beautiful alterna-
tions of hill and dale, till it terminates at the
extreme N. W. part ot the state in the Blue
Ridse, the highest peak of which, in this state, is
Table mountain, 4,000 feet above the Atlantic.
King^s mountfdn, in York district, on the line be-
tween North and South Carolinal is an isolated
mountain of considerable prommence. South
Carolina has a great variety of soil, very little
waste land, and produces cotton, rice, tobacco,
maize, oats, rye, barley, sweet and Irish pota-
toes, peas, beans, &c. ** The soil of the state,"
says Gov. Seabrook, " though of every kind, may
be said to comprehend 6 varieties, each the best
suited to a certain crop, yet all of them capable
of advantageouslv producing f of the vegetable

grodncts grown m its limits." The 6 varieties
ere referred to are : 1, tide swamp, appropriated
to the culture of rice ; 2, inland swamp, Xo rice,
cotton, com, peas, &c. ; 8, salt marsh, to long
cotton; 4, oak and pine, to long cotton, com,
potatoes, ceo, ; 5, oak and hickory, to short cot-
ton, corn, &C. ; 6, pine barren, to fmits, vege-
tables, &c The pine lands, embracing about
6,000,000 acres, are perhaps the most neglected
section of the state. " The swamps," says Gov.
Seabrook, "covering 2,000 sq. m. (1,280,000
acres), of inexhaustible fertility, are capable of
thorough and economical drainage, and conver-
sion into active and available capital." The
state is nearly equally divided between the
primary and alluvial K>rmations; the former,
of which oak is the natural growth, is broken

andhUly, The soil of mvcli the larger portioii

of the state is clay, which, except in the imme-
diate vicinity of the oeean, is almost the toii-
versal substratum, — ^The gold-bearing rocks of
the Atlantic slope extend through the S. pa^
tion of S. C, where the precious metal has beea
found in sufficient abundance to reward the
labor of the miner. In several cases k^
nuggets of pure gold have been found, and
gold-bearing veins have been suecessfQllr
worked; those of the Dom mine have proied
the most productive of any this mde of the Bockr
mountains, but the largest quantitieB of cold
have been obtained from 8ur£aioe washings. Iroc
ore of a good quality is also found in abondute
in the same section of the state, but the ore-beds
have not as yet been Yerr extensively workei
The granitic formations (upper country) tSad
great abundance of building material ^'Amocg
the beautiful granites of the state," eajs M
Tuomey, "the porphyritio granite of Canwiefl
and Buffalo creek, and the red granito near
Columbia, are conspicuous. Of the rienites,
those found in Abbeville, Fairfield, and Lexing-
ton are the most beantifuL The fonner re-
sembles the Quincy granite, and the latter is
remarkable for its white feldspar, contrastiDg
so strikingly with the black crystals of bonh
blende." White and variegated marbles iw
found in Spartanburg and Lanrena. Gne]^
of a quality sufficiently slaty to be split inw
flagging-stonea, has been discovered in Fip^*
ens and in the lower part of York district.
Porcelam earth abounds through the ^nmrj
regions, wherever the felspathio granite tf
found in a state of disintegration. Soap-etoM
of fine quality exists in several localitiei^~
and yellow ochres abonnd in Ohestttjeld dis-
trict Coal has not been found in the rta^
and the rock formations do not warrant m
hope that it exists there.— In regard to clinJ«^
S. C. is favorably atuated between the intea*
heat of the tropics and the firigid tempeww^
of the N. ; and while the state gro^ n^y "
quite all the vecetable products of the K. w^
perate zone, it also produces to «>"**f7*"Lrt,
tropical fruits, though early «nd «*" ^
sometimes render the latter a precanow fni
The climate varies, of course, ac<»]%^ ];iln
vation. The mean temperature of ^^^^^
is stated from 8 years' observation at t^oo-
There are 16,217,600 acres of fi«?^f J*?^L
the state, of which the census oflSSOre^
4,072,561 as improved. Farms an^ PtU nwn-
29,967, averaging 541 acres each; P^*^'e of
ing over 10,000 acres each, 16; ^\^\^
farms and plantations, $82,481,684; fi"^^^^
implements and machinery, l^^^v^ifj, gd
age value of farms, $2,761 ; of iinpl«"»^^QC-
machinery, $138; cotton P^^^^^JZom
ing 6 bales and over, 11.622; "J® P^T^ tb«
producing 20,000 lbs. and over, ««• ^-^5
farms of the state were 97,171 howj^'^^
asses and mules, 198,244 inilch cows^ * '^^
working oxen, 568,935 other ^^^J^^fZ*
sheep, 1,065,508 swine. Value of i»^»

SOUTH CAROLINA

46&

115,060,016 ; of Eknglit^red atiimalfs (^3,502,^37*
The wheat proclatt waa ljOG6.S77 baalL j rre,
43,790; oftt?, 2M2,W6\ majze, 16,271,404;
Tmh potatoes, 13My4 1 &weet, 4,837,469 ; bar-
Wy, 4,583 J buckwlieat, 283 ; hay, 20,925 tons;
clover eeed, STQbusL; butter, 2,981,850 lbs.;
dieesej 4,970 lbs.; pe^s atiii h^uAj 1,026,900
liu^b, ; prodaco of market p:^."']:i-. ^iT,-'^'0;
orchard products, $35,108; beeswax and honey,
210,821 lbs. ; value of poultry (1840), $396,864;
home-made manufactures, $909,525; wood,
cords (1840), 171,451 ; cane sugar, 77,000 lbs. ;
molasses, 15,904 galls.; ginned cotton, 120,-
8r)0,400lbs.; rough rice, 159,930,613 ; tobacco,
74,285; wool, 487,233; silk cocoons, 123;
wine, 5,880 galls. ; value of family goods (1840),
$li30, 703. The average product of the state per
acre is: wheat, 8 bush.; maize, 11; oats, 12;
rice, 1,750 lbs.; seed cotton, 820 lbs. ; peas and
beans, 18 bush. ; Irish potatoes, 70. Manufac-
turing establishments in the state, 1,481 ; capital
invested, $6,056,865 ; raw material used, $2,809.-
534; hands employed, 7,009; anhual wages paid,
$1,128,432; annual product, $7,063,513; profit,
51.00 per cent. Of these establishments, 18 were
cotton factories, capital $857,200, cotton used
9,929 bales; 6 were manufactories of iron castings,
capital $185,700; value of material used $29,-
128, product $87,683; 18 distilleries and brew-
eries: capital $3,475, corn used 18,100 bush.,.
whiskey and high wines produced 43,900 galls.
— The exports of the state for the year ending
June 30, 1857, were $16,140,403, of which $12,-
969 were the produce of foreign countries; ex-
ported in American vessels $10,590,773, in for-
fciirn vessels $5,549,630. Imports for same year,
$2,019,786, of which $1,720,616 were in Amer-
ican, and $299,170 in foreign vessels. Tonnage
cleared 153,002; in American vessels 105,000,
in foreign 47,940. Number of vessels cleared
435, of which 262 were American. Tonnage
entered 127,585, of which 83,205 tons were in
American vessels. Number of vessels entered
356, of which 198 were American. During the
year 1857, 6 vessels were built in the state, 2 of
which were schooners and 4 sloops ; total tonnage
2*')6.87. — Among the curiosities which invite the
attention of the tourist, the most prominent is
Table mountain, 4,000 feet above the sea, and
which looms up perpendicularly on one of its
faces 1,100 feet above the surrounding country.
A hotel has been erected at its base, and it has
become somewhat famous as a place of fashiona-
ble resort. " Caisar's Head," a rock projection
60 called from its resemblance to the Imman cra-
nium, and on the summit of which is a house of
entertainment, is also a place of summer resort
in the vicinity of Table Rock. Glenn's Spring,
the waters of which are impregnated with
nuia^esia and sulphur, is a watering place of
^ome note in Spartanburg district. The falls
oi the Saluda among the mountains have, ac-
cording to Professor Tuomey, a descent of from
300 to 400 feet, and the region presents much
grand and picturesque scenery. — Among the
public institutions of the state is a lanatic asylum
VOL. IV. — 30

at Columbia, which h riohly eodowed, and U

under the control of the state. On Nov- 5,
1855, ther*i were 187 patients in this institntion,
of whom lOi^ were males and 87 females; 89
were patipera, and 9S pay patients. Receipta
during the yeor, 139,230 99 ; expenditure, $B8,»
037 CT \ discharged cured during the year, 22 ;
removed, 11 ; died, 18. An asylum for ILg deaf
and dumb at Cedar Springs, in Spartanburg
district, is under the patronage of the state.
The orphan asylum at Charleston is richly en-
dowed, and has accommodations for 250 chil-
dren. ITie state provides annually for the edu-
cation, at the South Carolina college, of one
youth from this asylum, to be selected as a
reward of merit by the commissioners. — The
census of 1850 reports 16 public libraries with
73,758 vols., 8 school libraries with 2,750 vols.,
and 7 college libraries with 80,964 vols. ; also
46 newspapers, of which 10 are miscellaneous,
6 neutral, 24 political, 5 religious, and 2 scien-
tific Of these papers 7 are published daily,
6 tri-weekly, 27 weekly, and 5 semi-monthly.
The aggregate circulation of these papers was,
55,715 ; annual number of copies issued, 7,145,-
930. There are 8 colleges in the state, with 43
teachers and 720 students; annual income $104,-
790, of which $41,700 is from the public funds,
$9,650 from endowments, and $53,440 from
other sources. The S. 0. college at Columbia
is a state institution, with 8 professors, and a
library of 25,000 volumes. Academies and pri-
vate schools, 202; teachers, 383; pupils, 7,467;
annual income, $205,489, of which $226 is from
the public funds, $8,700 from endowments, and
$196,563 from other sources. Public schools
(1850), 724; teachers, 739; pupils, 17,838 ; annu-
al income, $200,600, of which $35,973 was from
the public funds, $3,000 from endowments,
$1,200 from taxation, and $160,427 from other
sources. Total number attending school in 1850,
as returned by families, 40,373, of whom 21,792
were males, and 18,581 females ; number of chil-
dren between 6 and 16 years of age, 77,551 ;
adults who could not read and write, 16,564, of
whom 880 were free colored, and 104 of foreign
birth. The school system of the state has been
improved somewhat since 1850. The state now
(1858) appropriates $74,400 annually to free
schools, which is distributed at the rate of $600
to each representative in the popular branch of
the legislature. Academies have been established,
called arsenal and citadel academies, in which the
youth are practically educated in military tactics,
and in engineering and surveying. — The census
returns 1,182 churches in the state, of w^hich 418
are Baptist, 484 Methodist, 186 Presbyterian, 72
Episcopal, 41 Lutheran, 5 Free, 8 Jewish, 14
Eoman Catholic, 8 Universalist, 1 each Con-
gregational, Friends, and Unitarian, and 8 of
muQor sects. Total value of church property
in the state, $2,172,246, viz.: Baptist, $293,-
863; EpisoopJ, $616,950; Methodist, $341,168;
Presbyterian, $483,175; Congregational, $70,-
000 ; Free, $1,700 ; Friends, $500 ; Jewish, $83,-
700; Lutheran, $109,500 ; Boman Catholic, $78,-

466

SOUTH OABOLTBrA

816; Unitarian, $80,000; Univenalut, $6,000;
minor sects, $67,876. The churohea afford ac-
commodatioa for 460,460 persons, viz. : Baptist,
166,860; Congregational, 2,000; Episcopal, 28,-
940; Free, 1,660; Friends, 600; Lutheran, 14,-
760; Methodist, 166,740; Presbyterian, 67,765;
Eoman Oatholic, 6,030 ; Unitarian, 700 ; Univer-
salist, 960 ; minor sects, 8,820.— The first state
constitution was formed in 1776, and the pres-
ent one was adopted in 1790. It vests the ex-
ecntive authority in a governor, who is elected
for 2 years by a joint vote of the legislature,
at each first meeting of the house of represent-
atives. The governor is ineligible to the same
office for the next 4 years after the expiration
of his term. He receives $8,600 per annum,
and house rent. A lieutenant-governor is
elected in the same manner, and for the same
term, who acts as governor in the case of the
death or removal from office of the governor.
Presidential electors are also chosen by joint
vote of the legislature. The legislative authority
is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a
senate of 46 members, who are elected by dis-
tricts for 4 years, one half biennially, and a
house of representatives of 124 members, ap-
portioned among the several districts, on a basis
of white inhabitants and taxation, elected for
2 years ; this body and one-half the senators
being elected every second year, on the 2d Mon-
day in October, and the day following. Mem-
b^ of the legislature receive $8 per diem, and
10 cents per mile travelling fees. The general
assembly meets annually on the 4th Monday
in November, at Oolumbia. South Carolina
has 6 representatives in the popular branch of
congress. — The judicial power is vested in
such saperior and inferior courts of law and
equity as the legislature shall from time to time
establish. The judiciary of the state is at pres-
ent (1858) as follows: 1. The law court of
appeals, and equity court of appeals, the for-
mer consisting of all the law judges, for hearing
appeals from the courts of law, and the latter
of all the chancellors, for hearing appeals from
the courts of equity ; two sessions are held at
Oolumbia and one at Oharleston annually; 2.
courts of equity, presided over by 4 chan-
•ceUors, who take cognizance of all matters be-
lon^g to a court of equity, as contradistin-
iguished from a court of law ; a term is held
by one chancellor annually in each district ex-
cept Oharleston, where 2 terms are held; 8.
courts for the correction of errors, consisting of all
the judges in law and equity, to try constitutional
qu^ons, or questions where the law and equity
courts are divided ; 4. courts of common pleas
and general sessions, having original jurisdiction
in all civil cases where legal rights are involved
(except matters of contract where the amount
is $20 or under), and in all criminal cases affect-
ing free white men, appellate jurisdiction in all
appeals from magistrates' courts, and in appeals
from the court of ordinary in all cases except
in matters of account; these courts are held
ia each district twice annually ; 6. city court

of Oharleston, a cotot of limited jnrisdie&&
presided over by the recorder; 6. ordiDsj!
court, in each district, to grant letters of «Idi&
istration, probate wills, examine execatois. la^
administrators' accounts, &c.; 7. uagistnte^
courts, having exclusive jurisdiction in ou-
ters of contract for $20 and under; 6. coon
of magistrates for the trial of slaves and 6«
persons of color for criminal offeDoes.-Bc
actual debt of the state on Oct. 1, 1856, wasfl
698,276 60, consistingof 8, 6, and 6 per cenlFU^
stocks and bonds, on which theannnal intere^if
$149,627 88. The state has subscribed ^*^
000 to the stock of the Blue Bidge railro&d a
yet to be called for, which wiU incrtsjie i3
debt to $8,298,276 60, and the annaal t
lerest to $179,627 88. The state akoovesi
contingent debt of $4,061,422, of vbiobtl-
061,422 isU.S. surplus revenue dqKxit, |3.0'
000 guarantee of the bonds of the S. C. raiir^
CO., and $1,000,000 guarantee of the bonds ai^j
Blue Bidge railroad co. The new capitol wj
create an additional debt, which is tobecorem
by a 6 per cent, stock. The assets of tbesau
amount to $6,248,114 6^ viz.: thesnrpk^t^
sets of the state bank $4,600,814 54, uid st^
in various railroad companies $1,742,800. ilj
receipts into the state treasury for the year m
ing Sept. 80, 1866, were $698,962 ; halonct Oa
1, 1866, $136,809 64, making the total m««
$730,771 64. Total expenditure for the j^.
$691,146 98 ; balance, Oct. 1, 1866, $189,62o6»
The chief sources of income were: gec^
taxes, $601,771 87; dividends on nm
shares, $14,682; new state capitol, $73,319^
The principal items of expenditure were: m
tary academies, $80,010; new state c»piJj
$71,614; free schools, $77,539; i^*^.
constables, $80,906; public bmldiDgfl,$o3^^;
salaries of pubUo officers, $80,090; Cbarks*
harbor, $42,196; legislative cerdficates,$15;f;]
The subjects of taxation in 1866 w^w'^S
slaves, $290,48860; 2,984 free negroes, »&,»»;
sales of merchandise, $58,842; ^•^^'^.Z
fesMoriS, Ac, $10,794; banks and banks^^^
$26,679; premiums of insuwpce ^»Yj^

town lot», $78,666; 17,443,791 acr^!^\^.
valued at $10,284,001, $61,708; total, Pr,
744.— On Jan. 1, 1867, there were 20 b^J*^^
branches in the state; capital, f^*' ;l'*i.'

m. of raihx)ad built, viz. : S. 0. rttl^*5.rtt
Charleston to Augusta, Ga. (witb^'^^^fSal
Camden and Columbia), 282 r^-^^'aZLi
naid in $4,200,000; debt, ^^^^J^S
$2,760,000, cost of construcstion and eqwp
$7,160,000 ; Charlotte and S. 0.ytm^^^ ju
N. C, to Junction near Columbia, ^ ^» ./ ^tf-
capital $1,201,000, debt $880,W)0jCjf^^
Btruction and equipment $1» •^*'vy m Gree""
ville and Columbia, from Ooluinbja w ^^
ville 166 m., capital stock $l»TS)n»ett»
$970,000, cost of construction and f^ ^
$2,000,000; K Eastern, from O^^^

mmn caboluia

C4miLlHE AilALlA ELlX4BBf1i tfT

V u.vnrA HtTf-ri of ?r.i,.!.^

iM^lpmit

I^,*M, pf wbi

m!i.^

thp?C. !•'

if f fi« >

f t^rrr *^jn* rvlfi, rtihnf <Vi ■

fl.

lijkd bof I

468 CABOLIKE avat^ta ELIZABETH

CABOLDTE MATILDA

the i^rince, who had married her reluctantljrv
separated from her, and Caroline retired to a
residence at Blaokheath. Looked npon as the
▼ictim of a profligate husband, her position
enlisted much sympathy on the part of Uie peo*
pie at large, especially as she was known to be
of a kind and generous disposition, but at the
eame time subjected her to serious charges on
tl^e part of her enemies. In 1808, George III.
instituted an inquiry into her conduct, which
absolved her from any positive dereliction of
duty, without however, acquitting her of the
imputation of improprieties into which her
warm and impulsive temperament was but too
apt to lead her. In 1814 she received permia-
eion to visit her native town and to travel in
Italy and Greece, and subsequently resided
chiefly in a viUa on the lake of Oomo. Her re-
lation with Bergami, an Italian connected with
her household and who accompanied her in her
travels, gave rise to a new series of rumors
disparaging to her honor. On Jan. 29, 1820,
her husband ascended the throne as Geoi^ IV.,
when a pension of £50,000 was offered her on
condition that she should never return to Eng-
land. The queen not only rejected this offer
with contempt, but, to the consternation of the
court, arrived in England on June 5 of the same
year, the masses of the people, who never with-
drew their sympathies from Caroline, receiving
her with entibusiastic acclamations. A charge of
adultery, however, was brought against her by
the king before the house of lords, which, as
partisan feelings were blended with the intrin-
sic interest of the case, created the greatest ex-
citement in England. The house of lords, by a
majority of 123 against 95, passed a bill of pains
ana penalties intended to apply to her case ; but
public opinion was so strongly in her favor, that
the prosecution was abandoned by the govern-
ment, Caroline remaining in the uncontested
possession of her rank and title as queen, and
living in recal style at Brandenburg house.
The trial made the fortune of the lawyers em-
ployed on her behalf, the present Lord Brough-
am, the late Lord Denman, and the recently
deceased Sir Thomas Wylde, and others, and
frimished for a considerable tune rich food to
the lovers of scandaL Caroline, however, was
deeply affected at the result, and the moral
nhock received on this occasion accelerated her
death, which took place in the ensuing year.
The humiliation of seeing the doors of West-
minster abbey shut against her, when, in July,
1821, she presented herself to attend the corona-
tion of George IV., was the last blow dealt out to
her by her enemies before she died. Her funeral
gave rise to disturbances at London and Bruns-
wick, the people attributing her death to her op-
ponents. Popular sympathy followed her to
her grave ; not that 'the people believed in the
total purity and innocence of her life, but there
was a great unwillingness to place reliance np-
on any charges emanating from George IV., es-
pecially when a queen was concerned whom he
had treated with so much revolting brutality.

OABOLINE ISLANDS, or Ksw Pmin^
piNxs, one of the great ardhipdagoesof Ooeac^
between the Pfolippines^ the Ladronea, iu
Marshall Islands, and Papua. They exteK
from hit 8° 5' to 12^ N., are spread over aspsi^
of 2,000 m. from W. to £., and are divided isu
numerous groups. Thewestemmofltaftfaese^tk
Paloas or Pelew, consist of 7 large and a nimi'
ber of small islands, all of coraline fbnnaiki
They are generally flat, and afibrd no seecr
anchorage. North-east of these is the group \i
Tap, the principal island of which is moontu-
ous and nch in precious metals. The islands cf
Egoi, resembling the Paloaa in sariaoe and for-
mation, lie east of Tap ; they are fer^e ialasci
and are partly inhabited. The eastoniDos:
island, called Ulalan, is 24 m. in oircunftr*
ence, and has abundant supplies of ivater, fmx
and fish. The dimate of the Oarolmes is mik
and agreeable. The inhabitants, most of wke
are of the Malay race, are generall j fiahenacs.
and make excellent sailors. The Oaroiifief
were discovered in 1543 by Lopez de Yillal-
obos, and were named in honor of Charkf
Y. Nominally they belong to Spain ted
form part of the government of the Philip-
pines, but there are no Spanish settlenientd a
any of them.

OAROLINE MATILDA, qneea of Dec-
mark, daughter of Frederic Lewis, prince o('
Wales, sister of Qeorge III., bom Jolj 22, 1751
died at Oelle, May 10, 1775, married in 17^$
Christian YIL, king of Denmark, and in 176S
became mother of King Frederic YL. By he
fine personal qualities me endeared herself to
all around her, excepting the qneen dowager.
Sophia Magdalen, and Juliana Maria, tbe
king's stepmother, who were jealous of her in-
fiuence, and treated her with marked hostiliij.
Their dislike to the young queen assmned a sbr
more formidable character, when Stmensee,
the physician and special favorite of the queen,
rose to supreme power in Denmark, and in coo-
cert with his royal mistress played into the
hands of the liberal party, while the queea
dowager and Juliana Maria were fimi^tiffal pa^
tisans of the old Danish aristocrai^. At the
same time grave imputations were east by tfaeic
upon the queen's honor, as in 1771 she wm
delivered of a daughter, which was attribatad
to an illicit connection with Btmenaee. Tbe
ruin of the queen and her favorite was rescdred
upon by the queen dowager and her party, acii
on the night of Jan. 16, 1772, during a ball «:
the court, Struensee, and the queen were anesi-
ed. The unfortunate minister and his firiead
Brandt were sentenced to death, and Garoiitt
with her little daughter (the future dDoheas d
Augustenburg), bar^ escaping the same fite,
were consigned to Aronborg castle. But ilor
Lord Keith, the British minister at Oopenhagea,
more stringent measures would have been takec
against her; as it was, a separation from her
husband King Christian (who by his seott-
idiotic condition had long since ceased to poe-
aees any personal influence) waa agreed npoB.

OARON

QiSg

4im

<nil C^lk in nuDover assigned to her ai a place
f residence;, wheT^ worn out \ff sorrow^ she
jv'^1 after a few years. A monument "km been
■ ttJ to her in C^le. Lenzen h;ift jjublL^litjJ
L b<x>k on her last hours, containing the cele-
.rated letter written by the queen to her

rot her George III., in which she solemnly as-
crts her innocence.

CARON", or Garron, Fbanoisotts, a Dutch
• avitrator, who perished by shipwreck off
Li -bun in 1674. He was of a French Prot-
-tarit family which had taken refuge in the
[.ow Countries. He engaged when very young
is assistant cook on bo:ird a vessel departing

»r Japan. During the voyage he applied
ii>» moments of leisure to the study of arith-
letic, and, after his arrival in Japan, learned
ho native language. This acquisition ren-
! rc<l him especially nsefal to the Dutch
K;i>t India company, and he became director of
i.cir commerce with Japan, and a member of
iieir council. Colbert was at this time striving

0 pivo to France some importance in the com-
i.iorce of the East Indies, and sought among
t.'r( i'zners men capable of seconding his views.
!a l<i<i6, Caron accepted letters patent appoint-
L'jir him director-general of the French com-

.. roe in India; but, at the same time, other
i) Itch and French merchants were joined with
Lini with the same title. Caron arrived in 1667
It >rada;?ascar ; but, finding the French ofl5ces at
ih it island in hopeless confusion, it was decided
not to remain there. He departed for Surat,
wliich seemed a more favorable centre, and be-
-Mii operations there with good success. Several
Mt liis subsequent plans and operations proved
MMt'ortunate, and his imperious and avaricious
•naractor had also excited many enemies against
iiiin at court. The minister was constrained to
r.'call him; and, that Caron might not suspect
iio hostile motive, it was pretended to him that
his advice was needed with reference to new
•'•^iterprises. He immediately embarked for
Marseilles, having on board immense riches,
;.n(l had already passed the straits of Gibraltar,
A hen he was informed, by a vessel which he
:iKt, of the disposition entertained concerning
liim at court. He at once turned his ship about
ii/l directed his course to Lisbon. He had al-
'v idy anchored in this port, when a heavy sea
•at his vessel against a rock, and it went to
•:u' bottom with its passengers and cargo. One
1 the sons of Caron alone was saved.

CARONY, or Caboni, a river of Venezuela,
"i<os in the Sierra Pacaraima, and after a rapid
t'urso of about 400 m., broken by numerous
( it.'iraots, joins the Orinoco.

CAROOR, a town of British India, in the
'rc^iilency of Madras, district Coimbatoor, on

0 Cavery river, lat 10° 68' N., long. 78° 9' K,
' - m. W. from Trichinopoly. It contains about

1 ^^^"^^i houses, has near it a fort and a large tern-
^', and has been in the possession of the Brit-

'-'i Hinoe 1760.

^'AUORA, or Caroro, a town of Venezuela
"n the Tocuyo, in the province of Barquesimeto ;

popl 89 000. It containjs a handsome p^dAEi
diarchy a hermitage^ and a Franciscan convent*
The district in which it etands is ftimous for itg
aromatic balsams, n&sins, gums, and a kind of
wild cochineal.

CAROUGE, a town of Switzerknd, on the
Arve, in the canton of Geneva; pop. 6,000.
It was ceded to Switzerland in 1816, until
which time it had been the capital of the Sar-
dinian province of Carouge, which was sup-
pressed in 1837. The town is regularly built,
Eleasantly situated, surrounded by elegant vil-
is, and connected with Geneva by a bridge.
It has manufactures of watches, thread, leather,
and clay pipes.

CAiiOVf^ Friedrich "Wilhelm, a German
critical writer, born at Coblentz, June 20, 1789,
died in Heidelberg, March 18, 1852. He com-
menced life as an advocate, held some judicial
offices, was made doctor of philosophy by the
university of Heidelberg, and officiated for a
short time as professor at Breslau. He was one
of the founders of the Heidelberg Burschen-
schaft, or students' secret political association,
and participated in 'the famous Wartburg fes-
tival. He was afterward a member of the
provisional German parliament of 1848. • His
most elaborate works are attacks on the Roman
Catholic religion, such as **The Churcli, which
alone works our Salvation," and an "Essay upon
the Celibacy of the Catholic Clergy." His pow-
ers of criticism are shown in his "Religion and
Philosophy in France," "Essay on St. Simoni-
anisra,'* "The New French Philosophy," dw.

CxVRP, a malacopterygian fish, of the family
eyprinidcB^ genus cyprinua^ having the body
covered with large scales, a single elongated
dorsal fin, fleshy lips, small mouth, with a bar*
bel at the upper part of each corner in the com-
mon species, and a smaller one above ; teeth in
the pharynx, but none in the jaws; branchial
rays 8 ; the ventrals behind the pectorals, with*
out any connection with the bones of the scap-
ular arch ; the 2d dorsal ray €md the 1st anal
serrated posteriorly; the tail forked; 12 rows
of scales between the ventral and dorsal fins.
The C, carpio (Linn.), is of a golden olive-brown
color above, yellowish beneath, and the fins
dark brown. It inhabits the fresh-water lakes
and streams of central and southern Europe,
whence it has been spread by man over the
northern parts. It is noticed by Aristotle and
Pliny, but was not held in much estimation in
ancient times; it grows rapidly, lives to a con-
siderable age, and is exceedingly prolific; it
seems to have been introduced into England
about 800 years ago. They prefer quiet waters,
with soft or muddy bottoms, spawning in May
or June, according to locality ; the food consists
of larvtB of aquatic insects, worms, and soft
plants, though they eat almost any vegetable
food in artificial ponds. They are very tena-
cious of life, and will pass long periods, espe-
cially in winter, without food ; they afford but
little sport to the angler, being very uncertain,
and are difficult to take in nets. The size

470

OABPiSA

OABPENTEB

Taries from ^ to 2^ feet, and ihdr weight from
1 to 18 lbs. ; they are in season from October to
April, and are generally considered excellent
for the table. Dr. Storer describes the common
carp of Europe as having been introduced into
New York from France. The gold-fish, or
golden carp, is the (7. auratus (Linn.). The cru-
cian carp (C. gibelio^ Bloch.), is of smaller size.
and is considered by some the same as the 0.
earassitu (Bloch.). In this country the name of
carp is erroneously applied to some species of
eatastomvs and luxiltta^ belonging to tne same
family of fishes.

OAKPJBA, among the ancient Greeks, a
kind of mimetic dance peculiar to the ^Enianes
and Magnetes. It was performed by 2 armed
men, one representing a ploughman, and the other
a robber, in the following manner : The laborer,
laying aside his arms, begins to plough with a
yoke of oxen, frequently looking around as if
in alarm. When the robber at length appears,
the ploughman snatches up his arms, and a fight
begins for the oxen. The movements are
rhythmical, and accompanied by the flute, and
at last the victor takes away the oxen and
plough for his reward.

OARPANI, GmsBPFE, an Italian dramatist
and writer on music, born at Yillalbese, near
Milan, Jan. 28, 1752, died in Vienna, Jan. 22,
1825. Having prepared himself for the profes-
sion of the law, he afterward devoted himself
to literary pursuits, and produced a great num-
ber of plays and operas partly translations
and partly ori^nal. In 1792 he was editor of the
OaueUa di Milano^ and wrote violent articles
against the French revolution. He was obliged
to leave the city after the invasion of the French,
and Went to Vienna, where he was appointed
censor and director of the theatre. In 1809 he
accompanied the archduke John in the expedition
against Napoleon. Under the title of Haydine^
he published a series of curious and interesting
letters on the life and works of his friend Haydn
the composer. These letters, published in a
French translation as an original work by L. A.
0. Bombet, or, as other biographers state, by
Beyle (known under the nam de plume of
Stendhal), gave rise to a great literary con-
troversy, in which Carpani vindicated his au-
thorship most successfully.

CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS, a mountain
system in central Europe, lying N. and £. of
Hungary, which it separates from Poland, Russia,
and Turkey. The entire range forms a semicir-
cle about 800 m. long, commencing at New
Orsova, on the Turkish frontier of Austria,
where it is separated from the Balkan range
only by the Danube, and terminating in the
lofty rock on which the castle of Presburg is
situated. Their breadth varies from 100 to
250 m. The highest eminences are in the E.
or Transylvanian section, where the peaks of
Poyana-Ruska, Garlnvipi, and Buthest, rise to
the height of about 9,000 feet. There are parts
of this section, however, whidi have never been
explored, and hardly vlrited by man, and of

which no measurement can be ^ren. T!te
highest portion of the W. or Hungarian Oar*
pathians is foimd in the Tatra range, the
Carpates of the Romans. Here the Lom-
nitz, Gerlsdorf, and Vialoka mountains send
up their naked granite summits to an ele-
vation of over 8,000 feet. The highest parts
of the whole Oarpathian system consist of
granite. Sandstone and limestone are found
at a lower level, and basalt, porphyry, Jasper,
petrosilex, lava, obsidian, and nnmerooa other
substances, the result of volcanic and aqneous
action, are scattered in the wildest oonfusioQ
among the lower ranges. No traces exist of
recent volcanic eruptions, though there is un-
questionable evidence of the extensive agencj
of fire and water at some time. The Carpa-
thians stand preeminent among the monnt^uns
of Europe in respect to mineral wealth. Nearly
every metal is produced abundantly firom their
sides. There are mines of silver and gold at
£j%mnitz and at Schemnitz in Hungary, and
a gold mine at Nagy Ag in Transylvania, which
has been esteemed the richest in Europe.
Iron, copper, lead, and mercury, are also found
in large quantities, and rock-salt lies in immen^
deposits throughout both sections of the chain.
The Oarpathians present 4 zones of vegetation,
rising successively. There is first the woody
region, where the oak, beech, and chestnut
thrive, which reaches to a height of more than
4,000 feet above the sea. Then thepintu abia,
or Scotch fir, appears, and occupies a zone of
1,000 feet. This is succeeded by the gloomy
and useless moss-pine, which diminishes in size
as the elevation increases, and at the height of
6,000 feet appears only as a small shrub, and in
scattered patches. The open places of this
region produce a few blue-beUs and other small
fiowers. From the termination of ^e moss-
pine to the summit, the mountains wear a most
barren and dreary look, their conical peaiks
being of naked rook, or covered only with
lichens; yet even at these heights, a straggling
blue-bell or gentian may sometimes be found
None of the Oarpathians are covered with per-
petual snow. Numerous passes intersecting
these mountains facilitate communication be-
tween the countries lying at their base. The
most remarkable and frequented of these are
those of Teregova, leading firom Orsova to
Temesvar; of Vulcan, forming the valley in
which the Schyl flows ; and of the Rothenthnrm
in a gorge formed by the Aloota, at the foot of
Mt SzuruL This pass was the scene of one of
Bem^s most brilliant exploits in the late revo>
lutionary war of Hungary. All of these passes
were strongly fortified to prevent the entrance
of the Turks into Transylvania, but several of
them have, nevertheless, at various times be^
forced.

0 ARPATHUS, the ancient name of the island
of Scarpanto, lying between Rhodes and Crete.
about 80 m. from the former. Hence the
surrounding sea was called Mare Oarpatkiunu

OARPENTERjLast, LL. D. an Ens^iah Uni-

OABPENTEE

tAritm mLnbier, bom at Kiddenninstor} Sept ^
17«0, die<3 Aprils, 1S40. He was of o NottCOn-
forrni^t faniily, atid on thti death of his fath^^r
wa^ adopted flod educaitod bj Mr. PearaiiU^ a rel-
ative of Ms moth*?r, Desigoed for the miDi^tr j^
lie \ym ftent io 17U7 to the Northampton acad-
emy, Tiiat school being lomporarily di^c.m-
tinaed, yonng Carpenter was placed at Glasgow
college, where, however, ho did not continue
the length of time necessary to take his degree.
Leaving college in 1801, he spent some time
in teaching, and as librarian of the Athenajum,
Liverpool. While at the academy he became,
in common with many of the students, obnox-
ious to the trustees, on account of doctrinal
sentiments far from the reputed standards of
orthodoxy. This defection of the students was
a chief cause of the suspension of the school.
At Liverpool, Carpenter's views were so clearly
in sympathy with those of the Unitarian denom-
ination generally, tljat he received several in-
vitations to the pastoral charge of Unitarian
congregations, and a call to a professorship in
their college at York. In 1805 he finally ac-
cepted a cull to succeed Dr. Thomas Kenrick at
Exeter, where he continued for 12 years. In
1806, the university of Glasgow gave him the de-
gree of LL.D., although he liad applied only for
tlio degree of M. A. From Exeter he removed to
tlio piistoral charge of the Unitarian congregation
at Bristol (1817), where he continued until his
death, which occurred by falling from a vessel
between Naples and Leghorn, while on a tour
for his health. The body afterward floated on
shore, near Porto d'Anzo, the ancient Antium,
and was buried on the seashore. Dr. Carpen-
ter's piety was of an eminently practical turn.
The instruction of children was an object of
constant interest. Amid all his pastoral and
literary labors, which were arduous above
those of most men, he always found time and
energies to devote to juvenile instruction, and,
even against the prejudices of his congregations,
established Sunday schools among the children
of Exeter and Bristol. An instance of his love of
instniction is recorded in his biography, which
is worthy of notice, both for the evidence it
gives of his character, and as an interesting
item of Sunday school history, llis guardian,
Mr. Pearsall, had established at Kidderminster,
Bimultaneou:*ly with Robert Raikes at Glouces-
ter, a Sunday school for the instruction of the
children of the working classes. Carpenter
was then but 11 years of age ; but his practical
spirit did not overlook the opportunity for a
Btill greater service he could render to those
children. They went to their work at 6 o'clock
in the morning. He therefore assembled them at
4 o'clock every day in the week, and gave them
lessons in aritlimotic an hour before the time of
tlieir daily toil. These lessons were given in
the summer under a mulberry tree, and in
winter in a summer-house, without any fire. In
his pastoral charges at Exeter and Bristol, he
was active in cooperation with others in the
estubliiihment of hbraries, schools, savings

banks, and instttntions for general improva^
ment and welfare* His published works ar^
mdnly tlfo<:*logical and dfjctriual, in support of
the Unitarian sentimonts he had early espoused.
AmoDg his looro important works are *^ An In-
tr(.Kiiiction to the Geography of the Kow Testa-
ment^-' ** Uuiutrianisui Lke Doctriiio of tho
Gospel," "Examination of the Charges against
Unitarianism." "Harmony of the Gospels," and
a volume oi sermons. Mild in controversy,
faithful in humane labors, and practically de-
voted to the improvement of society. Dr. Car-
penter was respected even by those who were
his most decided antagonists in theology.

CARPENTER, William Benjamin, an Eng-
lish physiologist, son of tho preceding, born
in the early part of this century, was ori-
ginally intended for an engineer, but gradu-
ated as doctor of medicine at Edinburgh in
1839. One of his earliest papers, publish-
ed in the " Edinburgh Medical and Sur-
gical Journal," was on the "Voluntary and
Instinctive Actions of Living Beings," and in
these and other early papers he laid the foun-
dations of those views which he afterward de-
veloped more fully in his "Principles of Gen-
eral and Comparative Physiology, intended
as an Introduction to the Study of Human
Physiology, and as a Guide to the Philosophical
Pursuit of Natural History" (8vo. London,
1839). This work was deemed a most remark-
able production for so young a man. A 8d edi-
tion appeared in 1851. After receiving his di-
ploma in Edinburgh, he settled in Bristol, with
a view of practising his profession, but accepted
an appointment as lecturer on medical juris-
prddence in the medical school of that city. In
1843, and subsequent years, he wrote the "Pop-
ular Cyclopaedia of Science," embracing the
subjects of mechanics, vegetable physiology and
botany, animal physiology and zoology. These
were professedly compilations, but they are
well written, and contain original views oa
many points of interest. In 1846 he published
his work on the " Principles of Human Phys-
iology," which reached a 5th edition in 1855.
Dr. Carpenter may not have repeated all tho
experiments of other observers, but he is able
to appreciate correctly the facts observed by
others ; and in those departments of physiology
and biology which lie beyond the region of ex-
periment, and demand the more subtle analysis
of a logical mind, the science of physiology,
observes his English biographer, has probably
no more accomplished exponent. In 1854
a 4th edition of his "Principles of Compar-
ative Physiology " was published, to be fol-
lowed by the " Principles of General Phys-
iology," in 1 volume. These 2 works, with
that*" On Human Physiology," form 3 in-
dependent volumes, comprising the whole range
of biological science as at present known. Tho
articles on the "Varieties of Mankind," tho
"Microscope," on "Smell," "Taste," "Touch;"
on "Sleep," "Life," "Nutrition," and "Secre-
tion," published in tho " Cydoptedia of Anat-

47S

OABPENTEB

GABFENTBT

omr and PhTsiology," are also from the pen
of Dr. Oarpenter. Having written mnch as a
popular disseminator, as well as an original in-
vestigator of scienoe, he has been accused of
being a plagiarist and mere compiler. In an-
swer to this charge, he claims, in the preface to
the 8d edition of his "General and Compara-
tive Physiology," the following facts and doc-
trines as bis own: 1. The mutaal connection of
vital forces, and their relation to the physical.
This doctrine is folly developed in a paper on
the '^Matual Relations of the Vital and Physi-
cal Forces," in the '^ Philosophical Transactions "
for 1660. 2. The general doctrine that the
troly vital operations of the animal as well as
the vegetable organism are performed by the
agency of untrazisformed cells, which was first
developed in an "£6say on the Origin and
Fonctions of Oells," pablished in the " British
and Foreign Medical Review" for 1843. 8. The
organic stmctare of the shells of mollnsca,
echinodermata, and Crustacea, of which a full
account is contained in the *^ Reports of the
British Association "for 1844 and 1847. 4. The
application of Yon Baer^s law of development
from the general to the special, to the interpre-
tation of the succession of organic forma
|>resented in ffeological time. 6. The rela-
tion between the 2 methods of reproduction,
that by gemmation and that by sexual union,
with the application of this doctrine to the
phenomena of the so-called " alternations
of generations;" first developed in the "Brit-
ish and Foreign Medico-Ohirurgical Review"
for 1848 and 1849. 6. The relation between
the different methods of sexual reproduction
in plants; first developed in the "British
and Foreign Medico-Ohirurgical Review" for
1849. 7. The application of the doctrine of
reflex action to the nervous system of inver-
tebrata, especially articulated animals; first de-
veloped in the author^s prize thesis, published
in 1889. 8. The functional relations of the
sensory ganglia to the spinal cord on the one
hand, and to the cerebral hemispheres on the
other. — ^In 1856, Dr. Oarpenter published his
work "On the Microscope, its Revelations and
its Uses" (a 2d edition appeared in 1857), in
which he displayed the same industry, ac-
curacy, and imparbality as in his other writings.
A new and thoroi^ly revised edition of his
work on " Zoology " appeared in 1857. He has
also published several interesting papers on the
fossil forms of the family oi foraminifera^ and
is said to be preparing a work on the structure,
functions, and general history of this group of
animals, for publication by the Ray society. He
is now professor of medical jurisprudence in
nniversity college, London; lecturer on general
anatomy and physiology at the London hospital
and school of medicine ; exanuner in physiology
and comparative anatomy in the university of
London. In 1844 he was admitted a fellow of
the royal society. In 1849 he gained the prize
of 100 guineas offered for the best essay on the
sniyeot of "Alcoholic liquors." This essay

waspaUiflhedin 1660, and aoqniied grett pot^
nlarity among all classes, but more espeoiauy
among the advocates of total abstineoce. Dr.
Oarpenter was editor for many years of tfa»
"British and Foreign Medico-Ohiruigioal Be>
view," and while thus occupied with writing,
he was also much engaged in lecturing. He ia
not an orator, nor even a fluent speaker, bat he
is always master of hia subject, and by a dear
and methodical explanation ik the facta and
principles of which he treats, his audience is
always deeply interested. In private life he is
a man of simple and ingenuous deportment^ be-
loved and respected by all who know him. On
Sunday mornings he feidormR gratuitously the
functions of organist tor a small Unitarian con-
gregation at Hampstead, near London. —
RusBELL Lant, a brother of the preceding,
ofSciated for some time as Unitarian ministtf
at Birkenhead, and more recently at HuU, and
is author of a volume of sermons and of the
memoirs of his father. — Pnnjp, another broth-
er, is minister of the poor at Warrington,
and author and publisher of many tracts fior tiie
poor and ignorant. — ^Mabt, sister of the fore-
going, a philanthropist, founder and promoter of
ragged schools, and juvenile reform schools in
Bristol, and one of the lecturers at the recent
meeting of the association for the promotion of
human science, of which Lord Brougham was
author and president She has also compiled a
book, entitled "Morning and Evening Devo-
tion," and several works of a practical chazao-
ter. — ^Mabgasbt, an English portrait painter,
born at Salisbury in 1798, the daughter of the
late Mr. Alexander Reynolds Geddes, who was
an accomplished artist. Having enjoyed many
opportunities of study, Miss Geddes sent at an
early period pictures to the society of arts,
which were favorably received, especially the
study of a boy^s he^ for which the largest
gold medal was awarded. Miss Geddea re-
paired to London in 1814, and married in 1817
Mr. W. H. Oarpenter, who is keeper ^ the
prints and drawings of the British mneenm.
Mrs. Oarpenter^s productions have figured
meritoriously for many years at the exhibitions
of the royal academy and the British institntioa.
OARPENTRT, the art of forming comluoA-
tions of timber for resisting to best advants^
the effects of weight and pressure. The sub-
ject demands, 1st, the consideration *of the sd-
entifio principles involved; and, 2d, the practi-
cal details of carpenters* work. The former,
which can be but briefly noticed, mainly de-
pend upon the laws governing the strength of
materials, and composition and resolution of
forces. To calculate the strength of U^e com-
binations resort is had to the parallelogram of
forces, by the aid of which the resultant pres-
sure is readily determined in anv system of
framing, however complicated. An important
rule to be observed is, that stiffness or rigidi^
of form in any framework is of greater con-
sequence than the oomnarative strength, as
any modification of the latter can alwaja be

CABPENTRT

478

secured by vaiying the etrength of the dif-
ferent parts. The triangle being the only
figure, the form of which cannot be changed
except by altering the proportions of its sides,
it is evident that the rigidity of framework
can be best secured by the adoption of a
triangular system — ^that is, by dividing the
entire framing into a system of triangles, by
means of ties and struts. The latter are the
pieces employed to resist the effects of com-
pression ; tlie former, those of extension. This
distinction must be closely observed in plan-
ning any system of framework, as a confusion
in this respect might prove destructive to the
entire work. When a single beam is to be
strengthened by the application of a system of
framing, the combination is termed a truss, and
the beam is said to be trussed. In all designs
for framing, this principle is to be borne in mind,
that the strength of the we^est point is as-
sTuned as the strength of the entire system. —
We pass now to the consideration of carpentry
as a mechanical art. The materials are receiv-
ed by the carpenter in the form of beams, scant-
lings, planks, and boards, out of which he con-
structs the bond timbers, wall plates, and the
various elements of floors and roofs. His labors
are limited mainly to the skeleton of the struc-
ture— to those portions which are indispensa-
ble to its stability and efficiency ; while its
adaptation to the purposes of convenience and
utility is intrusted to the care of the joiner,
plasterer, plumber, &o. The tools employed by
the carpenter are the rule, axe, saw, adze, mal-
let, chisels, hammers, augers, gouges, hook pins,
chalk line, square, bevel, gauge, compasses,
level, and plumb line. Beside these, which are
indispensable, he also occasionally makes use
of i)lane3, sledge-hammers, gimlets, pincers,
beetles, wedges, and crow-bars. The opera-
tions he performs are principally scarfing,
notching, cogging, tenoning, pinning, and
wedging. Scarfing is a mode of connecting
beams longitudinaily, and is performed by cut-
ting away half the substance of each beam for
a certain length, bringing the cut portions to-
gether, and fastening them by screws, bolts,
<Lrapis or wedges. Where strength only is re-
nuircd without regard to appearance, beams
loay be lengthened by "fishing," instead of
scarfing. In this, the beams are brought end to
end, and lapped on opposite sides with short
pieces of strong plank, which are secured by
bolts which pass through both pieces and the
beam between them. If bolts and straps are
well applied, this form of joint is as well adapt-
ed to resist transverse as longitudinal strains,
la designing scarfs, the kind of strain to which
the piece is to be subjected, whether longitudi-
nal, transverse, or a combination of both, is to
he particularly considered. In the ordinary
form no provision is made for resisting longi-
tudinal strains, except so far as the bolts may
answer this purpose, and also the adhesion or
iriction of the 2 beams. More elaborate
uiethoda of jointing are therefore devised, in

which the resistance of wood to splitting is
employed to secure the pieces, which are
drawn together by the aid of keys or double
wedges. Bolts and straps may also be used to
impart additional security. The French scarf
has several indentations, and is termed traiU
de Jupiter, from its zigzag form suggesting a
resemblance to sheet lightning. In scarfing
bond and wall plates, it is usual to cut about |
through each piece on the upper face of the
one and the under face of the other, about 6 or
8 inches from the end, transversely, forming
what is called a calf or kerf, and longitudinally
from the end from f down on the same side, so
that the 2 pieces lap together like a half dove-
tail. These joints are generally spiked, and it
is always required that they shall fall in or un-
der a pier, although the supervening weight of
the wall and joists renders it impossible to
draw them apart, except by tearing the fibres
asunder or lifting the weight Longitudinal
joints are employed when the only pressure to
be sustained is a vertical one. They are made
quite short, as they are designed only to keep
the 2 pieces in the same line. A common
mode of forming these joints is to divide the
end of each piece into 9 squares ; then 5 of these
being cut away in one piece and the 4 alternate
squares in the other, the 2 beams exactly fit
each other. The following summary of prac-
tice relative to scarfing is given by Barlow in
"Tredgold's Carpentry:" The length of the
scarf should be, if bolts are not used — ^in oak,
ash, or elm, 6 times the depth of the beam ; in
fir (pine), 12 times. If bolts and indents are
combined, the length of the scarf should bo —
in oak, ash, or elm, twice the depth of the
beam ; in fir, 4 times. In scarfing beams to re-
sist transverse strains, straps driven on tight
are better than bolts. The sura of the areas of
the bolts should not be less than | the area of
the beam, when a longitudinal strain is to be
borne. No joint should be used in which
shrinkage or expansion can tend to tear the
timber. No joint can be made so strong as the
timber itself. — Notching is of 2 kinds, square
and dovetailed, and is used in connecting the
ends of wall plates, and bond timbers at the
angles, in letting joists down on beams and
binders, purUnes, and principal rafters, Ac.
— Cogging is a species of notching used prin-
cipally in connecting the beams to wall plates,
a shallow notch of the width of the wall plate
being cut out of the under surface of the beam,
and a similar notch cut on the wall plate to re-
ceive the beam ; the 2 notches fitting closely,
all motion, whether longitudinal or transverse,
is prevented. Flooring joists are often con-
nected with trinuners or main joists in the
same general manner, except that dovetailed
notches are employed instead of square. As
there is seldom any great amount of force tend-
ing to detach the joists from the trimmers, this
form of notch may be amply sufficient ; but as
a rule, dovetail joints should not be employed
in car2)entry when the grain of one piece of

474

OABPElirrBY

wood crosses ihftt of the other, for the sfariiik-

age of timber is ranch greater across the grain
than in the direction of its length ; hence dove-
tails are apt to wear loose aiter a timeu and
throw the entire strain npon the pins or bolts,
which were originally employed only to assist
the joint. When the grain of both pieces runs
in the same directioo, dovetails can be em-
ployed with advantage, since the shrinkage of
one piece is counterbalanced by the contrac-
tion of the other, which allows tiie joint to re-
main firm. Sach oases, however, occur more
frequently with the joiner than with the car-
penter.— ^Tenoning implies mortising also, both
oeing required to connect 2 pieces by means of
a small projection on one^ termed a tenon, and
a corresponding cavity on the other, called a
mortise. Tenons and mortises must exactly
correspond in size. They are generally i>laoed
at equal distances from one or the other side or
edge of the 2 beams to be connected ; usually,
too, all angles formed in the process of tenon-
ing, whether internal or external, are right
angles. Very short tenons, termed joggles,
are sometimes used for preventing lateral
motioU in 2 pieces of timber, as at the con-
nections of a king or queen post with the
principal rafters, or with the struts. With the
same view, the ends of king and queen posts
are generally tenoned into the tie-beams, and
the feet of the principal rafters of a roof are
also tenoned into the tie-beam. The pressure in
tins case being very oblique to the sui^ace of the
tie-beam, it is usual to employ bolts and nuts,
or, what is better, stirrup irons or straps. In
forming mortises and tenons, the latter should
be made as large and efficient as practicable,
with due reference to maintaining the proper
degree of strength of the other piece, which by
too large a mortise might be materially weak-
ened. To avoid the danger of too great a
mortise and too small a tenon, and also of
lessening tiie efficiency of either of the 2 pieces,
in consequence of the tenon being placed too
high or too low, it is customary to employ a
compound called a tusk-tenon for most hori-
zontal bearings of importance, as to joists and
binders, to trimmers, beams, girders, &c. The
body of such a tenon is a little above the mid-
dle of the end, and runs out from 2 to 4 inches,
as may be required. Below it protrudes the
tusk, and above it the shoulder is cut down at
an obtuse angle with the horizontal line, thus
ffiving to the tenon the strength of the whole
depth of the timber above the under tusk, and
giving it a bearing in a shallow mortise, while
a greater depth of the mortised piece than the
tusk rests on receives the body of the ten-
on, thus protecting its comparatively narrow
margin from under-pressnre. — Pinning and
wedging are resorted to when tenons have
to resist not only lateral displacement, but
strains tending to draw them from their mor-
tises. In pinning, an oak pin or tree-nail or
an iron bolt is driven through both the tenon and
the sidea of the mortise ; or, the tenon being cat

long enoQ^ to extend entirely throofl^ t^
mortised piece, the pin may be passed through
the projecting part. The latter plan is often
adoptea in connecting trimmers or bridging
joists to the girder or main joists in floorings.
In wedging, it is usual to make the tenon suf-
ficiently loi^ to pass just through the mortised
piece; a saw-out being then niade in tbe pro-
jecting part^ a small wedge is driven in, wbidi
causes tiie tenon to expand and compl^ely fill
the mortise, so that it cannot be witfadntwn*
Fox-tail wedging, employed when the tenon
does not extend entirely through the mortised
piece, is thus performed: The tenon having
been exactly fitted to the mortise, 2 croea saw-
cuts are made in its end, and small wedges
are loosely fitted in them. In driving die
tenon down, the heads of these wedgea stiikB
against the bottom of the mortise, and the
wedges are thus made to enter tho tenon, which
they expand and cause to fill the mortise. It
is usual in scarfing, cogging, and notdiing to
cut in the shoulder with the saw, and to sUike
out the cheek with the mallet and chiael, or
with the adze. Tenons are made entirely with
the saw. Mortises are usually formed by bor*
ing at the ends with an auger, the diameter of
which is equal to their width, and striking oat
the intervening portions with a chisel, spy-
ing this in the direction of the grain of the
wood. The ends are squared with a chisel
jast as broad as the width of the mortise.
Pins of wood must be split to insure their te-
nacity, and wedges cut with the saw. Per
these uses straight-grained stuff is to be pre-
ferred.— ^The bearing surfaces of framing and
bearing joints should be as large as possible,
and, when practicable, cut at right angles with
the direction of the pressure, or (when one
piece bears longitudinally upon another) in a
circular arc, so that the pressure may be distrib-
uted equally over the bearing sur&ce.— Shoring
or propping up the walls or floors of a building
is fuso penormed by the carpenter, while pag-
ging or deafening floors, furring down joista, and
brscketing and cradling for plastering, Ao., may
be performed dther by the carpenter or joiner,
as less or greater precision is required. — ^In es^
mating the value of carpenters' work, the tim-
ber is usually rated by the cubic foot, and the
labor by the square of 100 superficial feet,
wherever it will admit of being so measored;
and it is customary for the carpenter's work to
be measured as soon as completed, or bdbre
the joiner and plasterer begin their labos^
Bond timber, wood bricks, waU and templets
are all reduced to cubic feet of timber at e cei^
tain price per foot, which includes all labor
upon them. The naked fiooring is estimated
on the surface from wall to wid^ and all the
labor that has been expended upon it noted, as
for instance whether the fiooring be ample,
double, or framed; if trimmed to chimneys,
party-walls, or stairs; if notched or oogged to
wall phites and partition bends; the number
and uze of the large timbers; ceiling joista as

OAKPET

notched and nailed to wall plates, and as framed
or notohed and nailed to binders or common
joists. The saperficial feet are reduced to
squares for estimating the labor and nails in
forming and setting the floors ; .then the floor-
ing timbers are rated in cnbio feet and without
labor. Booiing is also estimated by the super-
flciol square for labor and nails, the measure
being niade on the conmion rafters from ridge
to heel, a full description being given of
the kind of roof and the different tie-beams,
king posts, straining sills, struts, pnrlines, pole
plates, &o^ that may be used in its construction,
being all estimated for labor and -nails. The
separate timbers are then reduced to cubic feet,
the measurements being taken to the extent of
any tenons there may be, and the whole valued
without labor. The dimensions of bolts, bars,
straps, &c., are taken separately and their
weights deduced. Gutter boards and beams
are measured by the superficial foot, and valued
according to the thickness. Centring to vaults
is valued by the square, to apertures in the
tliickness of walls by the foot, and to camber
arches by number. Quartering partitions are
measured by the square for labor and nails, and
by cubic feet for the materiaL Battening to
walls is also .valued by the square, but the stuff
is included with the labor. K planing has been
recjuired, as sometimes happens with beams and
joists, in places not to be covered by ceiling, it
is rated by the superficial foot, and beading or
other moulding by the running foot. Some-
times a superficial amount for labor and nails
or framed timber cannot be obtained, and it is
then estimated with the cost of the timber at
so much per cubic foot ; and in such cases a dis-
tinction must be made between different quan-
tities, as the labor employed in framing a roof,
for instance, is much greater than that required
in an equal amount of timber used for flooring.
The value of labor, too, depends much on the
comparative hardness of the timber. The cost
per cubic foot of the timber should include the
original cost, and expenses of cartage added.
To this the cost of 4 superficial feet of sawing
may be allowed as a fair average for the dif-
ferent scantlings ; and finally i of this increased
amount for waste in cutting and working. A
still further allowance is necessary for scaffold-
ing and hoisting, especially if heavy timbers are
lifted to considerable height. In shoring, as
the timber is not consumed, it is usual to
charge for use and waste at i of the value of
the timber if much out up, or J if but little in-
jured; and this in addition to the charge for
Libor of raising and lowering.

CARPET, a sort of thick cloth, used princi-
pally for covering the floors of apartments. In
its place, at a very early period, straw, rushes,
and other coarse materials were used. Im-
proving upon this, the rushes were plaited into
matting, which, though homely enough in ap-
pearance, served to promote warmth and com-
fort. In England, where wool was obtained in
abundance, a kind of coarse woollen cloth was

often seen npon the floors of the gentry. Yet
as late as the time of Queen Mary rushes were
strewn on the floor of her presence-chamber ;
though carpets had long before been introduced
from the East. In Egypt their manufacture is
traced back to a very remote period ; and in
Persia and other A^atic countries the art prac-
tised by the hand had attained a high degree of
excellence long before it was known in Europe.
Purple carpets of great beauty were used at the
banquets of the ancient Greeks strewed beneath
their couches. The Babylonians adopting the
art, ornamented their fabrics with figures of
men and strange devices of fabulous creatures.
These were imported by the Greeks and Ro-
mans ; and, from what we know of the fabric,
it appears to have been rather of the nature of
tapestry, than of what we now call carpets —
made by introducing tufts of woollen yam into
a warp stretched in a frame, wliich are held
down by a woof passed over each tuft. Such
is the method of carpet-weaving now practised
by the Asiatics, the stitches made one by one
by the slow and tedious operation of the fingers.
The young girls acquire great skill in tljis work,
and their hands and eyes are soon trained to do
it with ease and rapidity. But by one of the
modern machines 1,000 stitches are sooner made
than one by the hand process. In Persia whole
families, and even tribes, are employed in carpet-
weaving. These carpets are, however, of so small
a size, that they are little used. They are pur-
chased by travelling merchants, who, in Smyrna
and Constantinople,disposeof them to Europeans.
Turkey carpets are imported principally from
Ouchak, in the province of Aidin, about 6 days'
journey from Smyrna. These carpets are also
woven by families, and no large manufactory
for them exists They are in one piece; the
patterns are peculiar, and no two are ever
made exactly alike. Their chief beauty con-
sists in the harmonious blending of their colors,
and in the softness of their texture, rendering
them agreeable both to the eye and to the foot.
In the process of manufacturing the weaver
sits in front of the loom, and fastens to each
thread of the warp a bunch of colored yarn,
varying the color according to the pattern.
The row being completed, he passes a linen
weft through the web, and drives it well up, so
that all the bunches may be securely fastened.
In this way narrow breadths of carpet are
made, which are afterward laid side by side,
and united, so as to form one large piece. The
tufts are then pared of equal length, and
being beaten down, the whole presents a
smooth, even surface. Rugs are- made in
the same manner. A superb carpet, com-
posed entirely of silk, was sent from Cash-
mere to the great exhibition in London.
In each square foot it contained as many as
10,000 ties of short lengths introduced by hand.
In British India the manufacture of carpets is
carried on to a great extent. In Benares and
Moorshedabad costly carpets of velvet with
gold embroidery are made. Silk-embroidered

47«

OABFET

carpets are mairaftotnred in Tarions places;
the woollen ones principally at Masulipatam.
For many years Enrope received all her
finppliesof carpets from the East Tbemann-
&ctare is said to have been introdaced into
Enrope by the French in the reign of Henry
IV. The manufactory now belonging to the
French government, and still producing excel-
lent fabrics, was established at Beauvais in
1664 by Colbert, minister of Louis XIY. An-
other larger factory was at Ohaillot, a league from
Paris, where the carpets were worked in the
manner of the modem Wilton carpet The
first successful operations in England were at
Mortlake, in Surrey, to which enterprise James
I. contributed £2,676. In the middle of the
18th century the business was much extended
in different localities, and reference is made to
a premium awarded by the society of arts in
1757 to Mr. Moore for the best imitation Turkey
carpets. This kind of carpet was afterward
largely produced at Axminster, in Devonshire,
made even more expensive than the real Turkey
by the substitution of worsted.for woollen yarn ;
but the manufacture ceased here, and in York-
shire also, many years ago. The other varieties
of carpets in use, as the Kidderminster or two-
ply, called in this country the ingrain, the three-
ply, the Venetian, Brussels, and Wilton, are all
made by machinery. The ingrain, made with
2 sets of worsted warp and 2 of woollen weft,
consists of 2 distinct webs incorporated into
each other at one operation, the warp threads
passing from one to the other to bring the re-
quired colors to the surface. Each web, how-
ever, is a cloth of itself which, if separated by
cutting it from the other, wotdd present a coarse
surface like baize. Two colors only are used to
best advantage in this kind of carpet, the intro-
duction of more tending to eive a striped ap-
pearance. The three-ply is also ingrained, the
threads being interlacea to produce 8 webs,
thus making a fabric of greater thickness and
durability with the advantage of greater variety
of color. The pattern, however, does not ap-
pear in opposite colors on the 2 sides in this, as
it does in the two-ply. Great difficulty was
experienced in applying the power loom to
weaving this fabric; in Europe the idea was
wholly abandoned ; and in 1889 two-ply ingrains
were woven at Lowell, Mass., only by the hand
loom, at the rate of 8 yards a day to tiie loom.
At this time Mr. E. B. Bigelow, of Boston, im-
proved the power loom so that he obtained with
it from 10 to 12 yards a day, and afterward
by still further improvements so perfected the
machinery,' that the power loom is now
wholly used, and with such economy of labor as
to have greatly reduced the cost of carpets, and
extended their manufacture to meet the increas-
ed demand. The inventions of Mr. Bigelow
have been so important in this branch of man-
ufacture, as to have given it an entirely new
character ; and though their full description
would be too technical and detailed, a general
account of those immediately connected with

this subject may properly be introduced ia this
place. The object sought for wasa loom wliidi
should make carpet fast enough to be eoonomi*
cal, one which should make the figures tnatofa,
and produce a good regular selvage, and a
smooth, even face. The hand weaver oaa at
any moment tighten the weftthread, if too
loose after the shuttle has been thrown, and so
make the selvage regular; if he finds by
measurement that by reason of the iiregnlarity
of the weft threads or the ingraimng, the figure
is being produced too long or too shorty lie
gives more or less force to the lathe in beating
up ; and if he finds that the surface of the doth
is getting rough, he regulates the tension of the
warps. In this way, oy observation, and the
exercise of skill and judgment^ he can approxi-
mate, and only approximate, to the production
of a good and regular &bric. In the first loom
Mr. Bigelow produced, he approximated more
nearly than the hand weaver to a perfect match
in the figure ; and this he effected by taking up
the woven doth by a regular and positive mo>
tion which was unerring, the same amount for
every throw of the shuttle and beat of the lathe.
As the weft threads are not spun regulariy,
and the weaving in of the warp threads and
passing the different colors from the upper to
the lower ply or doth to produce the Qgures
require sometimes more ana sometimes less to
make a given length, he determined to regnlate
the delivery of the warps as required by tlieir
tension, thereby throwing the irregularities into
the thickness where it cannot be noticed, instead
of into the length, where it would destroy the
match of the figures. He accomplished this by
suspending a roller on the woven cloth, between
the lathe and the rollers that take up this doth,
so that when the cloth was being woven too
short, which indicates a deficient supply of warpsi
the roller would be elevated, and by its connec-
tion increase the delivery motion to give out
more warps, and vice tena. Still this served
only to prevent the further extension of a fault
alreadpr incurred. The roller, to perfectly ac-
complish its purpose, should nave been applied
to the unwoven warps, which seemed then im-
practicable, for when the lathe beats up the
weft, these must be rigid to resist the be^ and
no way was apparent to make the roller sensi-
tive to detect and indicate the amount taken
up. The warps, moreover, are necessarily all
rolled up on the waip-beam with equal tenmn,
and so can only be given out equally. The im-
provement was afterward perfected by Mr.
Bigelow in the following manner : Each warp
thread in the usual way passes through a loop
called a mail, attadied to a card suspended froaa
the jaoquard, and each card has suroended to it
a weight, all the weights being equal. The two
trap-boards of the jacauard move simultane-
ously, one up and the oUier down, and in these
movements they catch or trap such of the cards
(determined by the combination of cards) as
arereouired to bring up the proper warp threads
at each operation to produce the figure, leaving

OABPET

down sach of ^^m aa ore not recmlred at that
partiodar operatioa ; and whoa the two traft-
boarda aro oq a level, and all the warp threiuls
connectGd with them art? in a horizontal Une, and
tho^o not connected with them hang down with
th'j suspended weij^hts^ tb^; lathe be:it3 up the
weft thread, which lies between the warps that
are in a horizontal line, at the same time exert-
ing a force on the weft threads previously
thrown, and beating them up more closely.
Now, as the warp threads are all connected at
one end with woven cloth, and at the other
with the beam, it follows that those which are
hanging down in a bent line will receive a
greater proportion of the force of the beat of
the lathe than the others ; and as all the warp
threads in succession take this position, and all
have an equal weight, it follows that each suc-
cessively receives the same pull at the time the
lathe beats up ; thus the tendency to irregular-
ity of surface from the varying lengths of warp
threads taken up in ingraining is counteracted.
The selvage was made smooth and even by a
contrivance which regularly gave a pull to tho
weft thread after the shuttle was thrown. Mr.
Bigelow at last, by these improvements and
others which he introduced, brought the loom
to average from 25 to 27 yards a day of two-
ply, and from 17 to 18 yards of three-ply car-
pets. His improved method of producing
figures that will match was afterward intro-
duced, and patented in 1845. The same ma-
chinery was found to be applicable to the man-
ufacture of Brussels and tapestry carpets, the
weaving of which, except by hand, was before
generally considered a mechanical impossibil-
ity. With the hand loom they, were made at
the rate of 8 or 4 yards per day ; but with the
improved loom the production was increased to
18 or 20 yards per day. The carpets, too, were
made more exact in their figures, so that these
perfectly matched, and their surface was smooth
and regular. They surpassed, indeed, in their
quality the best carpets of the kind manufac-
tured in any other part of the world. The
looms of Mr. Bigelow were introduced into
factories built at Lowell, Mass., Thompsonville
and Tariflfville, Gonn., for their use, and others
were estabUshed at a new place named Clinton,
in Mass., where, since the year 1849, about
150,000 yards of Brussels carpeting are annually
produced by the Bigelow carpet company.
This town, 12 m. N. of "Worcester, owes its
prosperity, and its population of over 3,000,
wholly to the various factories established upon
the different inventions of Mr. Bigelow. Tar-
iflfville, also, now a place of over 2,000 inhabit-
ants, had a population of only 400 in 1840.
One carpet establishment there, with a capital
of $900,000, employs from 650 to 800 opera-
tives. Thompsonville presents a similar his-
tory.— ^Brussels carpet is bo named from Brus-
sels in Belgium, whence the style was intro-
duced into England in the last century. It is
made upon a ground of Unen weft, which is con-
cealed by the worsted threads that are interlaced

with and co?er it* The threads are oommonJy
of 5 di^erent colors. In the weaving these run
th<3 length of the wtjh, and are so managed that
all those required by the, patt*;rn avQ brought
ap together across the line of the carpet; bo^
fbru th V :\r-:: \:l ■! vrij, :: :v rjdcu iuijtniment
called a sword is passed through to hold up the
threads; this is replaced by a round wure,
which, being at last removed, leaves a row of
loops across the carpet. In a yard length the
number of successive lifts of the sets of colors
required is sometimes as many as 320, each of
which forms a row of loops. Four colors must
always lie beneath the 5th, which appears on
tlie surface, and thus the carpet, with its linen
weft too, is thick and heavy. The Wilton car-
pet, the moquette of the French, differs from the
Brussels in the loops being cut before the wire
is removed, a groove in the flat upper surface
of the wire admitting of their being cut by
pass'mg a knife along the surface. The soft
ends give the carpet a rich velvety appearance.
In the imperial Brussels carpet the figure is
raised above the ground of the pattern, and the
loops of this are cut, but not of the ground.
Various methods have been devised of simplify-
ing the processes of making the Brussels carpet.
Mr. Richard "Why took, of Edinburgh, introduced
an ingenious plan of using threads dyed of the
colors in the succession they would be required.
This was done before they were made into the
warp, and by a systematic arrangement. By
this means a considerable proportion of the
threads was dispensed with. His looms are
nsed by one establishment in England to the
number of more than 300, producing carpets to
the amount of about £500,000 annually. They
are known as "patent tapestry and velvet
pile " carpets. Another device is to weave the
carpet in plain colors, and then print it with
rollers or with blocks, after the method of
caHco printing. On account of the thick-
ness of the fabric, difficulty is experienced
in introducing sufficient color without go-
ing over tie work many times. In doing
tliis, the difficulty is of course increased of
retaining each color within its own exact limits.
Rollers were first nsed ; but a cheap kind of
carpet is now produced at Manchester, Eng-
land, by block printing. Felt cloths are also
printed in colors in this country, and sold to a
considerable extent for carpets. — Venetian car-
pets (which, by the way, were never a produc-
tion of Venice), are made with a heavy body of
worsted warp, which completely hides the
woof; this diould be an alternate shoot of
worsted and linen yam. The fabric admits of
little varieties of design. It is made in narrow
widths for stau-ways and passages, — ^The patent
wool mosaic carpet is a novel manufacture car-
ried on by Messrs. John Orossley and Sons, of
Halifax, England. A strong, plain cloth is
used as a ground; upon this a pile of warp
threads, first arranged over and under parallel
strips of metal, which are cut out, leaving the
end^ like those of a Wilton carpet^ is pkced

478

OABPDa

OAEPZOV

and cemented with caontchono. If the threads
were of different colors, stripes are produced,
or the yarns may have heen colored by Why-
tock's plan, or colored patterns may be obtained
by another process in use. This method is
principally applied to the production of small
articles.— A cheap kind of carpet, of little dura-
bility of wear or color, has been extenslTely in-
troduced into this country the last few years,
called the hemp carpet It is made of hempen
threads, the colors running in stripes. — ^The car-
pet manufacture has increased rapidly in this
country, and in England also within the last
few years. In England it is estimated that there
are more than 6,000 looms in operation of every
description. The business is actively carried on
in various parts of the United States. Refer-
ence has already been made to the successful
enterprises in this branch in Massachusetts and
Connecticut. There are idso extensive manu-
factories in diflferent places in New York, New
Jersey, and Rhode Island. In Massachusetts
alone the value of goods produced in 1855 was
$1,862,819; the capital invested was $2,264,-
172, and the hands employed, 1,614, beside 4
manufactories of painted carpeting, 2 of rag
carpets, and 2 from which there were no com-

Slete returns. In 1845 the value produced
1 Massachusetts was $884,822; the capital
invested $488,000, and the hands employed
did not exceed 1,084, showing in 10 years
an increase in the value manufactured of about
$500,000 in Massachusetts alone. The value of
carpetings of all kinds imported into the United
States during the year ending June 80, 1857,
was $2,181,290, viz.: from

BoAsia $1,621 Ganadft. $195

Hambarg. 828 British W. Indies lOS

Bremen 600 British S. Indies 88

Holland 22ft Prance 20,495

Boljdum 1,104 Sardinia 22

England 2,185,691 Gibraltar 687

Scotland 19,880 Afiatlo Turkey 451

China 79

Total 12.181,290

The value of carpetings of all kinds reexported
during the same period, ending June, 1857|
was $1,549, viz., to

Asiatic BuBsia #219

Canada 67T

Mexico 60

Yonczuela 204

Sandwich Islands 489

Total .$1,549

OARPINI, Giovanni di Plano, an Italian
Franciscan monk and traveller, horn about 1210.
In 1246 he was sent with a company of several
other Franciscans on a mission to the great
khan of Tartary, to convert him to Ohristianity,
if possible, or, at least, to induce him rather to
employ his anna against the Saracens and Turks
than against the ^ristiana. Cari»ni travelled
through Russia and along the diores of the
Black sea, and Anally rea<died the court of the
Tartar monarch, in some part of the region
N. of the desert £. of the Oaspian. He re-
mained here a month or more, without appa-
rently acoompliahing muoh, and then set oat on

Ub retom, which he eflfeoted aa^Iy, th<yiigh not
without much Buffering. He wrote an aocofont
of his journey in Latin, an abstract of which
was published in the ^^ Voyages and Diacov*
eries '* of Hakluy t. He devoted the remainder
of his life to preachine the gospel in Hungary,
Bohemia, Norway, and Denmark, and di^ al
an advanced age.

CARPOCRATES, or Oasfoobaa, an Alex-
andrian theologian, of the Hellenistic Gnostic
school, flourished in the 2d century A. D^
under the reign of Hadrian ; was of a &niily <d
Ohristianized Jews. His theological opinioas
were, in many respects, similar to those uf the
Gnostics generally. The fundamental Gnostic
idea of a Supreme Being, entirely disconnected
with the afiairs of the universe, was the start-
ing point of Oarpocrates. The deminrgos
and the other finite spirits rulins over the ma-
terial universe, were striving to Keep hnmanitf
from unity with the Supreme Monad, to whioh
it was constqntly tending, on account of its har-
ing been an original emanation from him. The
predzistent state of the human soul waa, in the
Oarpocratian system, that period when it had
been in perfect unity with the Supreme Monad.
The demiurgus aud ruling spirits have drawn
it away from this sublime union, and endeav<»ed
to preserve it in expatriation. One of thcar
methods of accomplishing it is by laws or reli-
gious duties and observances, sudi as self-denial
and control of appetites and passions, and gen-
eral humiliation and penances. Only snch is
rise above these tyrannous usurpations of the
demiurgus and his colleagues, can attain to the
true life of the soul. Consequently all reUgioos
systems were the devices of the demiurgus, for
muntidning his supremacy, and the highest in-
jury to men. This Gnostic Antinomianiam d^
veloped itself into a practical life of freedom
from moral restramt, which both Carpocratet
and his son Epiphanes took all pains to justiff.
The gratification of the appetites and passSons
became a duty instead of a wrong, and salvatioa
by Jesus was only attainable on the condition
of perfect abandonment to an antinomian life.
All who thus abandoned themselves were saved,
because by confidence in his teachings az^ exam-
ple they thus proved themselves, m their con*
victions at least, freed from the power of the
demiurguSi Jesus, they held, was simply amaa
of superior soul, who, like themselves, had the
power to discern the real difficulty, and strength
to achieve his own practical redemption, and
point the way for others. Oarpocrates and his
followers r^ected the goroels of Matthew and
Luke, and toe entire Old Testament, as the in-
genious contrivance of the deminigns to keep
men in subjection. They also deni^ the lesnr-
rection of the body.

CABPZOY, a famUy of learned Gennana,
whose original name was CarpeganOy their ances-
tors having left Spain in the 16th century on ac-
count of religious persecution* — ^BxkbdictCabp-
zoy, with whom the distinction of the family
commences, was a nalive of Brandenbms, bom

OAKR

CAEEACCr

479

Ot^t 23, ISfiG, died Xo^. 24, 1024, nud a pro-
fLis*!|or of jiiri^pnidence. lie Imd 5 son 3, 4 of
^honi, Benedict^ Anj;ra-^t^ KonratI, and Ciiris-
tLin, luUowed tho profession of the fatJi^r.^ — The
5thi Jo If ANN Bi!NET>itT^ bom Jnne 2 '2, 10*17^ died
Or t 23, 1G57, profo??^ur of tlieology in tho lud-
versity of Leipsic, was a Lutheran, and de-
voted himself to theology. His 5 sons, David,
Johann, Friedrich, Samuel, and Ang:ust, all
gained more or loss distinction in theology, ju-
risprudence, and letters. To the 4th generation
tho line of renown descends through Samuel to 2
sons, JonANN, bom 1675, died 1739, and Johann
G OTTLOB. The latter was a Lutheran theologian
and oriental scholar, born in Dresden, Sept.
20, 1679, died at Ltlbeck, April 7, 1767. He
was enabled to complete his knowledge of
tlie oriental languages, while chaplain to the
Saxon and Polish embassy to England and
Holland. After his return iu 1704, he was pas-
tor of several churches, and in 1713 gave pub-
lic lectures at Leipsic, on homiletic, dogmatic,
and pastoral theology, oriental languages, and
1 lebrew antiquities. In 1719 he became profes-
sor of oriental languages at the Leipsic univer-
sity. In 1780 he accepted the general super-
in tendency and first pastorate of the cathedral of
Ijiibcck, where he died, after enjoying the in-
cumbency for 87 years. He was an opponent
of tlie Moravians, and wrote many works on
tho Trinity, and also on the canon of the Scrip-
tures, and correlative subjects.

CAIili, Dabxey, a member of the house of
burgesses of Virginia, moved and eloquently
supported a resolution to appoint a committee
of grievances and correspondence, in conse-
(juence of British encroachments. His resolu-
tion was adopted, March 8, 1778. Carr died 2
months afterward. He married a sister of Jef-
ferson, by whom he is described as a man of
sound judgment and inflexible purpose, mingled
with amiability, and of a fanciful eloquence.

CARR, Sib Robebt, British commissioner
in New England, was appointed to that office
by Charles 11. in 1664, in conjunction with
Nicolls, Cartwright, and Maverick. In 1664,
Ni colls and Carr captured New Amsterdam
from the Dutch, and called it New York, in
honor of the king's brother, the duke of York,
afterward James 11. Carr forced the Swedes
and Dutch on the Delaware into a capitulation,
lie returned to Boston in 1665, ana, in con-
junction with his coadjutors, assumed the prin-
cii)al powers of government.

CARR A, a hamlet in the canton of Greneva,
Switzerland, remarkable for its rural school for
orphans and foundlings, the model on which
tho other schools for helpless and vagrant chil-
dren in the Swiss cantons have been formed.
It was established in 1820 by M. de Rochemout,
on the plan of the Pon school at HofwyL The
jjresent number of pupils is 26, aU boys, there
bi'ing another estabhshment for girls in the
same canton. Tho family system is carried out
to its fullest extent. The school has been since
its commencement imder the care of M. J. J.

Kberhartl^ a pupil of Yehrli, Tho eliildrcn are
taiitcbt all tho duties of homo and farm life^ each
in turn Imvini^ a portion of the household duties
assigned to him, till all boL'Omo fantiiiiu' with
wiiatcvor is neeeijsary to tljt> c^inifort of a peas*
ant's home. They have usually from 1 to 8
school hours a day in summer, and from 8
to 6 in winter. The course of study includes
reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, singing,
drawing, and some knowledge of surveying,
geography, and natural history. The food and
clothing are the same with those of the peasant
class of the canton, but the food is carefully
and well prepared, and tho clothing kept whole
and scrupulously neat Recreation, holidays,
and festivals are not forgotten, as being a ne-
cessary part of the education of the child, in the
estimation of M. Eberhard. Punishments are
very rare. The expenses are a little less than
$2,000 per annum.

CARRACCI. I. LuDOVioo, the founder of
the Bolognese school of painting, born in Bo-
logna in 1555, died there in 1019. His first
master, Prospero Fontana, a Bolognese painter,
so little appreciated his capacity that he ad-
vised him to adopt some other profession. His
slowness of execution was so remarkable that
his fellow-pupils called him in ridicule the ox.
From Bologna he went to Venice, and studied
with Tintoretto. Subsequently he visited Flor-
ence and Parma, where he gave much attentioii
to the works of Andrea del Sarto, Correggio,
and Parmigiano. The object of these varied
studies was presently developed in the estab-
lishment of his school of painting, known as
the eclectic school of Bologna. In this project
he secured tlie assistance of his cousins Agos-
tino and Annibale, who joined him in Bologna
about 1585. In a few years their school was
overflowing with pupils, and all the others
in Bologna closed. As the head of the acade-
my, Ludovico resided chiefly at Bologna ; and his
merit is more that of a teacher than of a pro-
ductive artist He has left many works at
Bologna, including his fresco paintings in the
Palazzi Magnani and Zampieri; his series of
scenes from the history of St. Benedict and St
Cecilia, in the convent of St. Michel at Bosco ;
an " Assumption of the Blessed Virgin," one of
his best works; and the " Birth of St. John the
Baptist." He also painted many " Ecce Homos "
ana "Pietas." II. Agostino, cousin of the
preceding, bom at Bologna in 1558, died in 1601.
He was the son of a tailor, and when a boy
was instructed in tho goldsmith's art, whence
he became an engraver. At the invitation of
his cousin, Ludovico, he embarked in his pro-
ject for founding a new school of art in Bologna,
but first went through a course of studies at
Bologna, Rome, Parma, and Venice. To Agos-
tino were assigned the most important and labo-
rious duties. He prepared treatises on archi-
tecture and perspective, lectured on anatomy,
and suggested subjects for composition, drawn
from history or fiction. He also proposed and
awarded prizes for designs, celebrating the vie-

480

OABBABA

nAT^RA-^^i^ ifAT^nr.Tg

tor's triompli with mnsio and song. His earljr
predilection for engraving never forsook him,
and, although his designs were nnmeroos, he
finished fewer paintings than dther of the other
Carracci. Among the hest ^oimens of his
paintiogs are *^ St. Jerome receiving the Sacra-
ment hefore Death,'' at Bologna, and the " In-
fant Hercules strangling the Serpents," in the
Louvre. UL Aminibalb, brother of the pre-
ceding, bom in Bologna in 1560, died in Bome
in 1609. He wss brought up to be a tailor, and
.was instructed in punting by his cousin Ludo*
vioo, and afterward sent to Parma and Venice,
where he devoted years to the works of Cor-
reggio and the great Venetian colorists. His
style was founded on the eclectic principle
adopted byLudovica He was an industrious
painter, and the works of this period of his life
are numerous. His contributions to the Palazzi
Kagnani and Zampieri in Bologna, in which he
assisted Ludovico, were highly esteemed. In
1600, by the invitation of Cardinal Famese, he
visited Bome, where, under the influence of
Baphael and Michel Angelo, his style develop-
ed itself in a new form. He was employed to
paint for various churches in Bome, but his
chief work is the series of frescoes of my tholo-

g'cal designs in the Famese palace, and particu-
rly in the gallery, which occupied him 8
years. At the commencement of this work he
was assisted by Agostino ; but the intercourse
between the brothers, when they were not
under the influence of Ludovico, was always
liable to be interrupted by jealousies and dis-
putes, and Annibale was soon left to labor alone,
when the work was at length completed, the
artist was rewarded with the sum of 500 crowns.
Irritated by this parsimony, and enfeebled in
health by long confinement, he repaired to
Kaples. The persecutions of the Neapolitan
artists obliged him to return to Bome, where
he died soon afterward. Beside the contribu-
tions to the Farnese palace, which have been
frequently engraved, " St Boch Distributing
Alms," in the Dresden Gallery, a "Dead Christ
supported by the Madonna," the "Besurrec-
tion," at Bologna, and the " Three Marys" in
the collection at Castle Howard, are among his
most celebrated works. He was one of the
first to practise landscape painting as a separate
department of art. IV. Fbakoesco, a brother
of Agostino and Annibale, bom at Bologna in
1595, died at Bome in 1622. He studied pant-
ing with his cousin Ludovico, and attempted to
establish a rival school in JSologna, over the
door of which he caused to be inscribed, " This
is the true school of the CarraccL" The pro-
ject failed.

CABBABA, a city of Italy, pop. about 8,000,
situated on the Avenza, in the duchy^ and 59 m.
S. W. of the city of Modena. Its nnncipal edi-
fices are the college^ the ducal palace, the col-
legiate church, and the church of Madonna delle
Grazie. An academy of sculpture was foxmded
here by Napoleon, and a great many artists
from abroad reside here to superintend the

transport of marUe, or to eanootewinicB of ni.

The inhabitants are ohiefiy engaged in the
preparation of marble^ which is obtained from
the famous quarries in the vicinity.

CABBABA MABBLE, a beautiful white
marble, of fine granular texture. deriTiiig its
name from the above-described ci^. The Pa-
rian differs from it in bdng composed of the most
delicate little plates or scsiiles, oonfosedly lusited
together. The magnificent chain, of monm-
tains in which the quarries of Carrara marUe
are situated, forms a portion of the ApMuiifi«%
and is included in the former duohy of Mass
Carrara. These mountains are distant about 4
miles from the seashore, and present a very
imposing appearance, towering to the akiea, and
broken into rugged and inaccessible peaka. At
the foot of some of these hills a few atonted
trees are found, and higher up among the rou^
fissures, fiocks of goats procure a scanty sobsist-
ence. The quarries, among which are those
that furnished the material for the PanthecMi st
Bome, are about half way up the monntaiiu, and
although they have been worked for many oea-
tunes, and the annual export has lonf amouat-
ed to about 40,000 tons, yet the worianen are
still employed upon the surface; so thatvv
may well regard the supply as inezhaostibicu
The Carrara marbles are of 4 varietiea Tbsl
used by sculptors^ the white, granularly foliated
limestone, is the most valuable. It is moro
easy to work than the compact limestone, its
color is purer, and it is delicately transparoiL
The other varieties are the veined nmrble, with
colored lines, which render it unfit for atatnary;
the ravcteionij or Sicilian, and the haidiglia, of a
deep blue color. In worJdng the qnarriea, lai^a
blocks of marble, some of more than 200 culSa
feet, are loosened by blasting. When thoroag^-
ly detached, they are tumbled down or low*
ered to the base of the mountain, whatob
they are transported to Marino, the port of
shipment The value of the material varies
with the quality and size of the block, the laigeet
of these ranging from $10 to $15 per cubic foot
This marble range extends over many sqnaie
leagues. The whole number of quarries ia esti-
mated at about 400, of which 40 or 50 are con*
standy worked, employing from 2,000 to 2,500
men, the wages varying fr^m 80 to 90 cents per
day. Those of the statuary marble do not ex«
ceed 12 in all, but are the most produotive as
well as the most valuable. Thev are the prop-
erty of 4 or 6 of the principal &milies of Get-
rara. The labor in these mmes is not entirely
without danger. It not nnfrequently ha|q[Mss
that a heavy block of marble, breaking iti
fastenings in its descent firom the mountain,
crushes beneath it the men engaged in its
removaL The Carrara marble, which was
formerly regarded as a primitive limestone,
proved an altered limestone of the oolitic peri*
od. The causes by which the change of its
structure was effected have also served to oblit-
erate all traces of the fossils which are usoaUy
found in the rocks of this period. An amJyas

VARUAGEEK

OAERER

4^1

of the best qoality of this marble by Kaeppel

gives ;

rv\Tbonato of limfl 98.7654

< Aifhonato of magnesia 0.9002

<>^)<lesof iron and inon^aneiic, ftnd ftlomiiUL 0.0825

•- I ) oa, t race of phosphorlo acid, and losa. 0.0961

i^aartz sand. 0.1553

100.000

CARRAGEEN", or Irish Mofls, a marine plant,
rhondriis crispus (see Alo^e), which grows
u {)on the rocks of the coasts of Europe, partic-
ularlv of Ireland, and is said also to be a native
of the United States. It is collected for the
[)reparation of a light and nutritious food for
invalids, and is particularly recommended in
|)Tilmonary and scrofulous affections, dysentery,
diarrhoea, &c. It is prepared by maceratmg it
in cold water, in which it swells without dis-
6<.>lving, and which removes the taste of extra-
neous matters mixed with it. It is then boiled
in water, of which 3 pints are used to the ounce
K)i moss. Milk instead of water makes a more
nutritious preparation. It dissolves and gelatin-
izes, and the jelly is flavored with lemon juice,
and sweetened with sugar.

CARREL, Nicolas Abmand, one of the found-
ers of the Paris journal, Le Kational^ bom May
s, 1800, at Rouen, died July 24, 1836, at St.
}ilande, near Paris. The son of a worthy mer-
chant, he was educated at St. Cyr, and entered
clie army as sub-lieutenant ; secretly participat-
ed in the Befort conspiracy in 1821, but eluded
suspicion. His political opinions became known
on the occasion of the outbreak of the Spanish
revolution. A letter he had written to the
cortes came into the hands of his colonel,
^vhen he resigned his commission, and entered
into the foreign legion in Spain. When the
French army invaded the peninsula. Carrel was
made prisoner, and arraigned before a French
court-martial, who declared their incompeten-
cy ; but on an appejxl to the court of cassa-
tion, he was sent before another tribunal, by
which he was sentenced to death, as having
carried arms against his own country. On ac-
count of some informality, the verdict was not
carried out ; and Carrel was tried before a 3d
court-martial at Toulouse, which acquitted
liira. He was now engaged for a few months
as an amanuensis to the historian Thierry;
then ho wrote 2 essays on the history of Scot-
land and of modern Greece, and a biograph-
ical notice of Paul Louis Courier, the French
pamphleteer ; he was also editor of the Revue
Americaine^ a short-lived monthly, and an oc-
casional contributor to several leading opposi-
ti«)n papers, such as the Canstitutionnel and the
Glohe, But he did not gain much literary rep-
utation until the appearance of hiA Histoire de
hi centre-revolution en Angleterre^ which was
favorably received. With a view of finding an
outlet for his political opinions, with Thiers
and Mijj^net he founded the National, Thiers,
being the oldest and the best known of the 3,
was the leading editor, while Carrol wrote
chictiy for the literary department of the paper.
VOL. IV. — 31

The Katiorud greatly contributed to brine about
the revolution of 1830 ; but while, on the first
signs of a coUision, Thiers left Paris, and Mig-
net kept still, Carrel came out with his wont^
audacity, and participated in the battle. When
it was over, he was sent on a mission into the
western departments; his wise measures and
personal influence contributed to maintain
tranquillity there. During his absence he
had been nominated prefect of the depart-
ment of Cantal ; he declined the appointment,
and went back to the National^ of which
he now assumed the chief editorship. Under
his control, and chiefly by liis contributions,
the National became a most vigorous and elo-
quent journal, and gave to the republican party
a standing which it never had before. The
frankness and boldness of his course drew on
him the anger of the government, but the meas-
ures taken against him, however trying, could
not damp his ardor. He was the first to vindi-
cate the memory of Marshal Ney before the
court of peers ; and his generous temerity
would have been severely punished, if he had
not been supported by Gen. Excelmans, himself
a peer of France. His quickness of temper,
enhanced by exaggerated chivalric notions, in-
volved him in several duels. Previous to the
revolution of July, he had espoused a quar-
rel brought about by an article from the pen
of Thiers, and fought for his colleague. In
1833, threats having been uttered against the
opposition by the legitimist^ Carrel came out
as the champion of the former, and had an en-
counter with Roux de Laborie, in which both
were wounded. Carrel very severely. This cur-
cumstance elicited many evidences of the admi-
ration he had won even in the ranks of his polit-
ical opponents. — ^Three years after, Emile de
Girardin challenged him ; they fought at Vin-
cennes, with pistols ; Girardin was slightly
wounded in the thigh, and Carrel received a baU
in the abdomen. He was taken to St. Mand6, to
the house of one of his friends, and after 2 days'
suffering breathed his last. On the news of his
wound spreading through Paris, crowds of citi-
zens flocked to St. Mand^, and the deepest sym-
pathy was manifested among all classes ; his
death was considered a public calamity. A
new edition of his works was published in Paris
in 1858, in 6 volumes.

CARRENO MIRANDA, Juan de, a Spanish
painter, bom in 1614, died' in 1685. As a col-
orist, the Spaniards rank him with Titian and
Vandyke. , His principal paintings are a " Mag-
dalene in the Desert," at Madrid ; a " Holy
Family," at Toledo; and a "Baptism of our
Saviour," at Alcala de Henares.

CiVRRER, Luioi, an Italian poet, bom in
Venice in 1801, died Dec. 23, 1850. He offici-
ated as professor of philosophy at Padua, from
1830 to 1833, when he went to Venice, where
he conducted a literary journal for 9 years, dur-
ing which time he was also appointed by the
municipal council professor in the school of
arts and sciences, and director of the museum.

482

OABBEBA

OASSSOKSESaStUS

Here he published seyenl works, the most pop-
tilar of which is the '^ Ring with Sevea Dia-
monds ^' (VAneUo di Sette Gemme\ a poetic
deeoription of the history and customs of Yen-
ice. His lyric poems are his best productions.

CABRERA, the name of 8 brothers who
distinguished themselves as revolutionaiy lead-
ers in Ohili against Spain, during the war of
independence at the beginning of this century.
— Josfi MiausL, the eldest and most celebrated,
was captured by tiie Spaniards and beheaded
at Mendoza, Sept. 1, 1821; the 2 younger
brothers were beheaded at Mendoza on the
same day, April 8, 1817, 6 months after their
Cloture.

OARRERA, Ratasl, ruler of Guatemala
bom in Ihe city of Guatemala in 1814, of mixed
Indian and negro blood. In 1829, when Mora-
2an was president of the federal government,
Carrera became a drummer-boy in &e regiment
of Col. Aycumena. Subsequently he retired to
the village of Metaquascuintla, where he mar-
ried a woman of singularly energetic character,
his constant companion throughout his subse-
quent career. At that time the property and
privileges of the church were assailed by certain
partisans of immediate reform, while the In-
dians were generallv wedded to the system of
laws familiar to them for nearly 8 centu-
ries, but which was about to be supplant-
ed oy liviogston's Louisiana code. Great
discontent was thus excited among them,
when an insult offered to his wife by a gov-
ernment officer roused Carrera to action.
Bent on vengeance, he placed himself in 1837,
at the head of a iMUid of insurgent mountain-
eers. Enlisting in a remarkable degree the
sympathies of the Indian population, the re-
bellion made rapid strides. Strengthened at
every defeat, he was in turns courted and
caressed by Barrundia and other members of
the 2 opposite factions which divided the gov-
ernment. In Feb. 1888, he occupied the city
of Guatemala with 6,000 Indians, and young as
he was, he succeeded in restraining his follow-
ers from the anticipated piUage and massacre.
Some accommodation among the conflicting
parties now followed, and Carrera, in the gen-
eral terror, was sent to Meta, a neighboring
district of the interior, in an oflicial capacity,
to which a salary was attached. On April 18,
1889, he again occupied the capital, wnich he
has since held. Ruling at first as general-ln-
chief, he was elected, March 21, 1847, to the
presidency of Guatemala. In Feb. 1861, with
only 1,500 men, he defeated the combined
forces of San Salvador and Honduras, since
when peace has been preserved. He was re-
elected Oct. 19, 1851, as president for life. In
the earUer part of bis career he was regarded
as the enemy of order and civilization. As the
leader of an xmbridled mob, in 1888, inflamed
with political animosides, his conduct was natu-
rally controlled by the exigencies of the occa-
sion. But of late years he has verified the
epinion, early entertained and expressed by the

late John L. 8tq»heoa, in Mgatd to bis an-

cerity and honesty of purpose. When fint
elected to the presidency he did not know hov
to read and write, but has since in some meas-
ure repaired the deficiencies of his educatko.
His government is absolute.

CARRETTO, Fbaktoesgo Sayxbio, marquis,
a Neapolitan minister of police, bom in Saleiao
toward the end of the 18th oentuiy. He fou^
his way to distinction in the army, and, althou^
a member of the carbonari, was in 1823 n^
pointed general inspector of police. In 1828 1»
marched at the head of 6,000 men to quell la
insurrection, of which the little tovm of Bofoo
was the focus. After destroying the town, he
Immediately caused a pillory to be erected upoi
its ruins, and had 20 persons executed, indod-
ing an old man of 80 years. This drew upco
him the wrath of the Neapolitans. The kin^
Ferdinand 11., however, appointed bim mis-
ister (tf police in 1881. For some tune be
exercised almost absolute power in Naples. la
1887, when the cholera raged in SicUy, and
the people, in thdr despair, cont^ided that it
had been intentionally brought into the counti?
by the government, Carretto was despatched to
Catania, where the insurgents had organised a
provisional government; and although this, cm
ids arrival, had already been abandoned, be
again exercised his authority by ordering tbe
execution of more than a hundred persoosi
even applying the torture to the prisonen.
The king was finally compelled to yield to tbe
clamors of the people, and dismiss him. h
the night of Jan. 27, 1848, he was arrested bj
Gen. Filangieri, and put on board a French
steamer, as exile to France. When the name of
the passenger became known at Leghorn, tiie
supply of coals was withheld from the steams;
In Genoa he was not permitted to go on ^ora.
He afterward returned to Naples, but was not
restored to ofiice.

CARRIAGOU, the largest of the Grenadise
islands, in the British West Indies, T m. lonr
and from 2 to 4 broad. It is well cultivated, and

E reduces good crops of cotton. The town and
arbor of Hillsborough are on its W. side.
CARRICEFERGUS, a maritime district of
Ulster, Ireland, surrounded by the oounty^
Antrim on all sides save the S., which is washed
by the bay of Carrickfergus; area^ 26 sq. ul;
pop. in 1851, including the town, 8,520. Inlasd
it is in general hilly, but toward the sea the
hills gradually disappear, and the country
spreads out into an alluvial pliun. Oata^ po-
tatoes, cattle, and cheese are produced. Ths
fisheries are valuable, and the oysters are fa-
mous. A vein of rock salt of remarkable puritf
and great thickness has recently been discover
ed. This county belongs to the diocese d
Connor, and its entire ecclesiastical inoome
inures to the benefit of a angle rect<ur. — Cax-
BiCKFXBGUS, the Capital, pop. in 1851, 8,54^
extends about 1 m. along the shore of Carrick-
fergus bay. It consists of 8 parts: the old at
waued town in the oentre, the Irish quarter on

OABBIOKMACROSS

CAERIER PIGEON

483

til© W*, and the Scotch qxiarter on the E, Tlio
inhiibitttnta of the last-uietitioned quarter nro
, f.l« fTv fisher rn(-n. fle-^'^ndaay of a coiouy
whom religions persecution drore thither from
the opposite coast of Scotland in the 17th cen-
tury. There is an old castle, once very strong,
and still fortified. The other pabhc buildings
worthy of note are the parish church, an anti-
quated structure in the form of a cross, and the
court-house, a neat building recently erected.
There are 8 fiax-spinning mills, a muslin
bleach-green, and a linen bleach-mill and
green in the vicinity, and some trade is also
carried on in tanning, brewing, and distilling.
In ancient times the town was frequently attack-
ed by the Scots. William III. landed here, June
14, 1690. In the roads opposite the town, the
British sloop of war Drake was captured by
Paul Jones, April 24, 1778, The town sends
one member to parliament.

CARRICKMAOROSS, or Magheross, a
market town in the county of Monaghan, Ire-
land, 50 m. N. N. W. from Dublin ; pop. in 1851,
2,534. The town was granted by Queen Eliza-
beth to the earl of Essex, who built here a
castle, the ruins of which are now among the
most interesting objects of the place. The
estate still remains in the possession of the
earl's family. On the W. side of the town are
the residences of the Shirley family, the princi-
^>al proprietors of tlie district. There are in the
town a brewery, malt stores, and a distillery.

CARRIER, Jean Baptiste, a notorious mem-
ber of the French convention, born in 1756 near
Aurillac, died Dec. 16, 1794, in Paris. Taking
Ilia seat in the national convention in 1792, he
supported the establishment of the revolutionary
tribunal, voted for the death of Louis XVL,
pre.-jented a motion for the arrest of Philip
£j?alite, duke of Orleans, and participated
actively in the popular rising of May 81, against
the Girondists. Ilis revolutionary zeal caused
him to be sent to Normandy, then to Nantes,
where he arrived Oct, 8, 1793. The western
departments were troubled by civil war, and he
surrounded himself with ferocious men, ordered
numerous arrest?, and sent victims to the scaf-
fold on the slightest suspicion. He soon dis-
pensed with even a show of trial ; without any
judicial proceedings, prisoners were murdered
by wholesale; and as the guillotine did not
aJford sufficient means of execution, boats pro-
vided with valves were procured, which, after
receiving on board hundreds of prisoners, were
towed to the middle of the Loire, where they
were sunk to the bottom with their human
cargo. The first of these dreadful executions
consisted of 94 priests ; several others took place
in which women and even children were min-
gled with men in every stage of life. The un-
happy beings were confined in a vast building
called the warehouse; every day, at night-fall,
numbers of them were summoned on board the
fatal boats, and their death was hidden in the
d:irkness of night. lie also invented the so-
called *' republican marriage :" the victims

were tied in couples, sometimes a man and
woman together, thea hurled into the river by
the ejecutiom-r^ : (^^jit^tltnes forced from thu
boat by the sword or bayonet Meanwhile
numbers of prisoners were also shot in the
quarries in the vicinity of Nantes. The conven-
tion was for a while kept ignorant of these
monstrous scenes; the killing of prisoners here-
ported as the " translation of culprits." The citi-
zens of Nantes themselves did not dare to de-
nounce him, as they were under the impression
that he acted in accordance with the orders of
the convention. At last the assembly became
aware of the real state of things, and Carrier
was recalled by the committee of public safety.
Strongly denounced by pubUo opinion, he was
arraigned before the revolutionary tribunal, Nov.
25, 1794, and sentenced to death.

CARRIER PIGEON (columba livia). This,
the pigeon privS of B^lon, the pigeon domes'
tique of Brisson, the wild rock pigeon of the
British, and the colommen of the Welsh, is the
stock from which ornithologists generally now
agree that the domestic pigeon is derived.
"Under this species," writes Mr. Selby, "we
include not only the common pigeon, or in-
habitant of the dovecot, but all those numerous
varieties, or, as they are commonly called, races
of domesticated pigeons so highly prized, and
fostered with so much care and attention by the
amateur breeder, or pigeon fancier; for, how-
ever diversified their forms, color, or peculiarity
of habit may be, we consider them all as having
originated with a few accidental varieties of
the common pigeon, and not from any cross of
that bird with other species, no signs or marks
whatever of such being apparent in any of the
numerous varieties known to ns. In fact, the
greater part of them owe their existence to the
interference and art of man ; for, by aeparating
fh)m the parent stock such accidental varieties
as have occasionally occurred, by subjecting
these to captivity and domestication, and by
assorting and pairing them together as fancy
or caprice suggested, he has, at intervals, gene-
rated all the various races and peculiar varieties,
which, it is well known, when once produced,
may be perpetuated for an indefinite period, by
being kept separate from and unmixed with
others, or what by those interested in such
pursuits is usually termed * breeding in and in.'
Such also, we may add, is the opinion of the
most eminent naturalists as to their origin ; and
it is strongly insisted on by M. Temminck, in his
valuable Ilist&ire generate naturelle des pige<ms.
Indeed, the fact that all the varieties, however
much they may differ in size, color, or any
other particulars, if permitted, breed freely and
indiscriminately together, and produce a pro-
geny equally prolific, is another and a convinc-
ing proof of a common origin ; for it is one of
those universal laws of nature, extending even
to plants, and one which, if once set aside and
not enforced, would plunge all animated nature
into indescribable confusion, that the off*spring
produced by the intercourse of difierent spe-

OABRIEB PIGEOK

dea, that is, distinct speoieS) is incapable of
further increase." The varieties of this bird,
prodnoed nnder the fostering hand of man, the
tamblers. croppers, jaoobines, rants, spots, tnr-

wonld fill a Tolome;
demands especial no-

bits, owls, nuns, dfb.
the carrier, howeyer,

tice. The carrier pigeon is a bird larg^
thim the conunon pigeon, measures aboat
16 inches in length, and weighs aboat 1^
lb. The neck is long, and the pectoral mas-
des very hr^ indicating a power of vigw-
ons and long^ntinned flight An append-
age of naked skin hangs- across its bill, and
eontinnes down on either side of the lower
mandible. According to its size and shape the
amateurs of carrier pigeons estimate the value
of the bird. Thej consider those pigeons the
best that have the appendage rising high on the
head, and of considerable width across the bill,
and that are also distingnished by a wide circlet
round the eyes, destitute of feathers. The in-
stinct which renders this bird so valuable is
its very strong love of home, which is, in
some degree, common to all the domesticated
varieties. The mode of training them in Tur-
key, where the art is supposed to be carried
to the greatest perfection, is this : The person
who has the charge of rearing and tndning
them watches for the arrival of the young
pigeons at the full strength of wing, and then
takes them in a covered basket to a distance of
about i mile from their home ; they are then set
at liberty, and if any of them fail in returning
home from this short distance, they are con-
sidered stupid, and are r^ected as valueless.
Those that return home are then taken to
greater diBtances, progressively increased from
S to 1,000 miles, and they will then return with
certainty from the furthest parts of the king-
dom. In England, it is usual to keep these
birds in a dark place for about 6 houm before
they are used ; tney are then sparingly fed, but
have as much water given them as they will
drink. The paper on which the message is
written should be carefully tied round the upper
part of the bird's leg, but so as in no wise to
impede its flight. In older times, it appears,
from an English ballad, and fh>m a Ime in
Tasso, that the original way of suspending
the despatch was from the wing, or round the
neck, but the above method is Uiat now adopt-
ed. The antiquity of the application of these
birds to the purpose of bearing intelligence to
distant parts or persons, and the perseverance
with which some varieties (that which is
named, from its peculiar fitness, the carrier,
more especially), when well trained, wiU return
fi^m long distances, is well known ; but it is not
known when, or by whom, the pigeon was first
applied to this purpose. ^^The same faculty
which in comparatively modem days was de-
graded to giving notice to the authorities that
the finisher of the law had done his duty, on
Tyburn hanging days— Hogarth's graphic record
of the custom will occur to most — ^which after-
ward sank to being the bearer of the news of the

prize ring, and nowadi^ ooaveys I2ie prioe d
stocks to and from the continent, or brings tht
first intelligence of the winner of the jSerbj.
kept Hirtius and Brutus constantly InlbnDed o^
each other's designs and movementa, as Antony
the besiejger felt to his cost. In vain did be
spread his nets, and try every stratagem to
baffle these couriers of the air; he had the
mortification of seeing them going and retomin;
every morning over the beleaguered walla of 3ia-
tina. Anacreon's dove" (see his ode Ecr Utpum-
pav) *^ was employed on a more gentle missioD;
and Taurosthenes sent one decked with parpie w
his happy father, in the island of .figina, with
the news of his victory at the Olympic gamtf,
on the day of the pigeon's arrival We han
the authority of Sir John HandeviUe — ^he who
made his way to the border of China, in the
reigns of the second and third Edwara — thst
the Asiatics used them for the same pnrpose ss
the Romans. During the crusade of St. Lodii
they were so employed; Tasso preasea them
into service in the siege of Jerusalem," maki]]^
Godfrey defend one when attacked by afaloon;
and Ariosto makes the castellan di Damisu
spread the news of Orrilo's death by a mesEec-
ger dove. *^ The rapidity of the flight of some
of the species," says Mr. Broderip, " is almost in-
credible. The passenger pigeon has been shot
in the neighborhood of New York^ with it»
crop full of rice, which the bird could not have
procured nearer than the rice fields of Greorigia
and Carolina. Audubon, who relates this start-
ling, but, I believe true fiict, observea that, si
their pqwer of digestion is so great that thej
entirely decompose food in 12 hours, the birds
which were Idlled in the neighborhood of New
York must have travelled between 800 and 400
miles in 6 hours. The passenger pigeon would
thus, as Audubon observes, be enabled, were ii
so inclined, to visit Europe in less than 8 days.''
With all deference to Mr. Audubon's opimon.
however, something more than inclination wouM
be required by the bird to enable it to pay tb«
visit intimated; for, rapid as are its powers oi
digesting food, equally rapid is the failure <^
strength when deprived of food ; and a bird
can no more endure many consecutive hours of
total privation of sustenance than a man can
support as many consecutive days; so that un-
less the passenger pigeon were to take a walkt
of rice nnder his wing, he would have but Mttk
chance of reaching the term of a 8 days' jonmejt
unless he should calculate on stopping en iwU
and taking a meal on board one of the mail
steamers, as at a half-way house, and on finding
a second on which to roost, since the pigeon is
not nocturnal. — The ordinary rate of Uie flt^
of carrier pigeons is not generally held to
exceed 80 mUes an hour. Wagers have been
laid to determine the rate of a carrier pig-
eon's fiight '^ In 1808, a young man in the
borough undertook that his pigeons should
fiy 86 miles in an hour. Three were thrown
up at 6 o'clock in the evening beyond Ton-
bridge Wells, and arrived at their owner's res-

^H QAHJUHU rmrn^

■

CARBO 48o ^^1

^^A|^ wimi^ ihtm (mUhf

.»_. Ti'^.» i n .. . ._

^^ * - faOoi ^^B

1 1

^^^^Ki

^^^^HRh* viV'V>'n

. -^

L' imtf/, '1'

^^^I'O'd^jck in U*o Hi'ir

(•

ll ffW &f !

(ill oiilaiOQ 4iEtiVtfMii ^H

^^^K., 1 '

^^^Kc>'

\*,-'n*-„NM

..»..i

.« Ikmi ^M

^^K^pv

HttUii 4«vtlii^ hj mm ^M

^^Blt^v .

.i.-.-:4.

H?. ii t» P«i4 tj

kiii i|iuiii|«R#f9d ^^U

^^mi i«( pAf^^mi

'ft^ iTtrsfr5n^ tff«| ^^1

^■fep Xbomiii

^^M

^^^^■^B ri

U^^b!

•u

n^HthT

^^1

: 1

^^K tk!.: _

^^^H

^^p up,

j£

op tllfr l^t'

^^H

^^Us riM 1

r.i

ASnlebrwM

^^1

^^^^^^b,

• .lug ua

iTK«m t>t

^^1

^B:

•^^t*^,

^^^^^^K>

.'u:

TJTPft

^^^H

■ r

It ^^H

^^^^^Rii ....; ...

*^ >i^i

^^^Ki TIjii. t<^i

ro>m a

lliC^rct&iiMddJliU

MrAfni

^^H

^^^^^^^ -<

llji*^5

llf iutr'f3"-#TU't_' ft***

iK^f.J;

^^1

^^^^^^A UinMMl

^if, fur

lAlitMi

^^H

^^^K.

'iri^'iir^

ili:lr.

^^1

^^^^^^q2$ui4b«»Qb ai^i

^^^H

^Hgif ft^ '^9 fur t* ^tt*Ji' :

111

oHiriij

^^^1

^IRi'

^^^^'"li biaw ft bri

'!a

_ J

486

OABROLL

alao several esteemed pnblioftdons on the springs
of that famous watering place; his last work
on the aabjeot) entitled ViTigt-huit ana ^obser*
vatwM €t d^ei^^^rience d CarUhad, appeared in
1868.

CARROLL, the name of oonnties in 14 of
the United States. L An E. oo. of K EL,
watered bj nnmerona small streams; area
about 660 sq. m. Lake Winnipiseogee sepa-
rates it from Belknap oo. on the 8. W., and
within its own limits are several smaller lakes
and ponds. The sorface is moontainons and
broken, Ossipee mountain and Oonwaj peak
being the prmcipal summits. The soil is pro-
ductive, but much labor is required for its cul-
tivation. In 1860 it yielded 147,716 bushels of
Indian corn, 60,467 of oats, 840,278 of potatoes,
84^676 tons of hay, and 670,188 lbs. of butter..
There were 26 flour mills, 49 sawmills, 40'
churches, and 6,281 pupils attending public
schools. The county was named in honor of
Charles Carroll of CarroUton, one of the sign-
ers of the declaration of independence. Capi-
tal, Ossipee. Pop. in 1860, 20,167. IL A
N. CO. of Maxrland, with a hilly surface, and a
thin, rocky, but carefully improved soil. It
borders on Pennsylvania, is drained by the
sources of Patapsco and Gunpowder rivers,
and comprises an area of 600 sq. m. In 1860
it produced 266,007 bushels of wheat, 848,008 of
Indian corn, 228,179 of oats, and 444,769 lbs. of
butter, beside considerable quantities of copper
and iron ore, cotton and woollen fabrics, lea-
ther, and various manufactures. Two news-
papers were published in the county. There
were 40 churches, and the public schools num-
bered 708 pupiK Capital, W estminster. Pop.
in 1860, 20,616, of whom 976 were slaves. III.
A S. W. CO. of y a» area 440 sq. m., bordering on
N. C, bounded W. by New or Kanawha river,
and extending S. E. to the Blue Ridge. The
land, though rough and hilly, is generally fit for
cultivation or grazing, and proanced in 1860,
182,189 bushels of Indian com, 11,678 of wheat,
82,847 of oats, 2,716 tons of hay, and 66,178
lbs. of butter. Horses, cattle, and swine are
raised, and there are mines of copper, iron, and
lead. Grayson sulphur springs, on New river,
are much resorted to in summer. CarroU co.
was formed from Floyd in 1842. Capital,
Hillsville. Pop. in 1860, 6,909, of whom 164
were slaves. Value of real estate in 1866, |4,-
282,861. IV. A W. co. of Ga., bordering on
Ala.; area, 672 sq. m. The Chattahoochee
and the Tallapoosa are the principal rivers.
The surface is mountainous, and the soil, which
rests chiefly on a granite foundation, is fertile
in many parts of the county. One or two gold
nunes are worked with profit. The agricultu-
ral productions in 1860 amounted to 1,243 bales
of cotton, 816,871 bushels of Indian corn, 40,808
of oats, and 78,948 of sweet potatoes. There
were 840 pupils attending public and other
schools. The county was formed in 1826.
Capital, Carrollton. Pop. in 1866, 10,626, of
whom 1,879 were slaves. Value of real estate

in 1866, 11,218,628. V. A central eou of
Ifiss.; area about 860 sq. m. The surface is
level, and the soil alluvial and remarkably fo--
tile. The Tazoo river, on the W. border, is
navigable by steamboats at all seaaons. Pro-
ductions in 1860, 17,989 bales of cotton, 727.^40
bushels of Indian coni, 176,860 of sweet potatoa^
and 82,122 of oats. Number of pupils in tht
public schools, 628. Capital, Carrollton. Pop.
m 1860, 18,492, of whom 9,812 were slaves. \L
A N. E. parish of La., bordering on Ark., area,
1,060 sq. m., between the Mississippi rivBr and
BoQuf bayou. The surface is generally level. la
1866 the productions amounted to 35,667 baks
of cotton, and 886,810 bushels of Indian com.
The value of real estete was $6,607,683. P<^
in 1866, 10,946, of whom 8,445 were slavo.
Capital, Providence. VII. A N. W. oo. of
Ark., bordering on Mo.; area, 1,038 sq. m.
Most of the land is fertile and diversified
by hills, plains, and valleys. Several quarries
yield excellent variegated yellow marble. Tb«
harvest of 1864 amounted to 401,385 bushels
of Indian com, 20,288 of wheat, and 82,005
of oats. Capital, Carrollton. Pop. in 186i,
6,787, of whom 206 were davea. VIIL A
W. CO. of Tenn., with a flat aurfaco, an ex-
cellent soil; area, 626 sq. m. There are ex-
tensive forests of oak, hickory, maple, and
black walnut Agricidture is in a forward
state, and the productions in 1860 were 801475
bushels of Indian corn, 108,029 of oata, 2,36S
bales of cotton, 817,146 lbs. of tobacco, and
107,743 of butter. Number of pupils in the
public schools, 671. Capital, Huntingdon.
Pop. 16,967, of whom 8,186 were slaves. IX.
A N. CO. of Zy., bordering on Ind., bounded
by the Ohio river on the N., intersected by the
Kentucky; area, about 200 sq. m. In the K.
part the surface is occupied by steep hills;
elsewhere the land is undulating and fertile*
Most of the soil is calcareous, and limestone is
abundant The productions in 1860 were 364^>
610 bushels of Indian com, 12,263 of wheat,
18,604 of oats, 282,612 lbs. of tobacoo, 12,753
of wool, and 8,266 of flax. There were IS
churches in the county, and 600 pupils attend-
ing public schools. Capital, CarroUton. Pop.
6,626, of whom 949 were slaves. X. An £. oo.
of Ohio, area 860 sq. m., well watered, fertile,
and moderately hilly. Hard coal and iron ara
the principal minerals. The agricultural pro-
ducts in 1860 were 280,981 bushels of Indian
com, 268,766 of wheat, 221,088 of oats, and
11,671 tons of hay. Cattle and awine are ex-
tensively raised, and constitute a considerable
proportion of the wealth of the inhabitants. In
1860 there were 71 churches, and 8,380 pupils
in the public schools. Capital, Carrollton. Pop.
17,686. XI. A central co. of Ind., area 878 sq.
m., dndned by the Wabash and Tippecanoe
rivers. The soil is extremely productive, and
the surface divernfied. About f is prairie land,
the remainder being covered with forests of
beech, walnut^ oak, and sugar maple. In 1850
the comity produced 549,882 bushels of Indian

OAEROLL

com, 133,871 of wheat, 68,076 of oats, and 4,-

3'.>7 tons of hay. There were 9 churches, and
1,250 pupils attendiug public schools. Capital,
iJelhi. Pop. 11,015. XII. A N. W. CO. of 111.,
area, 416 sq. m., separated from Iowa on the W.
by the Mississippi river. The surface is rolling,
and divided between prairie lauds and forests.
Tiie productions in 1850 amounted to 136,301
bushels of wheat, 218,061 of Indian corn, 74,684
of oats, and 100,986 lbs. of butter. There was
only 1 church, and the public schools numbered
1,135 pupils. There are extensive lead mines.
Cai)ital, Mount Carroll. Pop. in 1855, 7,610.
XilL A central co. of Mo., area 700 sq. m., lying
between the Missouri river on the W. and Grand
river on the E. The surface is somewhat un-
even, and in many places is covered with thick
forests of oak, black walnut, and other trees.
The soil, which rests on beds of limestone and
sandstone, is generally productive. In 1850 it
yielded 311,675 bushels of Indian corn, 26,452
of wheat, 34,055 of oats, and 289,869 lbs. of to-
bacco. There were 9 churches in the county,
and 321 pupils attending public schools. Capi-
tal, Carrollton. Pop. in 1856, 9,663, of whom
1,248 were slaves. XIV. A central co. of Iowa,
drained by Kaccoon river, area about 600 sq.
in., with a healthy climate and a fertile soil.
It has been recently erected, and very little of
the land is yet improved. Coal, iron, building
etone, and timber are abundant. Pop. in 1856,
251.

CARROLL, Charles, of Carrollton, a patriot
of the American revolution, born at Anna-
polis, Md., Sept. 20, 1737, died Nov. 14, 1832,
tho last surviving signer of the declaration
of independence. Ilis parents were of the
Roman Catholic faith, and in 1745, when he
was 8 years old, he was taken to the college of
English Jesuits at St. Omer, where he remained
6 years, and then went to a college of French
Jesuits at Rheiras. After 2 years he went to
Bourges to study tho civil law, and after re-
maining there 1 year, spent the next 2 in Paris,
whence he repaired to London and began tho
study of law in the Temple. In 1764 he re-
turned to America, and in 1768 married Mary
Darnell. Ho inherited a vast estate, the last of
the manorial grants of Maryland, and at tho
commencement of the revolutionary war was
considered the richest man in the colonies. His
property would be considered large now, and
at that period, wlien such fortunes were scarcely
known, was probably little short of 2 millions
of dollars. He soon began to employ his pen
in defence of the colonies against the claims of
tlie mother country. In 1770-'71 he wrote arti-
cles under tho signature of "The First Citizen,"
against the right of the government to regulate
fees by proclamation. About the same time,
in a conversation with Judge Samuel Chase, the
latter remarked, " Carroll, we have the better
of our opponents — we have completely written
them down." *'And do you think," replied Car-
roll, '* that writing will settle the question be-
tween us V " To bo sure," replied Chase ; ** what

else can we resort to?" "The bayonet," an-
swered Carroll. Some years before the com-
mencement of open hostilities, Mr. Graves, a
member of parliament, wrote to Mr. Carroll on
tlie subject of our troubles, ridiculed the idea of
our resistance, and said that 6,000 English
troops would march from one end of the
continent to the other. " So they might," Mr.
Carroll observed in his reply, " but they will be
masters of the spot only on which they encamp.
They will find naught but enemies before them.
If we are beaten in the plains, we will retreat
to the mountains and defy them. Our resources
will increase with our ditliculties." When tea
was imported into Annapolis, great excitement
was created, and Mr. Stewart, the owner, was
threatened with violence. Some of his friends
called on Mr. Carroll to protect him, or use his
influence to do so. He said to them : *' It will
not do, gentlemen, to export the tea to Europe
or the West Indies. Its exportation, contrary
to thg known regulations of the convention, is
an onence for which the people will not be so
easily satisfied, and whatever may be my per-
sonal esteem for Mr. Stewart, and my wish to
prevent violence, it will not be in my power to
protect him, unless he consents to pursue a
more decisive course of conduct. My advice is,
that he set fire to the vessel and bum her, to-
gether with the tea she contains, to the water's
edge." Mr. Stewart then appeared and soon
consented to the proposal, and a few hours
afterward tho brigantine Peggy, with sails set
and colors flying, was given to the flames, to
the entire satisfaction of the dense crowd col-
lected. In 1775 Carroll was chosen a member
of the first committee of observation that was
established at Annapolis ; and during the same
year he was elected a delegate in the provincial
convention. In February^ 1776, he was appoint-
ed a commissioner with Dr. Franklin and Judge
Chase, to proceed to Canada accompanied by
the Rev. John Carroll, in order to induce the
inhabit^ints of that country to unite with the
colonies. Ho returned from Canada in June,
1776, and on the 12th presented their report
He found the declaration of independence under
discussion, and the delegates of his own state,
Maryland, shackled by instructions (given the
December previous, and against which he had
then contended), "to disavow in the most
solemn manner all design in the colonies of in-
dependence." On his return he hastened to
Annapolis, to resume his seat and procure, if

Possible, a withdrawal of these instructions,
ogether with Judge Chase, he labored so assid-
uously, that on June 28 the instructions were
withdrawn and the delegates authorized to join
in a declaration of independence. On July 4,
1776, he was appointed a delegate to Congress,
and Aug. 2, when the declaration was first
signed, he was one of the earliest signers. As
he aflixed his signature to that immortal com-
pact, a member standing near, knowing his
Erincely wealth, observed, "There po a few mil-
ons ;" and adding, " However, there are manj

488

OABBOLL

GABBON

Oarrolls, and the Bridah will not know 'whicH
one it is,'' Mr. Carroll immediately added to
his name, '* of Oarrollton," and was ever after-
ward known hj that title. Mr. Carroll took
bis seat on July 18, and was soon afterward
plaoed in the board of war. In the latter part
of 1T76, he was one of the committee to arait
tlie constitation of Maryland, and in December
of the same year he was chosen to the senate
under the constitution of that state. In 1T77
he was re-appointed a delegate to Congress. In
1781 and 1786 he was reelected to the Mary-
land senate, and in 1788 a senator of the United
States. In 1797 he was again elected to the
senate of Maryland, and in 1799 he was appoint-
ed one of the commissioners to settle the boun-
dary line between Virginia and Maryland. In
1810 Mr. CarroU retir^ from public life, and
devoted his time to the management of his
estate. A man of cultivated mind, captivat-
ing manners, liberal and philanthropic in all
his views, and proverbi^dly hospitable, his
society was eagerly sought by those who
resided near him, or in tiie neighboring city
of Baltunore; while those who came from a
distance with any proper introduction, met
always the warmest welcome. On July ^
1821, the fact that only 4 of the signers of
the declaration of independence were still liv-
ing, WAS noticed in many of the newspapers.
Of these, William Floyd, of New York, died 80
days afterward. The demise of John Adams
and Thomas Jefferson, on July 4, 1826, left
Charles Carroll of OarroUton the last surviv-
ing signer. In the performance of their obse-
qmea, funeral honors being paid them in Balti-
more as in many other cities, Mr. Carroll was
chief mourner. On July 4^ 1828, after he
had passed the patriarchal age of 90 years,
in the presence of a vast concourse of specta-
tors and attended by one of the most imposing
civic processions ever seen in the United States,
he laid the corner stone of the Baltimore and
Ohio railroad. He was yet spared for several
years longer, and died in the 96th year of his
age.

CARROLL, John, an enunent prelate of the
Roman Catholic church, and the first arch-
bishop of the U. S., bom at Upper Marlborough,
Md., in 1785, died Dec. 8, 1816, was educated
in the college of St Omer, and the college of
li^ge, where he was ordained a priest, and after
surrendering his patrimonial estate to his bro-
ther, became a member of the society of Jesus.
Upon the dissolution of that society in France
in 1762, he acted as the secretary of the dis-
persed fathers, in their remonstrance with the
court of France respecting the temporal inter-
ests of the order. He then went to England,
and was selected by Lord Stourton, a Catholic
nobleman, to accompany his son as his tutor in
the tour of Europe. During this journey he
wrote, for the use of his pupil, a concise history
of England. On his return to the continent in
1778, he accepted for a short time a professor-
ship at Bruges, and afterward retired to England,

living with the fiunily of the earl of Amad^
On the breaking out of the troubles betweea
the mother country and the American oolomea,
he resisted aU the pressing solicitations of Jjord,
Arundel and embarked for his native Isnd.
Shortly after his return, at the request of tiie
American congress, he accompanied Dr. fVank-
lin, his cousin, Charles Carroll of OarroDtoii,
and the Hon. Samuel Chase, on a political mis-
sion to Canada, from which it was hoped that
great benefits would ensue to the colonial <

By a special resolution of congress Charles Car-
roll was desired *^ to prevail on Mr. John Ob^
roll to accompany the committee to Canada^ to
assist them in such matters as they shall think
useful." The object of this resolution, thoa^
not entered on the journals of Congress, is quits
evident In the debates on the Canada biU in
1774, we are informed that there were 150,000
Catholics, and only 860 ProtestantS| withliL the
government of the Quebec province. In order
to fully estimate the delicacy of Mr. Gairoll^
position, it should be remembered that when
his services were requested by Congress, Bome
hope still remained in the colonies of a final
reconciliation with the king. On April 2, 1776,
the commissioners left the city of New York in
a sloop for Albany, but did not reach Montreal
till the 29th. As is well known, the missioB
failed, and leaving Messrs. Chase and Carroll of
Carrollton, Mr. John Carroll returned homo
with Dr. Franklin. The friendship formed
between the^e 2 eminent men during this jonr-
ney was of lasting character. After the estab-
lishment of peace, the Roman Catholic dei^
of the United States petitioned the pope for the
establishment of a hierarchy in this country, in
preference to remaining under the superintend-
ence of that in England, and it was at Dr.
Franklin's instance, then residing at Pasay, that
Mr. Carroll was appointed vicar-general in
1786, when he fixed his abode in Baltimore. In
1789 he was appointed the first Catholic bishop
of the U. S., and went to England to be conse-
crated. He assumed the title of bishop of Bal-
timore, and aiew years before his death was
created archbishop.

CABKON, a small river in Scotland, 14 m.
long, rising between the friths of Forth and
Clyde, and flowing into the frith of Forth,
about 8 m. N. of Falkirk. About the middle
of its course stand 2 eartlien mounds of consid-
erable height, called the bills of Dunipaoe. It
has been supposed that they were made in com*
memoration of peace between the Romans and
the Caledonians, their name coming from dtm^ a
hill, and pax^ peace. They may be merely bar-
rows, however. Not far below them stands the
old Roman bridge, supposed to be the scene of
a conference between William Wallace and Rob-
ert Bruce. About ^ mile from tiiQ stream,
near Falkirk, is the battle-ground where the
English defeated Wallace in 1298. During the
6th century, many battles between the Bo-
mans and ^e Scots and Picts were fought near
this river. The Carron was the boundary of

OABEOIi'

CARROT

48B

the Roman empire, the wall ai Antoninus rnn-
ning close to and parallel with it for several
miles. The village of OarroD, on its hanks, is
known for its large iron foundery, established
in 1760.

CARR02T, Gut Tottssaint Juijen, a French
abbe, born at Rennes, Feb. 23, 1760, died
March 15, 1821, in Paris. Having taken holy-
orders at an early age, he distinguished himself
by his active philanthropy in establishing, in
his native town, cotton factories, where he pro-
vided work for the poor. On the outbreak of
the revolution he was transported to Jersey.
There he established schools for young ex-
iles from France, a Catholic chapel, and chari-
table institutions. In 1796, through the assist-
ance of the government and several noblemen,
he founded a college for his young countrymen,
a female school, and 2 hospitals for emigrant
invalids. In 1814 he returned to France as
poor as he left it, and, with the patronage of
Louis XVIII., founded the Marie Therese insti-
tute for the education of orphans. He wrote
several books for the instruction of Christian
youth. *

CARROiN'ADE, a short piece of u-on ord-
nance, first constructed at the Carron foundery,
Scotland, in 1779, for the use of the British
navy, and first employed against the United
States. The carronades have no trunnions, but
a loop under the middle of the piece, by which
they are fastened to the carriage. The bore
has a chamber, and the muzzle is scooped out
like a cup. They are very short and light, there
being about 60 or 70 lbs. of the gun to 1 lb. of
the weight of the solid shot, the length varying
from 7 to 8 calibres. The charge, consequently,
cannot but be weak, and ranges from fV ^^^ 4
the weight of the shot. — Carronades, on their
first introduction, found great favor with naval
men. Their lightness and insignificant recoil
allowed great numbers of them to be placed
on board the small men-of-war of those times.
Tlieir ranges appeared proportionably great,
which was caused : 1, by a reduced windage,
and, 2, by their great angle of dispart, arising
from the thickness of metal around the breech,
and the shortness of the gun ; and the great
weight of metal projected by them rendered
them at close quarters very formidable. They
were adopted in the D. 8. service about 1800.
It was, however, soon discovered that tliis kind
of cannon could not compete with longer and
heavier guns, throwing their projectiles with full
charge and at low elevations. Thus, it has been
ascertained that the common long guns of the
British service have at 2° elevation, and the
ebell guns at 3°, the same range as the car-
ronades of corresponding calibre at 5^ (viz.,
about 1,200 yards). And, as the chance of
hitting decreases as the elevation increases, the
nse of carronades beyond 1,200 yards and an
elevation of 5® is completely out of the ques-
tion; whereas, long guns may with consider-
able effect be used at ranges up to a mile, and
even 2,000 yards. This was strikingly exempli-

fied by the 2 contending squadrons on Lakes
Erie and Ontario, during the Anglo-American
war of 1812-'14. The American vessels had
long guns, while the British were mainly armed
with carronades. The Americans manoeuvred
so aa to keep just out of range of the British
carronades, while their own long guns told
heavily on the hulls and rigging of their op-
ponents. In consequence of these defects, car-
ronades have now become almost obsolete.
On shore they are used by the British, now
and then, on the flanks of bastions and in case-
mates, where but a short extent of ditch is to
he flanked by grape principally. The French
navy possesses a carronade with trunnions (car^
ronade d tourillom) ; but this is in reality a
powerful gun.

CARROT (daueuM carota^ Tourn.), a member
of the natural order umhelliferm^ or parsley
family. It is a biennial, bearing seeds on stems
2 to 2^ feet high, in clusters called umbels. It
may be seen growing in its wild state in pas-
tures, where it is a great pest. The tap root of
the domesticated carrot is raised from seeds
sown in cultivated ground, and has long been
used in soups and stews, and is a favorite in
Germany and France. It is a promoter of good
digestion, and is especially valued as a substan-
tial food for horses and other stock. Butter of
an excellent quality and bright color can bo
made by feeding a peck of carrots morning and
night to eadi milch cow. They can be grown
at the rate of 500 to 1,500 bushels per acre,
and properly managed at a cost of 15 to 20
cents per bushel. In England they are rated at
10 to 28 tons, worth £1 sterling per ton at; least.
In our markets they bring $1 to $1 60 per
barrel of 2^ bushels; in bulk for feeding, about
40 to 50 cents per bushel. Soil not capable of
producing 500 bushels per acre should never be
used for carrots. The best soil is a deep dry
loam, rich from previous manuring. The
carrot germinates slowly, requiring about 3
weeks before it appears above ground. This
slow growth allows the weeds time to start, and
makes culture more expensive. To avoid this
difficulty, it has been the practice with many to
drill radishes, mustard, or oats with them, to
mark the row at an early period so as to allow
the spaces between the rows to be cleaned, even
before the plants are up. Some growers place
the seed in a bag, bury it in the earth until it
begins to swell and show signs of sprouting,
when it is rolled in plaster and planted. The
amount of seed required is 2, J to 4 lbs. per acre,
depending on nearness of drills ; if radishes are
sown with them, an equal bulk will be required.
Early carrots for house use are sown as soon as
the soil is fit to receive the seed ; ** early horn"
is the best variety. Field carrots do better,
sown from May 10 to June 10. The large Al-
tringham, white Belgian, and long Orange, are
the choicest varieties. The latter docs not
yield as much as the others, but is of finer qual-
ity. The white Belgian carrot gives the least
trouble in field culture. In England, carrota are

480

OABBOUfiEL

OASSHHB

best grown on lidgeB, Irat in our tnmn dinuito
flat <mlture is to be preferred. In gardens they
are sown in drills 15 to 20 iDohes asonder, and
cnltiyated by band. In the field they are
planted from 24 to 80 indies apart, grown more
thickly in the drill, and tilled by horse powen
The land is deeply ploughed, subsoiled, smoothly
harrowed and rolled. The seed is sown from a
drill barrow at a depth of i to i of an inch.
Some drilling machines sow a spedal manure
with the seed, which is advantageons in giving
the plants an early start Should any manure
be required, it would be advisable to use solu-
ble special manures, made with regard to the
wants of the plant and the defidencies of the
BoiL The best Peruvian guano, mixed with
many times its bulk of muck or charcoal dust,
will answer a good purposei if ploughed in the
soil before pkjitiug ; 800 lbs. to 500 lbs. per
acre will be required for a good dressing. Solu-
ble superphosphate of lime, with about ^ its
weight of g^ano, probably forms one of the
b^ general manures for carrots. Ten bushels
of common salt per acre will add to its value;
and on most soils 25 or 50 bushels of unleached
wood ashes dressed over the surface separately
from and after the other manures, so that they
will not come in immediate contact with the
ashes, will increase the yield. After-culture con-
sists in frequent stirring of the soil with Knox's
horse-hoe or root-cleaner, or other similar in*
strnment, which cuts close to the plant, and
demolishes all weeds in spaces between the
rows. In November the crop is lifted, by mn«»
ning a subsoil lifter close to a row of carrots
at full depth, say 10 to 20 inches ; this will
loosen the whole soil, and the roots may be
readily pulled, the tops removed with a knife,
fed to the cattle, or left on the ground to be
ploughed under for manure, while the roots are
stored in a cool cellar, where an even tempera*
ture just above freezing is mcuntained; or they
may be pitted in long narrow piles in the field,
covered with 2 or 3 inches of long rye straw
and several inches in depth of earth, leaving
straw chimneys to ventilate the pits. When
fed to cattle, they should be washed in clean
water, and cut in thin slices, and given alone
or with other food. The meal for fattening
cattle should be sprinkled over carrots, if rapid
improvement is desired.

OABROUSEL, a chariot race, or a magni*
fioent entertainment given by princes or ouier
great personages, who appeared dothed and
armed in the manner of ancient cavaliers.
TertuUian ascribes their invention to the god*
dess Girce, and says that they were instituted
in honor of the sun, and consisted at first only
of chariot races ; whence the name has been
derived from the Latin camtB saZis, the chariot
of the son. Carrousels were common among
the Goths, Moors, and Italians, and were intro-
duced into fVance under Henry IV. They suo*
ceeded the jousts and tournaments, in one of
which Henry II. had lost his life, but since the
time of Louis 2IV. have passed out of fashion.

The plaee appointadfcMr the oamMUoia was sot*
rounded with an amphitheatre for the ladica
and prindpal spectators, and some eycmt in
fable or histoiy was selected for attegoxicai i«|i-
resentation. The carrousels given at Paris in
the court of the Louvre in 1606, repreaented the
4 elements, fire, air, earth, and water^ and the
cavaliers were attired in the characters of nuads,
fauns, Mercury, Neptune, Orpheus, iec, Undtf
Louis XIY. a carrousd was oelebratod in tbe
TuUeries, in which 4 nations were represented.
The king himself took command of the Bomans,
and the Persians, Turks, and Muscovites were
commanded by the noblest lords. Squadrons
were formed, and various exerdses and oook-
bats succeeded. The combatants sometimei
broke lances with each other, but more freqaeot^
ly against a wooden figure.

OARSON, Ohbistofhkb, popularly known as
Kit Oassoit, an American mountaineer, trap-
per, and guide, bom in Madison oo., Xy.,
Dec. 24, 1809. While yet an infant his family
emigrated to what is now Howard co., Ma At
15 years of age he was apprenticed to a saddler,
v^th whom he continued 2 years, when he
joined a hunting expedition. The next 8 jean
of his life were passed as a trapper, which pur-
suit he relinquished on receiving the appoint-
ment of hunter to Bent's fort, where he contin-
ued for 8 years more. At the expiration of
this time, he made a short visit to nis fkmily,
and on his return chanced to meet CoL, then
Lieut Fremont, by whom he was engaged as
guide in his subsequent explorations. In 1847
Carson was sent to Washington as b^arar of
despatches, and received an appointment as
lieutenant in the rifle corps of the U. 8. army.
In 1853 he drove 6,500 sheep to Galifomia, a
difficult but successful undertaking, and on bk
return to Taos waa appointed Indian agent in
New Mexico.

OARSTAIRS, WnxiAx, a Scottish divine,
bom in 1649, died in 1715. He was edneated
at Edinburgh and Utrecht, and devoted him-
self warmly to the prince of Orange. He was
minister of an English church at Leyden ; but
returning home, he took offence at the oondnot
of the Episcopal party, through whose influenee
he was arrested, after which he retired again to
Holland. He was brought back on a charge of
having been accessory to the Bye Hoose plo^
and put to the torture. He was diamiBBed, with
the king*s pardon, and again went to Hd-
land, where he rose still Idgher in favor with
the prince. He contributed much, as Cisg
William's chaplain, to the establishment of Um
Presbyterian government in Scotland. Daring
the reign of Anne he still retained his chaplain-
cy. In 1704 he became professor of divinity al
Edinburgh, and was 4 times moderator of the
general assembly.

OARSTENS, AsMUS Jakob, a Gennan
painter, bom at St. J&rgen, near Sohkswig,
May 10, 1754^ died May 26, 179& He was a
miller's son, but received a superior edncatioa
from his mother. He had a yoothfol j

C3AETAG0

OABTEB

101

for pfvintiDg, tut after hia mother's ^eath was
placed in n mercantile hottse. After quitting
his in [Lifter, he went to Copenhagen, where he
strui^fLTleil on for 7 jeara^ supporting himself by
porti'tvit-paLntLng, at tho eama timo working at
a largo historical pioture on the "Beatli uf
.^-'cliylas." He went to Italy after finishing thia
work, then lived at L&beck for 6 years, toiling
on in obscarity, when he was introduced by tho
poet Overbeck to a wealthy patron, by whoso
aid he went to Berlin, where the merit of hia
'' Fall of the Angels," a colossal picture, con-
taining over 200 figures, gained him a professor-
ship in the academy of fine arts. Two years'
labor in Berlin enabled him to accomplish hia
cherished wish to go to Rome, and study tho
works of Michel Angelo and Raphael. His best
works were designs in aquarelle, and painting
in fresco; he rarely painted in oil. His car-
toons at Weimar have been engraved by Moller.
Homer, Pindar, Aristophanes, and Dante sup-
plied him with hia best subjects; and among
the painters who endeavored to infuse a classic
spirit into the fine arts of the 18th century, he
holds a prominent position.

OARTAGO, a town of Costa Rica, Central
America, stands on the river of the same namo
and on tlie base of the volcano of Cartago. It
-was fonnerly the capital of Costa Rica and a
place of commercial importance, but in both re-
spects it has given way to the present capital,
San Jos6. In 1841 it was almost entirely ruined
by an earthquake, which destroyed nearly 3,000
houses and 7 out of the 8 churches. The popu-
lation, once very numerous, is supposed to have
dwindled down to 6,000, and by some author-
ities even to 3,000.

CARTAGO, a town, pop. 6,500, on the Vie-
ga, in the state of Cauca, New Granada. It
has broad straight streets, a spacious square, a
cathedral, 2 parish churches, and a good school.
The climate is dry and healthy, but very hot.
The sugar-cane is cultivated with advantage in
the vicinity ; the surrounding hills contain ni-
tre, and minerals of various kinds are found in
abundance. Cattle, live pigs, fruits, coffee, cocoa,
and tobacco are the principal articles of trade.
CARTE, Thomas, an English scholar, born
near Clifton, Warwickshire, April, 1686, died
near Abingdon, Berkshire, April 1, 1754. — He
studied at Oxford and Cambridge, received holy
orders, and was appointed reader of the Abbey
church at Bath. A sermon which he preached
in Jan. 1714, in which he endeavored to vindi-
cate Charles I. with regard to the Irish rebel-
hon, engaged him in a controversy with Dr.
Chandler and led to his first publication, entitled
" The Irish Massacre set in a Clear Light." On
the accession of George I. he declined taking the
oaths of allegiance, and therefore relinquished
his ecclesiastical office. In 1715 he was sus-
pected of being implicated in the rebellion, and
was obliged to conceal himself in the house of
tlie Rov. Mr. Badger at Coleshill. Having offici-
ated as curate in that town for a short time, ho
became secretary to the famous Bishop Atter-

bury. In 17S2 he was again strongly suspected
of being concenjed in the bi^hop^s conapiracy*
A reward of £1,000 was offered for his appre-
hension^ but he Ci^caped into France and remain-
ed there for a number of years under the as-
sumed name of Phillips, until Queen Carolina
obtained permission for him to return to Eng-
land. In 1744 he again gave umbrage to tho
government, and was arrested in consequence of
some apprehensions from the pretender, but
soon discharged. — His principal works consist
of the chief materials for an English edition
of De Thou and Rigault, in 7 vols.; a "Life
of James, Duke of Ormond," and a "History
of England." The latter was published by sub-
scription. A note in the 1st volume stating that
some person bad been healed of the king's evil by
the touch of the pretender impaired the popular-
ity of the work. Mr. Carte, however, prose-
cuted his nndertaking with undiminished zeal,
but did not live to complete the 4th volume,
which appeared in 1755. It was to have been
carried down to the restoration, but does not
go beyond the year 1654.

CARTE-BLANCHE (Fr. white card), a
blank paper with a signature, and sometimes a
seal, at the bottom, intrusted to a person to be
filled up at his discretion. The term is gener-
ally used in tho sense of unconditional power
given to a person to act as he judges best.

CARTEL, a writing or agreement between
hostile powers for some mutual advantage, such
as the exchange of prisoners. In France and
Italy it also means a challenge or letter of defi-
ance, but in England and America this sense is
obsolete. — A cartel ship is a vessel used in ex-
changing prisoners or carrying proposals to an
enemy.

CARTER. I. A K E. co. of Tenn., border-
ing on N. C. ; area estimated at 850 sq. m. ; pop.
in 1850, 6,206, of whom 353 were slaves. It
occupies some of the highest ground in the state.
A range called Iron mountain, covered with
timber and rich in mines of iron, extends along
its south-eastern border. Watauga river and
other streams supply the comity with excellent
water-power, which is extensively employed in
iron works. The valleys are highly productive,
and the harvest in 1850 amounted to 178,541
bushels of Indian corn, 94,351 of oats, 19,307
of wheat, and 76,656 lbs. of butter. Capital,
Elizabothtown. II. A N. E. co. of Ky. ; area
about 550 sq. m. ; pop. in 1850, 6,241, of whom
257 were slaves, separated from Virginia on
the E. by Big Sandy river. The surlace is
hilly and broken. The soil near the rivers ia
tolerably fertile, but in other places unlit for
cultivation. The mineral wealth of the county,
however, is considerable, iron ore and stone
coal being found among the hills in great quan-
tities. The agricultural productions in 1850
were 270,777 bushels of Indian corn, 36,400 of
oats, and 15,674 lbs. of wool. There were 4
churches, and 096 pupils attending public
schools. There are salt springs of some value
neai* Sandy river, and the grazing lands main-

GARTER

CARTES

tain numbers of cattle. Orgudzedin 1888, and
named in honor of William G. Garter, a mem-
ber of the state senate. Oapital, Grayson.

CARTER, EuzABSTB, an English authoress,
bom at Deal, in Kent, Deo. 16, 1717, died in
London, Feb. 19, 1806. She translated Epio-
tetns, and also wrote some poems, and num-
bers 44 and 100 of the " Rambler.'' Her poet-
ic works exhibit much tenderness, simplicity of
sentiment, and expressive sweetnees. She was
never married.

CARTER, James Gobdok, an American edu-
cationist, bom at Leominister, Mass., Sept. 7,
1796, died at Chicago, lU., July 22, 1849. Having
by his own exertions fitted himself for college,
he entered at Harvard in 1816, in the same
class with the celebrated mathematical writer
Warren Colbum; it was during their college
eourse that Colbum projected the little work
which has attained such an important position
in American education, the ^^ first Lessons in
Arithmetic," and its leading features were all
discussed with Carter and arranged before they
graduated. Mr. Carter took his degree in 1820,
and immediately devoted his attention to teach-
ing at Lancaster, Mass., in which employment
he continued except for a sliort interval until
1880. In 1823 he contributed to the '' Boston
Patriot V a series of essays on education, which
were subsequently published in a collected form,
under the title of ^^ Carter's Essays on Popular
Education." In 1824 he followed these by
** Letters to the Hon. William Prescott, LL. D.,
on the Free Schools of New England, with Re-
marks on the Principles of Instraction." In the
essays, he first developed the idea of a seminary
for teachers, or, as it is now generally called, a
normal school. There is no reason to believe
that Mr. Carter knew of the existence of such
schools in Prassia, though, in fact, they had ex-
isted there for some years. In 1824 he went to
Boston and took charge of the ** U. 8. Review,"
which had at that time been united wit*h the
"Literary Gazette." In 1827 he presented a
memoritu to the legislature of Massachusetts,
praying for aid in the establishment of a semi-
nary for teachers with a model school attached.
The proposition was not adopted, but the town
of Lancaster appropriated a portion of land and
the use of an academy building to the purpose,
and Mr. C. purchased several dwelling-houses
for the accommodation of his teachers and pu-
pils, procured assistants, and opened Ms school.
In a few months he was compelled to relinquish
his project as a public enterprise, and confine
himself to the reception of pupils into his own
house, many of whom afterward became success
ful teachers in Massachusetts and elsewhere. In
1880 he assisted in the organization of the Ameri-
can institute of instmction, of which he was for
many years an active member and officer. His
lectures before that bodv in 1880 and 1881 are
among the most valuablei contributions to its
transactions. From 1835 to 1840 he was a
member of the legislatuire, 8 years in the
house and 2 in the senate. As chairman of the

committee on ednoation he originated Bereial
important measures. Among these waa one
granting aid to the American institute of in-
struction; another *^ providing for the better
instruction of youth employed in manufactur-
ing establishments," a measure of great wisdom
and foresight; a bill for the appointment of a
superintendent of common schools, and another
for the establishment of a seminary for the pn>>
fessional education of teachers. In 1887 he
made an unsuccessful effort to secure the ^pro-
priation of one-half the IT. S. surplus revenue
falling to the state for the maintenance of sem-
inaries for the education of teachers, bnt later
in the same session a bill drafted by him, estab-
lishing the board of education, passed both
houses. Gov. Everett appointed Mr. Carter
the first member of the board.

CARTER, Nathaniel H., an American au-
thor, bom at Concord, N. H., Sept. 17, 1787,
died in Marseilles, Jan. 2, 1830. He was edu-
cated at Exeter academy and Dartmoath col-
lege, and in 1811, after graduating, became a
teacher at Salisbury, N. H., and subsequently
at Portland, Me. In 1817 he was elected pro-
fessor of languages in the universitj created at
Dartmouth by uie state legislature. This in-
stitution was soon broken up by a decision of
the supreme court, when he removed to Nev
York, and became editor of the '* Statesman,*
a political newspaper of that city. In 1825
he was engaged by a gentleman of New York
to accompany his son on a visit to Europe. He
wrote home letters descriptive of his travek to
the ** Statesman,^' which on his return were
collected and published in 2 vols. 8vo. He
passed the winter of 1828 in Cuba ; the next
year he undertook a voyage to Marseilles, and
died soon after his arrival.

CARTERET, a county of North Carolina, bor-
dering on the Atlantic and Pamlico sound ; area,
460 sq. m. ; pop. in 1850, 6,803, of whom 1,487
were slaves. Several long, narrow islands, on
one of which is Cape Lookout, partially sep-
arate it from the sea, and Newport river flows
through it The sur&ce is level, and much of it
is occupied by swamps and pine forests. In 1 850
this county produced 40,225 bush, of Indian com,
54,760 of sweet potatoes, 272i tons of bay, 75
bs. of flax, 8,940 lbs. of rice, 3,846 lbs. of wool,
759 lbs. of beeswax and honey. There were 4
sawmills, 12 tar and turpentine manufactories,
and the capital invested in manufactures was
$44,400. The number of churches was 7. The
county was formed in 1729, and named in honor
of Sir George Carteret, one of the proprieton
of the land. Capital, Beaufort

CARTERET, Phiup, an English navigator,
was in the expedition commanded by Wallis,
in 1766, on a voyage of discovery to the South
seas. He discovered Queen Cbarlotte^s isles,
and other isles, 2 of which he caUed Gower and
Carteret A description of his voyage was
given by Dr. Hawkesworth in the introduction
to his narrative of Capt Cook^s first voyage.

CARTES, DxB. See Pxsoabibb.

OAETE8IAK8

CARTHAGE

493

CARTESIANS, tli© name givea to those
r>liiIo»opKers who adhen) to the system of

CARTIIAGE, the Carthngo of tho Romans,
Kflpx^^^"^ '^^ ^^^^ Grteka ; Cartjiadu io the Pu-
nic longue, sigoifjing *'new city,'* in contradis-
ti action to the old or parent citj of Tyre, found-
ed according to the legend by Dido, a PhcBnician
princess, 878 B. 0. Of the early history, first
settlement, and chronology of Carthage, beyond
tho fact that the original colonists were Phoeni-
cians from Tyre, comparatively speaking, noth-
ing is known. To judge by analogy, Carthage
was a considerably older, aa she was at a very
remote period a far more important, city than
Home. It is said by Herodotus that Uamil-
Cvir, king or chief magistrate of Carthage, a
Carthaginian by his father's, but a Syracusan
by his mother's blood, according to an agree-
ment with Xerxes, attacked Gelon and Tlieron,
the Greek leaders in Sicily at the head of
an army consisting of 80 myriads, or 800,000,
of Africans, Iberians, Ligurians, Uelisycians,
Sardinians, and Corsicans, on the day of the
battle of Salamis, 480 B. 0. Now Herodotus
was 4 years of age at the time when the bat-
tle was delivered; and, as the Carthaginians
were constantly on the stage during his whole
lifetime, it is most unlikely that he should have
described them as bringing forces into the
field which they could not have brought. At
this period, then, Carthage was supposed, by
a contemporary writer, to be capable of tran-
sporting an army of 800,000 men to the island
of Sicily, where she notoriously had colonies
and carried on wars, at a time when Home
was engaged in. a struggle for existence against
^'eii, a city within 12 m. distance of her capi-
tol; when she had not a territory of 30 m.
in circumference, which she could call her own ;
not a war ship afloat, for above 2 centuries af-
terward ; not a name that had been entitled to
any consideration, nor a vestige of political ira-
f>ortance, beyond the regions lying immediately
about the Tiber, That Carthage then had ships
and commerce is evident, from the existence of
a commercial treaty, bearing date of the year
of the 1st consuls, preserved by Polybius, which
is one of the most interesting, as it is of the
most ancient, documents of that character on
record. By this treaty, which Polybius Q\\.
22,2G) translated from the original brazen ta-
bles then existing in the capitol, among the ar-
chives of the aediies, the language being so ob-
solete that, in some parts, even the more learned
among the Romans could only guess at the
meaning, it was stipulated that the Carthaginians
shall make no conquests and build no forts on
the Latin coast, even on those parts of it which
are free; that the Romans may trade freely
with Carthage herself, and the Libyan coast,
westward of the Ilermaean or Beautiful promon-
tory, now Cape Bon, and with the island of
Sardinia, and that on terms of particular com-
mercial advantage. With Sicily and the inde-
I^ciident Phcenician allied colonies Carthage

obtAina for the Romans all the prlvilegea which
she herself posscssoii, and, in returo, Uie Romans
are prohibited from entering any port on the
African coast, E, of the gjird [promontory ^ which
forma tije eastern boundary of the gulf of Car-
thage ; the object of which prohibition seema
to have been to exclude them from the rich
country on the shores of the lesser Syrtis, and
to preclude them from the direct enjoyment of
the lucrative trade with Egypt, of which Car-
thage chose to retain the monopoly.— Of Car-
thage, from herself, less is known than of any
other nation of antiquity. She has left no liter-
ature, no monuments, no traces of her people
or her language, with the exception of a few in-
scriptions on coins, and a few verses in one of
tlie comedies of Plautus. Even among the
writers of the nations with whom she carried
on commercial business, and with whom she
waged wars, the notices of her polity, of her
population, of her religion, her manners, or her
language, are few and far between. Although
the waters of every sea were white with her
sails, the shores of every land, hospitable or in-
hospitable, civilized or savage, were planted
with her colonies or frequented by her mari-
ners, no relic of her laws, her language, or
her blood appears to linger upon earth. Were
it not for the wars which terminated her
existence not merely as a nation, but as an ex-
isting race or people, we should scarcely bo
aware of the existence of a city, the inhabitants
of which had visited the Western isles, the
Canaries and the Cape de Verds ; had braved, if
they had not crossed, the waters of the terrible
Atlantic ; and had excavated the rocks of Corn-
wall with their prodigious tin mines. Even of
the Carthaginians in their wars, we know less
as a people than of any other which effected
such wonders, and fill such a space in history
by their arms. It is, in a word, by the names
and the deeds of her generals, several of whom
were among the greatest of antiquity, not by
the constitution, the composition, or the charac-
ter of her armies, that we know her. Through
Aristotle and Polybius, we have learned a little
of her political system and her government, a
little of her religion. Of her civic customs, her
social habits, her domestic institutions, her
amusements, her industry, with the exception
of some few hints in relation to her navigation^
her commerce, and her agriculture, we are
totally ignorant; posterity has preserved no
record. Whether she had a literature, wo
know not; whether, even, her own citizens
served at all as private soldiers in her armies,
as private mariners in her fleets, is little cer-
tain. No writer, ancient or modem, has so
concisely and ably brought together what is
known of the great commercial republic of
antiquity, as Dr. Arnold, in his *' History of
Rome," and from the fruit of his researches
most of what follows is selected. "In the
middle," he says, "of the 4th century B. C,
the Carthaginians possessed the northern coast
of Africa, Irom Uie middle of the greater Syr«

OABTHAGE

lis to the pillars of Hercules, a country reaeh-
Uig from long. 19^ E. to 6^ W., and a length of
coast which Polybios reckoned at above 16,000
stadia. Bat, unlike the compactness and organ-
ization of the provinces of the Roman empire,
this long line of coast was, for the most part^
only so far nnder the dominion of the Oartba*
ginians, that they possessed a chain of commer-
cial establishments along its whole extent, and,
with the usual ascendency of civilized men over
barbarians, had obliged the native inhabitants
of the country, whether cultivators of the soil
or wandering tribes, to acknowledge their
superiority. Bnt in that part where tiie coast
runs nearly N. and S. from the Hermsoan
headland or Cape Bon, to the lesser Byrtis,
they had occupied the country more completely.
This was one of tlie richest tracts to be found;
and here the Carthaginians had planted their
towns thickly, and had covered the open coun-
try with their &rms and villas. This was their
veptotKify the immediate domain of Carthage,
where fresh settlements were continually made
as a provision for the poorer citizens; settle-
ments prosperous, indeed, and wealthy, but
politically dependent, as was always the case
in the ancient world; insomuch that the term
frcpcocieoc, which in its origin expressed no more
tl^ ' men who dwelt not in, but round about
a city,' came to signify a particular political
relation, theirs, namely, who enjoyed personal
freedom, but had no share in the government
of their country. Distinct from these settle-
ments of the Carthaginians themselves were
the sister cities of Carthage, founded immedi-
ately, like herself by the Phoenicians of Tyi'e
and Sidon, although her fortunes had afterward
80 outgrown theirs. Among these Phosnician
colonies were Utica, more famous in Roman
than in Carthaginian history ; Adrumetum ; the
2 cities known by the name of Leptis, situated
the one near the western extremity of the great
Syrtis, and the other on the coast, between the
lesser Syrtis and the Hermsan headland; and
Hippo, a name so closely connected in our minds
with the piety and energy of its great bishop, Au-
gustine. These were the allies of Carthage, and
some of them were again at the head of a small
confederacy of states, who looked up to them
for protection, as they in their torn looked up
to Carthage. They enjoyed their own laws,
and were independent in their domestic gov-
ernment; but in their foreign relations they
found, in common with all &e weaker states
of the ancient world, that alliance with a great-
er power ended sooner or later in subjection."
—In the beginning the Phoenician settlers of
Africa occupied their forts and domains by
sufferance, and paid tribute to ^e natives, as
an admission that they did not own the soil
Subsequently, like the Europeans in India, the
settlers became sovereigns. The natives were
driven back from the coasto and confined to
the interior. They became mere tillers of the
soil, but whether as owners, or merely as ten-
ants, occupants, and cultavaton of the land,

cannot now be ascertained; bnfc it is dear thai
they were reduced to a conditkmmmilfir to tint
of Roman provinces, subject to a despotic rak^
to severe taxation — it amounted to 50 percent.
on the produce of the soil during the fint Ponie
war — and to conscription for service in the Gar^
thaginian armies. Another point of similarity
between the condition of the domain of Car-
thage in Africa, and that of the Anglo-Indiaa
empire, was the numerous race of half-castes
sprung from the intermarriage of the settle
with the native women, known as libf-
Phoenicians, or Afro-Phoeniciana. It cannot
be determined whether these half-castes were
to Carthage an element of ix>wer or of dk-
cord and weakness. It seems, however, that
it was a usual practice of the mother d!^
to send out colonies of these half-breeds to t^
Atlantic coasts of Africa, and j^robably of
Spfdn also, beyond the pillars of Hercule&. It
appears, indeed, if the Greek version of the
PeripluB of Hanno may be trusted, that the
drcumnavigatory voyage so named was nnd^^
taken mainly for the settling of 80,000 of these
Afro-Phoenicians on the African coast 8. of the
straits of Gibraltar. So early as the 7th cen-
tury B. C, the trade of Carthage began widi
the Spanisn seaports, especiaUy with Tartessos
or Tarshish, situated on an island lying between
the 2 mouths of the Guadalquivir, one of which
is now dry, a few leagues to the northward of
Cadiz. And in the middle of the 4th centary
of Rome, corresponding to the beginning of the
4th B. C, the whole coast of Spain, both AtJan-
tic and Mediterranean, was full of Carthaginian
trading ports and settlements, but they were
mostly of small size, and little if any political
importance. Sardinia and Corsica were both,
likewise, absolutely subject to Carthage, while
on the shores of Sicily she had also strong fort^
resses, trading posts, seaports, and dockyards
for the use of their military marine. And from
the natives of all these countries, as well as
mercenaries from Gaul, Dguria, and the ooesti
of the Adriatic, were recruited the large and
effective armies by which the Carthaginiazis
mainteined the quiet of their provinces, and at
the same time pushed their foreign conqnesta,
though at times the safety and even the enst-
ence of the steto was threatened and endaa*
gered by the revolt of these terrible and bighlj
disciplined condottieri, — ^The political oonstito-
tion of Carthage is said to have resembled that
of Sparta, in that it combined the elements of
monarchy, of aristocracy, and of demooracr.
But it is difficult to ascertain exactly how th^
were combined, or which predominated, dar-
ing the greater period of her exbtence. Dui^
ing her straggle with Rome, the aristocratic
element prevuled, and it appears to have beat
an aristocracy of the very worst sort, an ari»>
tocracy namely in great part of oommercial
wealth, not of birth ; although Uiere was, to a
certain extent, a hereditary nobility which for-
nished the 2 chief magistrates, who are various-
ly called kings and saffetee, who formed onfpr

OAETHAQE

naXiy the snprema and nearly despotieal execa-
tivt% m well as beiag loadcsrs in war, but were
iTeduccd by eacGoasive usurpatiouii of tUo
nobility to fri actio aa and pdwersj not differing
©asentially from thoae of the doges of Yeuice.
Tlii^n Hn'^rn wnA A r^iOtcnd UHsomblyj wliieli
was as numerous, probably, as the Romaa
senate, and represented the aristocracy in
general, from which great assembly was se-
lected a council of 100 life members, who
were chosen, not by the assembly itself, but
by committees of 5, which were close cor-
porations, filling up their own vacancies, tlie
members of which were also all members both
of the council of 100 and of the great assembly.
It appears, further, that the multiplication of
otHces in the same hands was a part of the sys-
tem at Carthage, as it was at Venice, and that
the suffetes — a term identical with the Hebrew
word which is rendered 'judges' in the Scrip-
tures— ^as well as the other principal magis-
trates, bought their dignities, whether by the
purchase of votes or by the payment of en-
trance fees it is not stated, in such a manner
til at high oflice was inaccessible except to the
rich alone. So long as the suffetes and the
council were agreed, it seems that the power
of the commons was exceedingly small; they
had neither originating powers nor judicial
functions; yet, as ample provision was mado
for the poorer classes, and as the surplus popu-
lation was always dispofsed o^ profitably and
advantageously to themselves^ .by a system of
colonization at the government expense, the
lower orders remained for many centuries per-
fectly satisfied and contented with the consti-
tution of their country, until a very late period
of history, when the progress of her democracy,
which was indisputably on the increase, was
brought to a sudden close by the destruction
of the city of Carthage, and the extirpation of
the Carthaginian people. It is said by Polybi-
us, that, during her wars with Rome, the con-
stitution of the city became more and more
democratic, and ho ascribes the ultimate vic-
tory of Rome, in some measure, to their stable
and conservative aristocratic government. —
" The language of Phoenicia," says Dr. Arnold,
" was a cognate tongue with the Hebrew ; if it
were not, as is held by Gescnius and others of
the best authorities, identical with the earliest
Hebrew of the Old Testament, and varying from
it no more than does the dialect of the later
Hebrew writers. It is evident, however, from
the fact that the Carthaginian tongue seems to
have been nowhere studied by the inhabitants
of the nations with whom tliey had treaties and
constant commercial intercourse, even among
the most learned men and the most distinguished
scholars, that it could have contained little or
nothing worthy of preservation. Had there
been more either of wisdom or of art embodied
in whatever works they had, we should have
had more translations, known to ns at least by
report, than those of Mago's book on agricul-
ture, and of a few circomuavigations and mari-

time explorations. Of their arcliitoctur©, Uioir
arts, we have noithcr a rulio nor a record. Of
their religioQ %\e know from Scripture and from
more recent history, that it wa^i a cruel and bloody
super.HtitlQa, They worsbi^iped on high placea^
and thc;^" liad fsu^-r^^d i^Tiyw-r', ih w«.'1I a^S idolSj
which were held in particular abomination by
the true followers and subjects of the Jewish
theocracy, and which were yet constantly owned
as gods, frequented and worshipped by the
backsliders, both of the princes and of the people
of Israel ; a singular proof, if proof were needed,
of the close connection, both in race and lan-
guage, as well as in social habits and modes of
thought, between the children of Israel and the
Phoenicians, whether of Syria or of Africa, who
called themselves Kenaanim^ which we render
Cauaanites, so late as to the time of St. Augus-
tine, and so far from the place where the name
first obtained as Hippo Regius, to the westward
of the site of Carthage. Their principal god
was Baal, Belsamen, or the ancient one, Moloch,
as he was called by the Jewish rabbinical writ-
ers, who was considered by the Greeks as
identical with Kpovoy or Saturn, and who, in
process of time, became in some features assim-
ilated to Apollo. He was evidently the fire-
god or sun-god, and to him were olTered the
human sacrifices, of children more especially,
who were placed on the extended palms of the
metallic statue, whence they rolled into a fiery
furnace. To the sun-god was associated a fe-
male deity, expressive, it is believed, of the
productive power of nature under the generative
power of the sun, worshipped as the queen of
heaven, Ashtoreth or Astarte, who is identical
with the Venus Mylitta of Babylon, the Avaitis
of Armenia, and the Venus Urania of Cyprus,
of whose rites the sexual lusts were as distinct
a feature, as was tlie fiery death the head and
front of those of the male deity. In Africa the
worship of Ammon seems to have been associ-
ated with that of Baal, and of the sacred ele-
phant ; while that of Melkarth, the Punic Her-
cules, was celebrated by the lighting of yearly
funeral pyres, and the release of an eagle, typi-
cal of the sun, and of tlio legendary phoenix
renewing himself from his own ashes. The
offering of human sacrifices extended so far to
the westward as to Cadiz, where there existed
a temple and statue of Baal-Saturn, under the
Roman dominion ; and continued so late as to
the times of the Roman emperors, more than
one of whom published edicts in vain, prohib-
itory of these barbarous immolations." — The
first period of the history of Carthago extends
to the beginning of the war with Syracuse, from
the commencement of the city, whenever that
occurred, nominally B. C. 878 to 480; during
which time she had conquered her African em-
pire, Sardinia and the adjacent isles; waged wars
with Massilia and the Etrurians, on commer-
cial grounds ; prosecuted her voyages of discov-
ery, traffic, and colonization along the coasts of
Spain, far out into the Atlantic; established
trading intercourse with the ScIUy isles and

496

OABTHAGE

parts of the British coast ; and, as some believe,
pushed her adventiires so far as to the inhospi-
table shores of the Baltic, where die is reported
to have collected amber at the mouth of the
river Rhodam. Of this period we know nothing
from records, either of her own or her contem-
poraries, and can jadge only hj her condition,
the state of her trade and resources, and the ex-
tent of her dominions at the time when we first
have any authentic information of her greatness,
which is to be found in the commercial treaty
with Rome alluded to above, passed in the year
509 B. 0. Thirty years after this date commences
the 2d, and by far the most splendid period of
Carthaginian history. It opens with their efforts
to conquer and attach to their empire tiie great,
rich, and fertile island of Sicily, and closes 265
B. C, with the outbreaking of ibe first Punic
war. The Syracusan war was waged long and
with various success. In the simultaneous at-
tempt of the Persians on the Hellenic, and the
Carthaginians on the Sicilian Greeks, the latter
were defeated at Himera, by Gelon, tyrant or
king of Syracuse, with nearly as much loss as
was their ally, Xerxes, at Salamis. As a con-
dition of peace they were compelled to renounce
human sacrifices in their Sicilian trading posts
and settlements. In the war with Hiero, Ge-
lon*8 successor, they conquered and held in oc-
cupation the cities of Himera, Selinus, and Ag-
rigentnm. With Dionysius they were for a
short time at peace, and then employed them-
selves in consolidating their former conquests
on the island, which were now very rich and
strong, consisting of well-fortified seaports,
fortresses, dockyards, naval stations, and garri-
sons, backed by considerable territorial domains
of great productiveness and wealth. After tho
reestablishment of republicanism in the Greek
cities by Timoleon,the Oarthafflnians were almost
invariably unfortunate ; but, during tibe tyranny
of that singularly able adventurer, Agathocles,
the war was pressed with so much vigor by
them, on his attempting, after the policy of
Dionysius, to drive them out of the island, that
he was defeated, reduced to all but extremity,
and besieged in his capital of Syracuse, when,
by a masterly stroke, which doubtless suggested
the similar enterprise of Scipio, he broke out
of the beleaguered city with a portion of his
army, and carried the war into Afiica. There
he overran the open country, took 200 towns —
for Carthage had no fortified places to delay an
invading army, and no native peasantry or
agricultural citizens of whom she could make a
levy en maue, with which to protect her soil —
and, although he was twice personally called
back to Sicily to quell mutinies and restore or-
der in his home dominions, actually maintained
bimself 4 entire years on African soil, at the
gates of Carthage, which he reduced to at least
equal distress wiw that of Rome during the
similar, but far more brilUant invasion of Han-
nibal. At length his fortune turned, his armies
in Africa were obliged to surrender, and in the
year 806 B. C. he concluded a peace which re-

stored order to Sicilv, and established both
parties in possession of the territories each held
before the breaking out of the war. After hu
death, the Carthaginians increased their posses-
sions and power in Sicily, and established them-
selves as actual masters and sovereigns of the
Balearic isles, Corsica, Sardinia, and the lipa-
rian islands, thus girding the whole Boman
seaboard with a belt of insular fortresses. Thoa
far, however, all was peace and amity between
the two great republics of antiquity. In hdj
immediately after the battle of Asculam, whea
Rome was in considerable straits, owing to the
prolonged occupation of Italy by Pyrrhns, king
of Epirus, and to his continual successes, a Car*
thaginian fleet of 120 ships of war app^red off
Ostia, and offered assistance against the Greek,
who was in some sort regarded as a oommoit
enemy of both republics ; and although the ofo
was declined, the commander acted in good
faith toward the Romans, assisting them in
their siege of Rhegium, and in other enterprise,
the end of which was to prevent the SicQian
Greeks from lending their aid to the king of
Epirus and his allies, the Greek states of lulv.
The retreat of Pyrrhns, in the year 275 B. C.,
left the Romans almost undisputed masters of
Italy, and the course of the next 10 years ren-
dered them absolutely so. In the mean time,
Carthage had become yet more influential in
Sicily, and was bent on converting influence
and ascendency into empire and possession.
The little strait of Messina now alone divided
the possessions and separated the armed forces
of the two powerful, ambitious, encroadnng;
and already, it is probable, half-jealous states^
Each, it is clear, already aimed at supremacy i&
Europe. Greece was already falling, if she had
not fallen, into decrepitude, and could no longer
pretend, through want of concert and united
action, to any considerable power beyond her
own limits. The Greek Egyptian empire of the
Ptolemies, which was entirely isolated from the
mother country, and which had long known
Carthage bj means of her commercial eoer^,
on the tidings of the victory of Rome over the
Greek arms of Pyrrhns, thought it advisable
to seek intercourse and alliance with tbe strong
young republic of the west. In a word, Rome
had made herself known and respected beyond
her own shores, and the contest between her
and Carthage was inevitable. It arose, as mi^t
have been expected, with the invocation of
Roman aid by the Mamertlnes, belonging to an
Italian city of Sicily, against the CarthaginiaiK ;
which being gladly rendered, as by a peopte
seeking pretext of war, gave birth to ibe finfc
Punic war, which broke out 265 B. C, and may
be regarded as the commencement of the third
period of Carthaginian history. This war lasted
for more than 22 years. It was waged (with
the exception of one invasion, by Marcos
Regulus, of Carthaginian territory, which, in
the outset successful, terminated in disaster, de-
feat, and the capture of the Roman general)
either on the island of Sicily or on the waters

OARTETAQE

of tha JC&diterr&nejm. On the latter, at tirst,
tho BoQUiQi ^ufTtired bloody defeats and mar-
icimd dkast^i^ iind re verges, in a word, suffi-
cient to daunt tU© hardiest aod most persever-
ing of mmakind, SlLll diey i>ersevereJi and al-
thoogh, wliL^n Lho war broke ont^ they bmi not
a single ship of war, a single mariner, or an of-
ficer who had seen sea service, in the end ob-
tained the mastery of the Mediterranean,
crushed the last fleet which the Carthaginians
could raise, in a terrible conflict off the island of
Favignana, at the W. angle of Sicily, and granted
the peace which their enemy sued for, on condi-
tion that the Carthaginians should evacuate Sici-
ly and all the isles thence to the Italian coast^
release all Roman prisoners without exchange
or ransom, and pay the expenses of the war, at
the price of 3,200 Euboic talents, or $3,337,888,
within the space of the 10 years next ensuing.
The victory was decisive, but the efforts it had
cost Rome were prodigious. The census of the
Roman citizens, in those 22 years, had sunk
from 297,797, to 261,222 men capable of bear-
ing arms, while the decrease among the Xatin
and Italian allies must have been at least equally
great ; and such was the exhaustion of silver
and the depreciation of brass, that the Roman
08 of copper, from a full pound weight at the
bci^inning of the war, was reduced to 2 ounces
before the end of it. Twenty-two years of
peace elapsed before the commencement of the
2d Punic war ; and during the interval, although
they had lost Sardinia, of which the Romans,
by no means to their credit, made themselves
masters, taking advantage of a mutiny of the
Carthaginian mercenaries, Carthage had more
tlian repaired all her leases, by the conquest and
colonization of tlie vast and rich Spanish penin-
sula, with its virgin gold mines, and its bold and
hardy population, furnishing the best infantry
in the world, and an inexhaustible supply of
men whence to recruit the armies of the repub-
lic When 2 countries are equally desirous of
war, small pretext suflices. But it was espe-
cially the policy of the Barcas, whose genius
had conquered the whole of Spain in the last
17 years, and, in the next, nearly conquered
Rome also, to bring on a war with that country
at all hazards ; and Hannibal, the son of Ham-
ilear, obedient to the idea to which he had been
de<licated by his father in his childhood, and
trained up with it foremost in his mind to man-
hood, easily forced what he desired, by lay-
ing siege to Saguntum, an allied city of the
Romans on the scacoast, now Murviedro, and
by crossing the Ebro contrary to protest, if not to
treaty. The passage of Hannibal across the Alps,
the victories of the Ticinus, the Trebia, Thra-
symene, and Canma, the defeat on the Metaurus
and the death of Hasdrubal, the 16 Itxilian
campaigns, the simultaneous victories of the
Roman arms in Spain and Sicily, the transfer
of the war to Africa by the elder Scipio Africa-
niis, the defeat at Zama, and the total submission,
subjection, and disarming of Carthage, are the
principal incidents of the 2d Punic war. Alto-
VOL. IV. — 32

getber they eontam the history of tlio most
marvellous content that ever was maintained
between the genius of a single individual^ almoit
unassisted by his government, and the reaourcea,
pei-severanoe, and mag^nanirnoiis coostancy of
a great naLion. It is hard to say which h
most to be admired, the unrivalled strategetio
and political genius, the firm tenacity, wondrous
skill, and deep wisdom of Hannibal, or the indom-
itable persistency, unhesitating devotion, and
iron will of Rome. The 2d Punic war was
concluded 201 B. C, by the virtual subjection
of Carthage. An interval of 52 years followed^
during which Rome constantly and steadily
pursued her course of aggrandizement, by the
wars against Philip, Antiochus, and Perseus, by
which she subjugated Greece, and gained vast
oriental lustre and ascendency, while, incited by
the unrelenting hatred of Cato the censor, she
encouraged her friends and allies to commit
aggressions on Carthage ; until at length, pro-
voked beyond the limits of endurance, that city,
in despair, took up arms to repel unendurable
insult and provocation, forgetful or regardless of
the clause in the late treaty which forbade
them to take up arms on any pretext, or against
any nation whatsoever, wiUiout consent of the
Romans. After this, treacherously and dishon-
estly, the Romans, as the price of peace, extorted
from them all their remaining ships of war,
all their arms, mihtary engines and supplies,
compelled them to give 300 hostages, and then
commanded them, as the only alternative by
which to escape destruction, to abandon their
city and seashore position, and to remove
10 m. inland. War was instantly declared^
and for 8 years the unarmed, almost defence-
less citizens of Rome^s great rival maintained
a warfare of despair. At the end of that
space, a second Scipio, the son of Paulus
jEmilius, the conaueror of Perseus, adopted by
the son of the conqueror of Hannibal, took tiie
city by storm, and destroyed it, razing it to the
ground, passing the ploughshare over its site,
and sowing salt in the furrows, the emblem of
barrenness and annihilation. The city was 23
m. in circumference; the inhabitants fought
from street to street, while the houses burned
over their heads, during 17 days, until 55,000
persons, the whole of tlie survivors of a nation,
were shut up in the ancient citadel called Byrsa,
where they surrendered at discretion, and were
all sold into slavery. Hasdrubal only, the com-
mander, with his wife, children, and 900 Roman
deserters, took refuge in the temple of JEscu-
lapius, with the determination to defend them-
selves to the last, and die under the ruins of the
last Punic edifice. The heart of the leader
failed him, and while his wife and all his fol-
lowers rnet the death from which he meanly
shrank, he surrendered himself to be led in tri-
umph, and to die by the hands of the Roman car-
nifex in the Tullianum. Long afterward, Caesar
planted a small colony on the ruins of Carthago ;
and Augustus, his succcessor, built a city, of the
same name, at a small distance, in order to

OARTHAGENA

CABTHABCCB

avoid the imprecations which it was the habit of
^e Bomans to invoke on the rebnilders of any
city destroyed by their arms. This phioe at-
tained some eminence; it was conquered by
Genseric, from the Romans, A. D. 489, and
continued to be the seat of the African empire
of Uie Vandals for about a century, when it
was conquered by BeUsarius in 684. It was
finally destroyed by the Saracens in tl^e caliphate
of Abd el Melek, in the latter part of the 7th
century, and no vestiges of it remain except the
ruins of an aqueduct, and a fragment of the
western Vails, at about 12 m. from Tunis.

OARTHAGENA, or CABTAaENA, a province
of New Granada, South America, bounded N.
W. and W. by the Caribbean sea and the gulf
of Darien, N. E. by the province of SavaniDa, E.
by the rivers San Jorge and Magdalena, S. by
the province of Antioquia ; pop. in 1861, 108,-
788. In the N. the surface is low and partly
covered with salt-water pools. The S. part is
mountainous and thickly wooded, but has many
fertile valleys, in which are produced rice, In-
dian corn, cottoa, and sugar. Various rich
fruits grow spontaneously, and the forests pro-
duce valuable timber. The trade, once very
extensive, has declmed considerably, and the
principal exports now consist of precious met-
als. There are no large rivers except those on
the E. border. — Cabthaqena, or Gabtagbna,
the capital and chief town of the above-de-
scribed province, one of the principal ports on
the Caribbean sea, and the chief naval arsenal
of New Granada, is built on a small sandy pen-
insula, near the entrance to the gulf of Darien,
connected with the mainland by narrow necks
of land and wooden bridges; pop. in 1861, 88,f
700. The harbor is well protected, commo-
dious, and tiie only one on the N. coast of New
Granada fitted for repairing vessels. There were
formerly 2 entrances, one close to the town, the
other several miles further S. ; but the bet-
ter to defend the approach, the former has been
blocked up by sinking old vessels in it. The de-
fences of the town are extensive, though singu-
larly incomplete. Both Carthagena itself and
the island suburb of Xiximani are surrounded by
freestone fortifioatione, which are commanded
by a strong work on an eminence on th? main-
limd, but the latter is overlooked by a range
of heights towering 400 feet above it, which,
though they have several times caused the fall
•of the city without a shot, have never been for-
tified. On their summit is an Augustinian
monastery. Carthagena is well built, with stone
houses, generally 2 stories high, having balco-
nies and lattices of wood. Many of the churches
and convents are very handsome. There are 2
hospitals, a town hall, a college with about 200
pupils, a strong citadel, a theatre, and a circus.
The climate is hot and unhealthy ; leprosy and
vellow fever are the most common diseases,
but greater attention to cleanliness has lately
diminished the ratio of mortality. The chief
manufactures are ropes and sail-cloth. The ex-
ports, oonqirising most of the produce of the

valleys of the Canca and Magdalena, wHii the
latter of which rivers Carthagena is oonneeted
by canalf viz., sugar, cotton, cofibe, tobacco,
hides, specie, bullion, te., amounted to $500,000
in 1862 ; and all the imports, which oonalst of
iron, steel, copper, hardware, chinaware, ma-
chinery, tea, pimento, brandy, rice, sugar, co>
coa, coffee, wax, dye-wood, ^, to $2,0OO,00a
Carthagena was founded by Pedro de Ileredia
in 1688, pillaged several times by pirates, taken
by Sir Francis Drake in 1686, by tto French ra
1697, and beaeged unsuccessfully by the Eng-
lish in 1741. It was the first town that de-
clared for independence, and during the wan
that followed, often changed hands.

CARTHAGENA, or Cartagena (anc C^
thago Nnek, New Carthage), a seaport town d
Spain, capital of a district of the same name in
the province of Murcia ; lat 87" 86' N.. long.
0''66' W.; pop. including suburbs in 1852, SS,-
598. It is built at the head of a deep, well-
sheltered harbor, flanked by steep hills, defend-
ed by works at its mouth, and forming one of
the best ports on the Mediterranean. The
town itself is walled and neatly built ; the
streets are wide, regular, and relieved by sev-
eral public squares, one of which, with a fine
fountain in its centre, is enclosed by eleg^
buildings. The old cathedral, now a nrapla
church, is an edifice of little beauty. There
are several other churches, convents, hoapttals,
an observatory, an artilleir park, a apkndid
arsenal, barradra, dock yards, foonderies, rope-
walks, and a glass factory ; but little activity is
observable in the streets, and every thing bean
the mark of rapid decay. Notwithstanding its
coounodious port, the town has little or no com-
merce. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in
lead and silver mining, fishing, and exporting ba*
riUa, grain, and esparto (Spanish graashemp).
The mineral wealth of the neighborhood was
known in very early times, and the yield of sil-
ver enabled Hannibal to carry on his war against
the Romans. The new mine of La Carmen was
opened in 1889, and the veins have ance been
successfully worked by a joint stock company.
Carthagena was founded by Hasdmbal, the Car-
thaginian general, 242 B. C. ; was taken by Sd-
pio, 210 B. C, at which period, Idvy states, it
was one of the richest cities in the world; was
almost destroyed by the Goths, rose to great
importance in the time of Philip II., a^ in
1786 had 60,000 inhabitants. It was made the
great naval arsenal of Spain, but is now v^ted
only by a few fishing and other craft, and by
coasting vessels, which make it one of their in-
termediate stations. Its decline is owing in
some measure to its unhealthy dimate.

CAETHAMUS, the dyer's saffiron or saf-
flower. The plant known as the eartiamvt
tinctoriuA, from which this flower is obtained,
is a native of India and Egypt It is imported
into the United States principally from the
Mediterranean. It is grown in considerable

ndtities in this country, under ^e name of
erican saf&on. The flowen, the ooly part

CAKTHEUSEK

OAETIEB

4lfli

T^od^ contaia 3 ooloriog taattert^ one red, Uie
"^rtJitr _Vfillow ; the red, iut*oliii>le ia wnU-r, ftml
iftvs yellow, fcfi:stly removed bj troattuf^it with
[Kb liquid* Tiie r©d alone U employed in dje-
it^ it ii called cartliameine, and is supposed
111 tiwtj iu color to the oxidation of a peculiftr
iii>»nrq,k> called cortliajDme, exis^ting in the
j'LUiis. Tlie yellow coloring lujitter is removed
ly soaking the flowers placed in a bag ia
water, until notliing more can be dissolved.
Tlic carthamua, which before was reddish yel-
low, loses half its weight, and becomes a clear
red. The red coloring matter is then extracted
from tlie flowers, in treating them with a dilute
solution of carbonate of soda, and adding an
acid to precipitate the carthameine. The quan-
tity obtained is only 1 per cent, of the weijxht
of the flowers. Carthamine is a most beautiful
color, but unfortunately is not permanent, so
cimuot be employed in the dyeing of wool and
cotton ; but for silks, where a brilliant rather
than enduring color is desired, carthamus is
much used, for producing the finest shades of
red, such as rose and flesh color. Carthamus is
u]<o used for preparing a very beautiful color
(rouge (TassietU), which is employed in coloring
nrtilicijd flowers. A vegetable rouge is also
manufactured from it, by mixing with the rouge
(litifHictte finely pulverized white talc. The
mixture is then rubbed in a mortar with a little
.jnbergris, and moistened with sulphuric ether.
Au inferior rouge is sometimes prepared by
suljstitutinjT carmine for carthamine.

CAKTliEUSER, Johaxn FniEDEicn, a Ger-
man i)hysician, bom Sept. 29, 1704, died at Frank-
furt on the Oder, June 22, 1777. He studied
medicine first at Jena and afterward at Halle,
where ho was admitted to tlie degree of doc-
tor in 1731. He was appointed in 1740 pro-
fessor of chemistry, pliarraacy, and materia
medica, at the university of Frankfort on the
Oder, and shortly afterward to the chair of
anatomy and botany. Still later he was named
[•rofossor of pathology and therapeutics. He
was also appointed rector of the univen>ity, and
continued to hold his appointments as long as
he lived. His chief merit consists in having
introduced the method of submitting the va-
rious substances of materia medica to a strict or-
dtal of chemical analysis. He analyzed a great
nninber of plants and other substances, and
irivo an exact account of the elements which
tiller into their composition. He published a
coiiMjerable number of scientitio papers and
f^^i-^-ertutions, on many and various subjects,
Qu! ini: a long succession of years,

C.VRTHCSIANS, a religious order, founded
1'7 ^>t. Bruno, A. D. 1084. The first monastery
if the order was built in a wild and solitary
^i^^'rict 6 miles from Grenoble, in the depart-
liiv lit of Isere, known as La Chartreuse, whence
^|ie order took its name. The observances of
lijc Carthusian monks were austere and peni-
^^ntial in an extraordinary degree, even among
cwntemplative orders. They devoted a portion
of their time to manual labor, consisting chiefly

in the traniicrjbing of ancient MBS, Their hr
bors as agriculturists gained great renown foF
their nanie, for ibey reclaimed marshy and un-
healthy neighborhoods, and caused the rooky
and barren fastnesses of La Chartreuse and othejf
desert regions to bloom with the fruits of pa-
tient and intdligent toil. They had rich and
celebrated abbeys in England, France, aiid Ger-
many. The Oertosa of Pavia, and that of St.
Elmo at Naples, are still visited by travellers,
and a Carthusian community occupies as a con-
vent the baths of Diocletian in Rome.

C ARTIER, Jacques, a French navigator, bom
at St. Malo, Dec. 81, 1494, died probably at an
advanced age. Under the auspices of Francis
L, he was intrusted with the command of an
expedition to explore the western hemisphere.
He sailed from St. Malo, April 20, 1634, with 2
ships of 60 tons each, and a crew of 120 men,
and in 20 days reached the E. coast of New-
foundland ; thence steering N., he entered the
straits of Belle Isle, and took possession of the
coast of Labrador by planting there a cross near
Rock bay. He next turned S., and followed the
W. coast of Newfoundland to the straits be-
tween Capes Ray and Breton, when he was
borne W. by unfavorable weather toward Mag-
dalen islands. After visiting them, he contin-
ued W., lauded at the mouth of the Miramichi,
whence he went "with some of his men to ex-
plore the bay of Chaleurs, and a few days
later sailed with his 2 ships, to land again a lit-
tle further N. in the bay of Gasp6, which he
mistook for the outlet of a large river. He
there had friendly intercourse with the savages,
and inspired tliem with such confidence, that one
of their chiefs permitted 2 of his sons to go
with him to France, on condition tliat he would
bring them back the following year. There
he planted another wooden cross, to which was
attached a shield bearing the arms of his king,
and the words, Vive U roi de France ! He next
proceeded N. E., doubled the E. point of Anti-
costi, and entering the channel which separates
the island from the continent, sailed up that
branch of the St. Lawrence, not being aware,
however, of the existence of the river. As
winter was approaching, ho thought it prudent
to return, again passed the straits of Belle Isle,
and arrived at St. Malo Sept. 6, 1534, after an
absence of less than 6 months. This successful
voynge encouraged the king to new efibrts : 3
well-furnished ships were fitted out for another
expedition, which was joined by some of the
young nobility of France, and Cartier was ap-
pointed commander, being designated in the
commission as '* captain and pilot of the king."
About the middle of May, 1535, Cartier assem-
bled his companions and men on Whit-Sunday,
and repaired to the cathedral, where a solemn
mass was celebrated, after which the whole com-
pany received absolution and the bishop's bless-
ing. The squadron — consisting of La Grande
Hermine, a vessel of 120 tons. La Petite Her-
mine, of 60, and L'Em6rillon, a smaller craft —
6^ed May 19. Storms soon separated the 8

500

OARTEER

CARTILAGE

Yesaels, which, after a rough voyage, arriyed
saooessivelv at their place of rendezvons, the
inlet of Blanc Bahlon, in the Btraits of Belle
Isle. On July 81 they Bailed W., entered the
channel between the mainland and Anticosti,
which he called He de rAssomption ; sailed up
the river St Lawrence ; saw, Sept. 1, the montn
of the Sagnenay ; and on Sept. 14 came to the
entrance of a river, some 80 m. below Quebec,
to which he gave the name of Sainte Oroix.
!nie next day he was visited by Donnacona, an
Algonquin chief, with whom he was enabled
to converse, the 2 Indians whom he had the
previous year taken from Gasp^ to France act-
ing as interpreters. Leaving his 2 larger ships
safelv moored, he, with the Em6rillon, sailed
up the stream as far as Lake St. Peter; there,
his further progress being interrupted by a bar
in the river, he took to his boat with 8 volun-
teers, and on Oct. 2 arrived at an Indian settle^
ment called Hochelaga, which he called Royal
Mount, whence the present name MontreaL
On the 5th he left Hochelaga and rejoined his
ships at the mouth of the Sainte Croix, where
he passed the winter. With his men, he suf-
fered from the severity of the climate, but above
all from the scurvy, which made frightful rav-
ages among them ; no less than 25 soon died ;
and out of 110 still surviving, in Feb. 1536, only
a few were free from the disease. Owing to
the reduction of their number, Oartier decided
to abandon the Petite Hermine, which vessel
was discovered in 1848 embedded in the mud.
After having taken solemn possession of the
land in the name of Francis I., by erecting a
cross bearing the arms of France, with the in-
scription, ifancuetts primttSj Dei gratia Ihxmr
coram rex^ regnat^ he sailed May 6, carrying
with him Donnacona and 0 other chiefs, whom
he had somewhat treacherously kidnapped;
went through the channel S. of Anticosti, and
the straits S. of Newfoundland, and once more
reached St. Malo, July 16, 1586. The hardships
which had been incurred during the expedition
were not encouraging to colonization ; but at
last the entreaties of Francis de La Roque, lord
of Roberval in Picardy, prevailed; he was ap-
pointed viceroy and lieutenant-general of tne
new territories, while Oartier preserved the title
of captain-general and chief pilot of the king's
ships. Five vessels were now fitted out; Car-
tier sailed with 2 of them. May 28, 1541; he
was soon joined by the 8 others, and they ar-
rived at Sainte Croix Aug. 28. On exploring
the neighboring country, Cartier found a better
harbor at the mouth of the Red river, to whidi he
took 8 of his ships, while the 2 others returned
to France after landing their cargoes. Cartier
then visited Hochelaga for the 2d time, with
the particular purpose of ascertaining the ob-
structions to further navigation. The winter
passed in gloom. Toward the end of May, 1542,
nothing having been heard from Roberval,
provisions becoming scarce, and the savages
evincing unfavorable feelings, Cartier sailed for
France. On his way he met Roberval, who

ordered him back; but he took bo ooiioe of h,
and oontinued steering for FranoS) vbere be
arrived without any further accident From Utit
time he lived quietly, either at St. Halo ori:
the village of Limoilon ; the date of his deftth u
unknown. A brief^ but interesting accomt of
his expedition appeared anon jmoiulj in 1545.
The journals of the two 1st journeys of Ctfiie
are inserted in the 8d vol of Ramosio's luliii:
collection (Venice, 1565X also in Maro Lescar-
bot^s Jliitoire de la NauveUe J^ronce; whik &(ie-
scription of his 8d journey is to be found in tie
8d vol. of Hakluyt*8 ^Prindpal KaTigatiois,"
&c. (1600).

CARTILAGE, a firm, elastio substance, c!
an apparently homogeneous stractcre, beariiu
some analogy to bone, and entering largdy bto
the composition of the animal skeleton; inib
intimate structure it approaches yeiy doseljthe
cellular tissues of vegetables. It constitiites tbe
rudimentary skeleton of the higher moDiua,
and of the sehichian fi^es, h^noe called oi-
tilaginous fishes, in man and the U^
animals, it forms the internal skeleton at tiie
early periods of life, and is in all employed as s
nidus for the development of lone. Tbc
organic basis of cartilage is a variety of gelati£4
cdled chondrine ; this, like gelatine, in a water
solution solidifies on cooling, and majbepre;
cipitated by alcohol, creosote^ tannio acid, scfi
corrosive sublimate, and is notpreoipitaUefi'^
ferrocyanide of potassium ; but^ unlike gelatinj
it is precipitable with acetic and tbe mincii
and other acids, with alum, persulphate of iro:,
and acetate of lead. True cartilage u ^^J
white or blmsh white appearance; fibro^am-
lage is of a yellowish color, andeihibitsafibroe
structure. Temporary cartilages Eopplj ^
pkce of bone in early life, and gradiallj^
come ossified; for a considerable time aire:
birth the ends of the lonff bones are compos.
chiefly of cartilage, and l£e extremities areD»
united to the shafts by bone until abontthe r^
year. Permanent cartilages are divided iDt<^
kinds, the articular and the membranifonD; t^
skeleton of the selax^hians is also permanent ca^
tilage. Articular cartilages coTer the en^ *
bones entering into the formation of j(ho^
either a thin layer between almost iminoTaU«
bones, as those of the cranium, and iliamaD<*
sacrum, or incmsting the ends in the free-n**^'
ing ball-and-socket and hinge joints. Tbe^
braniform cartilages have no relaticm to looonw"
tion, but serve to keep open canals or P>ss«g<*^
the .mere force of their elasticity; swh are ^
cartilages of the external ear, nose, t^ rT
eyelids, Eustachian tube, and the air-passag^
The distinguishing characters of cartilage i^
elasticity, flexibility, and coheave power; u
not easily broken, and will speedily re^jT

? roper shape when bent by accident or dtfjp-
hese varieties of cartilage, except ^^ff],
lar, are covered with a fibrous P^^^^L
analogous to the periosteum ot bon^vn
serves as support to the blood-vessels. ":
simplest form of cartilage oonsista of noclea^^^

OAETILAGE

501

con<5, large, ovoid, more or less flattened by their
miitual contact ; the diminutive nacleas, attach-
ed to the cell wall, contains a minute nucleolus ;
these cells are scattered irregularly in an inter-
cellnlar substance, or hyaline matrix, which
contains numerous granules, many of which,
according to Hassall, must be regarded as the
cvtoblasts from which new cells are developed ;
the amount of this substance is greatest in the
fully developed cartilage. In the condensed
margin of true cartilage, the cells are compress-
ed, with their long diameters parallel to the
surface they cover; when ossification begins in
temporary cartilage, the cells become disposed
in rows, as described in the article on Bone.
In tho articular cartilages the cells are arranged
in small groups in an abundant hyaline matrix;
they measure from j^j^ to ^^^^ of an inch ; in their
deep portions these cartilages gradually blend
with the bone, which dips unevenly into the
substance of the cartilage. In tlie cartilages of
tiie ribs the cells are larger than in any other,
l>eing from ^jj^ to xW ^^ ^^ ^^^^ i^ diameter;
they often have a linear arrangement, and are
imbedded in a very abundant intercellular sub-
stance, which sometimes presents a distinctly
iihrons structure, though not resembling white
rihrous tissues. In the membraniform carti-
iajes, the cells are very numerous in proportion
to tho intercellular substance, which is so fibrous
in its character in the external ear as to ap-
proach very near to fi bro-cartilage ; tho ear of
the mouse b a good specimen of this form, and
presents in its central portion a series of six-
^I'led cells arranged in layers one above the
other, resembling, except in size, the transverse
section of the pith of a plant. Cartilage is some-
times found as an accidental and diseased prod-
uct. Enchondroma is a tumor attached to bone,
containing cells like those of cartilage, and others
of a peculiar form resembling the lacunao of
bone. In the articulations, especially in the
knee joint, loose rounded bodies are often found,
of a cartilaginous consistence, frequently as
I'lrpje as the knee-pan ; these interfere with the
motions of joints, and are sometimes removed by
oj)eration. The cartilage cells of reptiles are
larger than those of fishes, being largest in the
siren; in birds cartilage is very early con-
verted into bone, so that they have very little
of it except in the joints; the largest cells
in the mammals, according to Mr. Qnekett,
are found in the elephant. Cartilage belongs
to non-vascular substances, as considerable
masses are found unpenetrated by a single
vess}l; articidar cartilage is non- vascular,
oxce[)t in some diseased conditions when the
I'rc«?ence of a few vessels seems to have
l"?cn detected ; temporary cartilage also, when
in small mass, has no vessels, but when of con-
^ilerahle thickness, the delicate extensions of
tiie investing perichondrium penetrate it in a
t^Ttuous manner; the membraniform resemble
the temporary cartilages in respect to vascular-
i*y. The nutriment of articular cartilage is
derived from tho vessels of the joint, and from

the synovial membrane, thongh none of these
enter its substance, the nutrient material pass-
ing from cell to cell by imbibition ; in cartilages
of oasification vessels regularly appear, accom-
panying the process of bone-formation. Accord-
ing to Uassall, cartilage cells are multiplied in 2
ways : 1, by the division of a single cell into 2
or more parts, each becoming a distinct cell ;
2, by the development of cytoblasts in the in-
tercelluliir substance, or in the parent cells,
constituting a true reproduction, constantly
going on. In this multiplication by division,
and by development of secondary in parent
cells, cartilages resemble the alga^ and herein
they stand alone in the animal economy. Car-
tilage cannot be regenerated; fractured sur-
faces are united only by a condensed cellular
tissue. As cartilages do not contain nerves and
vessels, they are not subject to inflammation and
fts consequences; the so-called ulceration of
cartilage is effected, not through the cartilage
itself, but by the vessels entering it from bone
and synovial membrane, and occasioning a par-
tial erosion. — There is a form of tissue which
may be described here, as it difters from carti-
lage chiefly in having its intercellular substance
replaced by white fibrous tissue ; it is therefore
called fibro-cartilage. It occurs principally
in the joints, where its strength and elasticity
are most needed. Its color is white, slightly
tinged with yellow, with the shining fibres of
the white fibrous tissue quite conspicuotis ; its
consistence varies from pulpy to very dense.
The fibres are arranged in an intricate and in-
terlacod manner, strongest in that direction in
which the greatest toughness is required. To
the strength of fibrous tissue is added the elas-
ticity of cartilage; its vessels are few and de-
rived from adjacent textures, and no nerves
have been detected in it; its sensibihty is low,
and it has no vital contractility. The disks be-
tween the vertebra) are fibro-cartilage; their
elasticity diminishes the shocks to which the
spinal column is necessarily subjected; in the
whale these disks are very large, detached from
the vertebral bodies, and more or less ossified.
In the diarthrodial joints, as in the sterno-cla-
vicular, temporo-maxillary, and knee joints,
there are fibrous laminoo, free on both surfaces,
called menisci; in these the circumference is
fibro-cartilage, and the centre more cartila-
ginous. On tho edges of the shoulder and hip
joints is a rim of fibro-cartilage, giving depth to
the articular cavities. In the grooves in bone
for the lodgment of tendons we find another in-
stance of the occurrence of fibro-cartilage.
Fibro-cartilage is not so prone to ossification as
the simple fibrous structures; it is repaired by
a new substance of similar texture ; in cases of
false joint from the non-union of fractured bone,
the broken ends are sometimes connected by
fibro-cartilage. The pubic bones at the sym-
physis are united by this tissue. Fibro-cartilage
is less soluble in water than true cartilage, and
yields therefore less chondrine. — The uses of
cartilage and fibro-cartilage are entirely of a

502

OABTOON

mechAxiical nature; their gtractore Ssadmira-
blj adapted for the protection of organs by their
solidity, flexibility, and elasticity. For a com-
plete account of the intimate structure of artic-
ular cartilage, the reader is referred to a paper
by Dr. Joseph Leidy, in vol. xvii. of the
*^ American Journal of Medical Sciences," new
series, and to the works of MQller, Todd and
Bowman, Hassall, and Quekett.

CARTOON (It. eartane^ from Lat eJiarta,
paper), a picture drawn upon thick paper, with
white and brown, or black, and intended to be a
model for a fresco, or for tapestry. When the
cartoon is used, its back is covered with black
lead, and being placed against the wall or can-
vas, the outlines are traced with a pointed in-
strument. Sometimes the outlines are pricked
through, and a coloring matter rubbed over it.
Or, by drawing intersecting lines on both the
cartoon and the canvas, forming squares equal
in size, by their guidance, a copy may be made
correct in position and proportion. Cartoons
exhibit the greatest efforts of some of the
masters in pdnting. There are 7 by Raphael,
now in Hampton Court, England, which prob*
ably are not excelled in completeness and
beauty by any paintings in existence. Leo X.
employed Raphael to make designs for tapes-
try, and. 2 sets were finished in tapestry at
Arras in Flanders. One set, supposed to have
been originally 25 in number, was sent lo
Rome, and was carried away twice : first in
1526, afterward restored entire; the second
time in 1798, and all but one restored in 1814,
which was supposed to have been destroyed for
the gold used in its making. The cartoons
themselves were kept as lumber in the factory
in Flanders, until, on the recommendation of
Rubens, Charles I. of England purchased the 7
which had escaped destruction. They were
much injured by being pricked and cut in
tracing them for the canvas. When the royal
collection was sold, these cartoons were pre-
served to England by Cromwell's special
command. During the reign of Charles II.
they were consigned to neglect, but William III.
had them placed in Hampton Court. They rep*
resent the following subjects : " Paul preach-
ing at Athens," the "Death of Ananias,"
"Ely mas the Sorcerer struck with Blindness,"
"Christ Delivering the Keys to St Peter,"
the "Sacrifice at Lystra," the "Apostles heal-
ing the sick in the Temple," and the " Mira-
culous Draught of Fishes." Two cartoons
of Raphael, said to belong to a set which
was sent to Flanders, are in the possession of
the king of Sardinia. The Palazzo Gualtieri
at Orvieto contains a valuable collection of car-
toons by Domenichini, Annibale Carracci, Fran-
ceschini, Albani, &c. In the Ambrosian library
at Milan is the ori^nal cartoon of Raphaers
" School of Athens," the fresco of whioi is in
the Vatican.

CARTOUCH, (Fr. cartouche^ in old military
works, used sometimes as synonymous with case
or grape shot. It is also now and then used to

OARTWBIGHT

designate the cartridge-box of the inlkntrx sol-
dier.— ^In architecture and sculpture, a block or
mocUllon in a cornice, and gen^^ally an orna-
ment on which there is some device or in-
scription.

CARTOUCHE, Loms DoiiniiQiTK, a Bote^
French robber, bom in Paris aboat 1693, dieO
Nov. 28, 1721. He organized a band of des-
peradoes, whose robberies and mordera spreac
terror among the Parisians. For years, in-
deed, notwithstanding a high price bad been
put on his head, he baffled the police, acJ
was but accidentally arrested. His trial, whici:
lasted for several months, created a de^ sensa-
tion ; and an immense crowd gathered to wit-
ness his execution. He was broken on the
wheel alive ; but to the last moment the pnbtic
and himself were under the impression that be
would be forcibly rescued by his oompaniona.

CARTRIDGE, a paper, parchment, or flan-
nel case or bag containing the exact quantity of
gunpowder used for the charge of a fire-arm,
and to which, in some instances, the projectile
is attached. Blank cartridge, for small arms,
does not contain a bullet ; bflJl cartridge does^
In all small- arm cartridge the paper Is used as
a wad, and rammed down. The cartridge for
the French Mini6 and British Enfield rifle is
steeped in grease at one end, so as to facilitate
ramming down. That of the Prussian needle
gun contains also the fulminating compositiDQ
exploded by the action of the needle. Cartridges
for cannon are generally made of flannel or
other light woollen doth. In some servioes,
those for field service at least have the projec-
tile attached to the cartridge by means of a
wooden bottom whenever practicable ; and the
French have partially introduced this system
even into their naval service. The BritUh stil.
have cartridge and shot separated, in field &5
well as in naval and siege artillery. — An Inn^
nious method of making paper cartridges without
seams has been lately introduced into the royal
arsenal, Woolwich, England. Metallic cylin-
drical hollow moulds^ just lai^ enough for s
cartridge to slip over, are perforated with s
multitude of small holes, and being introduced
into the soft pulp of which cartridge paper is
made, and then connected with an exhao^/ed
receiver of an air-pump, are immediately cover-
ed with a thin layer of the pulp. This^ on beii^
dried, is a complete paper tube. The moolib
are arranged many together ; and each one is
provided with a worsted cover, like the finger
of a glove, upon which., the pulp collects, anu
this being taken off with it serves as the lining
with which the best cartridges are provided.—
A kind of cartridge is in use for sporting pieces,
made of a network of wire containing th«
shot only. It is included in an outer case of
paper. The charge of shot is mixed with bcei^
dust to give compactness. When the piece is
fired, the ^ot are carried along to a mucb
greater distance without scattering than if
charged in any other way.

OABT WRIGHT, Enxuzn), an Eo^ish dergr-

CARTWRIGHT

5oa

m jin , inventor of the power loom, boni nt Mam-
tiaiii, KottLDghamshiref April 24, 1T48, cJied
Otit- SO, 182^3. Being inteiidml for the cbiirch
ln> r^^cdv^d liis education at Oxiord, and soon
evitorud upnn the duties of his professioQ* His
Ciirly life was passed in lettered ea,'ie, aad wim
e-{K*eially devoted t«> poetical coaipo&ition.
I'urinff the lunimcr of 1784 happeiiijig to be
nt Matlock, he had a conversation with some
gentlemen from Manchester on the subject of
mechanical weaving. lie had never till now,
ia Ilia 40th year, taken any interest in me-
chanics, but by April of the succeeding year,
lio had his first power loom in running order.
The invention was opposed equally by spinners
and their workmen. The one class saw in it a
machine that would deprive them of bread ; the
other feared it was a device that would diminish
their profits. A mob set fire to the first factory
and burned it with 500 spindles. Improvements
•were added to the original machine, and it
slowly made its way. For many years, however,
Cart Wright derived no pecuniary benefit from
his invention. He patented several other ma-
chines, of which the principal was one for wool-
combing. Numerous societies awarded him
premiums, but he received no substantial bene-
lit from any of his inventions until 1807, when,
on the memorial of the principal cotton spinners,
X)arliainent voted him £10,000. This sum placed
him in easy circumstances. He devoted his time
to experiments in the adaptation of steam
power to boats and carriages, but died without
attaining? any important result.

CARTWRIGHT, Jonx, elder brother of
the preceding, an English political reformer,
was born at Marnham, Nottinghamshire, 1740,
died Sept. 23, 1824. At the age of 18 he
entered the navy, but at 85 was still a lieu-
tenant. Meantime the struggle between Brit-
ain and her colonies enlisted his sympathies
for the Americans. In 1774 he published his
sentiments in an essay entitled ** American
Independence, the Glory and Interest of Great
Britain." At the same time, ho requested
to be placed on the retired list, rather than
fight against the colonists. Lord Howe vainly
attempted to shake his resolution in this re-
spect. Having retired to Nottinghamshire,
where he pansessed some property, the lord
lieutenant gave him a commission as major
in the militia. His appointment gave great
offence to the government, who signified their
disapprobation so pointedly to the lord lieu-
tenant that he refused Cartwright the usual
step of promotion to the lieutenant-colonelcy,
although 6 successive vacancies occurred in
that oliice. Finally he retired from the regi-
nient, 17*j2. About this time he removed to
Lincolnshire. His name now becomes prom-
inent in the history of parliamentary reform.
lie contended for annual parliaments and uni-
versal snlTrage. These he supported with voice
and pen, in cooperation with Dr. Jebb, Gran-
ville Sliarpe, Home Tooke, Hardy, Thelwall,
Cobbett, Hunt, and other liberals of the day.

Atjiinly through his instnrmentality the citizens
of Birmingham wore induced to elect adelegAt©
clain^ing a H^at in parliament under the name of
tb(?ir legif^laiyHal attorney, although that city,
the Sd in tlie kingdom, had no represcntatioa
in tliat body. For his share in this proceeding,
Oartvv right was tried for lieditioo, and tin^
£100, AgidOj when procuring signaturea ^n Htid-
dersfield to a mammoth petition, he was arrest-
ed on a charge of exciting to riot, but released.
The English liberals placed much reliance in
the integrity of his purposes. Sir William
Jones declared that his declaration of the peo-
ple's rights should be written in letters of gold.
Fox, in his place in parliament, declared that
few men united so complete a knowledge of the
peoples* constitutional rights, with such high
intelligence, and such conscientious views.
Byron, in the house of lords, declared that his
long life had been spent in one unceasing strug-
gle for the liberty of the subject. His views
on the American revolution were summed up
in this sentence : *' The liberty of man is not
derived from charters but from God, and is
original in every man." He was one of the
earliest who maintained the doctrine that the
slave trade was piracy. A bronze statue is erect-
ed in hb honor in Burton-crescent, London.
His life was published by his niece (2 vols. 8vo,
Lond., 182G).

CARTWRIGHT, Thomas, a Puritan divine,
born in Hertfordshire about 1535, died Dec. 27,
1G03. He studied divinity at St. John's col-
lege, Cambridge; afterward he turned his at-
tention to the legal profession, and became
clerk to a counsellor at law. Eventually, how-
ever, he returned to the university, and was chos-
en fellow of St. John's in 1660. In 1570 he was
chosen Lady Margaret's reader of divinity, and
while he occupied that chair he provoked the
hostility of Sir William Cecil and Dr. Whitgift,
by the constancy with which he advocated the
Puritan doctrines and discipline; and in 1571,
when the latter became vice-chancellor of the
university, he was deprived of his professorship,
and, in the following year, of his fellowship.
He now repaired to the continent, where he
became acquainted with the most eminent Pu-
ritan divines in the Protestant universities of
Europe, and subsequently was chosen minister
to the English merchants at Antwerp and Mid-
dlcburgh. At the end of 2 years, at the
solicitation of his friends, ho returned to
England, and published a second admonition to
parliament in behalf of the Puritans. A pro-
tracted controversy with Whitgift, afterward
archbishop of Canterbury, was the result of his
publication, and Cartwright had again to ex-
patriate himself to escape from his opponent.
While abroad, he ofliciatod as minister to Eng-
lish communities. In 1580 James VI. of Scot-
land offered him a professorship in the univer-
sity of St. Andrew's, which Cartwright declined.
He was imprisoned on his voluntary return,
but was relejised through the infiuence of Bur-
leigh and Leicester. Leicester made him mas«

504

OABUPANO

ter of the hospital which he had founded at
Warwick. He was again committed to prison
at yarioos periods, and did not obtain his liber-
ty mxtil 1692, when he was reinstated in hla
mastership of the Warwick hospital, and was
agiun permitted to preach. His *^ Oonfatation
of the Khemish Translation, Glosses, and Anno-
tations on the New Testament," was not pub-
lished till after his death, in 1618. He was
also tiie author of several other works.

OARUPANO, a town of Venezuela, on the
coast of the Oaribbean sea, finely situated at the
opening of 2 vallejrs, in the province of Cumar
na, within a few miles of Gariaoo. Its harbor is
defended by a battery, and it has considerable
traffic in horses and mules. Fop. about 8,000.

GABUS, Kabl Gubtay, a German physician
and natnrahst, bom in Leipslc, Jan. 8, 1789.
After pursuing the usual course of study
in the gymnasium and university of his native
place, he devoted himself to chemistry, with a
view of rendering his knowledge useful in the
workshop of his father, who was a dyer. He
soon, however, left chemistry for medicine, and
p*aduated as M. D., in Leipaic, in 1811. En-
gaged as teacher in the university, he was the
first to deliver there a distinct course of lectures
on comparative anatomy. In 1813 he was ap-
pointed to the French hospital established at
Ffafiendorf, near Leipsic, and by his devotion
to his patients contracted a severe illness. The
following year, on the reorganization of the
medico-chirurgical academy of Dresden, he was
appointed professor of midwifery, and at the
same time nad the clinical direction of the ly-
ing-in hospital. In 1827 Carus resigned his
professorship on being appointed physician to
the king of Saxony, with the title of royal and
medical councillor. He continued, however, to
lecture, and in 1827 delivered a course of lec-
tures on anthropology, and in 1829 on psychol-
ogy, which added greatly to his previous repu-
tation. In the latter year he attended Frince
Frederic Augustus, the present king of Sax-
ony, on his tour through Switzerland and Italy.
Bekde his professional and scientific labors, Dr.
Gams is a painter of marked talent; many of
his pictures are much esteemed by amateurs.
The reputation of Gams rests mainly on his dis-
oovery of the circulation of the blood in insects,
for which he received a prize from the French
academy of sciences, and his contributions to
the hbtory of development in animals. His
principal works are Verstich einer DartteUung
dei ifeneiuyitetiUy und inb^ondere dea Oekirm
(Essay on the Nervous System, and particularly
on the Brain), Leipsic, 1814; Lehrhueh der Z^
ctomie (Manual of Zootomy), with 20 plates en-
graved by himself, Leipsic, 1820 ; ErULuterung%
Tqfeln tur f^ergleichenden Anatamis (Explana-
tory Tables for Gomparative Anatomy), 3 vols.,
Leipsic, 1826-'31 ; Ueber dm Blutkreislauf der
Imeeten (On the Girculation of the Blood in
Insects), Leipsic, 1827; Orundrnge der v^r-
gleichmden AnatomU und Phyeiologie (Prin-
otples 9f Gomparative Anatomy and Physiol-

OABVALHO

ogy), 8 vols., Dresden, 1836; Vcrlmunffm iiber
Peyehologie (Prelections on Psychology), Leiiw
sic, 1881 ; Britfe ab&r Landse^/Umaiem
(Letters on Landscape Painting), Leipsie, 1831:
Symbolik der meneehliehen Oettalt (pjmbcbm
of the Human Form), 1858.

OARUS, Mabodb Aubbliub, a Roman ea-
peror, bom about A. D. 222, died 2SS. Ha
father was an African, and his mother a ncbk
Roman lady. He was proclaimed empemr bf
the legions, on the assassination of ProDiis, 8^
He caused justice to be executed upon the
assassins. He gained a signal victory over the
Sarmatians, and prosecuted the war againat tim
Persians. Undertaking the campaign in mid-
winter, and making a rapid mar^ thit>ogjk
Thrace and Asia Mmor, he ravaged Mesopota-
mia, made himself master of Selencia^ and cv-
ried his arms beyond the Tigris, where he died I
suddenly in his camp. |

G ARVAJAL, ToMAB Josfi Gohzaus, a Spa- I
ish statesman and author, bom in 8eviUe, De&
21, 1758, died Nov. 9, 1884. He -was appoinft- '
ed in 1795 governor of the new colonies in I
Sierra Morena and Andalusia ; protested agaimt
the French invasion of Spain in 1808; from
1809 to 1811 served as commissary in the Spuk-
ish army against Bonaparte ; in 1813 became
' minister of finance ; relinquished these officei
to assume the directorship of the royal nnivef^
sity of Isidro, where he became involved in dtf*
ficulties by establishing a professorship <^ con-
stitutional law. He was arrested and detained
in prison from 1816 to 1820, when the revolutioa
reinstated him at San Isidro. A coonter revo-
lution brought his opponents into power, aiHl
he was exiled from 1828 to 1827. However.
at the time of his death he was member of the
supreme council of war, of the military depart-
ment of the Spanish and Indian boardsi and a
grandee of Spain. He learned Hebrew at the
age of 57 in order to translate the Paalm&
This translation has gained for him a hig^
reputation for poetical power, which he evinoed
also in several ori^al productions.

GABVALHO, Jost da Silva, a Portogneee
statesman, born in Beira in 1782, died F^ 8,
1845. He was a member of the r^ency and
appointed minister of justice until 1828, when,
on the downfall of the constitutional govern-
ment, of whidi he was a foremost diampioii,
he was obliged to resort to flight to England,
where he remidued until 1826, when he re-
turned to Lisbon, but Don Miguel's SQccesB
again comnelled him to leave. Eventually he
was namea a member of the council of guar-
dianship instituted by Don Pedro for the young
queen Donna Maria, and succeeded in n^o-
tiating the first English loan for Porto^
Having accompanied Don Pedro to the Aaorea,
he filled, on his return to Portugal, important
offices, and became finance minister in 188S.
In 1835 he retired with the Palmella adminis-
tration, and was presently obliged to retire
to England, where he remained until 1688^
when a general amnesty was proclaimed.

OARVALHO Y MELLO

CAEVALHO T MELLO. See Pokbal.

CAFiVALLO, MAanrELj & Oliilian statesaian,
\ -rn :it Santiago in Jane, 160B. Uo re<?eived a
giifierior eUncaiion; devoted Mms^alf from bm
( Lfiiest ^'odth to literary pui^uita, and at the
f r?]H time to the stndjr and the practico of the
1 , v\ In 1830 he becatiie ehief elork of the con-
pr». --^ of iilenipotentiarie^ jo his native town,
JK \vji3 lilso appointed chief clerk of tbo (state
c' partment, and eic<!ted a member of the ObUi
L'iiii;^ of representatives^ After w'urd he was
Bent on a diplomatic missioa to Washiagton,
where for some time he held the position of
charge d' affaires of Chill near the U. S. govern-
ment. In 1835, on his return home, he devoted
himself exclusively to the law, in which he ac-
quired eminence, and many of the more compli-
cated cases in which he was engaged as coun-
scil were embodied by him in a permanent pub-
lication. He is a member of the committee for
tlie reform of the Chilian codes, of the faculty
of law and political sciences of the university
of Santiago, but he chiefly excels as an inter-
national lawyer. In 1846 he resided again for
some time as minister at Washington.

CARVER, John, first governor of Plymouth
colony, bom in England, date unknown, died
in April, 1621. He had quitted his country
for the sake o^ religion, and had established
himself at Ley den, whence he was sent to effect
a treaty with the Virginia company concerning
territory in N. America. He obtained a patent
in 1619, and proceeded to N. America in the
Mayflower with 101 colonists. After a danger-
ous voyage they arrived at Plymouth, where
Carver was unanimously elected governor. He
managed the affiiirs of the infant colony with
prudence, and exhibited great address in his
intercourse with the Indians, but died within
4 months after landing.

CARVER, Jonathan, an American travel-
ler, born at Stillwater, Conn., in 1782, died in
London in 1780. He abandoned the study of
medicine for a military life, and was in all the
wars by which the Canadas came into the pos-
session of Great Britaui. At the peace he un-
dertook to explore the interior of N. America,
and to open new channels of commerce. He
crossed the continent to the Pacific, and re-
turned to Boston in 1768, having travelled about
7,000 miles. Proceeding to England, he un-
Buccessfully solicited from the king requital of
his expenses, and aid in publishing his charts
and journals* He was even commanded to de-
liver up his papers, now ready for publication,
as being the property of the government, ana
was obliged to repurchase his papers from the
bookseller to whom he had sold them. Ten
years afterward he published an account of his
travels.

CARY, CoL. Abohibald, a Virginia patriot
and statesman, born in Virginia about 1730,
died Sept, 1786. He early became a mem-
btr of the house of burgesses, where he ranked
with the first intellects of the epoch. In
1764 he served on the committee which re-

CAEY

605

ported til© a«!dresi8 to tlie king, lorda, and cxim-
mon?^ on the principles of laxation; snd in
1770 was one of the signers of the " mercantile
assootation,*^ which pledged its members to use
no British fabrics thereafter, the design being
t^ rosiBt by praotieal mea'?ares the encroach^
montd of the government,. In 1773 he waa ono
of the celebrated oomraittee of corre^pondeneo
by which the colonies were united into one
great league against [^arliftmeot ■ in the foUow-
ing year he was a member of the convention
wiiich appointed delegates to the general con-
gress; and he served with great distinction
in the convention of 1776. As chairman
of the committee of the whole, he reported
the resolutions instructing the Virginia dele-
gates in congress to propose independence, and
from his lips fell the declaration of Jefferson,
the bill of rights of Mason, and the first con-
stitution of Virginia. When the state govern-
ment was organized under this constitution,
he was returned to the senate, where he pre-
sided with great dignity and efticiency. At
this time occurred the incident with which his
name is most generally connected. The scheme
of a dictatorship had been broached, and with-
out his knowledge or consent, Patrick Henry
was spoken of for the post. In the midst of
the general agitation Col. Cary met Mr. Henry's
half-brother in the lobby of the assembly, and
said to him : ** Sir, I am told that your brother
wishes to be dictator. Tell him from me, that
the day of his appointment shall be the day of his
death, for he shall find ray dagger in his heart
before the sunset of that day." The y>rqiect
was speedily abandoned. Col. Cary soon after-
ward retired to his estate of Ampthill, in
Chesterfield, where he died, greatly respected
and beloved. His family was of noble extrac-
tion, descended from Henry Lord Hunsdon;
and, at the time of his death, Col. Cary was
himself the heir apparent of the barony. In
person he was short of stature, but possessed
great personal beauty. His features were small
and delicately chiselled; his eye remarkable
for a very peculiar brightness, as his portrait
shows. He was a good representative of the
former race of Virginia planters, delighting in
agricultural pursuits, in blooded horses, and
improved breeds of cattle, which he imported
from England, and attended to with great care.
In character he was a man of singular courage;
his serene intrepidity shrunk from no peril,
and counted no cost whore his honor or rights
were concerned. From this trait of his char-
acter he was called by his contemporaries " Old
Iron," a name which still clings to him in Vir-
ginia, where his memory is held in high respect.
CARY, Hknky Fbancis, an English writer,
born in 1772, died in Sept. 1844. He early
distinguished himself by an original ode on the
misfortunes of Poland, and having entered Ox-
ford devoted himself with ardor to the study of
the modern European languages. His transla-
tion into blank verse of the JJivina Commedia
of Dante has gained him celebrity among all

606

GABY

readers of the English tongne. This great work
did not, however, attract much attention until
Coleridge brought it into notice by his oom-
mendations. Gary also translated the " Birds "
of Aristophanes, and some odes of Pindar. His
continuation of Jobnson^s '^ Lives of the English
Poets," and his " Lives of the Early French
Poets," are meritorious productions; the lat-
ter were published anonymously in the '* Lon-
don Magazine." From 1826 he was assist-
ant librarian of the British museum for six
years. He published carefully revised edi-
tions of Pope, Cowper, Hilton, Thomson, and
Young.

GARY, Kkt. Lott, born a slave, near Rich-
mond, Ya., in 1780, died at Monrovia, Nov. 8,
1828. Li his youth he became vicious and pro-
fane, but in his 27th year he was converted
and joined the Baptist church. With the
change in his character came the thirst for
knowledge. Possessed of a high order of na-
tive talent, he soon learned to read and write,
and after a time he began to preach to his
countrymen with great acceptance. He suc-
ceeded in raising by extra work $850, with
which ho redeemed himself and his 2 children
from slavery. He was then employed in a to-
bacco warehouse at a salary of $800, and sub-
sequently of $1,000 per annum. Li 1815 he
became much interested in Africa and in the
establishment of missions there. When the
journal of Messrs. Mills and Burgess, who had
been sent out to explore the country and secure a
site for a colony, was published, Mr. Gary read
it with great interest and in company with a
friend, Golin Teage, determined to emigrate to
Africa. He sailed accordingly in Feb. 1821,
and was instrumental in the removal of the
colonists from their first unhealthy position
to Gape Mcsurado, now Monrovia. Faithful,
energetic, and intelligent, he was now the
leader in the erection of cabins for the settlers,
then felling trees, prescribing for the sick,
preaching to his countrymen, or fighting bravely
against the savages who had determined to ex-
terminate them. Once, when the colonists had
become dissatisfied with the course of the colo-
nization society in regard to the tenure of their
lands, Mr. Gary took sides with them against
the agent, Mr. Ashmun, although personally
his friend. It was a time of gloom, of doubt,
of trial ; but the calm, firm spirit of Ashmun
rose above the gloom. Although aware that
the colonists had some reason for complaint, he
felt that their only safety lay in obedience to
the company's orders until they could be modi-
fied, and that this could only be efiected by
appeals to their reason and judgment He ac-
cordingly stated to them clearly and plainly the
result of their continued refusal to obey the
directions of the company, and demanded an
immediate pledge of obedience from those who
were willing to act with him. It is in the
highest degree creditable to Mr. Gary, that
seeing the evils which would follow insubordi-
nation, he came forward, and frankly proffered

OASABLiNOA

his hand to Mr. Ashmun, staying aa ha dad aa, ^I
give the pledge, sir; I aclmowledge my ^ror,
and cheerfully submit to the laws of the society.
Henceforth, I stand by her ude, ao help me
God I" Some 8 or 4 years later, -when Mr.
Ashmun found himself worn out by his inces-
sant toil in that deadly climate, he s^ed kr
the IJ. S^ in Sept. 1826, leaving the entire oos-
trol of the colony in the hands of Mr. Gkrr.
The explosion of a cask of powder in a build-
ing, where he was making preparations to rep^
an assault made by the natives, killed him.

GARTATIDES, in architecture, female %-
ures which support a roof in lieu of colomns or
pilasters. The story is that the inhabitants d
Garyaa, an Arcadian village, joined the Persiass
after the battle of Thermopylae ; after the de-
feat of the Persians the confederate Greeks de-
stroyed Garys, put the male inhabitants to
deaU), and enslaved the women. Scolptors u:
commemoration of their infamy made use cf
representations of these women to sustain roo^
and heavy superincumbent weighta.

GASA SANTA, the " holy house " of Lor«-
to, in which the Blessed Virgin is said to hare
dwelt at Kazareth. According .to Catholle
tradition, angels bore it away from Nazareth in
1291, and placed it near Tersato, in Dalmatia,
whence, 8 years afterward, it was transported to
the coast of Italy, near RecanatL Eight mcml^
later it was removed 1,000 paces nearer the to vn.
It changed its position again to the lands of s
noble lady named Lauretta, and fixed itaclf os
the spot where the town of Loretto has sioc^
been built. The house is 82 feet long, 13 itti
broad, and 18 feet high, with a heavy ardk»i
roof. It has no foundations, is built *of brick
similar in color and texture to varieties focmd
in Palestine, and is surrounded by a wall. Tbe
interior is adorned with paintings in the Byzsn-
tine style, now nearly effaced, and this circom-
stanoe is supposed to confirm the account given
by historians that St. Helena adorned it Wor«
its removal from Palestine. In a niche, fo^
merly of mosaic gold work enriched with pre-
cious stones, but now of silver gilt and filagree
work, is the ancient statue of the Virgin, made
of the cedar of Lebanon, and removed to Lo-
retto simultaneously with the house. It was
carried to Paris in Feb. 1797, restored by ^Ja-
poleon I. to Pins YII^ and by that pontiff en-
riched with precious stones, and carried baci
to Loretto, Dec. 8, 1802. Several apostolic
constitutions set forth that the house of Lore::o
is that in which the Saviour became incarnate.
It has ever been a favorite object of devotion
for Catholic pilgrims.

OASABIANOA, Loiris, a French naval officer
and politician, bom about 1755 at Bastia, died
Aug. 1, 1798. He entered the naval serried
when very young, and distinguished himsdf b/
his prowess. Having adopted the prineiples of
the French revolution, he was elected to the xisr
tional convention ; on the trial of King Lonii
XVI. he did not vote for death, but merely for
imprisonment. He subsequentiy became s

CABAL

CASAI^OVA

^wr

fflefmber of the council of BOO; after which lio
was ftfipointod capUin of U Orient, the flag^ship
of Admiral Hrueys^ the commaDdcr of th<s tieet
which look BoBJiparto and Ms army to Egypt,
l^hon this deet wast nttJicked by the English m
the bay of Abookir, Oftaabmiica fought most
bra^oly to the lost, fljid wris killed with hi^ sod,
iWn 10 years old, by tho eiplo^luD of his ship.
CASAL, or Oazal, Manuel Atrks de, a
Portuguese geographer, born in the last half of
the 18tb century, died at Lisbon in the middle
of the present century. Having received an ex-
cellent education, he took holy orders, but after-
-ward devoted himself to the exploration of
Brazil. He has been styled the father of Bra-
zilian geography, and his principal work, en-
titled Corografia Brcmlica (1817, 2 vols.) elic-
ited the admiration of Humboldt and of other
competent judges.

CASAL MAGGIORE, a town of Lombardy,
province Cremona, on the left bank of the Po.
Pop. 4,907. A naval victory was achieved
hero by Sforza over the Venetians in 1448. Tan-
neries, and the manufacture of glass, pottery,
and cream of tartar, are carried on in the
town.

CASAL PUSTERLENGO, a town of Lorn-
l)ardy, government of Milan, on the Brembiolo.
It is the seat of several public offices, has a
church and sanctuary, manufactures of silk,
linen, and earthenware, and an extensive trade
in Parmesan cheese. Pop. 5,601.

CASALE, the capital of a province of the
same name in the kingdom of Sardinia, situated
on the right bank of the Po, 85 m. from Milan,
and 37 m. from Turin, near the site of the an-
cient Sedula. The citadel, founded by Duke
Vicenzo in 1590, was one of the strongest in
Italy, but recently its ramparts have been con-
verted into promenades, and its defences are
now insignificant. Casale was the capital of
the ancient marquisate of Montferrat, and has
sustained several sieges, and frequently changed
its masters. It is the seat of a bishop and of
a district court of justice, and has a cathedral
which is said to have been founded in the 8th
century. Its church of San Domenico, contain-
ing a tomb in memory of the princes Palaeologi,
is remarkable for the elegance of its design,
and several fine works of art are found in other
of its churches. Among the prominent articles
of trade are silk and sirup manufactured from
the roots of a species of reed. Pop. 21,000.

CASANOVA, Giovanni Giacomo de Sein-
GALT, an accomplished Don Juan of the 18th
century, who travelled from land to land, cap-
tivating the hearta of women and fascinating
the minds of men, bom in Venice, April 2, 1725,
died in Vienna in June, 1803. We hear first
of the Casanova family at the beginning of
the 15th century, when Giacomo Casanova,
a Spaniard of the Aragon house of Pala-
fox, and a secretary of the king of Aragon,
produced a sensation at Rome by eloping with
a nun. His son Giovanni was expelled from
Pwome in 1481, on account of a duel, and joined

tlie expedition of Columbus* Marco Antonio,
Giovanni- iS sonj a poet, w.is expoll<^ from Itomo
by Giulio de* Medici j agnin^t whom ho hiid pub-p
lished a aatiro. Ilia grnnd^n, Cajetano Giu^
seppe Giacomo, led an advonturotia life, which
he crowned by turning comedian^ and by mar-
rTi'ing Zanitta Farusi, the heiiutiful daugliter of
Xk Vcnt^tian shaeamtk.T. Ctijt'Larjo and Ziinittji
were the parents of the subject of this notice,
who, when only 10 years old, vindicated his birth
by making love to Bettina, the pretty sister of
the abb6 Gozzi, under whose instruction he was
placed at Padua. Implicated in a brawl between
the policemen and the students of Padua, he
was compelled to leave that city, and betook
himself to Venice. His adventures there are
described in his memoirs, and reveal the friv-
olous character of the Venetian society of those
days. Having become notorious for his prof-
ligacy, he was finally thrown into the dun-
geon of Santo Andrea, but eficcted his es-
cape, and, after wandering over various towns
of Italy and Calabria, succeeded in finding
at Morterano a prelate to whom he brought
letters of introduction, which his mother
had obtained for him, and who recommend-
ed him to his friends at Naples. They, in
turn, supplied him with letters to Cardinal
Acquaviva in Rome, who brought him into per-
sonal contact with Pope Benedict XIV., and
this circle of acquaintance laid the foundation
for his subsequent career. His devotion to the
poetical Marchesa Gabrielli, his mental encoun-
ters with the literati (for Casanova was a per-
son of culture and varied learning), his conver-
sational triumphs in the high social circles of
Rome, were all brought to a sudden close by
his connivance in an elopement which gave
offence to the marchesa, who requested Cardi-
nal Acquaviva to dismiss Casanova, wliom he
employed as secretary. Although there was
no resisting an order from such a quarter, the
cardinal gave him a pnssport for Venice, and
eventually he reached Constantinople, in com-
pany with the Venetian ambassador, into whoso
favor he had insinuated himself with his wonted
grace. He was received with great distinction
by Cardinal Acquaviva's friend, the pasha of
Caramania, alias Count de Bonneval, wiio intro-
duced him to Yussuf Ali, whose wife fell in love
with him, while his daughter Zelmi was offered
to him in marriage. He left Constantinople
surfeited with presents and money, which he
lost in gambling soon after his arrival at Venice
in 1745, where he accepted a humble musical
employment in the orchestra of the theatre San
Samuele, in order to save himself from starva-
tion. Here he fell in with the rich Venetian
senator Bragadio, but was soon again compelled
to remove to other places in order to escape the
hands of justice. After figuring as a ma^'ician
at Cesena, as a priest at Milan, and in various
characters at Mantua, Ferrara, Bologna. Parma,
and Venice, he made, on June 1, 1750, his
first appearance in Paris. There his reputation
had preceded him, and he was received with

508

CASANOVA

CASAS

great favor. AH the heaux e^mti and dissolute
dames of the profligate capital lavished their
ttttentioDs upon the hero of the thousand and
one scandalouB tales. The marshal de Richelieu
became his bosom friend; the duchess of
Ghartres doted, upon him« Affcer 2 years in
Paris, he joined his mother, who was then per-
forming at the theatre of Dresden, and subse-
quently proceeded to Vienna, where he was
received wiUi the same edat. On his return
to his native city, however, July 25, 1756,
he was lodged in the terrible dungeons of
the council of ten. He gives in his me-
moirs a most entertaining but highly improb-
able account of the miraculous skill and
audacity which he displayed in again effecting
his escape. In Jan. 1767, he reappeared in
Paris, where the dungeon episode added con-
siderably to his notoriety. He now tried his
hand at politics and financiering, and proposed
a lottery, in order to restore the equilibrium of
the French exchequer. A meeting was con-
vened to deliberate on the subject D'Alembert
in his capacity of mathematician was invited to
attend it. Casanova's persuasive power con-
vinced the most sceptical minds of the infalli-
bility of his project; it was actually adopted,
but he did not remain to observe its devel-
opment, being sent as a kind of government
spy to Dunkirk. On his return to Paris, he
met at the marchioness of Urf^'s the famous
adventurer, the Count de St. Germain, whom he
subsequently found installed at the Hague.
After failing in his various industrial specu-
lations at Paris, Casanova went to Holland
under the auspices of the duke of Choiseul,
to contract a loan for the French govern-
ment; while strange to say, 8t. Germain had
received the same mission ftrom the hands of
Louis XV. himself. The two adventurers were
well matched, but as they found the Dutch un-
willing to advance any money, Casanova re-
sumed his travels. At Roche he paid his re-
spects to Haller, and at Femey to Voltaire.
At London he met the chevalier d'£on, and
was introduced to George IH., but, implicated
in a charge of forgery, left the English capital
in a singularly hurried manner. At Brunswick
the prince of Prussia helped him out of a pecu-
niary diflacultji. His rencontres with 8t Ger-
main continued to be frequent and amusing.
At Sans Souci he had an audience of Frederic
the Great; at St. Petersburg of Catharine
U. Prince Adam Czartorysky introduced him
to the king of Poland. He returned to Vien-
na, but Maria Theresa would not receive him,
and he departed for Spain. There his career
forms one series of scandals and intrigues. In
Barcelona he waa put in prison, where he be-

Ciled his time by writing a refutation of
, Houssaye's " History of Venice." After re-
covering his liberty, he betook himself in 1768
to Aiz, where he met Cagliostro. This meet-
ing of the two great adventurers of the 18th cen-
tury was fnU of interest. But Casanova's roving
career was now drawing to its dose. At a din-

ner of the Venetian ambassadfnr at Paris, be lud
met Count Waldstein of Bohemia, a good-nator-
ed man, and to escape from the dangers of hb

Srecarious position, he accepted the office of
brarian in the chateau of the Bohemian ooimt,
where he spent the remaining 14 years of Ins
life. Casanova wrote a work oifPolish hutorj,
translated the Hiad, and was the author of aa
account of his imprisonment, and various other
writings. But his literary f^e rests upon his
MSmo*re8, which he wrote in French during his
residence in Bohemia.

CASAS, Babtolomb b^ lab, called the apo6d«
to the American Indians, bom at Seville, in
Spain, in 1474, died in Madrid in 1566. Es
father accompanied Columbus both on his 1st
and 2d voyages, and on the latter of these to(i
with him his son, then 19 years of age, who tifl
that time had pursued his studies with brilliut
success at Salamanca. Bartolome went also a
the 8d and 4th voyages of Columbus. On his
return to Spain he determined to become ffl
ecclesiastic, and entered the order of Domini-
cans, with a view of being employed asams-
sionary to the Indians. His oniination was de-
ferred till his arrival in 1610 at St Doming
where he celebrated the first high mass that had
ever been heard from a priest ordained in the
new world. Soon after, he was iq)pointed to a
curacy in the island of Cuba, and attracted tte
attention of Grovemor Velasquez by the intra-
ence which his mildness and charity hadgainw
over the native population. He entered witb
ceal into the interests of the unfortunate Induni
oppressed by their European conquerors, and ifl
1516 returned to Spain to obtain for themm^e-
ures of redress. Cardinal Ximenes, theni«|
gent, sent out 8 Hieronymite monks to correw
the abuses complained of, but the efforts of tte
commission not satisfying the devotion of l»
Casas, he sooii returned again to 6P"^,^
stricter and more eflScient regulations. At J«i
to save the Indians from the complete externn-
nation which threatened them if t^«""J^
continued. Las Cases, who had seen th«_^^^
thriving and robust beneath thesunof Hispan^
ola. proposed the introduction of n^ siavw
to labor in mines and on sugar plantations, ano
relieve the natives. The plan which l>f ^^/'^^
had suggested was quickly caught up by tw
onists, the traffic in negroes became a w^"
commerce, and the servitude of one ^ .
^ - - - - other. 6ce««

plan,lJ
ishing^
under his own guidance, and

only exchanged for that of another, b^^
the failure and perversion of his plan, ^^T
formed the bold project of establishing a c«i^^
under his own guidance, and oht^^^ ,
Charies V. the gift of 250 leagues ^ ^^'
this purpose. This plan too failing after a »i
trial in despair he retired for a tune to i

Subse-

Dominican convent at St Domingo. -^
quently he went as missionary wia P ^^
through the provinces of Nicaragua ana u
mala, and into Peru and Mexico; ^fjlr^
returned to Europe to explain to *"^^f "zjo
the situation of the Indies and to obtam i

he
or
him new reforms.

Charles V^wlBhing

toi«-

GASAS GRAKDE3

ward him for hm monj IxiborSf appamted him to
thd rich bialwprio of Cozco* Jji^ Casoa t>referred
to rttmatu poor, and having d&cUDed thU ap-
poiQtmeut A€C<3pted the next jc^ar the bighoprici
of Chbpfl, in Mexico, in & proviace deatituUa of
metalSf pearb^ or coniinerce ; and at tho age of
To year*, be Itft Spain for the 8th time. His
zeal in behalf of tlie Indians provokod a hostile
'attack from Sepulvetla, an ofldcer of itie Spanish
court, who undertook to justify the conduct of
the Spaniards. To defend himself Las Casas
wrote his work upon the destruction of the
Indies, which contained many particulars of
cruelties by the colonists, and was translated
into several European languages. He met with
difficulties in the administration of his bishopric,
and having refused the sacraments to those of
the colonists who reduced the Indians to slavery,
he drew upon himself not only the hostility or
the planters but also the disapproval of the
cliurch. Abandoned by all, he returned finally
to Spain in 1551, after having during 50 years
s^i^nalized in America his zeal and his virtues.
II 0 retired to a cloister, and devoted the re-
mainder of his life to various compositions, one
of the most valuable of which, his " General
History of the Indies," has never been pub-
lished.

CASAS GRANDES (Span, great houses), a
town of about 4,000 inhabitants in Chihuahua,
Mexico, on the Casas Grandes or San Miguel river,
85 ra. S. of Llanos, and remarkable for a num-
ber of ruins, apparently relics of an aboriginal
race. These ruins are found about half a mile
from the modern town, jiartly on the declivity
of a fiinall hill, and partly on the plain at its
foot. They consist chiefly of the remains of a
large edifice, built entirely of adobe, or mud
mixed with gravel and formed into blocks 22
inches thick, and about 8 feet long. No stone
appears to have been used, and the portions
which must have been constructed of wood
have entirely crumbled away. The outer
walls are almost all prostrate, except at the
corners, and were probably only 1 story high ;
the inner walls are much better preserved,
varying in height from 6 to 50 feet, and being
in some cases 5 feet thick at the base. The
central parts of these, like the exterior walls,
have generally fallen, leaving the corners tow-
ering above the rest. The portions remaining
erect seem to indicate an original height of
from 8 to 6 stories, but they are so much
washed away that it is impossible to discover
where the beams were inserted. The door-
ways have the tapering form noticed in the
ancient structures of Central America and Yu-
catan, and over them are curcular openings in
the partition walls. The stairways were prob-
ably of wood, and placed on the outside. Cla-
vigero, in his "History of Mexico," tells us
that the building, according to popular tradi-
tion, was erected by the Mexicans in their
peregrination, and that it consisted "of 8
lioors, with a terrace above tliem, and without
any entrance to the lower floor. The door for

entrance to the building b on ih# second floor,
&o that a sualing ladder is neeeiisaryJ'' It li
difficult to form a correct idea of the arrange
Tnent of the edifice, but its main features seem
to have beeu 8 large stractnrijs connected hf
rang:e3 of corridor d or low apartmeDt^ and en-
closing several courtly ards of various dimea-
fidons. The extent from N^ to S* must have
been 800 feet, and from E» to W, about 230
feet. A range of narrow rooms, lighted by
circular openings near the top, and having pens
or enclosures 8 or 4 feet high in one comer,
supposed to be granaries, extends along one of
the main walls. Many of the apartmenta are
very large, and some of the enclosures are too
vast ever to have been covered by a rood
About 200 feet W. of the main building are
8 mounds of loose stones, which may have been
burial places, and 200 feet W. of these are the
remains of a building, h story high and 150 feet
square, consisting of a number of apartments
ranged around a square court. For some dis-
tance S. the plain is covered with traces of old
buildings, the nature of which cannot now be
determined, and for 20 leagues along the Casas
Grandes and Llanos rivers are found artificial
mounds from which have been dug up stone
axes, corn-grinders, and various articles of pot-
tery, such as pipes, jars, pitchers, &c., of a tex-
ture far superior to that made by the Mexicans
of the present day, and genendly ornamented
with angular figures of blue, red, brown, and
black, on a red or white ground. The best
specimens command a high price in Chihuahua
and neighboring towns. — On the summit of a
mountain, about 10 miles from the ruins above
described, are the remains of an ancient stone
fortress, attributed to the same people who
built the Casas Grandes, and probably intended
as a lookout.— On the Salinas and Gila rivers,
in the country of the Pimo and Coco Mari-
copa Indians, New Mexico, are ruins of like
character and evidently identical origin, to
which the same name is usually applied. The
Indians call all such ruins ^* Casas de Monte-
zuma." Of those on the Salinas little remains
but shapeless heaps of rubbish, broken pottery,
and the traces of several irrigating canals. On
the Gila, however, there are 3 distinct buildings,
all enclosed within a space of 150 yards. Tiia
largest measures 50 by 40 feet, and at a dis-
tance looks not unlike a square castle, with a
tower rising from the centre. The southern
wall is badly rent and crumbled, bat the other
8 are nearly perfect, are roughly plastered over
on the outside, and hard-finished inside with
a composition of adobe. The material of
which they are constructed is the same as that
used in the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua. The
walls are perpendicular within, but their ex-
terior face tapers in a curve toward the top.
One of them is covered with rude figures. The
ends of the beams, which denote by their
charred appearance that the building was de-
stroyed by fire, are deeply sunk in the walls,
and show 8 stories now standing. The lower

510

OASATI

OABOA

floor is divided into 6 apartments. There is an
entrance on each of the 4 sides, bnt there are
no windows except on the W. side, and no
traces of an interior stairway. The other 2
buildings are much smaller, and one of them
was perhaps merely a watch-tower. Both
are badly ruined. About 200 yards distant is
a circular enclosure, from 80 to 100 yards in
circumference, probably intended for cattle.
For miles around the plain is strewn with
fragments of pottery. — ^The origin of these ruins
is a subject of doubt. They were seen near*
ly in their present state by the early explorers
of the country, and the Indians then assigned
them an age of no less than 500 years. Mr.
Squier supposes them to have been the work
of the aboriginal race of the Moquis.

OASATI, Gabbio, eount, president of the
provisional government of Lombardy in 1848,
born in Milan, Aug. 2,#Y98, distingmshed him-
self during the revolution by his patriotism
and moderation. Advocating the union of
Lombardy and Sardinia, he officiated from
March to July 25, 1848, as one of the ministers
of Charles Albert, and subsequently he presided
over the Lombard eonsulta at Turin, until 1849,
when Lombardy came again under the sway of
Austria.

OASATI, Paolo, an Italian Jesuit, bom at
Fiacenza in 1617, died in Parma, Deo. 22, 1T07,
celebrated for having been the means of con-
verting Christina of Sweden to the faith of
Bome, and for his proficiency in mathematics
and theology, of which sciences he was professor.

OASAUBON", IsAAO, a Oalvinlstio tneologian
and critic, born in Geneva, Feb. 8, 1559, died
in London, July 1, 1614. His father was a
French Protestant minister, and sent him at the
age of 19 to Geneva to study Greek, where he
soon so distinguished himself as a linguist, that
on the chair of Greek becoming vacant in 1582,
he was appointed to it, though only 28 years of
age. This post he occupied for 14 years.
Meanwhile ne married Florence, the daughter
of Henry Stephens, the celebrated printer and
publisher, by whom eventually he had 20
children. Some domestic difficulty with his
father-in-law, or the financial embarrassments
in which he was involved by being surety for a
friend, led him in 1597 to remove to the chair of
Greek and belles-lettres in the university of
MontpoUier. Two years afterward, at the so-
licitation of Henry IV., he went to Paris to take
a similar professorship in the university of
France. But the jealousy of the Catholic party
made the measure impontio, and Henry finally
appointed a Catholio to the chair, and made
Oasaubon royal librarian, with a sdary of 400
francs per annum. At the conference of Fon-
iainebleau (May 4, 1600), Henry constituted
him one of the Protestant Judges. The Catholic
party predicted that Oasaubon would finally
renounce his Protestantism; but he died in the
Protestant communion, though there is no doubt
he was sometimes wavering in his faith. Cha-
grined that his Protestant reputation was thus

impidred, Oasanbon determined to leave IVmoe,
and therefore availing himself of the oceaatoa
of Henry's death to get leave of absence from
the queen, he accompanied Sir Henry Wotkm
to England. He was received with disdne-
tion, made prebendary of Canterbury, and some
say also of Westminster, and received a pendofi
of £200, which he lived 8 years to enjo^. He
was buried in Westminster abbey. To the end
of his life he spoke Latin as well as he did his
mother tongue, and was the most critical Greek
scholar of his age. His works are mostly phi-
lological and critical, many of them being an-
notated editions of the classics.

OASAUBON, Mebio, an English divine, son
of the preceding, bom at Geneva, Aug. 14,
1599, died in Somersetshire, July 14^ 1671. He
accompanied his father to England; was ap-
pointed to the cure of Bleadon in 1624, and 4
years afterward was made prebendarj of Canr
terbury, and rector of lokham. He received
the degree of D. D. at Oxford, 1636. Throu^
his attachment to the Stuarts he lost b<^
property and preferments during the protecto-
rate. Cromwell, perceiving his talents, made
frequent efforts to win him over to the cause of
the commonwealth; among which was a soHci-
tation to write a history of the war. Christina,
queen of Sweden, offered him the 8ux>erintenden-
cy of all the Swedish universities, but he persist-
ed in living in retirement in England until the
accession of Charles IL, when his ecdesiastioai
preferments were all restored. He published in
his lifetime 2 vindications of his &ther from the
aspersions of his enemies. He believed in the
existence of witches and fanuliar spirits, a fiuth
which he endeavored to defend in a work en-
titied " Credulity and Incredulity."

CASOA, PuBLHTS Ssbviltos, one of the con*
^irators against the life of Julius Csdsar. He
was not a person, otherwise, of much note, and
it is even doubtful whether his name would
ever have been recorded in history, had it not
been for his complicity in this deed. He had
been attached to the Pompeian party, and had,
like many others of the dictator's slayers, snb-
mitted himself to Caesar after the batlie of
Fharsalia, and received a free pardon. It is
stated by Plutarch, inhislifeof Cassar, that, whea
Tullius Cimber, according to the preconcerted
plan, gave the signal for the assassination
by dropping the fold of his toga ih>m his
shoulder, Oasca struck the dictator on the back
of the neck with a short sword, or dagger, but
failed to inflict either a deep or deadly woond,
being under the influence of agitation, if not
of fear, when delivering the blow. Oteear, on
feeling the stroke, turned round, it is sud,
abruptly, and caught the assassin by the arm,
crying out in Latin, " What dost thou, villain
Cascat" when Oasca caUing to his confeder-
ates in Greek, ''Help, brothers T' the oth-
ers rallied to his assistance, and completed the
bloody deed. Of so small celebrity is this per*
son, but for his share in this conspiracy, that
history haanot recorded the£s^ which boll^him.

0*VSOADE RiLKGE

CASE snoT

0A8OABE RAN"GE, a chain of moantama
5ti tbo W. part of Oregon, forming a cootinua-
tloii of tUa Sierra Novila of Californm. It lies
about 100 m. from the Pacific, aivd runs in gon-
tiral nearly N* and S, Its highest summits vary
V ::r:it^nn fritEa 10,i)uO to"l7,ltuO I\:i:t. Thi^
latter is the altitude of Mt. St. Elias, in Rus8iaa
America, generally supposed to be the highest
land in North America. The name of this
chain is derived from the cascades of the Co-
lumbia, which are formed where that river
breaks through the Cascade range.

CASOARILLA (Span, ccucara^ bark), is ob-
tained from that species of croton called croton
eUutheria, a small tree or shrub which grows
wild in the West Indies and Bahama islands.
It has a spicy, bitter taste, and is used as a
tonic When burnt, it emits an odor so agree^
able, that smokers have sometimes mixed a
siuall quantity of it with their tobacco, but it is
very injurious when thus employed.

CASCO BAY, on the coast of Maine, lying
between the 2 headlands, 20 m. apart, of Capo
Elizabeth and Cape Small Point. It contains
305 small islands, which have become a favorite
resort during the summer season.

CASE, in grammar, is the inttoction or change
of termination which a noun receives, in order
to express various relations to other words in a
sentence. The name is derived from the Latin
ca^us, a fall, thus indicating a falling off from
the original state of the word. This inflection
of nouns was common to the ancient languages,
but many modern languages have renounced it.
The relations which the Greeks and Romans
expressed by changes of termination are ex-
pressed among the moderns by prepositions, or
by a simple change in the order of words. In
the English language, and those of the conti-
nent formed from the Latin, only the pronouns
are changed in form according to the relations
which they express. Those languages which
admit of cases do not all have the same num-
ber. The Latins had 6, the Greeks 6, and the
Arabs 3, and prepositions were resorted to to
express relations which had no case appropri-
ated to them.

CASE, Action on the, or Trespass on the,
in law, a form of personal action, first used in
the reign of Edward IIL, as a remedy for in-
juries to which the forms then in vogue were
not adapted, and receiving its name from the
fact that the whole case of the plaintiff was set
f«)rth in the original writ. It is so comprehen-
sive in its scope as to lie wherever damages are
claimed to person or property, for which no
other form of action affords a remedy. This,
which may be called a natural species of action,
in contradistinction from those which are of a
more technical character, is retained wherever
the practice is simplified, and forms the basis
of the rules governing the single form of action
allowed by the codes of Kew York and several
oUier states.

CASE-HARDENING, a process of harden-
ing the surface of small iron articles, hj con-

verting thh portion of them into sted. For
this pur[ioso thoj are pla<?ed in an irun case,
ti>gietber with uninial or vegetable char^^oal, and
sul>jeoted to the procesa of temetitatjon. The
carbon ab^^rbed dues not, in the sb<>rt time al-
JT.vcd for the opcratiau, ppTi(?trrr I -'-c^ilii tlm
surface. From 2 to 8 hours is the usual time that
the articles are exposed to a dull red heat ; they
are then taken out of the burnt bone-dust, or
other carbonaceous substance, and further hard-
ened by quenching them in oil or cold water.
Sometimes they are left to cool in the case, and
are afterward tempered. Prussiate of potash
has in various ways been found a very useful
material for affording its carbon to iron for pro-
ducing steel. Being a combination of two atoms
of carbon and one of nitrogen with one of pot-
ash, it offers no solid residue that interferes
with the progress of the chemical change, or
impairs the quality of the- steel. In case-hard-
ening, it is sprinUed or rubbed upon the iron
heated to dull red, and this, after being put in
the fire for a few minutes. Is taken out and
tempered in water. The process is a con-
venient one where small articles are to be ex-
posed to much wear, these being easily made of
soft iron, and then externally hardened. It is
also conveniently applied to give a good surface
to small articles which are desired to receive
the high polish of which steel is susceptible.

CxVSE SHOT, or Canister Shot, consists of
a number of wrought-iron balls, packed in a
tin canister of a cyUndrical shape. The balls
for field service are regularly deposited in lay-
ers, but for most kuids of siege and naval ord-
nance they are merely thrown into the case
until it is filled, when the lid is soldered on.
Between the bottom of the canister and the
charge a wooden bottom is inserted. The weights
of the balls vary with the different kinds of
ordnance, and the regulations of each service.
The English have, for their heavy naval guns,
balls from 8 oz. to 3 lbs. ; for their 9-pound field-
gun, 1^ oz. and 5 oz. balls, of which respectively
126 and 41 make up a canister for one discharge.
The Prussians nse 41 balls, each weighing
^V of the weight of the corresponding round
shot. The French had up to 1854 nearly the
same system ; how they may have altered it
since the introduction of the new howitzer gim,
we are unable to tell. For siege and garrison
artillery, the balls are sometimes arranged round
a spindle projecting from the wooden bottom,
either in a bag in the shape of a grape (whence
the name grape shot), or in regular layers
with round wooden or iron plates between each
layer, the whole covered over with a canvas
bag. — ^The most recently introduce<l kind is the
spherical case shot, commonly called from their
inventor, the British general Shrapnell, shrap-
nell shells. They consist of a thin cast-iron shuU
(from i to J inch thickness of iron), with a dia-
phragm or partition in the middle. The lower
compartment is destined to receive a bursting
charge, the upper one contains leaden musket
balls, A fuse is inserted containing a carefully

512

OASEMATES

0A8HMEBE

prepared composition, the aconraoy of whose
Doming off can be depended npon. A compo-
sition is mn between the balls, so as to prevent
them fi*om shaking. When used in the field^
the fase is cat off to the length reqnired for the
distance of the enemy, and inserted into the
^ell. At from 60 to 70 yards from the enemy
the fose is bnmt to the bottom, and explodes
tiie shell, scattering the bnllets toward the ene-
my precisely as if common case shot had been
fired on the spot where the shell exploded. The
precision of the fuses at present attained in
several services is very great, and thus this new
projectile enables the gunner to obtain the ex*
act effect of grape at ranges where formerly
ronnd shot only could be used. The com-
mon case is most destructive up to 200 yards,
but may be used up to 500 yards; its effect
against advancing lines of in&ntry or cavalry
at dose quarters is terrible ; against skirmishers
it is of little use ; against columns round shot
is oftener applicable. The spherical case, on
the other hand, is most effective at from 600
to 1,400 yards, and with a proper elevation and
a long fuse, may be launched at still greater
ranges with probability of effect From its ex-
plosion near the enemy, by which the hailstorm
of bullets 19 kept close together, it may success-
fully be used against troops in almost any but
the skirmiahing formation. After the introduc-
tion of the spherical case shot, it was adopted
in almost all European services as soon as a
proper fuse composition was invented by each,
this forming the only difficulty; and of the
great European x>owera, France is the oiJy one
which has not yet succeeded in this particular.
Further experiments, accidents, or bribes will,
however, no doubt soon place this power in
possession of the secreL

OASEMATES (Sp. cam, a house, and mator,
to destroy), in fortification, vaulted chambers
under the main wall of a bastion with embrar
sures for guns. Though generally considered
by writers as only protected batteries, they
have in the United States been used as subter-
ranean barracks even in time of peace. They
must be bomb-proo^ and distributed along
the faces and flanks of the bastion to serve as
chambers to the garrison in case of bombard-
ment, but a regax^ for the health of troops has
prevented all armies except the American from
nsing them as barracks, except when compelled
by t£e exigencies of war.

OASERTA, a town of Naples, capital of the
province of Terra di Lavoro, situated in a fertile
plain on the railway line from Naples to Capua,
17 m. N. E. of the former, and 6 m. S. E. of the
latter city ; pop. about 25,000. It has numer-
ous churches, a convent, a military school and
excellent barracks, and is noted for its magnifi-
cent royal palace and aqueduct, both constructed
by Vanvitelli for Charles IIL The palace con-
tains a chapel, and a large theatre, adorned with
columns from an ancient temple of Serapis.
The gardens are supplied with water from a
distance of 27 miles by means of a fine aqueduct.

The principal brandi of industrr oonsists in the
manufacture of silks. — On the hills boMnd Ca-
serta is Oasbbta. Ybgghia, a fortified town, the
seat of a bishop and of a seminary, oantaicizig
a splendid cathedral and other ohnrches ; it wis
once a place of great importance, bat hiis beea
edipsed since the foundation of OasertiL Both
towns were founded by the Lombards.

OASES, OounT DB. See Las Casks.

OASET, a central co. of Ky., area 850 sq. ol;
pop. in 1850, 6,656, of whom 684 were sJaves. Is
IS traversed by Green river and the Rolling fcst
of Salt river. The surface is billy and broken.
The productions in 1850 were 511,416 bnsh. of
com, 9,041 of wheat, 81,797 of oats, 74,600 lbs.
of tobacco, 24,422 of wool, and 27,197 of flsx.
There were 14 churches, and 1,156 papHs fit-
tending publiQ schools. The county was oma-
ized in 1806, and named in honor of CoL vJTm.
Casey, one of the first settlers of Ky. Cap-
ital, Liberty.

OASHAN, or Kashan, an ancient and flour-
ishing city of Perna) in the provinoe ctf Irak-
Ajeme, situated in a rocky plain, abont 90 m.
N. of Ispahan on the route to Teheran; kt
84® K, long. 51*» 20' E. ; pop. about 80,000. Il
contains a royal palace, 80 mosques, IS bath%
and numerous bazaars. Beautiful silks, ahavk
cotton cloths, and carpets are mantiiactimfd
here ; copper utensils are also made herei^ and
the workers in gold and diver are noted fox
their skill. It has considerable trade in fmiu

CASHEL (anc Carnoit the "habitation in
the rock " ), a city and parliamentary borough
of Ireland) co. Tipperary, with a station on tb«
Great Southern and Western railway. 75 m. S.
W. of Dublin ; pop. in 1851, 4,798. JPart of it
is well built, but it has a poverty-strioken ^
pearance, is destitute of manufactoresy and h»
been on the decline for several years. It con-
tains an elegant cathedral and pariah obnrch, a
nunnery, chapels, schools, barracks, a hospital,
an infirmary, and court-houses. Its most inter-
esting object is the &mous "rock of Cashk,^
whidu rises abruptly from the phun oatside d
the city, and is crowned with the finest collect
tion of ruins in Ireland. These consist c£ s
roimd tower, a Grothic cathedral built about the
12th century, a monastery and a castle of aboct
the same date, and a chapel of hewn stone, with
a roof of the same material, built in the Sazosi
and Norman styles of architecture, and stin
showing marks of extraordinary beauty. These
remains, which are visible at a great distance,
are all within an enclosed area. At the foot d
the rock are the ruins of Hore abbey and of a
Dominican priory. Donald O'Brien, king of
Limerick, and his nobles took the oaUi of alk*
glance to Henry n. here in 1172. Cashel was
the ancient residence of the sovereigns of Mun-
ster, and is often dignified by the title of ^^the
city of kings.'' In the civil wars following
the rebellion of 1641, it was taken by Lora
Inchiquin, and afterward by CromwelL

CASHMERE, Caohsmibb, Easbiok, Kachs-
miB|Kasohsmib, or Kaoboob, a kingdom in the

614

CASHMERE

entire year. The total number of looms in
Ofu^mere, it is belieyed, is abont 16,000. The
shawls they prodnce are the great article of
export of the comitry. They are sent to va-
rioos parts of Asi% and in India they were
first made known to the English. The process
of weaving the shawls with variegated figures
is conducted without the shuttle, each colored
yam of the woof being worked upon the warp
with its separate wooden needle ; and, as the
work goes on exceedingly slowly, it is custom-
ary to divide it among several looms, and then
join the pieces together. This is so skilfully
done that the seams are not detected. As the
pattern is worked, the right side is the under
one upon tlie frame, and is not seen by those
who work it upon the upper or rough side.
The shawls are made single and in pairs, either
square or long. The former measure from 63
to 72 inches on a side, the latter 126 inches by
54. To work a single long shawl without a
seam, and of the finest thread in the warp as
well as the woof, in the most elaborate pattern
and exquisite colors, would require the labor of
about 8 years ; and as in this time the colors
are likely to change, and the fabric to receive
injury from worms or otherwise, such shawls
are rarely attempted. The fine shawls are more
usually made upon 12 different looms for a pair,
and when completed, at the expiration of 6 or
7 months, are worth in Cashmere from 1,200 to
2,000 rupees, or from about $500 to $800. The
most expensive shawls sold in London or Paris
are stated to have brought about $2,000. — ^In
the year 1819, M. Jaubert, under the auspices
of the French government and at the expense
of M. Ternaux, succeeded in bringing some of
the goats to France. These were a cross be-
tween the original Thibet and a Tartar variety,
and were of a comparatively hardy constitution.
They were placed by M. Ternaux at his villa of
Saint Ouen, near Paris, where they gradually
increased in numbers, so that 4 were ^terward
obtained by Mr. Taylor, of Essex in England ;
and from these in 1833 the number had in-
creased to 50. The down they furnished proved,
however, to be too little in quantity to be of
value; but by crossing the breed with the An-
gora goat, the downy product was largely in-
creased, and it proved, moreover, to be of a long,
silky quality, admirably adapted for shawls.
With the wool obtained from these goats and
that imported from Thibet through Kasan, capi-
tal of a Hussion province on Uie Volga, tne
French maintain the extensive manufactures
they have established of shawls made princi*
pally of this material. To imitate the genuine
cashmere successfully greatly taxed the skill of
their manufacturers; and though in Paris
shawls have been produced like those imported,
it is found more profitable to limit the manufac-
ture to somewhat similar but more easily
woven fabrics. The real cashmere is made by
a very complicated process, which requires not
only as many yarns in the weft as there are
colors in the pattern, bat also as many littJe

shuttles or pirns (like those used in eDabrmdeiy \

filled with these yams, as there are to bo <x)l-v3
repeated in the breadth of the pi^be. By tie
skilful use of these the figures, however cq^
plicated with variety of colors, are repeated

Erecisely alike on both sides. This the Fr«i(u
ave also done in their imitations of real Ci>b-
mere. But the principal articles of this &n
they manufacture are the 80-<2a]led French cf. >.-
mere shawls, in which the 2 sides are not alii-. :
but on one side they have the exact appear^: *
of the cashmere. They are made in Paris \'
the use of the draw-loom, or, which is bet: J,
of the jacquard, with as many shuttle? is
colors in the design. These are thrown sct-js
the warp as required; but being most d
tliem brought into play only at interval!^, d.
threads remain fioating loose on the back, ail
are at last trinmied om Their felting pn>p<^
prevents their coming out, but the ends c .>
tinue visible on the wrong side. The pn>:'.'<
saves labor, but wastes material ; the wa>:c L%
however, worked up in other fabrics. In ::c
Paris-made articles the warp and weft are I •-
of pure cashmere down. The shawls are n: -^
ly square, of from 71 to 76f inches on a > It,
and of the value of 220 to 600 franca. TL.j
have seldom less than 8 colors^ ooram.ijy
10 or 11, and sometimes 14 and 15. The ' v
shawls in pure cashmere ought to measure tr -z
59 to 68 inches in breadth, and from 14U *'
149i inches in length. Their price is from c '>
to 700 francs. But there are also 2 rone::-
made at Paris, which differ somewhat from ui
above. One, called the Hind,oo cashmere, L'b
the warp in silk, and the rest is pure ca>lic: j.^
down. One or two colors less are empiovf>i
which reduces the price to 180, and from 'J.^
to 120 francs. The other is called the Hic^ •
wool shawL In this the warp is also silk, ^I
the rest is of wool more or less fine in qca. 7.
This article is much more largely required tii:
the others. The value of its annual prodactx
is reckoned to be from 12 to 15 milliocs i^'
francs. Lyons leaves to Paris the manufa*.' :>-
of the pure cashmere goods, but aacocs^f^^;
competes in the production of the pure ^^« -
Hinaoo article. The wool employed riT&lri:
softness and fineness that of the Oashmere r:o
But the most important of the fabrics of I/^ >
is the so-called Thibet shawl, made of a mir re
of wool and fioss silk. In the mannfactm^ ::
these and other varieties of shawls it is estir >
ed that there are in Lyons 4,000 looms, c ::
of which when in operation requires the at: :•
tion of 8 persons. Nismes and Kheims have :^'^'
each a factory which produce similar artiolta::
great economy and at lower prices than iho«e >.'
Lyons «nd Paris. This important hr-jinl :
industry is altogether the direct result of ::>
efforts made to imitate the Cashmere sli^ - 1%
first known in Paris during tiie present centr-*
—Dr. J. B, Davis, of Columbia, S. C, w! '.
employed, a few years since, by Uie Tur^.;
government, in experimenting on the g^o\^'\
of ootton in the Ottoman empire, sacceede^i c

CABBSL

CuUDMA

bis

ni- 1 ! ?itt:

V 'jrr 0(1

TTirir^^. siJrfU -TJJi Li.' rjr^iAr irini Mm tiud \*:

IJ^ 'M-JL/I j I'IlT U .tt

II LU

IT til in, siai IV^^ttoiHii liii ^'"^ ^>

CASCfO

cjaeus

fA wyyl ar^ kft it «>f §t.>c*. Azr-l-nliiire. is-

ft»,*y of v^i %tAtife were cl*v-Aj<i^ i- ai: as^v^ciiLl::^

d^z'/:r>iT TB .:.'. C;-ir,->< I V^ €mp*:ror of G^tejzt,
wr.xr. w« c^i^r'.rai^ for 20 di7§ at Cracoir. ia
t:>i p'«^»-.r./->5 of Lftw J kifx? of ff-^r.^arr, Peter
k-r.;5 '/: CjpTriA, Wa^'i.^iaai' klr^ of I>c::i=^rt and
a jr'rt* r.'. r.-^ir of d'«jC'» and other diiticg^Led
g-Av.*, Bvt h*.* reizn ha4 al^ its it^des:
c.'.;.i//;/7 r/.;&JT;A^fri ; love af^rs coi>lf-TnT><d
ij t.v; ^^ry.H ^A u.h cbnrc^i : aa eioommTini-
CAtl '/li tj t:.^ archbl-Lo;» of Craoow; a dead! j
r«;^er*7f5 Uk<;n on itii ix.noc€:Lt anno»2i!C«'; tins
r/'^^vj/.'j^r/, hnrnMatlon of the tir.? bj the pope;
fc/.'l a jrreat d^^f-jit br the Wa*jic!iiaaa. A
fail {ffAti a Ij^iryft eii'if:*! the l.fe of the most
y.y^l^r mor.arch of Polarui. — Among tlje ob-
j<y^ of the love of CzAttat wa^ the Jewess Es-
tb';r, i\»*i hf:ro:rie of ao ma/;/ romances, by
wr.'/rn he h.vl fteveral chlMren, ftnd who is sop-
IK/'.':*J to b/ire contnbnted gre^tlr to the hu-
w.-'Uie frt-'/e^nion whi';h he and hU laws bestow-
e/j on h^jf \i<',f>]f\(i in Poland, in the time of most
barbaroMs pcr-f^cntiocs in c/ther parts of Enrope.
IV, J>/m 1427, died at Grodno 14&2, was the
t/m (A Wlarlv-law Jatnello, and brother and
ViC/'A-'^tT of >t'ladjslaw III., called Wamenczjk,
ff'/m hij* dirfeat and death at Varna in 1444.
{jU'\ui\r wft^ at that time grand duke of Lithu-
ania, and tu:c.f:]tU:t\^ but hef-itatinglj, the call to
the throne of Poland. IIU long reign is re-
irjarkahle for several diets held at Lublin,
Piotrkow, etc. ; for asncce^isfnl war of 14 years
againi^t the Teutonic knights, terminated in 1466
})Y the peace of Thorn, which gave to Poland
the w;fitem jmrt of Prui*?ia and the suzerainty
of the caHtern, and for the subsequent long
pcriwl of general prosperity, luxury, and relax-
ation of the national spirit. The introduction
of the Latin language into the schools and pub-
lic life of Poland dates particularly from this
reign. Of the 6 sons of Casimir, one was elected
king of Bohemia and Hungary, three, John
Albert, Alexander, and Sigismnnd, succeeded
each other on the throne of Poland, one became a
cardinal and one a saint. V. See John Casuob.
CASINO, or MovTE Casino, a celebrated
Benedictine abbey, established by St. Benedict
in 62 9, upon the mountain of the same name, in
the Neapolitan province Terra di Lavoro, rising
over the town of SanGermano, the ancient Casi-
num, in former times the seat of a famous
coMtlo, and of a temple of Apollo. The beauty
of the Ppot attracted many visitors, and the med-
ical skill of the friars many invalids to the
abbcj, while at the same time pilgrims re-
sorted tlicre from all parts of the world, as the
V ere deemed to possess miraculous

M^DV 4BLiPVC .

Labed a vmay rf vaiaaJL* wccia. Tit: _
ran. Xrrr. ZjbsL z^isabmi a ISlI

CaSPIa:^ sZA • aZed Irr tie :
cf Aicnkhds. SIC JKxrv C^Caim or E.
ftvm ; Gr. EArrv AsSLarra « IB 'r'^rf aPA .
t-rrw«£ Eirrrre lOii Asia. !s.3a^ X to 4'

frcci y. to S.. 7"!']
E. : ava-ace trea«nh ai:cc: i>} a. Area. N •
0>j «c EL Is B t«:?czif«jd 51 £, y. flcd N '^<.
It R:^:x S. azd S. W. ty Pas« an^ E .
Toorki^aa. Is has &w bayiL i^ ^MM.^}sL \ - :
oa iLe Asiifi si-ie. Ezib* bay. M^rrr.: r -.
Karaaco izles. Mvz^'^ 'at" rzJL b«T oc -L :-
an-i-cT, Kci:«icrllz*k zrLi Kockc L^srsa bij. -.- :
Biil^^aa l^y: ca tlas EorofeaM sc-;:. ii -.
Aratch arid* Xorca g:£^ and sewral si-1 .r
indtntark ra. As the soctban exXPemitT •: : :_ i
sea IS Asirabod lay. a=d frcm this p> x: :
Emba bay as the north-easteni csd. tike c^-: n
shore extrcds ceariy in a eSrai^t fine. I--.
Emba river, which enters the bay of its v-r:
name by several mouihs. and the Aurak, ar? ~-
most the only con5:<ierai:le liras which it rt-
ceives on this side, though the Oxib» or Ar - s
which now enters the s^a of Aral, s scpr<«^. : '
have once flowed into it. On the X. aini W. /•
basin is far more extensivcs. The Ural, ti.
Volga, the Terek, and the Koor here pour ti. --
waters into it, and most oi them sre €onatai*>
bringing accumulations of SBodj whi<?h. in >. '. e
insti^ces, as at the mouth of the Volga, u^tzi
little islands, projecting severai miles from in
coast. Tlie shores are thus rendered diffic::.: :'
access, and in the northern and narth-<-&r.^:z
parts the depth of water for 2 or 8 m. fr- 12
land is only a few feet. All this pert of :!.>*
coast, as far S. W. as the Soolak, is of allcv £
formation ; thence S. to the peninsula of Ax'^::r-
ron it is of tertiary formation, broken by 00 >
sional carboniferous strata; andfrom Apshor'^
aroand the 8. extremity of the sea, the sli '^^
are low and sandy, with lofty hills riang in ii::
background. On the £. and S. K is fbnnd a cr^
taceoQS subsoil, covered with moving sanii:
the surface, with the exception of Cape Kars^^.
being flat In fiict, the coast gen^^y is -•
low, that most parts are overflowed when the
wind sets in strongly from the oppoedte quartrr.
Naphtha, or petroleum, is fineqnently focni
particularly on the peninsula of Apshercm arc
the ishmdof Naphthalia, in the bay of BalkhxL
The waters are not so salt as those of the ooe.ir,
owing to the immense volume of fresh water
poured into the sea by the Volga and other binre
rivers. They are very deep in some places. b::t
remarkably shallow near the ooasts except ir.
the southern part. There are no tidesi, and the
sea has no outlet, the supeTfluoos waters K^ii .'
carried off wholly by evaporation. Extra :^
dinary changes in its level hare been coti^x^i

^^^^ CAn*UN6£A ^^^^^^ CiMfSM ^^

^^^^^^^^m i 1 > - - i ^ - -

^^^H

^^^^^^^Bl>'

^^M

^^^M

^-■? u^u ^M

-^TA^Ktf ti^m- t^xm^ r Gi<rmMm &^mjjma^ ^^M

^^^H

^^^^^^^^B|p^

■

^^^^pSn ^n-jLt trd\

^^M

^^HliviBMJsd par

^^^H

^^^^^^^^^^^B«— - 1 n «>' If 1 > k 1 ^

^^1

^^^^^Kuti>:f^ C^ ill

^^^^■0^'. LlV.L..,i,r^r

^^H

^^^^^^Ki-

^^^^^^Ki'

^^^H

^^^K

^^^V>

^^M

^^^^^Rii

^^H

^^^^Hva*

^^^^^F^^

"^ ^wy*^ '^ ^^1

^^^^^^■wWi ■ «.*■ n

IM ^H

tij .,a ^H

: .ne ^^1

^^1

^^^^ THpttfifT^.

^^^^^Kq . , „ ^^ . .

^^^H

^^1

^^^Kr

^^1

^Hjintf»t dM

^^^H

^^^mfxi :.

' L-ikrer. 1 ' ^H

^^1

■ Lxuiii i\-^^>^ jjid ii ^ i ^^H

D^lKli OAf WlliJOQ t ^H

^^m

ti ^^1

^^1

^cv<e^jir ^H

^^^^^^^K ^

■i rif«ali|iw_, „._-. J4tt ^H

^^^^^^^^1,

;4^4«}i# iJr It fMT wilAfr OMiJJ y^ Ull|iC^E9f1Mr ^H

518

CABS

cafie, the crown was thrast back so far that it
projected from the base of the sknll behind,
iritn tbe crest standing out horizontally back-
ward, and the visor, or face-piece, resting flatly
on the crown, so as to leave the features en-
tirely exposed. The shape of this helmet and
the mode of wearing it are, perhaps, best ex-
plained by saying that, in form, it exactly re-
sembled a lady's cottage bonnet ; that the ordi-
nary mode of wearipg it was the present fash-
ion of putting it quite back off the head ; while
the mode of guarding the face was what it would
be, if the real crown of the bonnet sat flatly on
the top of the head, and the fore part were

Sulled down perpendicularly over the nose. It
oes not appear that these helmets were
ever worn actually in battle, at least not
in the second x>osition ; although some persons
have supposed that the helmet of Aidoneus,
whichMinerva wore when she mingled in com-
bat wi^ mortals in the Trojan war, and which
had the property of rendering its wearer invisi-
ble, was of this fashion. They were, however,
certainly worn by the gladiators in the later
ages of Rome; and specimens were found at
Pompeii, something resembling the rudest form
of the visored helmet of the 1st and 2d cru-
sades. The ancient *casques were ordinarily
made of bronze, often of exquisite workman-
ship, with elaborate sculptures and desims in
high relief, especially on the crown or head-
piece, the cheek-pieces, lucculce, and the cones,
or ridges, which supported the crest of waving
horsehair. This Was often dyed crimson, but
sometimes left white or black. The cones were
sometimes 8 or 4 in number, and fashioned into
the likeness of sphinxes, dragons, or lions. A
helmet of Minerva, on a fine antique gpm, shows
4 parallel crests, each supported by a prancing
centaur. According to Homer, casques were
often made of the precious metals, or at least
overlaid* with them. Steel does not appear to
have been in use for the fabric of ancient ar-
mor, or, until a comparatively recent period,
even for that of offensive weapons. The sword-
blades and spear-heads of Homer are all of
brass, x^^^os, whatever mixture that word rep-
resented, probably copper hardened with tin ;
and it is not until ^schylus wrote that we find
steel, YoXvi/r, and iron, o-td^/ior, used as synony-
mous lor the sword. The word casque is used
poetically in reference to all helmets, even to
those of the middle ages, when it is applied to
the whole covering of the head taken together
without reference to parts, as the cerveUliere,
avantaille, beaver, and other appendages. The
casque of the Boman legionary soldier was of
bronze, open, not protecting the face ; but it
had a peak to cover the brow, another to guard
the nape of the neck, cheek-pieces hinged on to
the casque and connected by a clasp under the
chin, and either a crest or a plume of 8 tall
erect, black and scarlet feathers. This was the
fashion, as described by Polybius, and in vogue
during the Punio wars.
CASS, the name of counties in several of the

United States. I. A N. W. co. of Ga^ area 714
sq. m, ; pop. 18,664, of whom 8,400 are alavei
It is drained by the Etowah river, and is remark-
ably ri<^ in minerals. Gold, copper, lead, iP)2,
titanium, plumbago, marble, and fimestone tn
found in several places. The surface is nitir!j
diversified, and occupied in part by forest? ef
hickory, pine, elm, and other trees. Vh^st,
oats, com, cotton, and fruits are 'the principi
productions of the soil. Kear the Etoirah riier
IS an artificial mound n feet high and 1,114 fee:
in circuit at the base. It has been opened aisd
found to contain some articles of very andeirt
earthenware. The county was named in ho&jr
of Gen. Lewis Oass. Capital, Oassville. Value of
real estate in 1866, |3,584,010. U. A N. E. oo.
of Texas, bordering on Louisiana and ArkaD<a.N
boxmded N. by Sulphur Fork of Red river, S. Ij
Big Cypress bay and Soda lake ; area 1,224 sq. m.':
pop. in 1856, 8,652, of whom 8,661 were slaves.
The surface is undulating, and partly occupkd
by xmcultivated swamps. The npluids are fer-
tile, and beside furnishing pasturage for mn}-
bers of horses and cattle, produced in Ina)'
1,578 bales of cotton, 167,250 buahela of conu
45,462 of sweet potatoes, and 66,122 pounds cf
butter. The public schools numbered 500 pupik
The forests furnish abundance of hard wood,
and in the S. W. part of the county are valua^'.
mines of iron. Capital, Jefferson. lEL AS.W.
CO. of Mich., bordering on Indiana, area 52S y^,
m. ; pop. 10,907. It has a level surface, pk&i-
antly diversified by a number of sm^ lake?,
and occupied by prairie, oak-openinCT, and dense
forests. Iron and limestone are me principal
minerals. In 1850 the productions amounted
to 418,860 bushels of com, 160,592 of wheat.
120,246 of oats, 68,020 of potatoes, and SS'f":
tons of hay. The crop of com was liu^r than \i
any other part of the state except Oakland c'\
There were 8 churches, and 8,896 pnpils in tl^
public schools. Capital, Cossopoua. lY. A
K. W. CO. of Ind., drained by Waba^Ai and I^
rivers; area 420 sq. m.; pop. 11,021. hi
the vicinity of the rivers are high blafl^ Tie
rest of the surface is generally flat, and ^videi
between prairies in the K and forests in tie
S. part. The productions in 1850 were 897.913
bushels of corn, 107,078 of wheat, 89,674 oe
oats, and 8,091 J tons of hay. There were 1!
churches, 2 newspaper establishments, and h7^-:
pupils in the public schools. Capital, Logacr-
port. V. A W. central co. of 111. ; area 850 s^",
m. ; pop. in 1855, 8,946, bounded N.W. by I:!^-
nois river and N. by the Sangamon, both «.:
which rivers are here navigable by steamboiiiN
The surface is level, and consists of prairies aii
woodlands. The soil is extremely fertile, an:
in 1850 produced 1,417,750 bushels of cor^,
181,186 of wheat, 150,197 of oats, and 8,885 tcie
of hay. There were 14 churches, and !,♦>
pupils attending public schools. Capital, Beai^
town. VI. A W. CO. of Mo., intersected Vj
the middle fork of Grand river ; area about 1,CC .
sq. m. ; pop. in 1856, 6,818, of whom 728 were
slaves. It was formerly called Van Buren. Thcr:

' ixvrd tiASs

^^^V Mil ^M

► ..- , .,.1 .^^ *..«-^"^ r m 'A Tiifp

ir.A^i fnu. i.1h»"4:4 II TMiirM*i.f.T nf fh# ^^^H

^K'

^^^BTi^^

^^^1

^^^H

^^^^■p.-. ,

^^B^'

^^^^^^^^:'

^^^^^^^^^B »

^^^Kr

^^^^^^^^^H •

, «IKA f3^j«*ai4ii5 l£iv iliiMiwr« tiC «^ ^^^1

LEWIS OASB

eomaj and the danger of his podtUm, aoen re-
oroseed to Detroit^ and on Ang. 16 terminated
the campaign, to the mortification of hia officers
and men, by sarrendering hia army, and Detroit
and the territory of Michigan along with it» to
the British general Brook. At the moment of
surrender Ool. Cass was absent with a detach-
ment sent to relieve a provision train, the ap-
proach of which had been stopped by the
enemy. This detachmenti however, was in-
daded in the capitulation, and being without
provisions, was obliged to yield. Ool. Cass,
stung with mortification at this unexpected
turn of mBQgdrs, when asked to deliver up hia
sword, indignantly broke the blade and mrew
it away. By the terms of the capitulation the
Ohio volunteers were diennissed on their parole
not to serve again tiU ezdianged, and OoL Oass,
at the request of his fellow-soldiers, hastened to
Washington for the purpose of vindicating them
from any responsibility for this disastrous ter-
mination of the campaign. His report^ antici-
pating that of Hull, who remained a prisoner
with the British, was the first official account
of the campaign given to the public OoL Oass
was exchanged in Jan. 1818, and about the same
time was commisaoned as a colonel in the regu-
lar service. His regiment was enlisted and ready
by March, when he was fbrther promoted to the
rank of brigadier-generaL He joined (jczl
Harrison's army in July ; and, Perry's victory
on Lake Erie having opened the way, he bore
his share in the pursuit of Gen. Proclor and the
victory of the Thames. He was then placed in
command at Detroit^ and shortly after was
'Appointed governor of Michigan. He now

noed the office of marshal of Ohio, which
ad still continued to hold, and, not long
afCar, his commission in the army also; hav-
ing ^rst, however, attended the court-martial
for tbe trial of Hull. His testimony before
the court, as his report had done, bore hard on
that unfortunate commander, and has been at
times a good deal criticized. — ^Though Detroit
had been settled for more than a century,
the territory of Michigan was yet in its infancy.
It still remained what it had been from the be-
ginning, little more than a station for Indian
trade. The white inhabitants, mostly of French
descent, did not exceed 6,000 or 6,000. Not a
foot of land hod ever been sold by the United
States, the small tracts in private possession be-
ing held under French and English grants, often
of doubtful validity. The settlements had
neither church, schoolhouse, courthouse, gaol,
bridge, nor scarcely a road, and the inhabitanta
had been reduced by the pending hostilities to
a state of great destitution. The British had
been driven away, but the neighboring Indians
still remained hostile. The treaty of Greenville
in July, 1814, at which Governor Oass aided,
reestablished peace with the Ohio Indians; but
it was not till the termination of the war with
Great Britain that the territory became entirely
secure from Indian attack. In June, 1816, Gov-
ernor fiaaa removed his £unily to Detroit, and

the next year purchased then, for a
a tract of 600 acres, for which he was able to psj
in cash, out of his previous savings, the sum d
$12,000. This was reckoned by many an cfi-
travagant purchase, but its increase in Talne bj
the growth of Detroit ultimately made its pur-
chaser a very wealthy man. J&chigan at tLis
time had no territorial legislature, and the biBi-
ness of selecting laws for it from the codes nt
the states devolved on Governor Caaa and Ha
territorial judges. Governor Oaas was abo a
officio superintendent of Indian afiaira for tL«
territory, which then included what now ccs-
stitutes the two states of Michigan and Wiscofi-
dn, sbd ibis remidned for several years tbe
most important part of his duties. Of all this
extensive territory, it was only a little trsd
bordering on Lake Erie and the Detroit river to
which the Indian title had yet been extingmsliai
Within the bounds of his Indian superintend-
ency, which was ultimately made to embrace
all the tribes nortb-west of the Ohio, there were
reckoned to be 40,000 Indians, mastering sX
least 9,000 warriors. The recent hostilitiea, sod
the distrust and suspicions of the Indiana, occa>
sioned by the constant calls upon them for sd-
ditional cessions of land, rendered this office one
of great delicacy and difficulty. But Governor
Oass, while steadily carrying out the policy d
acquisition, succeeded also in maintaining the
respect, and even in securing the afiectiun of
the Indians. In 1817 he obtained, in co^jono '
tion with Gk) vemor McArthur, a cession of mo«i
of the remaining Indian lan^ within the st&!e
of Ohio, with adjoining tracts in Indiana acJ
Michigan, to the extent of 4,000,000 acres ia
the whole. This cession removed the Indian
barrier hitherto intervening between the setile-
mentsof Ohio and those of Michigan. In 1^10
he met the Ohippewas at Saginaw, and obtained
a cession of lands in the peninsula of lllchicao
to the extent of 6,000,000 acres. As yet tbe
north-western regions were very imperfectlr
known. At the suggestion of Governor Caa,
an expedition, in which he himself bore a con-
spicuous part, and of which an account has been
published by Mr. Schoolcraft, was sot on foc4
m 1820, for exploring the northern shore of
Lake Superior, and the course of the upper Mi»*
sissippi. The next year, by along, circuitous
river navigation, he vinted Ohicago, then nothing
but a military post, with a wide wildemeaa all
about it, and there made a treaty with Uie Chip-
pewas, Ottawas, and Potawatamiea, hy whkb
a large additional tract was obtained, complet-
ing the extinction of the Indian title to the pen-
insula of Michigan south of Grand river. 6r
1824 the population of Michigan had so lar in-
creased, that a legislative council was estaN
lished. It consisted of 0 members, not however
elected by the people, but nominated by the
president. This was the second grade of ten>-
torial government under the ordinance of 1787.
In 1826 Governor Cass, in conjunction with
Governor Clark of Missouri, attended a grand
coundl at Prairie du Chien of the tribes of tbe

^^^^^ liviacAfis

«ai

■

^Ki«4k »r J

^1 ^

k!i!«^Ii i].-, ..* !j«f* ":i'(V» 1>*^ -« '1- *i* rt*.*ff?i * ** 0. w i»rtT/T

^-nriij. Vi' I^.A **

.T^ ^.T^V*; r.r

■I

^^^^K^'

..r.

^P'

^^^tl^j-.

• • I - iiiu. ,

a- i&r

'■,. l.I,\Tl.

■ -*
0-

^^^Hc^

-"1,

^^^^Ui^l .

■

^^^fiUt

W^iyi||U«'*iiMrv;V;iiuilU AwiMrli^

.^.11 «««»«bi •

•

LEWIS OASS

ment, and the Amerioan govetnmeat flrom
tills time forward eteadilj refuaed even what
the rejected treaty had conceded. Meanwhiku
Qreat Britain estahlished this right of mntnal
search of Biispected slavers by treaties "with
gpfun, Portugal, France, and other states, and
in farther prosecution of the same policy,
and with a view to incorporating this usage
into the intematiooal code of Europe, and nl-
timately of Christendom, obtained the signa-
tare at London, Dec. 20, 1841, of a treaty by
which Great Brit^ France, Rossia, Anstriai
and Pmssia mutually conceded this right under
certain restrictions, and between certain lati*
tudes. No sooner had the signing of this trea^,
known as the quintuple treaty, become public,
than Mr. Cass not only filed a protest against
it. in the French office of foreign affairs, but
printed a pamphlet in hopes to prevent its im*
proval by the Frendi chambjers. This pampn-
let accused Great Britain of aiming, under
ffuise of suppressing the slave trade, at a
&rdship of the seas, revived the impressment
controversy, and attacked with much keenness
the doctrine lately set up by Lords Palmerston
and Aberdeen, in their correspondence with the
American minister at London, that although,
except by express stipulation, there was no
right of search for the suppression of the slave
trade, there was a right to visit suspected
vessels for the purpose of verifying the flag and
testing the right to bear it. This claim had
been made the subject of animadversion in Pres-
ident Tyler's annual message of Deo. 1841,
and it was the position then taken by the prea-
ident upon which Mr. Cass mainly rested his
protest against the treaty, as an attempt to in-
terpolate a new doctrine into maritime law. At
the close of this protest, which bore date Feb.
18, 1842, Mr. Cass stated that it was made
without instructions from his govermnent^ with
which there was no time to communicate, and
that if not sustained in the position he had taken
he should resign. In communicating his pro-
ceedings to his own government, he pressed the
necessity of instant preparations for war. The
feeling of the French public and the French
chambers, easily excited at that time to hos-
tility to Great Britain, was such that Louis Phi-
lippe did not venture to ratify the treaty, which
thus fell to the ground. The course adopted
by Mr. Cass, though it brought great obloquy
upon him from various quarters, was approved
by the president; but in the Ashburton treaty,
negotiated sliortly after, Mr. Cass found occa-
Bion for throwing up his mission. The agree*
ment of the United States in that treaty to
maintain a squadron on the coast of Anica,
to cooperate with the British in the suppres-
sion of the slave trade, without at the same
time requiring from the British a renuncia-
tion of the doctrine of the right of visit, was re-
garded by Mr. Cass as substantidly a disavowal
of his protest and pamphlet, and as placing him
in lui awkward position with the French gov-
dmment, by no means well pleased with his in-

terference to delJeat the qtdntaple treaty. He
accordingly resigned his embas^ and reftaroed
home, where he arrived at the dose of the
year. His criticisms on the Aahbnrton treaty,
contained in his letter of resignation, prodnoed
a sharp controversy between him and Vr.
Webster, then secretary of state and ncgotia'
tor of that treaty. — ^Already beforo his arriTsl
in the United States, Mr. Cass had b^gim to
be mentioned as a democratic candidate for
the presidency, and he soon had many letters
to answer as to his opinions on ▼ariona poistL
But the negotiations opened not long after, bj
President lyler and Mr. Galhonn, for the aa-
neication of Texas, introduced a new qnestica
into politics, on which the presidential electtoQ
flnaify turned. Mr. Clay, tne candidate of Hia
whigs, and Mr. Van Buren, for whom a large
migority of the delegates elected to the deoo-
cratio nominating convention were instructdd
to vote, both took grounds against immf^liatfl
annexation. That policy, however, was ex>
ceedingly popular at the South, and besde Ml
Calhoun ana President Tyler, both o£ wboo
had hopes of a democratic nomination, Mr. Bo-
chanan, R. M. Johnson, and other presidential
candidates came out as its advocateai Mr.
Oaas save m his adhesion, in a letter dated 17
days before the meeting of the conventaon, ad-
vocating annexation, and declaring his groiriflg
conviction that a majority of the peo^e wen
in favor of it. The convention met at Balii- I
more, May 27, 1844. The opponents of Ml
Van Buren succeeded in carrying the ado]>-
tion of the rule of the conventions of ISJi
and 1636, requiring a two-thirds nominatio!!.
On the Ist ballot Mr. Van Buren had a m>
jority, but lacked some 20 of the requisiu*
two-tldrds. Mr. Cass had the next highcfU
though vety much smaller, vote. As the votu
proceeded, Mr. Cass gained, and on the 7th W
lot received 24 votes more than Mr. Yan Buren,
but still short of a minority. After the S*»b
ballot Mr. Van Buren was withdrawn by la
friends, who had determined to ^ve their vot«s
for Mr. Polk, to the exclusion of Mr. Cass. Mr.
Cassis name was also withdrawn, a letter of his
being read in which he authorized that pro
ceeding, in case it did not appear that a hearty
and united exertion would be made in his &-
Tor. Mr. Polk, who had never been thon^
of by the' public for any higher office than vic^
president, and whose name had not been intro
dnced into the canvass till the 8th ballot^ when
he received some 80 votes, was at the 9th bal-
lot unanimously nominated. In the exdted
campaign that followed, Mr. Cass took an aotivd
part, stumping the states of Michigan, Indiana
and Ohio, on behalf of Mr. Polk. Shortly after
Mr. Polkas election, he was himself chosen a
U. S. senator from the state of Michigan, admit-
ted into the Union in 1836, and now rapidh
increasing in population. Taking his eeat ia
Deo. 1845, he soon made himself conaptcnou
on the Or^n ouestion, then a matter of di^-
pate with Ureat Britain. He inastod npoQ the

^^ iBWtS CdR^ ^^^

^^^^B' .^

•tr Ulilr

1 ^^H

, . ..+,".1

^^^^^t

^^^^^^Ku, :ii:?

^^H

^^^Km^

^^^^^^^^Kf^ -

^^H^

^KJ

^^^^H

^^^^KT\.-.

Itl'JU ^l-.'Jn.i4 UlU.'iL- "J'lUJj-

^^^Ki

'Aofi^ va« vbn fiiooil

^^1

^^^^RL^:,

.'.llrr^j • r-m* p^^llilf*^ •"

^^Hwf

r iCCNid

^^^

^^K>ii'

^ IWQiL

^^^1

^^^K.^'

■ ■>* ftfi<l -^

^^^^^&L^

- rfi>^-^ '

^^^1

^^1

634

OASS

OASSAin>BA

LcmiBiAxiA cession nordi and west of lOssonrL
Mr. Cass declared himself opposed to this new
agitation. He was aware, be told the senate,
that it had been reported that he himself had
intended to bring in a bill respeettng the 1G»-
Bonri compromise, bnt this he declared to be a
total mistake. The bill, however, having been
modified by introdacing into it the doctrine of
the Nicholson letter, in a provision leaving to
the inhabitants of the territories the power to
regulate their own institntions in their own way,
subject only to the oonstitntton of the United
States, Mr. Oass voted for it, and on the night
of its passage he took occasion to congratulate
the senate on the triumph of ** squatter sover-
eignty." The passage of this bill led forthwith
to the organization of a new party baaed on op*
position to the extension of slavery, and which,
under the name of the republican party, soon
became predominant in most of the northern
states. It triumphed even in Michigan, where
Mr. Gass was unable to secure a reflection as
senator. He even received from the legislature
a new set of instructions as to his votes on the
Kansas question, no less contrary to his own
views than those on the subject of the Wilmot
proviso of which he had formerly procured
the recall These instructions he did not obey,
nor did he resign his seat. He took the ground
that in order to be binding, instructions must
come not merely from tibe legislature, but
from that party in it to which the senator
sought to be instructed was indebted for his
seat ; and as that was not the case with these
instructions, he declined to pay any attention
to them. — In the convention which met at
Cincinnati in May, 1856, to* nomioate a demo-
cratic candidate "for the presidency, Mr. Cass
was no longer a candidate, beyond receiving a
few scattering votes; but in the nomination by
that body of Mr. Buchanan he heartily concur-
red, and upon Mr. Buchanan^s entering upon
office in March, 185T, received from him the ap-
pointment of secretary of state. In this ca^
pacity he has been enabled to achieve a very
gratifying triumph, in obtaining from the Brit-
ish ministry the recognition as correct of his
denial, so warmly urged in his pamphlet on the
quintuple treaty, of the existence in time of
peace of any marine right of visit; he conced-
ing, however, that in cases of grave suspicion
of a false assumption of nationsl character, and
where no injury results from the visit and search,
no serious ground would exist for national recla-
mation.— ^In the enjoyment of excellent health,
Mr. Cass still retains, notwithstanding his ad-
vanced age, a remarkable capacity for labor.
Possessing naturally a very robust constitution,
he has confirmed his health by strict temper-
ance, himself practising that total abstinence
from intoxicating liquors which, as governor of
Michigan, he urged upon the Indians, and as sec-
retary of war, sought to introduce into the army.
*'His habits are simple, his manners and dispo-
ution democratic ; his style of living plain but
gubstantial ; and his residence not ostentationa

bnt elegant Averse to idleness and diaripallOQ,
he is merry with his companions and strong in
his friendship. He is remarkable for his ^^
bility to young persons, and surrounded by then
at his own table, he can be as hilarious md
happy as the gayest of them. Fond of hit
study and pleased with bis own reflections m
retirement, he is not a reduse, but on all occ»>
sions his admirers, friends, and fellow dtisens an
welcome to his large and hospitable mansioo.
To a well selected library he makes constac:
additions from the numerous publications of
the day* He delights to pass an hour or so is
the perusal of romances such as those of Scott,
Cooper, Irving, or the like." See ^lofe and
Times of Lewis Cass," by W. L. 6. Smith,
Kew York, 1656. The same friendly biop.
rapher notes as a marked characteristic, his
*^ having always evinced an aversion to everj
thing that savored of British."

CASSANDER, king of Macedon, son of
Antipater, bom about 854 B. C, died in 297.
He disputed the sovereignty of Macedon with
Polysperchon, whom Antipater had appointed
regent at his death in 819. Allying himsei
with Ptolemy and Antigonus, he conquered
Athens; captured Olympias, the mother of
Alexander tne Great, and put her to death;
and connected himself with the royal &mily bj
marrying Thessalonica, half-sister to Alexan-
der. He joined, m 815, the coalition agauist
the growing power of Antigonus ; murdered, is
811, the rightful heir to the throne, Alexander
j£gus, and his mother Roxana; and took the
title of king in 806, which was confirmed to
him by the decisive battle of Ipsus in 301.

CASSANDER, Geoboitts, a Flemish theo-
logian, bom in the island of Cadsand, in Zea>
land, in 1516, died Feb. 8, 1566, officiated for
some time as jjrofessor of divinity at Bruges and
Ghent, and gamed a high reputation by his va-
rious attainments. In 1561 he published a trea-
tise, designed to reconcile the Catholic and
Protestant theologians, which was attacked by
Calvin, but fiivorably received by the emperor
Ferdinand and other German princes, the em-
peror encouraging him to persist in his con-
ciliatory task. He now brought forward his
famous work entitled Conmltatio de Artindu
Fidei inter Papistag et Protestuntet e<mtrottTiu^
in which he reviews the controverted articles
of the Augsburg confession. He was sincerely
attached to the Roman Catholic faith, but hd
was accused of taking too favorable a view cf
the points brought forward by the Protestants,
and several of his writings were condemned by
the council of Trent His collected works were
published in Paris in 1616.

CASSANDRA, called also Albxakdsa, a
Trojan princess, daughter of Priam and Hecuba.
Apollo, enamored of her, permitted her to ask
of him whatever she desired, as a rewaid for
her complaisance. She begged for the gift of
prophecy; but when the god had bestowed it
upon her, she refused to keep her promise to
him. Thereupon ApoUo^ unable to withdraw

QAttAHO

CI ASSAY A

AS^

ihBt

' T- - , -

Bjdytyt r*

"^XYX tl^*» TfiLo!. wl 1

4 ll*0 ©*

1 tiiLyjgtif • 11^ i

II fury *l«lit^'

526

OAfiSAY

CAflSOn

vashed ynth cold water, and afterward dried,
ibis is the tapioca of commerce, sometimes
called Brazilian arrow-root

OASSAY, Kathbe, or Munotpoor. a coun-
try of India, lying between lat. 2ir and 26°
N., and long. 93"" and 95^ E. ; area estimated
at 7,584 sq. m. ; pop. at 75,840. It consists
of a central fertile valley, sorrounded on every
side by mountains, varying from 6.000 to
9,000 feet in height, and covered with dense
forests. The valley thus enclosed is 86 m. long
and 18 m. broad, contains 650 sq. m. of rich
alluvial soil, and is 2,500 feet above the level
of the sea. It produces abundantly rice, to-
bacco, cotton, sugar-cane, and indigo; and in
the north, also the tea-plant. Nearly all the
ffarden produce of Europe is raised here in gar-
dens, having been introduced by the British
since the Burmese war. The surrounding
mountains abound in the noblest varieties of
forest trees, and wild elephants and deer of the
larfi;e8t size are constantly seen among the glens
and defiles. The inhabitants more nearly re-
semble in person and manners the Hindoos
thim UiQ Burmese. The upper dasses profess
the Hindoo faith, and this country may be con-
sidered the extreme eastern limit of Brahminism.
Caasay belonged to the Burmese before 1826,
when, by the treaty of Yandaboo, it became
independent. Its government is vested in a
hereditary rc^ah.

CASSEL, an ancient town of France, pop.
4,495, department of Nord, 28 m. N. W. of
Ijlle, agreeably situated on an isolated hill 600
feet high, commanding one of the most exten-
aive views in Europe. It was strongly fortified
during the middle ages. In 1070, King Philip
I. of France was defeated here by Robert le
Frison, count of Flanders ; in 1328', Philip VI.
won a complete victory over the Flemish
troops; and in 1677, Philip, duke of Orleans,
brother of Louis XIV., triumphed here over
the prince of Orange.

OASSEL, or Kassel, the capital of the
electorate of Hesse Cassel, Germany, and of
the province of Lower Hesse, on the river
Fidd(L connected by railway with Frankfort on
the Main, and, via Hanover and Eisenach, with
Berlin and Leipsic. Pop. about 85,000 (beside a
garrison of 4,000 men), all Protestants, excepting
8,000 Catholics and 1,000 Jews, It is divided
into the old town, the lower new town, and
the upper new town, and has 10 Protestant
churches, a Catholic church, and a synagogue.
6t. Martin's church contains the tombs of
many of the electors. The city contains the
government buildings, the elector's palace, the
theatre, the observatory, and other fine edi-
fices. The museum comprises collections of
pictures and natural history, and a library of
about 100,000 volumes. ThQ Friedricht Flate^
with a statue of the elector Frederic I., who
was the founder and patron of the principal
art collections of Cassel, is one of the most
admirable public squares in Europe. The
public gardens are charming, eepeoially that of

ViHiamahfthc^ in tlie vidnity, in wbi«3i the

elector's sunmer palace is situated. There are
manufactures of cotton, silk, and wo<^en &b-
rics, leather, hats, carpets, kid gloves, porce-
lain ; and the place is in a great measure the
emporium of the trade of Hesse CasseL Two
fairs and a wool market are held here annnallT.
The town abounds wiUi educational, scientific,
literary, artistic, and musical institutiona. 8polii
the composer resides in this city, and Muller
the historian died here. The principal news-
paper is the Kauder Zdtunif,

CASSIA, the bark of the cinrunnofnum cauia^
an Inferior quality of cinnamon which is oftea
mixed with the genuine article. (See Ccgta-
HON.)— Oassia is also a genus of plants, the spe-
cies of which furnish the ingredients of tha
medicine sexma, and sometimes also a medicine
known as cassia.

CASSIN, John, an American ornithologist,
born near Chester, 12 miles from Philadelphis,
Penn., Sept 6, 1618. He has resided in Phil-
adelphia since 1834| and, excepting a fev
years partially given to mercantile pursuit^
has devoted hiznself to his fiivorito study cf
ornithology. He has contributed deecxiptioos
of new s{>eoies and synoptical reviews of t^
rious families to the ^* Proceedings'* and the
'* Journal *' of the Philadelphia academy of n&>
nral science; and his more elaborate puhlic^-
tions are "Birds of California and Texas," a
handsome octavo volume, containing descrip-
tions and colored engravings of 50 species not
given by Audubon; a "Synopms of the Birik
of North America,'' not yet completed ; ^ Orni*
thology of the United States Exploring Expe-
dition;'' ^^Ornithology of the Ju>aa Expedir
tion;" "Omitholo^ of Gilliss's Astronomical
Expedition to Chili;" and the chaptexs on ra*
pacious and wading birds in the " Ornithology
of the Pacific Bailroad Explorations and Su^
veys." His works are the result of careful re-
search, and are especially valuable for their
descriptions and classifioation of many birds not
given in the previous works of Wilson and
Audubon. — ^Mr. Casein is of a Quaker family,
several members of which have distingnishdd
themselves in naval and military service. Els
great-unde^ John CAsanr, a commodore in the
American navy, conducted the defence of Phil-
adelphia in the war of 1812. His unde, Stx>
FHEN CAfisnr (1782-1857), also a commodore^
served under Com. Preble in the vrar with Tri;^
oli, and for his bravery in the action on Lake
Champlain in 1814, under Com. McDonough, Le
was rewarded by congress with a gold medaL

CASSnn, the surname of 4 celebrated as-
tronomers. L JsAN Dominique, born June S«
1625, died Sept 14, 1712, studied with th^
Jesuits at Genoa, and was in 1650 made £r^t
professor of astronomy at Bologna. He £i^
observed the shadows of Jupiter^s satellites cs
the body of the planet, c^^ publislied epheme-
rides of those bodies. He discovered the pericn!
of Jupiter^s rotation, and also made observauon?
in the wholly disooimeoted science of entomol*

cABno

■

^:i> ^1

^L^ In 1l T1

♦ ■* r.«.r.Tir#/'jl ifi T**J

'!*_ illwiori-nal

mini. r.^-;I.>lMi <>^ . ]rv..« ^^^H

^^^Bl

^^^H
^^M

^^^^^^■ii

^^^^B
^^1

r<l( ftoa

^^^K

:iry-Jli' »J<

^^^H
_^l

^^^^^^ ttlL

^^^^Dri_-.t> 1

*d£|iitii

^^^^Mi

ilBi>

^^^^^^^^V^^' '

. r nir<iL-

^^B

^^^^^■r

^K^

^^^^MfiPLLTV.

tiiiiioa fpetfi r ^^H

^^^^^■^41^

1 i=_

^^^^^^^H

^^^^^^^^^^^n r

^^^^^Kt

^^^^^^^F'

^^^H

^^^^^Vt

^^^^1

^^^^^HL

^^^^^Hr

'^.r.frl ^^H

HSmWril^ufi^vni&lt} La UKt kaiMTi

gi U«ii it^osiA

&28

OASSrrERIDES

OASSOWABY

srtiflts, the diffbrant coloredilayen of vhibh the
shell is composed rendering it particularly well
adapted for their use.

CASSITERIDES, or Tin l8LAin>s, sopposod
from the quantity of tin which the FhcBni*
oians, Oarthaginians, and Romans derived
from them, to be the modem Scilly islands,
near the coast of Cornwall, England. Their
position, too, as defined by Strabo, corre-
sponds more nearly with the Scilly group than
with any other. Situated almost within the
English channel, they have been reir dan-
gerous to modern navigation, and are become
not less celebrated for the shipwrecks which
they have caused than for their mines of tin.
The PhoBuicians who first discovered these
islands were so jealous of the commerce which
was supplied by them that their pilots first
landed upon the neighboring coasts, and ap-
proached the mines only by stealth, to elude
any ships which might be following and observ-
ing. The Romans sent here their criminals to
work and be useful. The ancient inhabitants
islands were accustomed to dress in

black, to lead a wandering life, supplying all
their wants by fish, milk, and the wool of their
flocks, and satisfied in receiving salt and little
brazen utensils in return for their lead. The
group consists of 45 islands, several of which
are only naked rocks.

CASSIUS. L LoNoiNusOAixTBjtheleaderofthe
conspiracy against Oa)sar, died in 42 B. 0. In
68 he was quaestor in the campaign against the
Parthians, and distinguished himself by mil-
itary skill, particularly after the death of Ora»-
Bus, in the defeat of Oarrh®. Having col-
lected the remains of the army, he defended
Syria, and won in the two next years 2 victories
over the Partbians. After his return to Rome
he was tribune of the people, embraced the
party of the senate at the outbreak of the civil
war, and followed Pompey, whose fleet he then
commanded, in his flight. After the defeat at
Pharsalia (48 B. C), he led the fleet to the Hel-
lespont, but having fallen in with Ciesar, he sur-
rendered. Oaasar pardoned him, made him
Srflstor, and promised him the province of
yria. At the same time Cassius was engaged
with Brutus in forming a conspiracy against
the dictatorial rule and the life of his benefactor.
Oflosar fell on the ides of March, 44 B. 0., and the
senate rewarded his murderers with provinces.
Oassius received Syria, where he defeated his
opponent Dolabella, plundered its cities to pro-
vide means for the war against Antony and
Octavianus, and returned with Brutus to Mace-
don. The 2 ensuing battles of Philippi (42 B. 0.)
ended their lives with the hopes of the Roman
republicans. In the first, Antony defeated the
wing of Cassius, who, mistaking the cavalry of
the victorious Brutus, hastening to his relief for
that of Octavianus, killed himself, as Plutarch
says, with the dagger which wounded Cesar.
In the second, Brutus, who mourned him as
the last of the Romans, followed his exam-
ple» IL Cassius, commonly called Panneosis,

from his birthplace, the city of Piarma. He
was a Latin poet of some merit. After the
mnrder of Csosar he adhered to the aristocratic
republican party of Brutus and bis namesake,
Oassius, and fought on their side until tlieir de-
feat at Philippi; he then retired to Athens^
where he was put to death by Yariufi^ or Y area,
an officer of Augustus, who was sent there for
that purpose by the triumvir. He is not to be
confounded wiUi Cassius of Etruria, who is ridi*
culed by Horace in his Sermona for his facilitT
and poverty of composition, but is believed to
be the person alluded to by Shakespeare as ton
to pieces in the streets of Rome by the rabbk
immediately on the celebration of Ciesar's fo-
neral rites, and the raising of the people bT
Marc Antony. IH. Lvoirs Cassitb HxMiyiL
the earliest Roman annalist, wrote about S :iO
B. C, and is often cited by Pliny and others.
lY. Lucius Cassius a Roman lawyer and judge,
famous for the severity of his decisions, whenoe
fill magistrates of extreme stringency came to
be known as Ctusiani judieeSy as is mentioDed
by Cicero in his defence of Roscius. Y. Trrrs
Cassius Sbvsbub, a Roman orator of considers
ble eloquence and great satirical powers, exiled
by Augustus to the island of Seriphus^ where he
died in extreme misery.

CASSIUS, PuRPiB OF, a pigment used for
coloring porcelain and glass by fusing it with
these substances. It is a precipitate obtained
by adding proto-chloride of tin to a sohition cf
chloride of gold. The purple powder throm!
down is an obscure compound of sesquloxitle
of tin and oxide of gold. It contains of met^
lie gold 89.82 per cent^ Its production is &
test of the presence of protoxide of tin.

CASSOCk, a close garment resembling' a
long frock-coat, with a single upright oolhr.
worn under the surplice by clergymen of the
Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. In
the Roman chtuch it varies in color, beicc
black for priests, purple for bishops, scarlet f<i
cardinals, and white for popes. In the Angli-
can church it is always black, and worn by fill
the 8 orders of the clergy.

CASSOWARY (cfuuaritu emu, Latham), a
bird of the ostrich family, the only species cf
the genus. The biU of the cassowary is lo3^.
compressed, and curved to the tip, the upp>er
mandible overlapping the under. Thewing^
consist of 6 strong roimded ^afta witho?:t
webs; the tail is not apparent; the tarsi ar«
long and robust, and covered with lai^ scales;
the toes are 8 in nimiber, aU directed forward;
the inner toe is armed with a very long powers
ful claw. The head and base of the bin aoe
surmounted by an elevated compressed casque;
or bony helmet ; the head and neck are denuded
of feathers, the skin being of a blue and violeS
color, with 2 fleshy wattles in front. It is s
heavy massive bird, about 6 feet high; the
plumage is of a blackish color, the feathers beisr
loose, and resembling delicate hairs; the
feathers which take the place of the tail are
pendenk The cassowaiy Is a stapid, (^oUonoos

VmtAUA

■

0A5]!RrUt1iB ^ii9 ^^1

1 -•„ .^. fc ... -;i

.^ 3 ^^. . ^^^^^^^1

^^^1

:tM*=-i

^^1

,.. f..

v» .'if \Ir.fTnt

Artr^f. fi-iiblLf H^ Oil ^^^^B

^^^^Ki

^K,

^^^

wm»KAttMh

1«» of €0D*

IT
r

>,
^- -

of U

npoQ
!^ ^

^^1

^^H

^^1
^^H

^^^K

^^1

Mlhra

""UA

fiSO

0A8TETJJ

OASnGiJoins

BoiRFAOS, ooimt) marshal of France, bom in
Paris, March 21, 1788. He entered the army
as a private in 1804; had reached the rank of
captain in 1810 ; distingoished himself in the
Bossian campaign, and was made colonel. On
the fall of the empire, he joined the Bonrbons;
served as brigaoier-general daring the cam-
paign in Spain; having supported an opposition
candidate, he was dismissed in 1830; on the
outbreak of the revolution he reentered the
army and asdsted in the siege of Antwerp ; in
1887 he was made a peer, and served a few
months in Africa. Daring the revolution of
1848, he officiated for some time as military
commander Bt Bouen. Under the presidency
of Louis Napoleon he was appointed to the
military command of Bordeaux in 1849, and to
that of Lyons in 1850. He was evidently in the
se<!ret of the projected coup d'etat of Dec. 2,
1851, having beforehand taken measures to
subdue by force, if needed, the republican popu-
lation of Lyons. As a reward for his services
he was made senator and eventually marshal of
France.

OASTELLI, loNAz FniEDBKon, a popular Vi-
ennese dramatist, bom May 6, 1781. He was
educated for the law, but following his inclma-
tion for the drama, he gained access to the
orchestras of theatres as a player of the violin.
His circumstances compelling him to look out
for some means of support, he accepted various
subordinate offices, but using his leisure in
composing patriotic songs for the Austrian
army, he was brought into favorable notice.
His songs having given umbrage to Napoleon,
he fled to Hungary. In 1815 he accompanied
Count Cavriani as secretary to Paris, and
afterward he served in tiie same capacity with
Baron Mtlnch von Bellinghausen in Upper Italy.
In 1840 he retired with a pension and the office
of state librarian, and has since resided at his
estate near Lilienfeld. * The author of many
poems, popular songs, and miscellaneous writ-
ings, he was at various times connected with
the press of Vienna, but he is best known by
his voluminous productions for the stage. Over
100 plays, partly adapted from the French,
partly original, are attributed to him. In 1848,
more than 100,000 copies of his political
pamphlets, in favor of the revolution, found
eager purchasers.

CASTI, GiAMBATTiSTA. an Italian poet, bom
in 1721, died in Paris, Feb. 6, 1803. He offici-
ated for some time as professor in the seminary
of Montefiascone, and having afterward enlisted
the sympathies of an Austrian nobleman, he was
presented to Joseph IL and spent several years
■as unpaid attach^ to foreign embassies, ingrati-
iiting himself into the favor of Oatharine of
Bnssia and of other potentates. At the death
of Metastasio, he received the apx)ointment of
poet laureate at the court of Vienna, with a
salary of $1,500, but relincmished tiiis office after
the death of the emperor Joseph, and spent the
last 20 years of his life in Paris. In early life
he had written 18 poetical tales, and afterward

added 80 more, nuking altogether 48, imlilished
in Paris in 1804, under the title of HacsUegalanr
tiy which are all more or less attractive in style.
but loose in morals. His fame depends on A'*«t-
tirical poem, Gli animaU parlanti^ in which k
contrived to exhibit, under an allegtx'ical veil.
the blemishes of various political systems. He
commenced the poem in Vienna, in 1794. cixi-
tinned it in Florence, and completed it in Fans,
where its original publication in 1802 was i:.-
lowed by several editions in Italy, by Freo<^L
Grerman, and Spanish translations, and also by«
free and abridged English version. Bemde soc.«
other poems, he produced several bnrlcs.^c-:
operas, some of which were very snooesrfaL

CASTIGUONE, one of the new agriculttL-i!
settlements in the province of Altera;, Al^ri^
established by the French government in &>
cordance with a decree passed by the natiuLiJ
assembly, Feb. 11, 1851. It is situated on tL^:
shores of the sea near the town of Koleah, b
the pliun of the Metidja, and on the road frc'Q
Cherchell to Algiers. The plantations that h&ve
been established since that time are in a flour-
ishing condition, the soil being extremely feriLo
and peculiarly well adapted for the coltivatioc
of tobacco.

0 ASTIGLIONE, a village of Italy, Comana
di Boma, near the lake of Grobii. It oocupi^
the site of the ancient city of Gabii, and is raa
in remains of antiquity. Old walls, pMtions of %
temple of Juno, a Grecian theatre, and an aq^ie-
duct, are among its most interesting mins.—
The name of many places in varioos parts c:
Italy, beside the Galabrian village destroyed bv
an earthquake in Oct. 1886.

OASTIGLIONE. I. Baldassabb, an Italijkn
statesman and author, bom at Casatioo, nesr
Mantua, Dec 6, 1478, died at Toledo, in S{>aiL.
Feb. 2, 1529. His career oommenoed in tLc
military service of the duke of Milan, but he is
better known as a diplomatist, in which capa-
city he was intrusted by the dnkee of UrbL2o
with important missions to Henry VIL o:
England, Louis ZU. of France, and Pope la^
X. He became a &vorite of this accomplish(^i
pontiff and was regarded as one of the omi-
ments of his court Clement VIL sabeeqner ih
sent him as nuncio to Madrid, but ah<»tly ati:
his arrival Borne was sacked by the imperiai:>ii
under the constable Bourbon. It was not poe
Bible for Castiglione to have foreseen or prevert*
ed this catastrophe, but the reproadiesof tl.i"^
who insinuated that he had been n^ectful of the
interests of his country preyed upon hia mind asJ
hastened his end. He was universally lamentvi.
and the emperor, Oharles V., in annonndng iu^
death, exclaimed : *^ One of the truest gentlecics
in Christendom is dead." Castiglione was u-;
a voluminous writer, but his published worL'
are models of comi>osition. His work entitlc<l
II libra del CarteggioKM was first printed by
Aldus in 1528, and a version was pnbli^ed b
London in 1727. H. Cablo Orriivio, count a
philologist and antiquary, bom in Milan towvd
the dose of the 18tn centoiy. In ooi^unctioQ

^^^^^ Cti*"^*^^'^'»!il! ™

^^^^^^^H|l;

^^^^Hr aiid -

fiilkV

^^^H

^^^^^b

mmui^..

^^^^1

^^^^H

ffiAriUlOMt

^^1

nt-ji-Ii I

^^^^feN^^''

^^^fr^"

^^^^kii: u> ^*!-i.'T',<-i

^^^^H|^ *k

^^■■h flUaeiiAif wirii Uitt wsiw^ «^r i^u

^^1

^^^^^br iaf»p0ii>d ki m^A tl^ Ukc mutA

^^^K

imt

^^H

■

^^^Ki

*il^' .

'[L- ^^H

^^^^^^Kf

^^^^^L 1 uryUi^

^^^^^n. r f-r*nTi^ ^

^^^^^^^H[' ctipliiQi

Ak*^

^^H

^^^^^^« 'Ci^P«1V

^nj

■'

^^^^^El*li^ imi^ qT I. ii nicd

^■_

..,,__„-«^jH

532

CASTILLEJO

a lieutenant, joined the liberating army, in
-which he distinguished himself. He was elect-
ed president of Peru in 1845. At the expira-
tion of his term of office, in 1851, he was suc-
ceeded by Gen. Joe6 Rufino Ech^niqne, but
usurped the power in 1855, and was, by a ma-
jorily of 70,874 votes, reelected to the presi-
dency in Aug. 1858.

OASTILLEJO, Cbistoyal, a Spanish poet,
bom at Ciudad Bodrigo toward the close of the
15th century, died in Vienna, June 12, 1556
(according to other authorities in 1596), where
his tomb has recently been discovered in the
ITeukloster Kirehe, Attached from the age of
15 to Ferdinand, the younger brother of Oharles
v., and afterward emperor of Germany, he
subsequently officiated as secretary to that

grince. He was a zealous champion* of the old
panish poets, and a decided opponent of the
new Italian school. His poetry generally re-
flects a genial and light-nearted nature. In
his imitations of the old masters he exhibits a
superior taste, and in his attack upon the imi-
tators of the Italian poets, whom he called Pe-
trarquistas^ considerable spirit. One of his most
fanciful and characteristic poems is entitled,
'^Transformation of a Drunkard into a Mos-
quito." His works were published in Antwerp
m 1598, in Madrid in 1600, and were reprinted in
Fernandez^ '* Collection of Spanish Poets," 1792.
CASTILLO, Jo8£ Mjlbia del, a South Amer-
ican patriot, originally a lawyer, was a member
of the assembly of notables convened at Bogota
by the Spanish viceroy on the breaking out of
the Quito insurrection in 1809. Next he ap-
pears as a member of the constituent college
which met at Bogota in 1811, and organized
the state of Cundinamarca. In 1812 he repre-
sented the province of Tunja in the congress at
Keyva; in 1813 was commissioned as acting
governor of the province; and was appointea
joint commissioner with Don J. F. Madrid
to treat with Narifio. In 1816, when Bogota
again fell into the hands of the Spaniards, he
was sent prisoner to Omoa, in Guatemala.
Subsequently he became secretary of the treas-
ury in Colombia. In this position he contin-
ued till 1828, when, being elected president of
the Ocafia convention, he was one of those who
vacated their seats when the migority refused
to confer new powers on Bolivar. For this
service the dictator rewarded him (Aug. 1828)
by the appointment of president of the council
of ministers and of the council of state.

CASTINE, the capital of Hancock oo., Me.,
on the E. bank of the Penobscot, 84 m. below
Bangor. It derives its name from the baron de
Oastme, a French nobleman, by whom it was
settled in 1667, in company with a French col-
ony, who afterward abandoned it in conse-
quence of border wars with the Indians and
English colonists. In 1760 it was settled by
the English. The village is beautifully situated
on a peninsuhL enclosing a spacious harbor al-
ways accessible to vessels of the largest dass.
Its inhabitants are chiefly engaged in ship build-

CASTING

ing and fisheries. It has 8 chtirehes and S
schools. Pop. in 1850, 1,260.

CASTING. The casting or foonding of
metals is an art that has been practised frozD
the earliest periods, and with more or less skvl
by various nations. Among the spoils of tb;?
Midianites mentioned in the book of Numbers.
xxxL 22. 6 metals, gold, silver, brass, iron, tia,
and lead, are named, fi^m which it vronld ap-
pear that methods of working them were knov::
1,450 years before the Christian era. And b
the 28th chapter of Job, which is snppoeed to
have been written at a still earlier period, men-
tion is made of silver and gold and of brass mol*e&
out of the stone. The description of the meltiL4
and casting of the different metals and their ^
loys properly includes an accoxmt of the furnace
used, as weU as of tiie materials employed, &i2^
the various processes adopted. But the subj^*
is too varied, and requires for its complete
explanation too many figures and illustration*,
to admit here of more than a very general oxr.-
line. It includes the methods employed in tbc
construction of huge cannon of cast iron, tbi:
require for each one several large fomaces to
furnish the number of tons of molten irou to
fill its mould, or of the still larger belK of
which several are recorded that consumed frnr:
50 to 100 tons of bronze, and one, the gnfs:
beU of Moscow, about double the larger qxiiz-
tity named. The construction of the mobi
elaborate works of art in the form of statues c<
bronze, and of the most delicate trinkets, likt;
those of the celebrated Berlin iron ware, of some
of the finer parts of which nearly 10,000 pi^^Y?
are required to weigh a pound, is indaded :l
this same process ; and so are the diflQcnlt f^l
expensive manufacture of the metallic specT^^
for reflecting telescopes, the cheap producti.c
of the brass work of Oonneclacut clocks, tbe
extensive and greatly perfected operations of
the stove founderies of Albany and Troy, tLt
preservation in metal of the delicate form? i :
insects and leaves of plants, and lastly the pn.f-
aration of the great plates of glass used f y
mirrors and windows. These operations re-
quire first their appropriate furnaces for me\i-
ing the metals, as cupola and reverberatory f=^
naces, where large quantities are required, ani
the small brass furnaces for work in this mate-
rial. In the larger furnaces the materials to 'r<
melted are exposed to the direct action of ti :
burning fuel ; in the smaller operations crcd-
bles or pots are employed, in whicJi they si^
placed, and thus kept while melting unmij^I
with the burning matters. The moulds in:
which the molten fluid is poured are mad« c
metal sand, or other materials. If of sand ^
is orainarilj^ the case for castings of any con-
siderable dimensions, patterns are requirac.
which must have the exact figure of the obj^.
desired. These are usually of wood, Bometin:^
of metal, and being often of complicated shajv^
they demand the skiU of experienced workmen-
Flasks or boxes for holding the moulding saLC
materials for the cores, ladles for pouriof

^^t

^^^^^B H

^^^B f^^ m^' '

■-vTT nfittfnn-, rr tfTr,p-

^^^^ftl

^^^^^H'~

^^^^^H»'

^^1

^^^^^Bt ,

^^^H
^^1

^^^■t

^^^^^Vt^^'

^^^^^^H^i

.1.11 k --' 'jv ii. -_' i «.< •

^^■Et ftrnilKr

ij^slmt A litDij

^^M

^^biAiiO.]

Hi», fni'ifc- 1 Aii.l

^^^^mwiUi^i

J tiu«^uii If ^H

^^^K&iir^ li!

!■>■ U. ti-

lt f^

3 ^H

^K^r;

^^^^HB^Ii:**

^^^H
^^H

^^^^^^^^V»

•0 ^H

*ii: i* ijtlM^ IV^UiC^ f-^f *^

634

OASTma

thewbole flgnre; one part is imbeclded in the
sand of one portion of the flask, and the other
Qo placed in the .corresponding portion, that
when the 2 are hrought in contact and fastened,
the exact figure of the ohject is left in the sand ;
jnst as when the 2 hemispheres of a hnllet
monld are hronght together, the spherical cavity
is made np hetween them. The little apertnre
through which the metal Is introduced is made,
as in the hullet mould, on the line joining the
2 parts, and is carefully impressed in the sand
80 that its sides shall bear the running of the
met^. It is called tbe ingate, and serves also
as a passage for the escape of the air in the
mould. In large castings several of these are
required ; and in making use of them for pour-
ing in the metal, it is necessary to pay particular
attention to the escape of the air, that there is
nothing to impede it ; for if obstructed and the
sand is too dense to allow of its passage through,
it may cause the metal to be violently projected
from the mould ; or if bubbles of air remain
shut in the metal, they render it porous ind of
uncertain strength. The object of the double
flask is to admit of the moulding of all sides of a
flgure. Hany objects of rather complicated
shape may, by a little ingenuity, be so arranged
as to be moulded in it without any projecting
part having to pass under the sand, which
would of course prevent the pattern being
drawn out without breaking down the mould.
If the shape is too complex to admit of this, the
flask must consist of three pieces or more, so
arranged as to admit of the moulding of all the
parts without any portion being thus covered.
Pieces of wood or brick, or sand properly
moulded, are often used as cores to fiU parts of
the mould which in the casting are to be hollow.
Over the face of the mould some light carbona-
ceous powder is sifted, which has the eflbct of
giving a smooth face to the metal; in gold
and silver casting the smoke of pitch or rosin is
made to deposit a fine layer of soot for the same
purpose. Red brick dust is often used as part-
ing sand, to prevent the 2 parts of the mould
from adhering together. — Patterns are tlie
models of the object required, made usually of
wood, and in the number of parts necessary for
their perfect moulding. The wood should be
thoroughly seasoned, and of the kinds least liable
to change in form by warping or shrinking.
"White pine and mahogany, clear of all irregu-
larities, are among the best. Their preparation
is a distinct branch of the Joiner's trade, calling
for the exercise of no little ingenuity and skill.
In consequence of the contraction of iron cast-
ings as they cool, the patterns should be corre-
spondingly large. The allowance is made by
tne use of a contraction rule, in which the
divisions are i of an inch in a foot, or ^,
longer than those they represent, this being
the usual proportion of shrinkage. Brass
shrinks 8 times as much as iron. The pat-
tern designer is obliged always to have refer-
ence to the effect of unequal rates of cooling
in the large and small parts of the castings, and

ingenioos expedients are adopted to pnrent tb^
injury that might, arise from the latter becom-
ing set while ihe larger parts are still expanci*
ed from their semi-fluid condition. But fr
these the castings might break from irTecmX'
construction while yet lying in the sand. Frun
the fact that the castings are almost eist:
counterparts of the patterns, the weight of th^
one should be proportional to that of t:;^
other ; and as the pine wood used ia about r'.
the weight of the same quantity of iron, tbe
casting should weigh 14 times as nraoh as xsit
pattern. Wood patterns, when reqoired to be
of large size, are often built np hollow, of piectf
fltted together and glued. But for very kr-
castings, as those for steam and blowing cjLl-
ders, which may be from 6 to 10 feet in diarae-
ter, a hollow core of loam or of brick work i^
BO constructed as to fit in the cavity in the sa£>i
leaving the space for the metal between it ar.d
the wfidl of this cavity. Around the top of tbe
mould a circular channel is made for the flov
of the metal, and a large number of ingates 1^
from this down into Uie space to be filled; &.:
many air-holes are also made for the escape oi
the air. The channel is supplied by the
branches coming from each famace, a&d tbe
flow of metal in each one of these is oontmlkc
by a workman who uses his shovel to make t
temporary dam. At the word being given ^ l'^
shovels," the currents flow in and tiie monld ii
soon fllled. The hollow core, strongly brsA^i
within to withstand the pressure of the liquid
metal, must, as soon as this sets in the cuoi-
menoement of cooling, be broken down, that no
restriunt be laid upon the natural shrinksjo.
To accomplish this, the workmen descend into
the highly heated cavity, by toms, each ono
working a minute or so at a time, and the core
is soon removed. The rate at which the obj^^^
are allowed to cool affects th^ strength anU
hardness ; the former being increased bj slow,
and the latter by rapid cooling: what is called
chilled iron, is iron cast in cold metallic mooltk
The castings when removed from the sand are
dressed by breaking off the runners thaifoncnl
in the ingates, and their surfaces are deaoed ( :
the crust of sand which covers them. An in-
genious method of casting iron pipes has be^*!:
practised for some time in this conntiy, parti-
cularly in Baltimore. The metal is poiured into
a cast-iron tubular case, which serves as an
outer mould. Being made^ rotate rapidly ol
its axis, the fluid iron within is thrown arou:i
and assumes the tubular form, the thickni^
correstponding to the quantity of noetal intro-
duced.— ^It may be interesting to notice xU
methods employed for moulduig and castioc
the delicate nffures of insects and small parts oi
plants, and also of largQ statues. An insect,
or a leaf of a plant, designed to be preserved ii
a cast figure, is made to serve for its own pst-
tem. It is fixed by threads in tbe centre <3i a
small box, and a wire or two are placed to con-
nect it with the outside. Fine river silt or mn-^
is plastered over it, by throwing it ia a moir.

^^^^f

^^^H (UaTIR OM ^I

^K|a^ 11..

llib tVinu

.., -^ H

^^KAnaal villi !

, jiL'-. iis U|L< r.imi lit ^^H

11^ Use BaffU uf QL ^H

^^Bli u '^v»Mr itivixi^^j ui (1 ^4*rgv

|iir»Jin^* cut-

'*V]*'r*yi*lJ «Lv*m i-iAt. i^^iiULLiuiJ^i- ta iOJi: l^-iAtD ^^H

586

OASTLE

ile, 80 as to commaad the platfonna, if joarried
>j escalade. Roman towers are almost invari-
ably made of brick, joined by cement or mor-
tar, which with the lapse of time became
harder than the brick it compacted, or than
stone itself. When they nsed stone, it seems
to have been in irregular works, of great ex-
tent, such as the vallum of Antoninus, or
Beverus, partaking of the nature of earthworks
rather than of regular defences of masonry.
The Saxon castles in general were of very in-
ferior architecture and design ; they had rarely
the advantage of elevated position, or of com-
manding height in themselves. In fact, the
Saxons were not, it would seem, at any tune a
castle-building race, nor did they affect lofty
sites or eminences for their dwellings or de-
fences. Their favorite localities for building
purposes, so fear as can be judged from the few
old Saxon rates, such as Temple-Newsham and a
few others in the north of England, and in the
fen counties of Cambridge, Huntingdon, and
linoolnshire, were nearly the same as those
affected by the monks after the conquest, many
of whom were of the ancient Anglo-Saxon race
— ^namely, low, rich meadow lands, suitable for
the rearing and &ttening of the flocks and
herds, in which they took so much pride and
pleasure, and in which so large a portion of
their wealth consisted, lying by the margin of
still sheets of water, containing carp and tench
as fat as* their own oxen, ever haunted by in-
numerable flocks of wild fowl, and over-shad-
owed by dark woodlands, as old as the days of
the heptarchy, or perhaps as those of Caesar.
In such places, they would build their houses
of strength (one could hardly call them castles),
long, low, flat-roofed, rectangular buildings,
with no attempt at ornament, and little at de-
fence, beyond the smallness of the narrow
round -topped windows and low-browed door-
ways, with here and there a low, stubborn,
rouna tower at an angle, sometimes a moat
drawn round the base of the building itself,
and defended by an exterior palisade of timber,
but without any system of flanking walls or
defences, one defending and commanding the
other, as was the case in the elaborate fortal-
ices afterward erected everywhere throughout
the land by the victorious Kormans for the
protection of their scanty numbers. It would
seem, in fact, that neither during the Roman
occupation of Britannia, nor afterward, while
the Christianized and Latinized Cambro-Brit*
ons held it, nor yet after that, in the An-
glo-Saxon times, while there were Anglo-
Saxons in England, were there any places of
strength in the kingdom. A single battle,
won by a few charges of mail-clad horse-
men, laid the whole kingdom prostrate at the
feet of William the Norman, who portioned
out the realm among his landless followers.
Everywhere, instantly after the subjugation
of the land, on every estate arose the tall and
castellated dwellings in which, — ^from that day
downward nntil the conclusion of the wars

of the Roses and the aooeodon of the Tndon,
when a new style of architecture, ^"^iftsting a
milder state of society and a oessatiom of do>
mestic warfare, succeeded the old castellatied
^7P^» — ^resided with their families, aecore amid
the din of war, the landed aristocracy and
nobles of the land. Of every variety of size,
from the small single keep, or tower, perdied
on some bold summit, to tne vast baronial c«-
ties, such as those of Frimilingham, or Btang,
or Kenilworth, or Leioester, covering acres of
ground withm the precincts of thdr embattled
waUs and deep girdling moats, Uiey Lad all
similar forms, one common system of defences^
whether on elevated ground or amid level
scenery ; and, unless captured by surprise, in a
sudden onslaught, or betrayed by the ill faith
of some one within the walls, oonld all, for
many days, resist a feudal army ; the best ar>
tillery of which, consisting only of oatapclts
and machinery for casting stones, could eflect
nothing against stone wm^ of 10 or 12 feet in
thickness, and 100 feet or more inhdght, from
every shot hole, crenelle and bartizan of which,
arrows and cross-bow bolts fell like hail on
the exposed persons of the assailants; while it
mattered little to the defenders of the castle
whether or no, in the absence of artillery ade-
quate to reduce it, the edifice might or might
not be commanded by eminences of saperi<»
height, provided only that they were not with-
in near arrow shot — ^The system of defined
was a series of curtains of great strength and
height, forming the circuit of the defences, with
large square flanking towers at short intervak
serving as bastions to enfllade the curtain^ aad
close at their base a wide, deep moat only to be
crossed by means of a drawbridge^ and access
to that drawbridge defended, on the outer
side, by what was called a barbican, serving as
what we should now call a bridge head, which
was in fact neither more nor leas than a 2d
castle of inferior height to the interior fortress,
open to its shot on the inner side towud the
moat, so as to be untenable against its garrison,
yet strong with curtains, towers, flankers, and
sometimes, again, with a narrower exterior
fosse and esplanade, and an exterior palisade
of wood, called the barriers, in the attack of
which and their defence were often performed
some of the most desperate and glorious feaU
of arms recorded by the chroniclers and min-
strels of the middle ages. In many of the
larger and more powerful feudal fortresses, such
as that of Framlingham in Suffolk, of Plessis
les Tours and Lodies in France, and many
others in England, France, and the Low Coon-
tries, within the exterior precincts and moat,
there were a 2d and 8d wet ditch, a 2d and 3d
wall, each loftier than that without, and com-
manding it from the base to the sunomit; and
aU these arranged in such a way that Um as-
sailants, having mastered the 1st gate and en-
tered the 1st precinct, would necessarily be
compelled to make a flank movement roond
half the circumference of the place, shut up be-

" CA*nJE04IBnr

oAsniii^c^u

fi» H

■ ^

.. > 1.1/!. yr.,w Wi.n iwrJ •.« I»itlm.-^1.' 1

^ 1 1 ■ • '

r'fftv T'l.ii'jf ^..*t»,tv n^ T*.-iit Phi^It

^^H

^^^B*

^^V^'

^B ^

^^^^1

^^^H

rrgrliisUir

^^^p' ^

^^D'
^Tr

In ^H

■l. . or Lrin

afUr

^■1

^kfviiujivri

^^^H

540

0A8T0B BIVEB

OASTBO

Greek mythology. Acoordinff to Homer, they
were sons of Tyndareas and Leda, and brothers
of Helen and Olytenmestra, and hence are often
called the Tyndaride. Oastor excelled in tam-
ing horses, and Pollux in the game of boxing.
Though bnried, they were taken from the earth
before the siege of Troy, became immortal and
honored as gods, and sometimes f^peared among
men. The legend was complicated by snbse-
qnent poets. According to some, the Dioscml
were sons of Leda and of Jupiter disgaised as a
swan or a star ; according to others, Pollux only
hod this divine origin and the privilege of im-
mortality. The place of their birth was vari-
ously said to be Amydss, Mount Taygetus, and
the island of Pephnos. They are fabled to have
attacked and ravaged Attica, and to have brought
back their sister Helen who had been stolen,
away by Theseus. They took part in the Oaly-
donian boar hunt, and accompanied the expe-
dition of the Argonauts, during which Pollux
vanquished with the cffistus the giant Amycus,
king of the Bebryces, and founded the city of
Dioscnrias in Colchis. Associated with Idas
and Lynceus, sons of Aphareus, they plundered
Arcadia, but in a quarrel which arose concern-
ing the division of the spoil, Oastor, the mortal,
perished by the hands of Lvnceus, who in his
turn fell under the blows of Pollux, while Idas
was struck with a thunderbolt by Jupiter. Ac-
cording to another tradition Oastor was slain in
a war between Athens and Lacedsemon. Jupi-
ter permitted Pollux to pass alternately one day
with his brother on Olympus and another on
the earth. The worship of these heroic broth-
ers was established by the Achesans, adopted by
the Dorians, and spread throughout Greece,
Italy, and Sicily. They were the tutelary gods
of hospitality, presided over gymnastic exer-
cises, and were eminently the mighty helpers
of man. They calmed tempests, appearing as
light flames on the tips of the masts. They
Bometunes appeared in battle, riding on mag-
nificent white steeds at the head of the army.
By their assistance the Romans believed them-
selves to have gained the battle of Lake Regillus.
Placed among the stars they became the con*
stellation GeminL In works of art, they are
usually represented as young horsemen in whita
attire, with a purple robe, armed with the lance,
and wearing a helmet crowned with stars. At
Rome the men swore by the temple of Pollux,
jEdepol^ and the women by that of Castor,
jEeattor. There was an ancient temple conse-
crated to them in the Forum, around which the
j&<7u{fe« marched in magnificent procession every
year on July 15.

CASTOR RIVER rises in St Francis co.. Mo.,
flows S., communicates by several arms with a
group of small lakes in Stoddard co., and after-
ward unites witli the Whitewater river. The
stream thus formed, which is sometimes called
the Oastor, but more firequently the Whitewater,
flows through a low swampy region, in which
most of the streams spread themselves over a
large surface and form extensive marshes or

lakes. It receives the outlet of Laka Femiieo,
and finally discharges itself into Big lake.

CASTREN', Matthew Albxaitdkb, aFiamah
philologist, bom Dec. 2, 1818, at Tervola, fin-
land, died May 7, 1862, in HelsingforB. He
devoted himself to collecting the monuments of
the genius of Finland, scattered through the
various tribes, and as a preparation he under-
took to travel on foot in 1888 through Finnish
Lapland. Aided by government, he pursned
his investigations through Norwegian and Rus-
sian Finland, and even as far as the Samoieds
of Europe and Siberia. He also visited KaxeXia,
to make himself more familiar with the lan-
guage, with a view to the translation into
Sw^ish of the celebrated popular poem, the
'^Kalevala." He was appointed linguist and
ethnographer to the academy of St Petersborg,
and with the aid of the university of Helsing-
fors, he extended his researches throughout
Siberia, from the frontiers of China to the
shores of the Arctio ocean. With feeble con-
stitution and delicate health, he accomplished
extraordinary labors, and sent home, in ad-
dition to the documents connected with his
own studies, reports and letters of great value.
Many of these were published in the Russian
and Swedish periodicals of the da^. Gaatren
was honored on his return to his conntiy,
in 1851, a year before his death, with the offioe
of first professor of the Finnish language and
literature at the university of Helsingfor&
The literary society of Finland and the academy
of St. Petersburff caused his writings to be poh-
lished after his death, the latter body appoint-
ing Mr. Schiefner as editor of the works pnh-
li^ed in St. Petersburg in German in 1858 and
1866, while Finnish editions were brought out
at Helsingfors in 1862, 1868, and 1866, and a
German edition of part of them appeared also
in Leipsic. His Samoied grammar and diction-
ary were published in St Petersbttrg by Mr.
Schiefoer m 1854 and 1866, and his Tnngaaan
dictionary in 1857. A biographical sketch <^
Castren, by Mr. Borg, appeared at Helsingfors
in 1868, and in the same city a monument has
been dedicated to his memory.

CASTRES, a fiourishing town of France,
pop. 14,144, in the department of Tarn, 26 m.
S. E. of Albi, lying in a fertile valley on both
sides of the river Agout, which is here crossed
by 2 stone^ bridges. It is the seat of a Protestant
consistory* having been one of the first towns to
embrace the doctrines of Calvin. It has msnu-
&ctures of silk, woollen, and cotton goods. Gas-
tres was founded by the Franks, A. D. 647 ; suf-
fered much in the religious wars of the 16th
century ; its fortifications were destroyed by
Louis Xin. im 1619. It was long the reddenoe
of Henry IV. during his religious wars.

CASTRO, iNEa de, wife of Pedro of Por-
tugal, bom in the first part of the 14th cen-
tury, assasdnated in 1866. She was a daughter
of Don Pedro Fernandez de Castro, a desoend-
ant from the royal house of Castile, and a maid
of honor to Constantia, Ist wife of Pedro. Alter

■

CLAi&EU*-' ^^^*

^^^^ CAfll^^ H

H Gomksr^ -

.i.^ii. J., n \ . I T*i..t-» f. 't'lnmlnfl

tf." "'' •' • Ptfflxijww* fi(M CBaoi'r- ^1

H brtli*

>OI*rl

,.,..-„, .Jitlll a

L'Kt ., ''<., ..I...T. •...-!-> ... ^H

liieli«i€ in Mi

■

h '

,\,n» n'*T-uttj«»a

1'^'

P ;

^^1

H I

^H t

^m i\

^^1

^B L

^H ' *''

^H '

■ F^

H F"'

^H a

■ h

■ tT'Ar ,

■a^o^l lii:-

■ y.

. I^le^tj

^H »,:.,'

■ -. ^ - • - ■ ■

^^H

H Tr. :M

. .,

^H 4^ ' ' -

^^M

^H (

^^H

■ t>:

^^^1

^M »n .

^^H

H ^..1 .

^1 l*-: '

^^M

^H ^

■ ■ ^M

^ t^^' . ■

' ^r^lKtSL fff Pttiin nf fsiotiva ^H

^M >i 1

1 .

^^1

^H w

^^^

^H ti>

^^1

H ^

.. ...-«

^1 t'

.^kv.

^H D

,' iC

' ^1

H ^

^H ^'

■ ft

^1 1

tj^^UH*

Oi «>ll'' ^1

^vtiW' ^H

f, Itumtv^ at ^H

^1 ff.

Y*iitEA; ^ irjraii'i'l *■-'. ^^1

^1 t'^

41 Df Ifik'^mot' ^1

H 1

Tt^j^jlO^ -- ^H

^H ^

■ «

jii&4«d 01 I ^M

■ ii

--'"'. WUl4 U^....^. H

H ^

iixfMil; l«ot F ^M

^1 th^ ..

.aied |iJiiiriil i._ ^H

H 6MM;

542

0ABWE3LL

OAT

rains, and moet ^ the ancient Imildlnga havB
been overthrown. The palace, though much
dilapidated, is still occapied by the governor.
A mosque with a large dome, bazaars, schools,
and baths are the other principal bnildings. The
chief manufactures are velvets, brocades, a
^ar&o cotton cloth called kerbas, carpets, sword-
P^K4£8, and wine. Qrapes and nuts are pro-
-A98 ^ abundantly, and of good quality. Oas-
-puvq ^ g]gQ fi^ entrepot for the silks of Ghilan
'^^A Shirvan destined for Bagdad and India, and
^or rice from the Caspian provinces. The sur-
rounding plain was formerly one of the mpst
productive districts of Persia, its natural fer-
tility being greatly enhanced by a vast system
of irrigating canals, most of which are now
choked up, except in the immediate vicin-
ity of the city. Casveen was founded about
the middle of the 4th century, and under
the Suffide dynasty became the capital of
the kingdom. The removal of the seat of
government to Ispahan checked its prosper-
ity, though it still has much commercial im-
portance.

CASWELL, a co. in the N. part of K C,
bordering on Ya.; area 400 sq. m.; pop. 15,269,
of whom 7,770 Ire slaves. It is intersected by
Hycootee river and County Line creek, affluents
of Dan river. The surface is undulating, and
the soil fertile. The prodnctions in 1850 were
75^48 bushels of wheat, 111,891 of rye and
oats, 417,609 of Indian corn, 2,282,939 lbs. of
tobacco. There were 24 com and flour mills,
4 saw mills, 1 iron foundery, 1 cotton factory,
9 tobacco manufEictories, 26 churches, and 1
newspaper. It was organized in 1777, and
named in honor of Bichard Caswell, the first
governor of the state under the constitution.
Capital, Yancey.

CASWELL, RiOHABD, first governor of North
Carolina, and brigadier-genenl in the army of
the American rovolution, bom in Md., Aug. 8,
1729, died Nov. 10, 1789. In 1746 he removed to
N. C, where, in 1754, he became a member of
the colonial assembly, in which he continued to
hold a seat till 1771. He was then chosen speak-
er of the house of commons, and colonel of
the county militia, and at the outbreak of the
revolution identified himself with the patriots.
He soon after became treasurer of the state. In
1776, in command of a regiment of minute men,
he defeated the loyalists at Mooro^s creek, and
for this service was appointed brigadier-general.
For 3 years he was president of the provincial
congress which framed the state constitution,
under which he was elected the first governor.
He was engaged in the disastrous battle of
Camden in 1780, became comptroller-general
of the state in 1782, and was again elected
governor in 1784, to which office he was twice
reelected. In 1787 he was a delegate totha
convention assembled at Philadelphia for the
formation of a federal constitution ; in 1789 he
was speaker of the state senate, and he was sub-
sequently one of the convention by which the
federal oonsUtutioa was ratified in N. C. He

was prcfilding in the senate when he waa sianiick
with paralysis, which proved faJtal,

CAT (feliB^ Linn.). The Linnsoaa genus /elii
comprises about 50 species of carnivorous
mammalia, the characters of which are closely
assimilated, and at the same time widely di£Eigr-
ent from other genera. It is characterised by
6 incisor teeth above and below; 2 canine
teeth in each jaw, powerful and formed for
tearing ; molar or cheek teeth, 4 in the upper
jaw and 8 in the lower, thin, pointed, and
wedge-shaped, formed for cutting. The head
is hu'ge, roxmd, and wide; the eyes have the
pupil often oblong; the tongue has strong
homy papillaa, directed backward. The feet
aro formed for walking; the toes are 5 in num-
ber on the foro feet, and 4 on the hind feet,
armed with strong, sharp, and hooked daws,
retracted when the animal walks. The intes-
tines are very short, as in all animals living al-
most exclusively on animal food. The anjiWatia
composing this genus (which includes ^e lion,
tiger, panther, ^c.) are the most powerful ana
ferocious of all predatory quadmpeds, aa the
eagles and birds of prey are among the fe^Ji-
ered tribes. The different species aro distributed
over every portion of the globe, with the excep-
tion of Australia and the South Pacific isl^ids ;
but the most formidable aro found in the warm-
est climates; no species has been discovered
common to the ola and the new world. The
favorite resorts of these animals aro the thick
forests of the tropics, whero they lie concealed
during the day, and prowl at night in search of
proy; the more northern and smaller 8pe<»es
prefer rocky and well-wooded situations. The
cats hunt a livmg prey, which they secure bj
cunning and watchfcdness, springing upon th«ir
unsuspecting victims from an ambush, or
stealthily crawling up to them. Some species,
as the leopard and jaguar, pursue their prey
into trees ; the cougar lies in wait on a branch
or overhanging rock, and falls upon ftnim^ly
passing beneath. Their aspect is ferooioos,
their instincts bloody, ana their strength
great; even their voice has something in it
harsh and terrible. The anatomi<^ stmotore
of the cats is indicative of great strongth and
activity ; the jaws aro very powerf oL beaiiog
teeth shaped like wedges, thin and warpi, re-
quiring but little force to cut through the fleah
on which they feed ; the stracture of the joint
admits of no lateral motion, and the whole
force of the immense temporal and masseter
muscles is exerted in a perpendicular or catting
direction. To assist in tearing their food, the
surface of the tongue is covered with numerous
homy papillffi; these may be felt, on a small
scale, on the tongue of the domestic cat; the
tongue is rather an organ for romoving mnscu-
lar fibres from bones, and for rotaining fle^
in the mouth, than an organ of taste. The
neck, shoulders, and foro limbs display a re-
markable muscular development; the Uon can
drag away with ease caUle and horses which it
has killed; a single blow of the foro limb of a

OAT

f ^ T 41 rnnrrig

.Ki,.. ^\.>.. ...

1*'

In-

it. -..^ .^ ^■■. i-^ •'■

■r I iiktJiiii i 111 eito tt iloti;

fn .., tiiPrtIi* oil T*(i* ri^^,f .

nr.
ft*

tl^^ II aJMiiiia if9 tuswrnohind tia«S tlve wiMila

> 4 lin ffurn, BMm^Mfk, fiftdji^if^if I

544

OATAOOMBS

useX a rhetorical figure by whicli a word
is put to a different usage from that which it
had originally, being borrowed from one idea
to express another. Thns Milton, describing
BaphaePs descent from heaven, s^s, ^^ He saila
between worlds and worlds." This figure ia
common in the speech of daily life, as in the ex-
ample, " Tears ipeah louder tiian words." The
term catachresls is sometimes limited to the
abuse of a trope, when a word is wrested too
far from its true signification.

CATACOMBS {koto, downwards, and m/fiiSor,
a hollow place), subterraneous places for burying
the dead. The catacombs of Egypt, from their
vast size, extent, and elaborate pains spent
upon them in decorations, both of architecture
and painting, are perhaps more remarkable than
any others. The most ancient are those of the
Theban kings, which can be traced for a period
of 8,000 to 4,000 years. It is supposed that the
ancient Egyptians spent such enormous sums on
their tombs and processes of embalming, firom
their belief that the soul would revisit the body
if this were preserved from decay; and hence
resulted their stupendous catacombs, which to
this day interest and astonish the traveller. The
entire chain of mountains in the neighborhood
of Thebes is mined by an immense number of
catacombs. Those of the kings, originally 47
in number, have been mostly defaced, but a
few still exist to bear witness to the pristine
magnificence of these sepulchres. They occu-
py a deep ravine, flanked by the bed of a tor-
rent in the centre of the mountain Libycus, and,
lying some 6,000 to 7,000 paces from the banks
of the Nile, were reached by an artificial pas-
sage. Proceeding along the valley, the wander-
er discovers openings in the ground, with a
gateway in a simple square frame, each gate-
way being the mouth of a gallery leieding to the
royal sepulchre. Forty paces within is another
gateway opening to a 2d gallery 24 feet in
length, and on each side of this are small cham-
bers. A 8d gallery succeeds, communicatiug
with a chamber 18 feet square, and from this is
an entrance to another gallery 64 paces in
length. This in its turn connects with several
small apartments, beyond which lies a saloon
20 feet square, containing the royal sarcophagus.
The whole extent of excavation in this single
tomb is upward of 225 paces. AH the sarcoph-
agi of the kings have long since been violated,
and the bodies destroyed, doubtless for the sake
of plunder. M. Denon, the French traveller,
found, however, in one of the royal tombs, the
fragments of a mummy. Bobbed as they
have been of their roysl day, these tombs
still preserve their wonderful paintings, after
in some cases a lapse of 4,000 years; the
morecostly of the catacombs are covered in the
whole extent of their interior by hierogly-
phics and pictures, generally in fresco, and in
all, unless wantonly injured by the Arabs, the
colors are as fresh as if laid on but yesterday.
The catacombs of the opulent of the ancient
Thebans were lower on the mountain than the

royal sepulchres, and in proportion to the ex-
tent of their excavations, they are more or less
richly decorated; the hues of the paintings
are brilliant, and the sculptnres elegantly de-
fined. Innumerable subjects are di^layed in
these tombs, one chamber being devoted to
warlike representations, and another to hus-
bandry or agriculture. Every ordinary occu-
pation or amusement is exhibited, bunting,
fishing, feasting, &c. Many of the figures are
colored yellow on a blue ground, erhibiting
homage paid to monarchs, executions, reli-
gious or funeral processions, and, in short, every
phase of human life. In some of the aoen^
gangs of African negro slaves, colored bliusk,
and accurately drawn in all leading charae-
terbtics, such as thick lips and woolly hair, are
represented, and are adduced by those who dis-
believe the theory of the unity of the hmnan
race, as one of the strongest proofs agiunst it ;
showing at least that, so far from tiie distinct
tions of the negro being created by the influ-
ence of climate through successive generadons,
his type was precisely the same 1,500 years
B. C. In a group of a double flle of n^proes and
Nubians, bound, and driven before the chariot
of Bamses 11., at Aboo Sambool, are delineated
with perfect accuracy all the characteristicB of
the modem Ethiop. The paintings in. tlte
Egyptian catacombs also exhibit figures of co-
lossal or pigmy sijeo, as well as hawk-headed
and fox-headed deities. The complete history
of the ancient Egyptians may be read in these
paintings, as every action of theur lives is
represented with accompanying furniture, ex&i
down to the playthings of infant chUdren.
''The Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Egyptians," by Bir Gardner Wilkinson, con-
tains many hundreds of drawings and colored
plates directiy copied from these extraordi-
nary frescoes, and make the reader so inti-
mately acquainted with the daily life of an
extinct people, that he seems to walk band
in hand with the former dwellers by the banks
of the Kile. The catacombs for the poor
were limited in space, rude in constraction,
and unadorned. In consequence, the mum-
mies were packed together as d<»elj as they
could be laid, tier on tier, leaving a narrow
passage between the walls of IxKliea. It is
calculated that, dming the ages when tbe an
of mununification was known and practised,
not less than 400,000,000 of mummies were en-
tombed in the Egyptian catacombs. — For nearly
the whole period of the Christian era have the
Boman catacombs attracted the interest of Chris-
tians^ more especially during the last few o»i-
turies. Connected as they were with the trials
of the early martyrs of the church, their ex-
ploration and history has ever proved one of
the favorite branches of research. Many of
them are of great antiquity, having heea origi-
nally quarries hewn long before Uie R<xne of
Bomulus and Bemns was founded, and eo ex-
tended in the course of time, that every one of
the 7 hills on which the oity stood was pezfo-

546

CATACOMBS

CATAHOULA

seTeral bo^es w«re fonnd bj Abb6 BomaneDi.-*
The catacombs of Syracnse are larger and bet*
ter preserved than any other catacombs, and
not of so gloomy an appearance as those of Rome
and Naples. They form an immense snbter*
ranean town, with innmnerable tombs cat out
of the solid rock, containing the dead of all ages,
nationalities, and creeds. They were oonverted
by the early Chrisdans into places of refuge
firom persecution. The entrance to them is un-
der the church of San QiovannL — ^The cata-
combs of Malta are of small extent, but in good
preservation. They are subterranesn, and seem
to have been used for a place of worship as well
as of sepulture. — The so-called catacombs of
Paris were never catacombs in the ancient sense
of the word, and not devoted to sepulchral pniv
poses until tiie year 1784, when the council of
state issued a decree for clearing the cemetery of
the Innocents, and for removing its contents, as
well as those of other graveyards, into the quar-
ries which had existed from a remote period
beneath the southern part of Paris, and by
which the Observatory, the Luxembourg, the
Od6on, theVal de Gr&ce, the Panth^oo. the
streets La Harpe, 8t. Jacques, Toumon, V an-
girard, and many others were completely
nndermined. Some excavations having taken
place, a special commission was appointed to
direct such works as might be required. En-
gineers and workmen were immediately em-
ployed to examine the whole of the quarries,
and prop the streets, roads, churches, palaces,
and buildings of all kinds which were in danger
of being engulfed. The plan of converting
the quarries into catacombs originated with M.
Lenoir, lieutenant-general of the police, and
every preparation was made by sinlang a shaft,
propping np the cavities, and walling off vari-
ous portions for receiving their future contents.
The ceremony of consecrating the catacombs
was performed with great solemnity on April
7, 1786, and on the same day the removal
from the .cemeteries began. This work was al-
ways performed at night ; the bones were brought
In funeral cars, covered with a pall, and
followed by priests chanting the service of
the dead, and wlien they reached the cata-
combs, the bones were shot down the shaft.
Such tombstones, monuments, Ac., as were
not claimed by tne families of the deceased,
were arranged in a field near the entrance
of the shaft, and among these relics was the
leaden coffin of Madame de Pompadour. As
other cemeteries were suppressed, the bones
from them were removed to this generid de-
posit by order of the government. The cata-
combs served also as convenient receptacles for
those who perished in popular commotions or
massacres. At first the bones were heaped np
without any kind of order, except that those
from each cemetery were kept separate; but
in 1810 a regular system of arranging them was
commenced, and the skulls and bKsnes were
built up along the waU. The principal entrance
to the catacombs is near the BarrUre ^Ei^er^

bnt for some years past admission into tliem
has been strictly interdicted, on accomit of tbe
dangerous state of the roofs of the quarnes.
From the entrance a flight of 90 steps oeBcends
to the catacombs; a series of gaUmes are then
seen branching in various directions, and sev-
eral hundred yards from the steps is the Testi-
bule, of octagonal form, and over the door is
the following inscription : Hom uUra fnetat r»-
quiaeunt heatam t^aem meetantet. The ▼esti-
bule opens into a long gallery lined with bonai
from the floor to the roof; the arm, leg, and
thigh bones are in front, closely and regidariy
piled together, and their uniformity is relieved
by three rows of skulls at equal distances. Be-
hind these are thrown the smaller bones. This
gallery conducts to several rooms resemblinf
chapds, lined with bones variously arrange
One is called the " Tomb of the Revolatian,*^ an>
ot^er the **Tomb of Victims,'' and contain the
bodies of those who perished either in the early
period of the revolution, or in the maaaacres of
September. Calculations differ as to the number
of bones collected in this vast chamel-honse, but
it is estimated to contain at least the remains
of 8,000,000 human beings. A map of the
catacombs and quarries under the city has been
very lately drawn np by the order of the
municipal authorities. These excavations are
8,000,000 metres square in extent^ or aboot
^ of the total superficies of Paris.

OATAOOUSTIO, rekting to echoee. 6m
AoousTios.

OATAFALOO (an Italian word of Greek
origin), the decorated tomb of state erected
in Uie eastrum dolorU. The cata&lco for the
final interment of Michel Angelo at Flomee,
was of unexampled magnificence.

OATAGOGIA, or feast of the return^ a fe-
tival celebrated at Eryx, in Sicilv, in honor of
Aphrodite. It was preceded by the feast (tf the
anagogiOy during which it was believed that
the goddess went over to Africa acoompanied
by dl the pigeons of the neighborhood. Ihej
returned 9 days afterward, and the entrance of
the first pigeon into the temple was the agnai
for general rejoicing and feasting. The whota
district was said at this time to smell of hutter,
which was regarded as a sign that Aphrodite had
returned.

GATAGRAPHAfOr foreshortenings, aie said
to have been the invention of Cimon of deona,
who probably fiourished in the time of Soloa,
and arew the human figure in a variety of atti-
tudes. He first made muscular artiealatiosi^
indicated the veins, and ^ve natonl folds to
drapery. Pliny uses the term eatagrapha to
denote any dblique view of the coontenanoe or
figure, either in profile or otherwise.

CATAHOULA, a parisSi of Louisiana; am
1,970 sq. m.; pop. 7,182, of whom 8,528 are
slaves. It is watered by the Washita, Tensas,
Black, and little rivers, several of which ai«
navigable by steamboats through the parish and
on its borders. Near the Washita river the fooi^
fiioe is partly occupied by Mils, The eoU in

CATALANI

CATALEPSY

54?

some ports is fertile, and lies upon a bed of
sandstone. The productions in 1850 were 6,648
bales of cotton, 183,786 bushels of Indian corn,
and 33,055 of potatoes. There are 14 churches
and 1 newspaper, and 548 children attending
school. The parish was organized in 1808.
Capitad, Harrisonburg.

CATALANI, Anokuoa, an Italian singer,
born in 1784^ at Sinigaglia in the pontitical
states, died in Paris, June 12, 1849. Her
fother worked during the day in the shop
of a jeweller, and in the evening played
the horn in the theatre. Angelica, when
only 7 years old, attracted general attention
by the remarkable power and purity of her
voice. People went in such numbers to the
convent of St. Lucia, near Rome, where she
received her education, to hear her, that the
police had to check the pressure of the crowd.
Angelica, however, continued to sing, and on
leaving the convent in 1798 she passed through
a course of scientific musical studies. Toward
1800, while her artistic culture was still rather
incomplete, a theatrical manager in Venice pre-
vailed upon her to appear as Lodoisca, in May-
er's opera of that name, and she was successfuL
For a year she continued to sing at Venice, and
then, after making a tour through the dififerent
towns of Italy, she performed at the Italian
opera of Lisbon. Afterward she went to Madrid,
"vvhere the receipts of her first concert amounted
to $11,000. Subsequently she went to Paris,
where for 2 concerts at St. Cloud Napoleon
paid her $900, beside a pension of $210, and
gave her the free use of the opera house
lor 2 concerts, of which the receipts amount-
ed to $9,000. In London she received $13,000
for the first, and $17,000 for each of the
following T seasons, beside 2 benefits which
yielded $11,000, and permission to perform
in the provinces. For some time she was
connected with the management of the Paris
opera in cooperation with her husband, M.
Valabrdgue, formerly a captain in the French
army. In this enterprise she was not suc-
cessful. Her clear, powerful voice electrified
tlie English, especially in " God save the King ;*'
but her influence over continental audiences
was not so great. In 8 years she cleared about
$4:00,000. She sang in Germany, Denmark,
Sweden, Poland, and Russia, returning also
occasionally to her native country, and after-
ward again made her appearance in Paris,
but without meeting with great success.
In 1830 she withdrew from the stage, and
devoted herself at Florence to the education
of her 8 children, and at the same time estab-
lished a free singing school fop girls, on
condition that they should adopt, in addition
to their own name, that of Catalani. In June,
1849, during the revolution in Tuscany, she
went to Paris with her daughters, but almost
immediately after her arrival she fell a victim
to the cholera. Her favorite airs in concert were
La PlacUIa CampagruL, " the English antliem,'*
and the violin variations of Kode. Whatever

exceptions may have been taken to her tin-
sympathetio singing, and although the fact of
her premature exercise of her profession, before
she had fully mastered all its scientifio details,
was frequently apparent in her execution of
long pieces, there was only one opinion tsA to
the immense volume and the inexhaustible
elasticity of her voice, the brilliancy and power
of which was never surpassed. She left to her
children a fortune of $1,600,000.

CATALEPSY (Gr. icaraXi;\(ftr, seizure), a
non-febrile affection, occurring in paroxysms,
and characterized by a sudden deprivation of
intelligence, sensation, and voluntary motion.
The disease is so seldom met with that some
well-known writers have doubted its existence,
and have attributed the recorded cases to im-
posture. Bourdin (Traite de lacatalepsie^'Psna^
1841), who collected all the recorded facts
within his reach, was able to unite but 88 well-
characterized observations. The attack is often
preceded by headache, confusion of mind, loss
of memory, &c. ; more commonly, however,
nothing of the kind has been noticed. During
the paroxysm the patient retains the position
and expression of countenance he had at the
moment of the seizure ; the face is commonly
pale, sometimes slightly flushed; the pupils are
dilated ; but contract on exposure to a strong
light ; the limbs can be moved with the exer-
tion of a little force, and retain the new position
which may be given them ; if the patient is
standing and is pushed, he makes no effort to
save himself; if placed in a painful and con-
straitied attitude, it is retained during the par-
oxysm. The unvarying, motionless attitude
and fixed expression give a strange and corpse-
like look to the sufferer. The duration of the
attack is variable ; sometimes it lasts but a few
minutes, sometimes 12 or 14 hours ; cases are
recorded in which it has been prolonged to 20
or even 30 days. Many cases occur in which
the attack is less characteristically marked, or
in which a portion only of the symptoms is pres-
ent. Although deprived of speech and volun-
tary motion, the patient is more or less conscious
of what is passing around him. In Duncan's
" Medical Commentaries," a case is related of a
woman who in this state of partial catalepsy
was taken for dead, and who was perfectly con-
scious of what was occurring around her, while
her body was being laid out and prepared for
interment. In ecstasy, a disease allied to cata-
lepsy, and which by hnperceptible degrees
passes into it, the patient is insensible to every
thing about him, while the mind is absorbed in
some one object or train of ideas ; the muscles
are either relaxed or in a state of almost tetanic
rigidity, while the patient speaks and sings, per-
haps with greater readiness and ease than in
his natural condition. This condition is fre-
quently occasioned in nervous and hysterical
persons by religious excitement, and is often
produced in a similar class of persons by animal
magnetism. It is one much more commonly
assumed by impostors than true catalepsy. Both

560

OATALPA

OAJAMranA

0idered hedthy, the iDterior more bo than the
ooast Althoagh the orange, lemon, almcmd,
olive, and fig grow on the plains, they are
produced in less ahondanoe than in other
districts of Spain, but orchard fruits ripen
in perfection. The vine is exceedingly pro-
ductive, and wine is the staple export Ag-
riculture is further advanced in Oatalonia than
in any other part of Spain. This is partly
owing to the industrious character of the peo-
ple, partly to the nature of the soil, and in a
considerable measure to the more equitable
tenure of land which prevails in the locality.
All kinds of grain are cultivated and consumed
at home, leaving no surplus for export The
soil is usually a light loam, easily worked by a
pair of cattle. Irrigation being necessary to
make it productive, it is found profitable to
grow wine and oil in preference to breadstufi&.
Flax, hemp, dye-8tuf», honey, and wax are
produced in coniriderable quantity. Silk grow-
ing is but little attended to, and the raising of
wool and cattle is of comparatively small ex-
tent Since the liberation of the South Amer-
ican provinces from their relations with Spain,
the trade of Oatalonia has greatly fallen ofEl
The shoe trade, calico weaving, and ship buUd-
ing, which were formerly important branches
of industry, have almost ceased to exist Ac-
tivity, however, continues in the fabrication
of silks, velvets, ribbons, hosiery, linens and
laces, leather, hats, cordage, brandy, together
with cannon and small arms, glass, soap, hol-
low ware, and copper ntensils. These are ex-
ported to France, England, and Holland, in ex-
change for textiles of finer make than the local
factories produce, jewelry, codfish, herrings,
and other articles of consumption. Along the
coast a large proportion of the inhabitant are
engaged in the fisheries, but there are few good
harbors. The ports are Barcelona, Mataro,
Tarragona, Palamos, Ampurias, Oadaques, and
Alfaques or San Oarlos, at tiie mouth of the
Ebro. Railways connect Barcelona with Are-
nys via Mataro, and the northern Catalonian
railway goes from Barcelona to GranoUers.

OATALPA, a genus of plants, belonging to
the natural order hignaniacecBy whose gene-
ric characteristics are a 2-parted calyx, a bell-
shaped, swelling corolla, 6 stamens, 2 of which
only are fertile, a long, slender, cylindrical
pod, and broadly winged seeds. There are 8
species, all of tiiem trees, with simple leaves
and panicled, terminal flowers. The O, tyrin-
ffifotia (Loud.) is indigenous in the southern
parts of the United States, and is cultivated as
an ornamental tree in most of the cities of the
northern states. It is distinguished by its sil-
ver-gray, slightly furrowed bark, its wide-
spreading head disproportioned in size to the
diameter of its trunk, the fewness of its
branches, and the fine pale green of its very
large heart-shaped leaves. Its showy fiowers
are white, slightly tinged with violet, and dot-
ted with purple and violet in the throat They
are snooeeded by pods, often a foot in length,

which hang till the next spring. Unite Batanl

locality, this tree firequently exceeds 60 feet in
height, with a trunk from 18 to 24 inches in
diameter ; but in Massachusetts it dwindlee to a
mere shrub, and is often killed by the frost It
is cultivated in gardens in £ngluid, and on
the continent of Europe. One of the ddeet
and laraest catalpas in Englimd is in Gray's
Inn gardens, and is said to have been planted
there by Lord Bacon. In parta of Italy and in
the south of France, the catalpa is planted as ft
wayside tree, and along the avenues to coan-
try villas. It may be propagated ^ther br
seeds or fh>m cuttings of the root It QsnallT
reaches the height of 20 feet in 10 years, soon
after which it begins to blossom. The wood
is light, of a very fine texture, susceptible of &
brilfiant polish, and often used in cabinet-mak-
ing.

CATALYSIS, Oatalttism, Oatjjlttio Ac-
tion (Gr. itoni, from, and Xv«, to loose), \rhen
chemical decomposition is brought about in any
compound, and its ingredients are made to en-
ter into new combinations in consequence of the
introduction of another body, which does not
itself form a part of any of these combinations,
nor lose either of its constituents, but acts in
some manner not nnderstood, apparently by
its mere presence or contact to excite this
chemical action, the force is called by Berzelios
catalytic. A small quantity of veast tfana uCLs
to cause a mixture of sugar and water to fer-
ment, and form the new combinata<»is of
carbonic acid and alcohol; the addition of
Tifim P^^ o^ oxalic add to boiling nrnp of
sugar, causes it to become fiuid as water, and
renise to crystallize. Liebig objects to thij
introduction of a new theoretical force, which
does not actually explain the phenomenon by
giving it a name, but tends to satisfy the nn>
derstanding with a plausible explanation, and
thus hinder further research.

CATAMARAN, a name given botli in the
East and West Indies to a kind of raft used near
the seashore. Those used at Madras oc»isist of
only 3 logs of the cocoa tree lashed together, bat
on the coast of South America they are made
from 70 to 80 feet long, and from 20 to 25 ibeC
wide. They are pajrticularlv aerviceable in
crossing heavy surfs near a shallow and ahelviDg
Bhore.—Oatamaran was also the name given to
the fiat-bottomed boats with which the French,
at the commencement of the present oratory,
meditated the invasion of £n|^d.

CATAMABOA, a department of the con-
federation of La Plata, in South America. 1;
lies K of the Andes; is extremely fertile,
produces com and cattle for home consmnptioQ,
supplies tiie adjacent departments with cotton,
and exports red pepper to Buenoa Ayres. Pop.
60,000 ; capital, Oatamarca.

OATAMENIA. (Gr. jcoro, acoordins to, and
ftffp^ month), or menses, a monthly flowing of
sanguineous fluid, which occurs in the female
economy. The fimction of menstruation gen-
erally commences at the age of puberty, and

. CATAMOUKT

CATAPHBAOT

terminates at the " oritical period," or " change
of life;'* including a period of some 80 years,
between the ages of 14 and 45. The blood of
the catemenial flax is exnded from the vessels
of the nterus, and escapes through the vagina :
the flow generally returns every 28 days, and
continues from 8 to 6 days. The amount dis-
charged varies from 4 to 8 oz. in most cases,
bnt every woman is a law unto herself in this
respect; as that which would be merely nor-
mal in some women would bo profuse in
others. The first menstrual flow is generally
preceded by languor, pains in the back, head-
ache, chilliness, &c, which usually disappear
when the discharge takes place. The after oc-
currences are often nnaocompanied in healthy
females by any premonitory or attendant
symptoms. During the whole of a woman's
menstrual life she is capable of bearing children.
After it is closed, she ceases child-bearing. —
The influence of climate in advancing or retard-
ing the period of puberty and menstruation,
has been shown by recent observation to have
been formerly much over-rated, the average
period being much the same all over the world,
and exceptional cases as numerous in one region
as another. Mr. Roberton has shown, from
statistical evidence, that menstruation does not
occur more early in the negress than in the
white female, and Dr. Vaigas aflirms that pre-
cocious menstruation is more common in the
white tlian in the colored races. Early marriages
in Ilindostan and other warm climates, then,
do not depend on natural precocity, but on the
habits and customs of the country. — The uterus
is congested during menstruation, and so are the
ovaries and the Fallopian tubes; the tissues of
the vagina are relaxed, and the 09 uteri is
softened and swollen; these conditions disap-
pear when the flow ceases, and the parts return
to their natural state. During pregnancy and
lactation, the menses usually cease, and they
may also be suppressed from other local causes.
Vicarious menstruation sometimes takes place
as a means of obviating the ill etfects of sup-
pressed menstruation, by substituting a similar
discharge from some other part It occurs
from the gums, the nostrils, the lungs, the
stomach, or even from the eyes, and other parts
of the body.

CATAMOUNT. See Couoab.

CATANDUANES, an island of the PhUip-
pine group, 8. E. of Luzon, lat. 13® 47' N.,
long. 124° KX E., is 86 m. long from N. to S.,
and averages 19 m. wide. The inhabitants are
an industrious race, and live by agriculture, fish-
ing, and the construction of a light species of
boat which they sell to the adjacent islanders.

CATANIA (anc. Catana\ a seaport city of
Sicily, and capital of the province of the same
name, situated on the E. coast of the island,
on tlie shore of the gulf of Catania, which is an
inlet of the Mediterranean, at the foot of Mount
Etna. Area of the province, 1,761 sq. m.
Pop. in 1856, 411,832; pop. of the city about
60,000. It is esteemed the handsomest city

in Sicily, with wide and regular streets, and
numerous and splendid public buildings. Its
vicinity to Etna has introduced the use of lava
for various purposes. The streets are paved
with it, the finest buildings made of it, and it is
formed also into ornamental chimney-pieces
tables, and toys. — ^The ancient Oatana sufifered
severely in the Boman wars. The modem
city has been several times nearly destroyed by
earthquakes and eruptions of Etna, but has
been rebuilt each time with greater beauty than
before. It has many remains of the Roman
city, among which are an amphitheatre, a
theatre, and ruins of baths and temples. Its
principal public edifices are the cathedral, re-
built since the earthquake of 1693, the senate
house, the university building, frequented by
about 600 students, and a vast Benedictine con-
vent. The city gives title to a bishop, has an
upper tribunal, and a board of trade. The sur-
rounding country is famous for its excellent
wine, and also for its corn. The annual pro-
duction of wheat is about 400,000 qrs., of wnich
800,000 are used for home consumption, and
the rest for exportation. The production of
olive oil is also considerable; and of lemons and
oranges about 100,000 boxes are exported an-
nually. The other principal articles of trade
are almonds, figs, hemp, flax, soda, man-
na, cheese, macaroni, amber, cantharides,
lava, and snow from Etna, which is exported
to Malta. Among the manufactures must be
mentioned those of linen and silk ; the carvings
of amber, lava, marble, and wood, wax bleach-
er ies, and distilleries of licorice and oil. The
port of Catania ranks as the third port in Sicily,
the annual entrances and clearances of vessels
amounting collectively to about 2,000, and carry-
ing cargo to the value of $500,000. Next to
Messina, Catania is the chief mart for silk, the
united exports of both cities amounting annually
to about 450,000 lbs., beside the silks retained
for the local manufactories. In 1848 and 1849
Catania was disturbed by violent popular out-
breaks, especially on April 6 of the latter year,
when the Neapolitans expelled the Sicilians
from the city.

OATANZARO, a town of Naples, capital of
the province of Calabria Ultra, situated on a
mountain near the gulf of Squillace, 80 m. S. S. E.
from Cosenza; pop. 12,000. It suflered severely
from an earthquake in 1783, which overthrew
some of the principal buildings. It still has,
however, a cathedral, several churches and con-
vents, a castle, a royal academy of sciences, and
numerous schools and charitable institutions.
Considerable trade is carried on in cattle, com,
and wine, and there are manufactures of silk and
velvet. The women are reputed the hand-
somest in Calabria.

CATAPHRACT (Gr. KoratppcucTos, mailed),
in ancient military art, a horseman in complete
armor. The cataphracti were heavy-armed
cavalry, the horses of which were also covered
with defensive armor, with scales or plates of
metaL

562

CATAPLASM

OATABACT •

OATAFLASM (Gr. nmnrXiurfia, from mra-
irXao-cr«, to spread over, to plaster), a pooltioe,
or soft sobstaooe applied eztemallj to some part
of the body, either to repress inflammfitioii and
aUay pain, or to promote inflammation or its
oonseqaenoea, and lessen the pain attending it.
For the former pxurpose it is applied cold, and
often contains a preparation of lead to increase
its astringent and refrigerating power; for the
latter, it is nsed at different degrees of tempera-
tnre. TVlien intended to hasten the progress of
inflammation and lead to snppnration, poflldoea
should be of as high a temperature as the part
will bear; but of a lower temperature wnen
used as mere emollients. Cotton- wool, steeped
in water, and bound to the part with a light
bandage, is a veiT' simple and efficient applica-
tion, in most cases where a cold poultice is re-
quired to allay pain, and repress mflammation.

CATAPULT (Gr. Kara, against, and iraXXo*,
to hurl), an ancient military engine for throwing
stones, darts, and other missiles, invented in
Syracuse, in the reign of Dionysius the elder.
It acted upon the principle of the bow, and
consisted of wood frame-work, a part of
which was elastic, and ftunished witti tense
cords of hair or muscle. Catapults were of
TariouB sizes, being designed either for field-
service or bombardments. The largest of them
projected beams 6 feet long and weighing 60
ibs. to the distance of 400 paces, and Josephus
^ves instances of their throwing great stones
to the distance of ^ of a mile. The Romans
employed 800 of them at the siege of Jerusa-
lem. From the time of Julius Caosar it is not
distinguished by Latin authors from the bal"
lUtOy which was originally used only for throw-
ing masses of stone.

CATARACT, a disease of the eye in which
there is an opacity of the crystalline lens or of
its capsular investment. It is most common in
old persons, in whom it seems to be the natural
consequent of age ; but it also occurs in infants,
and is even congenital ; it appears to be more
frequent in cold and damp clunates tJian in
warmer regions, and it is certainly hereditary
in many instancea Among the exciting causes,
especially of the capsular form, are wounds and
inflammations of the internal eye; but the
ordinary cause is the diminished nutrition of
the organ in conmion with others in advancing
age. True cataract may be either lenticular,
capsular, or capsulo-lenticular, according as the
seat of the opacity is in the lens itseu, in its
capsule, or in both at the same time. Certain
cases of opacity external to the crystalline ap-
paratus have been called false cataracts, and
may be caused by the eflhsion of lymph, blood,
or pus, or by false membranes ; secondary cata-
racts are those which follow the surgical oper-
ations for the extraction or depression of the
lens. The lenticular cataract may vary in
hardness from stony to gelatinous; its opacity
is rarely uniform, being generally thickest in
the centi« and thmnest on the edges ; in some
oaaes the opacity begins at the drcumferenoe

in rays which slowly converge to the centre;
the color varies from pearly white to amber
yellow. The capsular cataract, which Yelpeaa
considers more common than the lenti^larf
offiars a great variety of colors and streaks, and
may occupv either the anterior or posterior
suifkce, or both. In the last form of cataract,
both the lens and its capsule are involyed, with
the varieties common to both. The phyatcal
sign of cataract is a more or less troubled
appearance behind the pupil, of a yeHowish
color, deepest in the centre, and becoming mors
distinct as the disease prof;resse8; the ratioDsl
sign is a gradual diminution of viaon, accom-
panied by the sensation as if a doud, specks,
spiders' webs, or snow-flakes, were paashig
before the eyes ; objects are seen best m cer-
tain positions of the head, as when tnmed on
one side, and during the evening or in the
shade when the dilated iris permits more li^t
to enter the pupil ; on looking at a can^e the
flame appears surrounded by a thick bri^
haze. The progress of the disease is very slow,
generally unaccompanied by fever, pain, *ar any
disturbance of the general health. It \b Tery
rare for a person to be unable to distingoi^
day from night M. Sanson has prox>osed an
excellent catoptric test fbr the detectioit cf
cataract by the reflection of light. When a
lighted candle is held before the eye of a
healthy person, 8 images of it may be seen : I,
erefet, moving upward when the candle is
moved upward, produced by reflection from
the cornea ; 2, also erect, produced by r^ec-
tion from the anterior surface of the crystalline
capsule, and moving upward with the candle;
8, very small and inverted, reflected from, the
posterior surface of the capsule, moving down-
ward when the light is carried upward. In
cataract, the inverted image is from the be-
^nning indistinct, and soon disappears entirely ;
the deep, erect one is also soon rendered in-
visible. By dilating the pupil with belladonna,
this experiment is rendered easy and striking.
Cataract is for the most part remediable only
by a surgical operation; certain forms, earned
by inflaznmation of the capsule, may disappear
with the exciting cause without an operatioo;
and cases are on record of the spontaneous cure
of lenticular cataract by the rupture of the
capsule and the escape of the lens into the an-
terior chamber of the eye, where it is gradu-
ally dissolved. — ^From the earliest antiquity
surgeons have attempted to destroy cataract
by means of needles and knives of variou
forms. Whenever the disease is confined to
the lens and its capsule, and the eye in other
respects is healthy, ana the patient not too
young t>r too old, an operation may be attempt-
ed with a prospect of success ; in infEUuts, and
in persons under 20 years of age, both eyes may
be operated on at once ; after the age of 80,
the chance of a successAil issue is generally
small. Before submitting persons to this opera-
tion, it is well to prepare them a day before by
a mild diet and a gentle laxative, and to allay

OATJlEACT

tin 0f dtiaLoft tl^ Ih«iai»r4t

if.,^ r^.* i.*r.,TL-:„^ -T^ *'- , r

^sa^«^S

#1-1

'-y hit dm*

r'.l'l^^. .■ (3^1 iif IIj.

nsmuiijtii}

ll»

OATABAOr

OATABBH

of the TitroonB humor ; the edges of the wound
mtLj not readily heal, or may ulcerate, with
hernia of the irb or opacity of the cornea. De-
pression leaves a permanent canse of irritation
in the eye, and the lens is liahle to reascend ; the
needle perforates the choroid and retina, and
may canse inflammation of the internal eye ;
bnt there is no danger of the escape of the
vitreons humor, nor of spots or ulcers of the
cornea, nor of hernia of the iris, nor of im-
mediate evacuation of the globe. Depression
is best in children and intractable peipons;
where the eyes are small and deep-seated, the
cornea flat, or the coznunctiTa irritated. When
the cataract is soft and the pupil small or adhe-
rent, extraction is best in old persons; in adults
with a large anterior chamber and the eyes
sound ; and when the cataract is hard or mem-
branous. Oonvez spectacles are necessary, un-
der proper restrictions, to supply the place of
the extracted crystalline lens.

CATARAOT, the sudden fall of a large body
of water over a precipice. The term cascade
is applied to a smaller body of water falling
from a great height. Bapids are formed by the
impetuous flow of water down an inclined plane
and over rocks. The American rivers wnish
sublime waterfalls, especially those formed by
the currents issuing from great lakes. The
waters of Lake Superior at its very outlet form
the falls of St. Mary (Sault Ste. Marie). A river
a mile wide descends in a rapid current 22 feet
within f of a mile. A body of water, appar*
ently as large as that which flows over the
precipice of Niagara, rushes unceasingly from
the great reservoir above, whirling and foaming
among the rocks, and presenting an impassable
barrier to all modes of navigation except the
frail barks of tlie Indian and French voyageurs.
Among the whirlpools and eddies of these falls
the birch canoe glides like an arrow past the
threatening rocks the least touch of which
would rend it in pieces. Its course is controlled
and directed by the steady and strong arm of
the Indian giving to it a greater speed than that
of the waters upon which it is borne. The
frJIs are lost below in the smooth waters of
6t. Mary^s strait, and thence these pass tran-
quilly on through the great basins of Lakes Hu-
ron and Erie, till in the Niagara river they again
rush impetuously down the rapids which lead
to the great cataract. This is the most famous
in the world, being the largest body of water
precipitated from so great a height The fall
on the British side is 150 feet, on the American
164 feet. (See Niaoaba.) Following the course
of these waters through Lake Ontario, their
next sudden descent is in the St. Lawrence river,
where in a distance of about 9 miles above
Montreal occur a succession of remarkable rap-
ids, known by the names Coteau du Lac, the
Cedars, Split Kock, and the Cascades. In conse-
quence of the great depth of the water, these
rapids are safely navigated by steamboats de-
scending the river, their course being controlled,
as is that of the biroh canoe, by giving to them

additional speed. ThefaUsofMontmoraiu^are

a remarkable cascade 250 feet high, upon a smaU
stream 6 m. N. £. of Qmebec The Catskm
falls, among the Oatskill mountains in Kew
YorK, are celebrated for their pictureeque
beauty. The cascades are supplied from 2
small lakes, the waters of which, aifter their &11,
pass into a deep ravine, whose precipitous banks
are from 1,000 to 1,500 feet m height, ^ee
Oatskill MouNTAiKS.) Numerous cfScades are
met with in Oalifomia, which are described ui
the article Oalifobnia. In the soutliem part of
the American continent, the falls of Teqnendama
are the most prominent. They are formed by
the descent of the river Fonza from the elevated
phdn of Santa F6 de Bogota. The hei^t of
the faHa is 574 feet, and the column of ti^ot
that rises from them is visible at the distance of
17 miles. (See Bogota.) Among the waterfalls
of Europe, that at Trolhsstta, in Sweden, is noted
as the highest for the body of water. In Scotland
they occur freauently, though usuallj of smaU
size, and dependent for their interest and beauty
upon the wildness of the surrounding scenery and
the dark and rocky glens through which they
rush. The cascades in the Alps are perhaps
among the highest in the world. The most re*
markable are the Evanson, which has a descent
of upward of 1,200 feet, and the Oreo, which
has a vertical fall of 2,400 feet The cataracts,
or more properly the rapids, of the Nile are also
celebrated.

OATARBK a non-inflammatorx diaeaae^
characterized by an increased secretion of mu-
cus from the glands of the mucous membranes;
the name is popularly confined to disease dt
the membrane of the air-passages, but it should
be extended to that of the intestinal, nrinary,
and even genital mucous membranes. In the
time of Hippocrates, it was supposed that the
secretion of catarrh was produced in the brain,
whence it might escape by the ears, eyes, nose,
and descend into the throat or along the spinal
cord ; and some modem empirics have pat forth
a similar idea as their own. Another explana-
tion was that a part of the ing^ted liquids,
rising in vapor to the brain, was condensed by
the arch of the skuU, as in the top of a retort,
and reappeared in this fluid secretion ; this was
a favorite theory of Galen. It was not until
the time of Van Helmont, and after him of
Schneider, in the middle of the 17th century,
that the fluid of catarrh was known to be se-
creted by the glands of the mucous membrane.
Though a local affection, it may be the result
of a constitutional cause, as Sydenham has
maintained, of many dysenteries, diarrhoeas,
and similar diseases of the mucous membrane
observed by him in the fever of 1675. OhO-
dren and adults of the lymphatic temperament
are most subject to catarrh ; and it occurs most
frequently in cold and damp seasons, accom-
panied by sudden changes of temperature, and
in individuals weakened by insufficient food,
foul air, and mental anxiety ; it also occurs epi-
demically. Catarrh is rarely accompanied oy

^^V C4]!AE&tlQ0A

CAlAWai WIK£ ISA ^1

^^L 0B^ --fi^T. Lrm^r^r,,.^ Jl^ i».l. 1 r^Jf*.- i^.* r-m'-n*^i^'\

At^fT tn. Ka

lil..^ lL.*,4.^* MTr- ^Atles,* ^^tt%%.Vi».l/fl^r^Wyf II4, ^^^H

^m ^'

^^1

■ tr.,

^^H

■ U

^1 ^^'

^^H

■ t

^^H

■ Ilt>

^^1

■ di

^1 C^:'

^^1

^1 ^^^l'

^^1

■ l»o.^

^^1

■ rr^

^^1

■ 111

^^1

■ d'

^^B

^Tcc

^^^

■ ^

^^M

^1 &1I

^^M

■ r

B ^1

■

^B liliik'ni. r »:-,.' nrh^oU loAd^d WtU^. li<

^^1

H <}a

TT ivrnfTiJ iHirt iif ^^B

■ ""^

^^1

■ R.

^H loiiRibrmne)

^^B

■ Bc^ld^ tiic.

^^1

^ gijuitsil ai']'

Om »iji'

B af/;!**tri!^tT -

Hw^-

^^B

h &/

■ t»

^^1

^H ir>' ii L'l.'iiilu.:

^^B

^H oj' MoladO'

^^B

■ dii '

■ rr"

■ cr:

^^B

■

^B iQila torm! U 4au rok ox |h <

■ iiipltotlQ«ii c»r » ftb»vi^'

^^B

^K oUamrkEf wh«a^rer Um je**^- wf iL^ tU^»*. ^

Ir,

. is ^I^>Ut lllyJ iTi^t ^-^i tiUI ^H

^1 dirvctly fto:-4«tMA. T*»«ir f«rm ^mo <^ iIsa

^r tUMrt nli*iil^

^^B

H^«^ h^iiU 1'

tJr-.

^^B

, r^^

^1 iKifvini

^>lUlll '

■ tlVo U^

ni i\ ]■■

^^^

^m AOfuoK'V^i.

^^H

^B Jl iMiU^K UJ :

^^1

^H igrwtWD vf WMcworim* iji« i*Viwfl Irau wwrM^

lllriMili W

i£i«^ ui^ litiiiit^ VU i^uiivJ • ^^1

556

CATAWBA WINE

CATBIRD

Benatorehip, some dme previons to 1816. Mijor
Adlam wrote, before hiB death, to Mr. Long-
worth, of Omcimiati, who prociu-ed some of the
Washington grapes, and who was the first to
experiment with Uiem on a large scale: ^ I
have done mj conntry a greater benefit in intro-
dacing this grape to public notice, than I
would have done if I had pud the national
debf The wine produced by Major Adlnm
was sweet and agreeable, but sugar was added
to the must Mr. Longworth, however, ab*
stained from any admixture of sugar or spirit,
so as to produce the pure fermented juice
of the grape. From Cincinnati the grape
culture has spread along both banks of the
Ohio to Pittsburg and Cairo, and in a southerly
direction through Kentucky and Tennessee to
Alabama, and westward into Missouri. The
juice of the grape is manufactured either into
still wine or sparkling wine; the latter, which
is most in demand, containing an addition of
alcohol* The wine is mostly white, though
some red wine is made. A sample of Catawba,
1 years old, was proved to contain from 11 to
m per cent, of alcohol. According to the
census of 1850, the total production of all kinds
of wine in the United States was 221,249 gal-
lons, showing an increase of 96,615 gallons over
the production of 1840. But this increase,
great as it was, dwindles into insignificance
when compared with the rapid strides which
the production has made within the last 8 years ;
the credit of pushing it to its utmost extent
being especially due to the population of Ger-
man birth or descent in the west and north-west.
The annual yield in the Ohio vaUey alone aver-
ages now 600,000 gallons, and in the whole
country it cannot fall much below 2,000,000
gallons, or, at 90 cents per gallon when new,
below a value of $1,800,000. Of the 600,000
gallons produced in the neighborhood of Cin-
cinnati in 1856, 40,000 were made into spark-
ling wines, and the rest drunk in the pure and
simple state. The sparkling Catawba of Mr.
Longworth's cellar of 1848 was peculiarly
celebrated for its flavor and purity. The wine-
houses of Mr. Longworth in Cincinnati have
been, for the last 9 years, under the direction
of an accomplished wine chemist from Rheims.
His mode of preparation is thus described : " In
the spring following the pressing of the grapes,
the wine, which has meanwhile undergone the
vinous fermentation, by which 10 or 11 per
cent, of alcohol is developed, is mixed with a
small quantity of sugar, and put into strong
bottles, with the corks well fastened by twine
and wire. The sugar accelerates a second
fermentation, which always takes place about
this time, and thus a strong movement is pro-
duced inside the glass, which generates gas
enough to burst the vessels briskly, adding
thereby considerably to the cost. This is called
the gaseous fermentation, and it renders the
drink more exhilarating, more prickling on
the tongue, and more fruity. This last effect
results trom this, that the flavor of the fruit

mostly passes off with the earbonio add gas
which is largely generated in the first or vinoTS
fermentation, and in a less d^-ee in this sec-
ond or gaseons fermentation. The loss of flavor
firom the first fermentation cannot be avoided,
but by means of stron^^ bottles and well-tied
corks, it can be saved m the second. At the
end of about a year, the liquid has become dear,
and a sediment has been deposited. To get rid
of this sediment, the bottles are placed in radks
made to fit their necks and shoulders, indiiiing
with corks downward, and well shaken daily for
several weeks, which process works the sedi-
ment down against the cork. The wires and
twine are then cut, and the gas exploding, blows
it o£& Then more sugar, for sweetness, is added,
a new cork is driven in and fastened, and in a
few weeks the article is ready for consumption.*'
Among the many other distinguished cultivators
of the Catawba in Cincinnati, must be mentioned
Mr. Robert Buchanan, who has written a valua-
ble book on the grape culture. Hie cost of
a vineyard in the Ohio valley is estimated
at $200 to $500 per acre. One man can at-
tend to 5 acres, and with the assistance of his wife
and children several more acres can be added,
beside raising the necessary food for the support
of the family. The average yield in Ohio is
600 gallons of wine per acre in ordinary yean,
and from 600 to 900 gallons in fruitful years,
such as 1848 and 1868.

CATBIRD (mimus felwox^ Yiefflot), a bird
of the thrush family, peculiar to North Amer-
ica. It receives this name from its well-known
note, which resembles the mew of a half-grown
cat; this is not, however, its only note; its
morning and evening song of wild warbling
melody is worthy dt the musical fionily to
which it belongs. The catbird is found from
Maine to Florida, making its appearance from
the south toward the last of February, reaching
the middle states about the 2d week in
April, and New England about May 1 ; it b
one of the few species which follow &e course
of agriculture, being rarely found fhr from the
habitations of the farmer. Its general form
is more slender and graceful than that of tiie
American robin. Its plumage is soft and
blended ; the tail long and rounded at the tip;
the bill is black, slightly arched; the general
color of the upper plumage is blackish gray or
slate color, the head, tail, and inner wera of the
quills beinff of a brownish black ; the chedts
and general under plumage of a deep Unish
gray, paler on the abdomen, the und^ tafl
coverts being brownish red ; the outer tail
feather is transversely striped with white on
its inner web ; the plumage of the female is of a
somewhat paler tint Length 9 inches, extent
of wings 12 inches, length of tarsus 1|^ inches.
The nest is large, generally made in oramble
thickets, and constructed of twigs and briers
mixed with leaves, weeds, and grass, lined with
dark fibrous roots arranged in a drcolar
manner. The eggs are from 4 to 6 in number,
of a greenish blue color, without QK>ts. Its

^^ OAXOB

^^^ liiXISCJHO

M7 H

^^H ff-*^^ rrwrtir^irlM: nt \^ wrlr^ rJl/Kft ew Mun 1 ^tipi *Th f^ik^

-» -» hiii booi ^' ' T' - -*•

.1.0 L. ('..,1 ^^1

umMmM

■

^ft

^^H

..T l.v.-..t,

^ Torv

_ mn^*

^ U 11 J«' 'iTl'.

jon oa^^dikij

^1 14 l1..'v..1.,'

, i> . ;* ,1 --.

■

■ fnfitnOlT

^H fis:^tiii. r.t

-^, V .

H ^'^

■'■

1 .

< '

■

,^K-m .

. 1

^1 sitfDisi^ U»e IH (lur: s

tkwtp

■ QOtBlWOl^^^ .11 ^,,,,^^

jii * '

^1 nfMfi» U 4 1^

^H part.

H i&ddn«ieiitb.

Df if

H T^' *^:--J. ii -1"

tmmi

■ ^'

mfm^i

■

■ li

t,*Aav. ,

■

■^ T Hfi^ «^i

'i' itlHliBUTi-

C^.

_ '\ 1^ iir CUtm4fi Ciwwwfciai, n

fniidU

k l^..

.j,

■ ^.h

^H H -:^)JS^U tTLlfiTJi. ,

w mi 1

» .ii«.^

■ Tn «, eAif(M!«^ Mhl

oirtii^i

iBli

H til. I r ,ni tMalmif vm lif iMClim i

-* H^io*. ■ i

r^li^»Ar

j J- jT.r .-.ii 1

ntaiecil 1^

^^ C'f ' • i*i *li«' r.<TTo^iiiE il>v lvt'Vi.v"Ei

■ *

? mLicr Tfmvl o^

■ OA rFiMI^^/Or. wn*^t^^^, U* •/»c?it! tnrk), k

^1 sg^i: yligi:!.

QQIfr^'i^U, t'v.

■ fcak ^^r,

*# H w .

■ l>t-'

H-ii'

^^^krisl'i

^^^^^^- 1 i-iriii Li MiJ.^ ■'Lp-J.j

^-2*00 erf mmp, wLrti

^ J

'il«f« ftm otber fmnoiUii^ focce

568

OATEOHUMEN

OATEGOBT

ably never teach thifl oonntry. That com-
mon in onr markets is the preparation above
described, and is imported ftom Oalcatta. Cat-
echu has no smell, bat is bitter to the taste.
It contains a large proportion of tannin, which
is soluble in alcohoL It is employed in India
for tanning hides, and also as a dye for cotton
ffOodS) and in Europe, in the calico print works.
In medicine it is used as a tonic ana astringent.

OATEOHUMEN, a term applied originally
to a person, adult or otherwise, who was un-
der a preparatory course of instruction pre-
vious to admission to baptism. Catechumens
had a particular place assigned them in the
church, and were allowed to be present only
during a part of the service ; from the other part
they were warned to retire, a deacon crying out
"Withdraw in peace, ye catechumens." Of
catechumens, there were several degrees in the
church. The private catechumens might only
be privately instructed; the audientea might
hear sermons; the orantes might take part in
the prayers; the eompetentei were those who
were ready to be baptized, and so stood at the
threshold of communion. In later times, the
term catechumens came to be applied to the
children who were learning the catechism, as
preparatory to confirmatioD.

CATEGORY (Gr. jcorm^pia), originally, a
charffe or complaint made against any one^
and hence it came to denote any thing that
can be truly aflirmed of a person or a thing;
thus if we say A is B, B 19 a category of A,
and A is in uie category of B. The terms
that may thus be preaicated or affirmed may
be classified in various ways and for various
purposes; and the classes or genera into which
they are divided are called categories. Of
these Aristotle, the first vrriter that attempt-
ed a classification of them, made 10, namely :
1, substance or essence; 2, quantity; 8, quali-
ty; 4, relation; 6, place; 6, time; 7, posi-
tion; 8, possession; 9, action; 10, passion.
Thus if we are speaking of a man, we may
give his substance or essence, a man; quantity;
one; quality, good; relation, /rt07u2; place, at
home; time^ yesterday ; "poeition^ sitting down ;
possession, Jumng a hook; action, reading ;
passion, heing tormented mth the noise of chil-
dren. It is evident that in each of these cases the
words in italics may be varied almost endlessly in
the same category. Instead of man, the subject
may be any thing else within the range of
thought, and instead of 1 in the category fof
quantity there may be any number whatever;
and the terms which are in the same category, as
1, 2, 6, &C., &c., are said to differ only in degree
and not in kind. Thus all those in the category
of quantity must denote some particular num*
ber, and those in the category of time must de-
note some particular time. It is evident from
the passage in which this enumeration of the
categories is given (^* Topics," book i., chap, ix.),
that Aristotle had in mmd chiefly if not exclu-
sively objects of sight or sense-perception, and
dassifiee the predicates that might be afiOimed

of them. The passage is as follows : ^ We mmt
next define the genera of the oategoriea in
which the above named four [that is, defiiiitaoii,
genus, property, and accident] are inherent
Kow these are 10 in number: aabatanca,
quantity, quality, relation, where, when, por-
tion, possession, action, passion; for accident
and genus, and property and definition, will al*
ways be in one of these categories, since all
propositions through these signify either what
a thing is, its quality or quantity, or some other
category. Moreover, it is evident from thess
that he who signifiee what a thing is, at one time
rignifies substance, at another quality, and at
another some other category. For when man
is proposed, and one says that the thing pro-
posed is man, or animal, he says what it i^
and signifies substance; but when white oolor is
proposed, and one says that the thing proposed
IS white color, he says what it is, and signifies
quality. So, also, if when the magnitude of one
cubit is proposed, one savs that what is proposed
is a cubit in size, he will eaj what it is, and win
signify quantity ; and so of the rest. For each
of these, whether it be predicated of itself [that
is, if the definition of a thing be predicated of
the thing], or if genus be preaicated of it
[that is, if its genus be affirmed of it as a ped>
icate], signifies what the thing is.*' Ftom
this it would seem that in the estimation of the
Btagirite all subjects as well as predicates cooid
be referred to these 10 categories; and thus
there would be given to the term category
a still wider comprehension than we have oon*
templated, and we should say that whatever
we may speak of at all must be either aabstance,
quantity, quality, relation, place, time, poatum,
X>08session, action, or passion; and in um view
the word category has passed from aignifyinir,
as it did at first, literally, only what can be i&-
firmed of a subject, and to denote an exhaustive
classification of the subjects themselvea. But
in either sense of the word the dasaification is
incomplete and inadequate. It has never been
fonnd of much use, though the term haa been
of great service as a means of discuadoD, and
the want of some satis&ctory classification has
been constantiy pressing upon thinkers and
writers in this department Conadered as in-
cluding predicates only (since for them it ws
at first designed), the classification is inoom^ele.
It includes but veiy littie of what would need
to be said of a triangle, or any other matlie-
matical figure, for example ; still less, perh^ps^
of what should be said of a mere phenomenon
of intellectual activity, a fact of conacionsnesa,
and still lees of the attributes of mind or any
other inunaterial agent. And in reference to
physical objects themselves, it would be difficult
to say to which of the categories, if to any of
them, our predicate would belong when apeak-
ing of the cause of any objeot or phenomenon.
Or again, if we were wishing to speak of the
results of a chemical analysis, it would be diffi-
cult if not impossible to find any one of these cafr>
egories within wMoh to express oar thonghta.^

CATEGOKT

S»»

Sensible of these difficnltiea, Kant proposed a
now classification of the categories. He seems
to have thought that the result could be much
more effectually accomplished if we take for
onr starting point, not predicates as Aristotle
had done, but the fundamental laws and con-
ditions under which cognition takes place ; since
it is obvious that only those properties, relations,
&c., of any object by means of which we have
cognized it, can be afcmed of it in any act of •
the judgment. These categories (of the under-
standing, as Kant would regard them) he di-
vided into 4 species with 8 varieties in each,
thus making 12 categories in all. Kant thought
that the fundamental ground of Aristotle's error
lay in his method, the d posteriori, and that if
we would succeed we must deduce the catego-
ries from the d priori forms of thought These
he thought could best be found in the act of
judgment, and from them he would derive the
conditions of cognition. Now of judgments
there are 4 species with 3 varieties in each,
namely :

L Quantity. 2. Quality, & Relation, i. Modality.

(1) Singular. (1) Affirmative. (1) Categoric (1) Problemat-

ical.

(2) Plural. (2) Negative. (2)nn>othet- (2) Aasertivo.

(8)Unlver8aL (8) Indeflnlto. (8)Di!'juno- (8) Necessary,
tive.

Ilence, in the opinion of Kant, there must be a
corresponding condition of cognition for each
of these varieties of judgments, and consequent-
ly a category or class of predicates for each :
1, quantity, as (1) one, (2) some, (8) all; 2,
quality, as (1) real, (2) unreal, (3) partly both,
that is, limited, or real within certain limits ; 8,
relation, as (1) substance and property or in-
herence, (2) cause and effect or dependence, or

(3) reciprocal action ( Wechnelwirlcung) ; and 4,
modality, (1) possible or impossible, (2) being
and non-being, and (3) necessity and accidence.
M. Victor Cousin has complained of this classi-
fication as unsatisfactory ; and, in fact, it does
not seem to have answered any such purpose as
its author evidently expected of it. Cousin
thinks that the primary classes of categories, as
derived d priori according to Kant's notion,
are but two, the one called variously and under
the alternate conceptions of substance, cause,
infinite, absolute, &o., and the other tmder the
correlative terms property or phenomenon,
effect, finite, relation or condition, &c. But this
classification seems to have lost sight of the
primary object which Aristotle had in view,
and which was still a controlling motive with
Kant, namely, some classification of predicates
for the purpose of facilitating the processes of
investigation, discussion, and reasoning. Dr.
'Wilson, in his "Logic" (part ii, chap. 4), has
divided all predicates into 6 classes or catego-
ries, namely : 1, essentia ; 2, differentia ; 8, ac-
cidents; 4, quantity; and 6, cause or effect.
In the Ist he includes all the properties of the
proximate genus, and so of all the higher genera,
wliicli gives the essence of a thing; in the 2d,
the differentia of the species, which gives its

limitations and distinctive characteristics ; in
the 8d, whatever may be accidental to it, and
so different at different times without changing
its identity, and which, therefore, cannot enter
into science properly so called ; in the 4th, the
quantity, whether discrete, as the number, as
1, 2, &c., or continuous quantity, as finite, large,
small, infinite, &o.; and finally, the relations of
an object in time, as fixed by its antecedents and
consequents, causes and effects. Of course there
are some of these categories into which some ob-
jects will never fall, as, for example, a mathemat-
ical figure cannot fall into the 8d or 5th, as
no matter that is truly accidental to it enters
into the discussion of such a figure ; nor do wo
speak of it in relation to its cause or its effects,
since it is not considered as an objective reality
at all. — Still another classification of categories
of great practical value may be given, based
upon the quality of the term by which the sub-
ject is denoted. Thus, if the subject be a nega-
tive term, we can affirm of it only negative
predicates; if a privative, we can aflBrm only
the essentia of the proximate genus, with a de-
nial of some of the properties of its species.
Among positive terms we have 1st the abstract
and the concrete. The abstract are either (1)
general, denoting a genus, or (2) individual,
denoting the abstract conception of a single
property, as whiteness. Of neither of these caa
we predicate any terms implying their concrete
existence, their quantity or extent, their divis-
ibility, cause or effect, &c., since all these things
can belong only to concrete and therefore sub-
stantial realities. Concrete terms may be
either (1) individual or (2) collective. Thus,
congress, which is a collective terra, is as really
a concrete reality as any one of the men who
are members of that whole. And yet it holds
of all collective wholes that some things may be
predicated of them which cannot be predicated
of any individual member or part taken indi-
vidually, nor yet of them all taken generally or
as a genus ; and so, conversely, predicates may
be affirmable of each member taken separately
which cannot be aftirmed of them taken col-
lectively : e, g., each member of congress is a
man, and may be a Christian ; congress is
neither a man nor a Christian. Then, finally,
the subject may denote (1) merely a subjective
reality, or a conception which exists only in the
mind, as when we speak of a triangle, a circle,
&c. ; or (2) it may denote an objective reality
which exists out of the mind, and as such la
cognized by the mind itself. In this case our
classification would be based, like that of Kant's,
not upon an d posteriori classification of the
predicates as actually observed in use (for no
such classification is or even can be complete
and satisfactory), but upon the d priori condi-
tions of cognition as indicated by the processes
of cognition and the formation of conceptions
and tlie terms to represent them. And it is
obvious that if this classification should be fol-
lowed out it would determine for us d priori
what may be af^rmed of any given subject, and

660

OATEL

OATERFUXAB

so give assoranoe of completeness in the resnlts
of our investigations, and of certainty in onr
reasonings and discussions.

OATEL, Ghasles Bdion, a French mnsidan,
bom June, 1778, died in Paris, Nov. 29, 1880.
He was one of the first professors appointed to
the conservatory of music in Paris, and b the
author of a number of musical works, of which
his TVaite d*7iarmonis is the best.

OATEL, Fb ANZ, a German artist, bom in Ber-
lin, Feb. 22,1778, died in Rome, Deo. 19, 1866.
His earliest efforts were designs for illustrated
almanacs. He then painted in oil and water
colors, and took up his abode in Home in 1812.
Overbeck, Schadow, and Oornelius gave him
much encouragement, and he painted historical
and genre pieces, and landscapes. During a
residence in Sicily, about the year 1818, he
painted a large number of views of Mount Etna, '
and other prominent places on the island. He
died rich, directing his fortune to be invested
for the benefit of poor artists.

CATENARY, the curve formed by a chain
hanging from two points, not in the same ver-
tical line.

CATERPILLAR, the common name of the
Iarv89 of lepidopterous insects, including butter-
flies and moths. Caterpillars vary greatlv in
form and appearance, as may be judged from
the fact that about 600 species are Imown in
New England alone, and probably many are yet
unknown. The body is composed of 13 seg-
ments; the 1st constitutes the head, contain-
ing the jaws and oral appendages ; the 2d, 8d,
and 4th form the thorax of the future insect,
and the remaining ones make up the abdomen.
The head is rounded, and of a harder consist-
ence than the body ; on each side are 6 very
small ocelli, or simple eyes, with a very convex
cornea and a spherical crystalline lens, 2 short
antenme, and a mouth, with strong jaws mov-
ing transversely ; the mandibles are hard, for
breaking up the food, while the maxills9 are
soft and adapted rather for holding it; in ^e
middle of the lower lip is a conical tube, through
which issue the silken threads from which their
nests and cocoons are made, and their suspen-
BOiy fibres ; a viscid fluid, enclosed in 2 long
and slender bags, is poured out through the
** spinneret" in a fine stream, and hardens into
silk on contact with the air. The segments of
the body are very nearly equally developed;
the 2d, 8d, and 4th have each a pair of tapering,
jointed legs, covered with a shelly skin and
ending with a little claw ; these are the rudi-
ments or cases of the future limbs, and are
the true organs of locomotion ; some of the
other segments are furnished with soft, joint-
less, fleshy, and contractile legs, called prop
legs, which disappear with the larval condition,
being only prolongations of the external cover-
ing and shed with it, like the nails and claws of
the higher animals; the abdominal legs vary in
number from 4 to 10, and are provided^ around
the margin of the sole, with rows of minute
hooks capable of such direction as is necessary

for a secnre hold. The body is Bcm&na
smooth, at others hdry, and even spiny ; these
external appendages, wnether for ornament or
defence^e shed with the skin before the popi
state. Where the middle portion of the body is
unprovided with feet, the caterpillar adopts the
arched or looped manner of walking, so fiuml*
iarly known in the conunon canker worm;
these species are hence called spanners^ loop-
ers, surveyors, and geometers; some, vben
in a state of repose, fix themselves by tk
hind legs only, and project in a rigid ooq*
dition from branches, which they then ncdi
resemble in direction, form, and color; tbe
power of remaining thus immovable for boms
at a time must be due to a muscolar force d
which we have no idea in vertebrated animals;
the species which have 8 to 10 intermediate fe^t
walk by short steps, in a continuous worm-like
manner. 8ome smooth caterpillars, as those
of the sphinx moth (commonly called poUto
worm), have a spine or thom upon the top of
the last segment of the body, directed backi anl
and curved ; though this looks like and bs
been considered an offensive or defenaive weap-
on, its softness is such that it could inflict do
wound. The larvae of some of the hymenop-
terous insects, as of the saw flies (tenthrditr
ida% resemble caterpillars both in form aad
habits; but these false caterpillars msybe
distinguished by their greater number of ltg3
(18 to 22), and by the absence of the nnmeross
hooks in their prop legs ; the larva of other in-
sects, having the same number of segments, are
scaly and not soft and membranous. On escu
side of the body are 9 oval apertures, splraclea)
or atigmata, situated in the 2d, 5th, and follow-
ing segments to the 12th, provided with valves;
these communicate directly with the wkm
respiratory organs, which are in the caterpillar
branching tubes; in the perfect insect, tw
trachese are dilated into an immense number (h
vesicles permeating every part of the body.
The intestine is short and straight. The nervoas
system is a series of ganglia connected by oor^
one for each segment, in the perfect insect tw
greater part of it being concentrated in the heai
and thorax. Oaterpinars vary greatly in sue;
the mean may be taken at an inch, those mc^
exceeding this being large, while those bkJ
below it may be considered small; those vluca
have only 8 feet in all are the smallest, and ««
generally the moths' caterpillars. The m w
a caterpillar compared to that of the egg is ^^
greats and the rapidity of its growth is triiij
astonishing ; there is no large animal at all coi^
parable to it for voracity, for some species ^
eat in 24 hours more than double th^ owb
weight; though less voracious than loc°^
they are quite as destructive from their greai^
fecundity and their wider distribution over uw
vegetable world. According to Count Dandoia
the common silkworm, during the 80 wys
which it attains its fWl size, increases in W-
from 1 to40 lines and in weight from rfi to owoj
95 grains ; during this period| therefore, w ***

cAitEiu'nj^jm

m.M^..\ (M\lm\ *ir, .M ii,»'^\*.f *.i\A 1i,ik

> 1 # * I it-, r

•u- )w^,.>;i*,,i R.,

ilLLL

urorf pi

It*-. ,. ,

^0t ftr-M A
IL^ tb(« II

' *)• . T.

1*..:

.^ ikd «^o<A t^

I k-sji? ff<r I I n;.',T

El'"'

» i^iHi til ilieai I

rm iu %kw Krwutiiii; liai i

Mft

OATESBY

OATHBH

is referred to that artiole, p. 157. Those lepi-
doptera vhich pass the winter in the egg, live
in the caterpillar form dnring a part of the
sammer ; the eggs are protected agamst cold hj
the shell and by the sheltered or subterranean
ritaations in which they are placed ; others pass
the winter as cateipilltfs, concealing themselves
nnder stones and tfie bark of trees, or descend-
ing deep into the ground where the cold can-
not reach tbem ; the social Tsrieties retire to
their warm and water-proof nests ; these come
forth in the spring quite well grown, but most
pass the winter in the form of chrysalis, in pro-
tected or in open situations ; a few pass this
season as perfect insects. The natural enemies
oif caterpillars are numerous; almost all insect-
ivorous Dirds and poultry devour them eagerly ;
other insects not nnfrequently feed upon tiiem ;
and little maggots developed in their lx)dies from
, the eggs of tiie iehneufhonida cause thousands
to perish prematurely. In the northern states
there are about 1,000 different kinds of butter-
flies and moths; as each female lays from 200
to 600 eggs, these species, from a single female
each, would on an average produce in a year
800,000 caterpillars ; if one-half of these were
females, the second generation would be 45 mil-
lions, and the third 6,750 millions; witbsudi
fecundity it may well be imagined that the de-
structive powers of caterpillars must be very
great. The work of Dr. Harris on ** The Insects
Injurious to Vegetation," under the head of
*' Lepidoptora," gives an extended and valuable
account of the ravages of caterpillars in Amer-
ica, particularly in New England ; to this are
referred those specially interested in the subject.
Alluding to laws in France and Belgium which
require the people to '^ uncaterpillar" their gar-
dens and orchards, under the penalty of a fine, he
thinks similar regulations might be enacted here
with advantage, or at least that the states might
offer a respectable bounty for caterpillars b v the
quart, thus affording remunerative and highly
useful employment to children and otherwise
idle persons. Many destructive caterpillars will
be alluded to under the articles Hawk Moth
and Moth, and under the popular names of
the most noted species.

OATESBY, Mabk, an English artist and nat-
uralist, born in 1679, died in London toward
1750. Having first studied the natural sciences
at London, he afterward repaired to Virginia,
and remained in America 7 years, returning to
England in 1719 with a rich collection of plants.
Encouraged to revisit America, he arrived in
South Oarolina in 1722, explored the lower
parts of that state, and afterward lived for some
time among the Indians about Fort Moore, 800
miles up Savannah river; after which he contin-
ued his researches through Georgia and Florida.
After spending 8 years upon the 'continent, he
visited the Bahama Islands, constantly occu-
pied in delineating and collecting botanical and
zoological objects. He returned to England in
1726, and issued in 1780 the Ist volume of his
great work on the ^ Natural History of Caro-

lina, Florida, and the Bahama Idaads.** Tb«
figures were etohed by himself from bis own
paintings, and the colored copies were ezeeated
under his own inspection. In this work, vhidt
has been twice republished, were found the fint
descriptions of several plants which are nov
cultivated in all European gardena O&tesby
was a member of the royal society, and ik
author of a paper on the ^ Birds of PflMg»"
in the " Philosophical Transactions.*' His otiDe
has been perpetuated by Gronovios, in the
plant called CaUt^iBa.

0 ATFISH, one of the fnaUuscj^^ or soft-
rayed fishes, of the &mily Bilttrida, and of the
genus pimelodua of Guvier; characterized bj
a smooth palate, the palatic bones often hir-
ing teeth, but with no band of teeth parallel to
those of the upper jaw ; the head orDamented
with 8 fleshy barbules; skin naked. Dr.Stom
describes 16 species aa occmring in the fresh-
water streams and lakes of North America, sad
there are about 60 in various parts of tb«
world.— The common catfish, or homed pout
(P. catui^ Linn.) is one of the most com-
mon fishes of our rivers, and Is by many pre-
ferred as an article of food to all other flo-
viatile species except the pickerel; spedineDS
are occasionally met with weighing \ of »
pound. Length 7 to 9 inches ; color doskj, «•
most black on the head and back, lighter oo
the sides, and white beneath, in front of the
ventral fins, which are behind the pectorals.
Upper jaw longer; tidl nearly even and romid-
ed; head smooth and flattened; skin Biked
and covered with a mucous secretion. It Ii^s
2 fleshy barbules on the top of the head be-
tween the snout and eye; at the angle of
the upper jaw are 2 thick fleshy harbolw.
reaching to the middle of the pectoral nos;
and there are 4 others under the lower jsv.
The mouth is oapacions. There are 2 bioot
spines midway between tlie eye and the open-
ing of the gills ; the 1st ray of the 1st doBn
fin is strongly spinous; the 2d dorsal isfattt;
the pectoral fins have also a serrated spio^j
these spines become fixed and immovable ^
the will of the animal, and serve aa fbnnidabit
defensive weapons, varieties soniethnea oceiL'
in this genus without ventral fins, and such
have been described aa a new genos,/^?'
t&na. This spedes is the most common ooe
in the New England and middle statea, and b
found in the great lakes and along the Atlantic
states from Maine to Florida. It prefers mm
bottoms, as do all tlie species of the genw.-
The great lake catfish (jnmdodui nt^^
Lesueur) is from 2 to 4 feet long, w W^^?
from 6 to 80 pounds; it is found in Lakes ^ne
and Ontario. This is of a deep elite hro^
color, and has the tail forked. Other ^^
are the Huron catfish (P. ecmmij Biw-^
10 inches long, found in Lake Huron; nort»-
em catfish (F. hmaltB, Rich.), 80 inches Ion?.
found in the northern regions; the vti^*
catfish (P. albidui, Lesueur), of a "^^
ash color, 12 to 15 inches lon^ from V^

^L OAiuor ^^B

B CfiXQABIHll(qrBmut) (M H

^^^^■it rttf timij^*^^ ' ^^ f»^A«*.. f.«#ui. run- ^

tJi.^^ f J ||^|. Iiilvir '^•^^- *^-'r^ 'f^r-^ 1^-^ -^V ^^1

^^^M t^ l««ii, t^J

zjminerati ^H

^^^^^t^^ff\'irr:%

^^1

^^^^^m} ' '

^^^UI^JTi i\

A>M-M-M Ir, •

^'ttft ^^.ivn.

mmtm awn^

fi.r^-'

4 t^ bo ^1

^^ <S|t'J. w.,..„, ^^, ..^ . ^^^ ^. „ t... ^.. .^-J.,,

■iralf-H^.

H rATcrr, it^ luti^:^^^ hT Min^nr iit,a ittli^

H ITiop Ol

hth ■

Ki^ ' Uh ftaam

Wr H

^Hp^ ^igOAkm

lixiiM .pB^ a^^ti '.. ^1

^■h ^- un ^hl

tmi' '^ t:^M<i k ' ^1

HS^jT vi

^bftti i»i

^^^H

^Ht i^ii^

^^K|^.^.-. .,1 ilui

Um9 w.... ^H

^^^b $bi>ep Mn olfDCAL ly ai)«e|«d to

^^^■ir ^f rtU f r> J rri t F . " ^« -i a -i^i 1 1 r J iT j r ^i

^^^nlj !»»;>

^^^■iQiarni)^ t

^^KtOC^M Uf J.I

^^^Hl liftt rrrr-:^

^^^Klilb na^'i

^^^Kwpf]i« '

^■HTl^'^r" '

^^^^fllAu

^^^^h|}'*'

, i.-r i^., ^ i-.j,, «^ mU.-», - 41V ^^

^^^^hc

*^t

^^^^^^b:

:<llS

Ju-

•j6
.if

^^^^^^r , jjit^m i)«y 4Wr

.1,

^^^^^HQK iii»i.i-j. niHu^ <•

^^^K^r APP tliVJ i»<ni fr

^^H; tkof^tM ^r.

^^^J^f o]

^^^■l tffttn ki..- . ,,

,, ^^t

^^^E|^ ffi««fQ|»# i( ovor <UM» Tua m um

wm KilcrtiiHl iM U«;* yttuc?, wbuM* «djn«9 ^H

664

CAT£[ARINE 11. (or Bubsia)

^e was until she was ceded by hhn to tiie
prinoess MentchikofE; who employed her in
honsehoid services. It was there that Peter
the Great saw her, was captivated by her beauty,
and made her his mistress (1708). Bhe adopted
the Greek creed, and with it the name of Oath-
ttine Alezievna. In 1706 she bore Catharine;
in 1708 Anna, afterward dnohess of Holstein-
Gottorp, and mother of Peter m.; in 1709
Elizabe^, afterward the empress of Rnsna.
She maintained her influence over Peter by the
vivacity of her spirit, her unwearied activity,
and her good temper. She shared the troubles
and Migues of his campaigns, and frequently
calmed Uie wild outbreaks of his savage temi>er.
When in 1711 his great rival, Oharles XII, who.
after the defeat of Pultowa (1709), had found
refbge and protection in Turkey, had succeeded
in arming ^at state against the Russians, and
Peter, after an imprudent march, found him-
self reduced to the extremity of starving on the
bonks of the PruUi, or surrendering his army,
Catharine, with the assistance of Ostermann
and Shoffirof^ saved the desponding emperor
and his new created state by bribing, at the
sacrifice of her ie wels, the Turkish grand viaer.
Peter proved his gratitude by marrying her se-
cretly, bv acknowledging her as his wife in 1712,
and declaring her empress in 1718. As such
she was crowned in Moscow in 1734. Of 6
children she bore after her marriage with Peter,
most died in their earl v infancv. The determi-
nation of Peter to make her his successor was
shaken bylus suspicions about her conjugal
virtue, and still more in 1724 by his conviction-
of her infidelity, in consequence of which the
chamberlain Moens was beheaded (ostensibly
for mismanagement in office), his sister ignomin-
iously flogged, and his 2 sons sent to the army
in Persia. It has been asserted that Catharine,
having been shown by Poterthehead of Moens,
still hanging on the scaffold, said calmly : *^ What
a pitv that the people of the court are so cor-
mpt" She succeeded, however, in strengthening
her position by reinstating Mentchikoff m the fa^
vor of Peter, which he had previously lost by
his devotion to her. But still so doubtful was
her situation, that at the death of Peter (Jan. 28,
1725), which was kept secret until her suoces-
non was secured, she could not avoid the sus-
picion of having poisoned her husband. The
archbishoD of Pleskov, Theophanes, declared
under oatn to the people ana the army that,
Peter on his deathbed designated her as the
worthiest of succession, and the guards, the
^ynod, and the high nobility, gave their consent,
and the people their oath of fidelity to the first
" empress" and autocrat of all the Russias. The
policy of Peter was continued under the leading
mfluence of Mentchikoff : but soon the caprices
of the empress, who was beside guided by favor-
ites, and subject to intemperance in drinking,
were felt in the management of affairs, and
blimders committed, while her ruined health
prepared a sudden end. Her successor was Pe-
ter U. IL Cathabinb U., empress of Russia^

bom at Btetdn, May 2, 1720, dfod f n fit FMers-
bnrg, Nov. 17, 1796, was the daughter of Chris-
tian August, then governor of Stettin, after-
ward reigning prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, and field-
marshal-general of Prussia. Her mother was a
princess of Holstein-^^^ottorp. Her parents gave
her the names Sophia Augusta, and a careful
education. At an early age she waa dioeen by
the empress Elizabeth, according to a proposi-
tion of Frederic the Great, to become the wife of
her nephew and successor, Peter HI. Her mo-
ther brought her to the court of Russia, where
she adopted the Greek creed, received the name
of Catharine Alezievna, and was married Sept.
1745. But all the expectations she may have
formed of a life of magnificence, influence, and
delight as future empress of the greatest monar-
chy of the world, soon vanished under the indif-
ference and repulsive treatment of her husband,
who, though not incapable of good emotions,
was rude, dissolute, and passionate. Her fiery
and lively temper could not be contented wi^
the consolation of continued studies, in the long
retirement in which she lived during the life of
Elizabeth, but sought satisfaction in amorous
connections which were no secret to any one.
Among the persons who surrounded Peter and
herself, Soltikoff won her liveliest affection by
his spirit and good looks, and lost it only when
fkvor and envy had sent him as ambassador to
foreign courts. At that time Catharine became
mother of Paul, afterward her successor in the
empire. Poniatowski, a handsome and highly ac-
complished Pole, won the place of Soltikoff at
his first appearance at the ooiut, and was protect-
ed in her favors by the empress Elizabeth, who
caused Augustus III., king of Poland, to appoint
him as his ambassador, but waa soon persecuted
by intrigues of representatives of other courts,
who saw in his sympathies for England, and in
his infiuence over Catharine and Peter, a danger
for the French-Rusaan-Austrian allianoe. lie
was recalled, and Grejrory Orloff became the
object of her favors, when in 1761 Peter suc-
ceeded Elizabeth, the ill feeling between him
and Catharine became still more embittered,
and the life of both, particularly the more grossly
public amours of Peter, gave snfiident cause for
hatred. Catharine spoke of her meditated repa-
diation in favor of Elizabeth Woronzofi^ and tlie
Orlofis and their friends were ready to save and
revenge her. The hetman BazumoflUd, Count
Panin, and Princess Dashko£^ a bold and enter-
prising woman, became their chief asaiatants in
the conspiracy against Peter, which was sreatly
promoted by the general antipathy created in the
nation and army by the Pruadan predilections and
discipline, as well as by the character and policy
of the unfortunate monarch, and waa eagerly
Joined by malcontents, romantic adventurers,
and ambitious courtiers. But the plot was near-
ly detected and one of the conspirators imprison-
ed, when they hastened its execution. In the
night of July 8-9, 1762, Catharine came owr
from Peterhof to St Petersburg, a part of tbo
way on a peasant's wagon, and appeiired before

CATBAKDrS IL (iw 8mu)

■

m H

^Hlteyetrd^ ti»?mii«

tI 4 KnP KM «nirr4;irvaPM^ t1lr,li.«1. Kvrrr ,' .fful }.* >,/ « .^i-».l^j t.njtjv Ttj

imrih^' J.

f^ A A IlI|.^ ^^^H

hi ibwt \mj

'LvavL^a ^^1

^^^^^^^HBi^

c/th© rr

^^^^^^

...tw ifrt*!"'

^^^^^^^V''

Id, ^f^l.

.\Jia IL*

liilla*- :

■

^^^^^^H[pBl ui n

- ..^ .^^^i

^^^^EiproTvi^i

nd ^^K»'

^^^K||nR|. Aiii;

:\l^ ^^^^^;

^^^Kj»ie^

&» V* 'ri&n^4^ nndiw & tmt.

^^^^^■Bli-^ jittrLj 1. 11*4 em* ^Tumblf I'«f»^

;.«lti nm^wmem^

^^^^^^^^Hgi

.,T*JQ tn ' .. tl,r. tirti>^y^. .

V.'^^l^lJvvtaJLMMt..

^^^^^^^^.

'tstn* *^ Oiw*

^^^HUi^^

1 LH-«|| ^H

^^^^|kboTi

'wo«i#, ^H

^^^V^OJ^ll

--^f^ ^H

^^^MeoJistttirr

^^^Kf.L^

^^^^^l^tKJ

1 - . : T*, V -

; %h do^ >

kr ..Itl«

^^^^ffleo^i^

^^1

^■b^^}^

uj ■

'i, iLuA ftd-i4. ^ ^^^

UirjuLu^Ad III ft ^H

^^Bpirro

^^^HnKifti

Ai>^1^1i-j 14 r. 'TcaCnT^Nr (

^Hwia aD tli« ;ffv>vir9«4 £ir IbaetaiitB int .

^^H

^^1

^^K im

••••tolVor ri»- y?yin| iwf tl»« frvntWr

^^K,

I? Sh^U'Tlm ^ ; fi"^ M&t^^ wiui rwib-klJ hU!i Si'

^^H

?f»o«tloD for tPir^

'.OIJ

^^^^B^

wnD air^^ ttf tlMi fiAitMi^ W^

^^^^^^^H|pn. ^

'r ^^l•-1^!(wl iha a*«ai»%^ wbi

itT i^M ovmtitf. ftiiil

^^M

(Oi* 9vr«ffi«i 4tjik»- ^B*

ill ^B

^^^^^i

' mtfififMi fkijfrii-

^^^^■i

i ^MiiikliiiV tit Umm]

^^^^^^Bb^'j 1 '/

.TiL'Ofi. Tlie (ITi'l*

^^H

^^^^^^^Hpli' n

■

^^HMpL-. 1...^,

1 . . ;i%diHhaif^

iiuila»liftri. Itrtlmi^Mfv hij ^Ukaer? rmimH/x «£> iii¥«SMi, mii^

WW Um« ^H

666

CATHARINE (or Abaoobt)

compelled to make peace (1700) ; in part to the
oppo^tion of England and Prassia; bnt princi-
pa&7 to the bravery and fanaticism of the Torks
In defence of their country. The progress and
▼iotones of the IVench revolntion, though giv-
ing her a kind of satiafkotion by the hamiliation
of several states once mi^^ty, filled Oatharine
with horror, and made her soon forget all her
predilections for France, and her own vaunted
liberalism; she assisted the hniarh^ broke off
every communication with the ^noh govern-
ment, and even made an alliance with England.
Poland was in the mean time the chief object of
her attention. Its Long diet had completed the
new constitution of May 8, 1791, which prom-
ised to ^ve union and vigor to tiie nation.
Oatharine, whUe at war with Turkey, had ap-
proved of it, like Frederic William of Prussia,
who had his war with France. But scarcely
were these wan finished, when Poland was
treacherously attadced from both sides. A
Russian army of 100,000 men was sent to sup-
port the aristocratic f&ction that had formed
the confederation of Targovitza against the
constitution. The nephew of the king, the
ititnre Fk^noh marshal, Joseph Poniatowski,
in vain led the Polish army against them ;
Kosciuszko proved in vain to be a worthy dis-
ciple of Wariiington. The king, i)ersuaded by
Catharine, deserted them, and went over to the
confederation, and the second partition of Po-
land followed, executed by Bussia and Prussia
alone. The Busaian cannons compelled the diet
ofOrodnotosancti(Hiit(1798>. llie great rising
of the betrayed nation in the following vear
commenced with the massacre of the Bussians,
and with glorious victories, under Kosciuszko
as dictator, but ended with his defeat at Macie-
Jowice (Oct. 10), and with the taking of Bn^
(Nov. 4) by Suwarof^ who repeated there the
uaughter of Ismail and Bender. '^ Bravo, field-
marshal P was Oatharine^s answer to his re-
port: "Hurrah, Praga, Suwaroff." The three
great neighbors of Poland now took the whole
of it, and destroyed even its name (1795). A
year before, Catharine had annexed Couriand
to Russia. She now undertook a war against
Persia, when she died of apoplexy, after an
agony of 80 boors, leaving her empire, so great-
ly enlarged, to her son PauL— Catharine was
possessed of great talents, susceptible of great
ideas^ and showed often a manly spirit and en-
ergy ; her ambition appeared grand, but at the
same time riie was a woman in caprice, a
slave of her sensuality and vanity, extremely
aelfish, and sometimes cruel. Her numerous
fiivorites, some of them her tools, and some her
masters^ were elevated bv their official situation
in the palace, by inrivileges, promotions, and
presents, to digni^ in lAe state; while she
was, on the other hand, prompted by the love
of glory to flatter the repres^tatives of public
opinion, particularly in France, to invite Yol-
taire to her court to call D'Alembert to com-
plete the French BncyehpHie in St. Petersburg
to suffer the fianiliarities of Diderot, to have a

regular literary agent (Grimm) in Paris, and to
write herself several books in French ; to pro-
mote literature and art, indns^ and agricul-
ture, in her empire; to reform its laws, uid at-
tempt tiie abolition of many abuses ; to build for-
tresses, citiea canals, hospitals, and schook ; to
organize exploring expeditions on lan^and sea;
to annex and to conquer. She had the satiafkction
of being called the Bemiramis of the North, of
being ranked by philosophers with Ljcorgua
and Solon, of hearing the words of Voltaire :
" light comes now from the North.'* But this
glory was a transient applause ; her refbfrms,
undertaken for show, vanished without result;
her works, mostiy but commencements, crum-
bled before her death; her civilization oor^
rupted Bussia, and left it as barbarous as ever.

CATHARINE, Saint, a saint of the church
of Rome, whose anniversary is celebrated on
Nov. 25. She was a virgin of Alexandria, and
is said to have suffered martyrdom under Haxi-
min. Tlie military order of the knights of St.
Catharine, on Mount Smai, was established for
the protection of the pilgrims who came to
worship at the tomb of the saint, which was on
this mountain, where her corpse was supposed
to have been found. St Catharine was befieved
to have been of high descent, and to hare pos-
sessed remarkable mental attainments. Henoe
she has been often chosen as a patron of schoob
of philosophy. Several of tne great Italisn
masters have furnished pictures of St. Catharine;
tiie most beautiful is that by Correggto.

CATHARINE or Abaooit, wife of Arthur,
prince of Wales, and of King Henry Ym. of
England. She was the daughter of Ferdinand
of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. &3ie was
bom in 1488, in the city of Alcala de Henares^
while her mother was engaged in an expedi-
tion against the Moors, died in Jan. I5S6.
Granacui was not finally surrendered until the
9tii year of her age; and much of her child-
hood was actually passed in the royal camp.
At an early age, in accordance with the cus-
tom of the time and the policy of her coun-
try, she was betrothed to the young Prince
Arthur of England, son of Henry Vn., and
never was maniage contracted nnder happier
auspices. Catharine had aD her mother's tal-
ents, dignity, virtue, piety, and prudence, with-
out her coldness^ austerity, fanatidsm, or fierce
jseal. She had all the aark-glowing, aupecb^
stately beauty of her native land ; a sweet tem-
per, a kind heart, a gradous manner ; while
the young prince to whom she was contracted
was handBome of person, eminent^ learned,
and excellent of disposition. On Aug. 17, 1601,
the princess and her train set sail from Oomnna,
but a fierce storm drove her back to the coasts
of Castile; and it was not until October, in
bleak and gloomy weather, that ^e landed tX
Plymouth, and was received not only, with the
pomp and splendor of a state ceremonial, bnt
by the Joy fhl greetings of the population of the
western counties. On Nov. 18, being the dav
^ St. Catharine, her patroness, chosen as soch

H OATliAmKIS im AM4«as> Kfll ^M

^H la bor tMlOr. ii1>^ rti^u ^u- i«^!-ms t^

ilrjj':*rl& nLktVTOi^, ^Jirf iSfrcTi''**!*! riT bTI tTiiili : Pif ^^1

■ th^ mpim

^M 19m D<(K]>tn>

^^1

■ liitd tl

vlniuT' ^H

^H whrff

bel!^lr ^1

^1 d'.- .ViiiLO^ A^ 'rO^il 1^ '

^^1

■ {.:

■ 1^

^U fn^M'i ^n t*Mfu re ftS^c'^

^1 (l i>i^*AfIIO OlVy*^ H«KPD* >'

^1 SfftSiQ tp cstJiliIbi

^1 liiW^ Oiiii iberv

^" l^fyvr a! 1 -

rl ij -- T U'7\r

^^1

■L K,f !■ "

^H fTMrn^...-'

■ d^L\

■ r}>

^1 C>1i

^^1

H ^

^H QP

■ t»;

H ^"

^H 413

^1 ei

^fttr. i

^BPC;>i '

^^^H

■¥^

■ lk^

^^^

■ Jn

^M rr

^^1

^H ll4Al

^^^

■ U«** '

^^1

■

^K v.. ■ilUU 'il i

U^_iw*jr'-- ^H

■ f ' ra|iM((Ui<

so4 Riir; ^H

■ ».v.

^^H

■ "^^r

^^^ OC Ji r« iLU -1 . '[«.^» " u.'

^^1

aiMM taia^t 19 «d9t«Ti

^^1

^^K

^^M

H flM. At thhi fWJ llRMi, tuiVC

■ mtiOi,

-''Aiii- UA^iiaj'itiT^ «.j. ^^M

■ <iiD«;

iffRS Itail jiiirlisp- ^H

H bciru*tnct i:

Un qtl^ . 4ii4)i Ur ^H

^M thtfmll m^fir:

AppiAlt 1 to Mf ^H

■

:, uik*^ ki«biai<l^ ht' ^H

■

'ifn tbii eoM mf^. ^H

w ..r

-*^ roidiiriM ^M

>^'

cr^Lv^i ^H

^^'Wi^T^ ^^'^ M.t-J uiBMitavi^ m ^^^H

OnJutIi is &30Jidl c& Biiat ^M

■ 4ritarili» rrpQi

to b6 YlL' ' ' «'i^ nAW ■rfVTiif. liinih ^^^|

alsiiiit » ^^H

^jAiiT fli< M.wiV

fiuirry , 1 ^H

^Vm% «ir liw Jt*«<Ht^4 M i^miHim, {m *a»H^ OdUrit ^illiUi* %UftL UijUf} ki L^ a..!^ MUM>* ^H

MS OATHARTNE (or Bsaoabza)

OATHABINE (ov Fbasgb)

etyforasi heir had predetermmed to be a boil
At thiB time Oatharine was expelled from
Windsor, and informed that ahe was no longer
qoeen^ althongh ahe was in all respects as
much and as legally^ so as ever, when she went
her way meek^ with her laaies^ qnitting the
royal abode in which she had passed so many
happy and nnhappy days, with the beantifal
and touching words : ^ Qo where I may, I am
his wife, and for him ever will I pray/' She
never again saw her husband or her child.
Until ttSer the public marriage of Anne, she
was allowed the title of queen and the empty
honor to be served on the knee, and to be
treated with the external deference due to the
rank which had been so rudely wrested from
her. We know only of Oatharme's life daring
her sedasion, between her abandonment and
her divorce, that her time was passed among
her faithful ladies in acts of charity, devotion,
piety, varied only by the feminine arts and oc*
oupations of embroidery, to which she had al-
ways been addicted. Wherever she lived, the
poor inhabitants of her neighborhood profited
by her goodness, loved her, prayed for her, fol-
lowed her with their sighs when she was re-
moved from among them. In the mean time,
finding that he could not have the marriage an-
nulled at Rome, Henrv determined that he
would have it done in iingland, and to that end,
that he would overthrow the church of Borne,
build up an Anglican church, of which he would
be pope himself, with a college of prelates and
a clergy of his own, who should do his business
in clerical matters, as his ministers did in civil
fl£birs, at his sole bidding. All this Oranmer,
who was raised to the archbishopric of Oanter-
buiT, vacant by the death of Warbam, under-
took to do for him, and speedily effected. His
first step was to open his court at Dunstable,
for the trial of the case of Queen Oatharine's
marriage; and as she steadily denied the valid-
ity of the court and its jurisdiction, and refused
to appear, he pronounced her contumacious, and
declared the marriage void and of no effect
from the beginning, as incestuous and consum-
mated in defiance of divine prohibition. The
Sncess Mary was declared illegitimate, and
tharine was dedred to abstain from the title
oTqueen and content herself with the style of
dowager princess of Wales. Bhe, however, de-
dined to renounce her title, and died, leaving a
letter to her husband concluding with those
touching words: *' Lastly, do I vow that mine
eyes desire you, above aU things."

CATHARINE of Bsaoaitza, wife of Charles
n., king of England, bom 1688, died Dec. 81,
1705. She was the daughter of John IV.,
after 1640 king of Portu^ and brought her
husband, in 1661, beside a rich dowry, Tan-
l^ers in Africa, and Bombay in India. She
met at the court of the dissolute Charles bit-
ter mortifications, which, however, she soon
resigned herself to suffer with equanimity and
mildnesB. Lord Clarendon says: *^ The queen
had beauty and wit enough to make her-

ielf agreeable to the king; yet she had been,
according to the mode and disdpline of ber
country, bred in a monastery, where ihe had
seen only the women who attended her, and
conversed with the religioiis who resided there,
and, without doubt, in her incHnatioiu vu
enough disposed to be one of the number.
And from this restraint ahe was called out to
be a great queen, and to a free oonvereatioD
in a court that was to be npon the matter new
formed, and reduced frxnn the manners of s
licentious age to the old rules and limits vbidi
had been observed in better times; to which
regular and decent oonforaodty the present dis-
position of men and women was not enough in-
clined to submit, nor the king to exsot. Aiter
some struggle she submitted to the king's licen-
tious conduct, and from that time lived on eas;
terms with him till his death.'' Aoeosatioos
against her of plots in favor of the Gstholio
religion were received fiivorably by the hoose
of commons, but rejected by the lords. After
the death of Charles (1685), she wss treated in
England with attention and respect 6he re-
turned to Portugal in 1698. Kade regent of that
country by her brother, Don Pedro, in 1704,
she proved her ability in the war with Sptin,
which she carried on with firmness and Bn^
cess, though already 67 years old.

CATHARINE of FBAi7GB,or of Yixon, qneen
of Enghmd, bom in Paris, Oct 27, 1401, died in
the abbey of Bermondsey, Eng^ Jan. 9, 1457.
She was the youngest child of Charles YL of
France, and his queen, Isabella <^ Bavsria-
Her father having become insane, and ber
mother being absorbed by pleasures and pol-
itics, Catharine, as well aa her brothers iiid
sisters, was utterly neglected during her in-
fimcy. She became, however, a beautifnl girl;
so much so, that Henry V. of Endand, having
asserted his claim to the crown of France, ftp*

Slied for her hand, but demanded an enormoos
owry, consisting mainly in lands. The court
of France declining these terms, Henry V. in-
vaded the country, and, after the '^^^ ^
Agincourt and the capture of Bouen, reoewea
his application, which was this time f^^^^^]
entertained. Meanwhile, great dianges hw
taken place: the duke of Burgundy, John tiie
Fearless, had been assassinated, snd his »&
Philip breathed nothing but vwageanoe again»
the dauphin Charles; Isabella herself wae bent
on destroying her own son; and bolh en«f^
into negotiations with Henry which w*"*^. ?
the treaty of Troyes, May 20, U20, hy vlidi
Henry V. was to receive the hand of taw-
arine and succeed to the throne oi^Ptsacef^^
the death of Charles VI., the re6<«oy f J^J
kmgdom being placed in hu hands untJ tfl«
time. "On Trinity Sunday, Jane «» ,»?'
Monstrelet, "the king of England wedded we
lady Catharine at Troyes, intiie pariah diow
near which he lodged. Great pomp f^ ^T
nificence were displayed by the huabanMfl u *^
had been king of the whole world." "H^^„
dal muaio was the groans of oppraB^ed J^r*"

^^^■I^^^^H

(UTUAKINE aB* m H^^^l

1 Ofci^-Li'1^'* l^J iKCt^

■ Ik

^B V''

■

■ tL.

■ Cf>-

11 ^^^1

9 ami ■■ ^^^^M
ill! hAtti i!i«i3m4ifiii^ii mhm i ^^^H

iMU^^.

570

CATHARINE »b' MEDIOI

OATHABINZ PABB

anily, at her urgent Mlidtation, amovntiiig al**
most to oompnlaon. IVanois, diike of AlengoiL
was herfaTorito, aa of a spirit the most kindred
to her own ; and it is probable that her anzie^
to have Heniy far distant fix>m the soene of
action, arose from a desire to enable the son
of her ohoioe to avail himself of any oontin-
genoj that might occnr, in order to nsnrp the
throne daring his brother's absence. Ooncem-
ing the mode and caoses of the death of Charles
l£, there exists considerable donbt It is
more thiui suspected, however, that he was
poisoned by his brother Francis, with the con-
nivance of his mother, by means of a treatise
on hawking which had been thrown in his
way, that l^ing a sport of which he was pas-
sionately fond, with its leaves gammed together
with some poisoned glnten, so that when he
moistened his fingers at his lips to disengage the
pages, he took in at every tonch the deadly
medicament If it were so, it was a lost crime;
for, on hearing of the death of his brother the
king, Henry, in an evil hoar for himself escaped
by stealth from the throne of a country whose
people loved him, and came to claim that of
a land where he was both hated and despised.
On his return, he threw himself wholly into the
hands of his mother, who again plunged the
country into religious civil wars, in which
Henry IV. of Navarre gained all the glorv, and
Henry of Guise all the power, until the latter,
attempting to usurp the sovereign power of the
realm, was assassinated by Henry's orders in the
royal cabinet, while his brother the cardinal
was on the next day murdered in prison. This
eoup d'etat is so exactly in keepmg with the
character and policy of Catharine, and corre-
sponds so closely with her plan for taking off
the prince of Cond^, in the reign of Francis H.,
that we can scarcely err in ascribing to her the
conception of the scheme. It was the ruin of
Henry, of herself, and of all her wishes as to
the succession of the crown of France; for,
bow careless and indifferent soever she might
be as to matters of religion, she did not certainly
desire that a Huguenot and a Bourbon should
ascend the Catholic throne of the Valois.
Such, however, was the result of her machina-
tions. The murder of the Guises united all
Catholic France against Henry III., and he found
that he had now no option or alternative but
to call Henry of Navarre to his assistance, and
to put down the now rebellious Papists by the
forces of the late rebellious Protestants. Henry
of Navarre, who waa now, by the death of
Alen^on, the next heir to the throne of Fhmce,
readily assented, and on bringing up his forces
the 2 princes laid siege to Paris, which was de*
fended by the duke de Mayenne, the younger
brother of the murdered Guise. But while the
siege was pending, Henry III. was himself as-
sassinated by a fanatic monk, Jacques Clement,
probably instigated by the Guises, on Aug. 1^
1689, in the camp at St Cloud. Henry Iv.
aucceeded him, and did much to heal the
wounds which had been inflicted on France

by Catharine de* Me^cL— See Chabub II,

ISUHOD IL, HXNBT IIL, HXHBT IV., Ba2-
THOLQMBW MaSSAOBB.

CATHABINE of Snmr a, saint, bom 1347,
died April 29, 1880. She entered at 80 years
of age the order of Dominican nuns. The re-
markable superiority of her natural endow-
ments, Joined to her extraordinary spiritual
graces, rendered her one of the most coiupicQ-
ous and influential peraons of her time. She
restored the Florentmes to the favor of Greg-
ory XI., and exhorted that pontiff to leave
Avignon for Home. She took part in the
sdiiam of that time, and wrote in defence of
Urban. Her sceal for the conversion of sIq-
ners knew no bounds, and the most hardened
could not resist her exhortations to a change of
life. Her charity to the poor, and persooal
devotion to those who were suffering from the
most offensive maladies, were idso Doondles?.
She was canonixed by rius IL in 1461. Her
annivenary is celebrated on April 80. The
works of this saint are prindpally treatises
upon devotional subjecta, and letters written
in very pure Italian; she is also the repaid
author of some Italian poemsL

CATHABINE FBESOHI ADORNO, saint,
bom in Genoa, 1447, died Sept. 14, 1510. Herfa-
ther was viceroy of Naples. She is said to bare
been one of those rare children who lire in tie
perfect practice of Christian virtue from their
earlyyears. Attheage of 13 she was desirous to
consecrate herself to God in the rell^oos state;
but she yielded in obedience to her parents, vho
married her at the age of Id to Julian Adono, a
gay young nobleman of Genoa. Her life with
him was for 10 years a series of sorrows, soffer-
ings, and mortifications. He was profligate,
brutal, and prodigal in the use of the fortune
which she brought him. In a short time they
fonnd themselves reduced to poverty; bather
patience and good example caused hisrefornui*
tion, and he died a penitent After his destb.
Catharine was many years mother saperior of
the great hospital of Genoa. Practising the
greatest charity, she performed the meanest
offices and dressed tiie most loathsome sores.
She also extended her care to the sick and sot-
fering throughout the city. St- Cathann^
next to St. Theresa, is the most profoona
female writer that the Boman Catholic cfanrcn
has produced* Her 2 principal treatises, whicn
for the most part may be conadered as the reo*
ords of her own experience, are entitled W-
gatory," and "A Spiritual Dialogue." li«r
works have not hitherto been within the resca
of general readers; but an American transi-
tion of her treatises and of her life, written oy
her confessor, Marabotto, has just been comple-
ted (1868). ., .
CATHARINEPARR, the 6th and last wife aj^
relict of Henry VHI. of England, date of birm
uncertain, died Sept 80, 1548. She was tne
daughter of Sir Thomas Parr, and w*J tobtti^
first to Edward Burghe and secondly to i^w
Latimer. After a Sd widowhood of more tuan

^V ci^nrAfions hake

■

CATOiRFTS tn

^H n TTsr itiv tt:ji< iif TiT:;! .nil nT.rriint I
1.'

i^. JuTf

Tjitih Ii:f't F^:ji'lr*ii Kn»^nu^*» r«tmfihr-^-« f>«

H CIRV . "

■ IV

■ dr

■ v<-

■ u-

r /,..

^^m ' '»i.'- ijnfjB^t4iJ,

■ nUgiu^Mtj

^ft .. >^ 10 ua^di fftoofVr

^. j,.^ *

■ nr. jUkm cif Iho f4JicM

rrli^or

^H t'T ■■■[L'TijJiL fur h.t <M:

■„ iL-xili*...!.

B 9^

■ ftt»r

^1 nriu^-«^l liiir r«:^<.
^1 kitrntn'r, '^5f\ r

.^.Iti^f, &A»M^li^

*•* ?i|^ w^

■ *n :

r ".

■ aV<

tnuL \K

LVT .

»d4im ia

i *«; IKmiK ft Ctlf^

■ t., ■

n,^flff0

tUii -5: ...1.-1 .-V , -

■ 1l1<i

1" of

tlWip-jiri

^V >t'

r«iRl

aHb] in '

H '

*6r

Sri0u»a

■m^.

full

1pn«l IV ^»r

^^^Bir iHrthi 1

^^^p iLafwr^

iiCOitaid. Tl«.

^^B '

^*mMi%

mll^d ^Vnitlhi^fj: ifcX-.

ftr>i} iMtl^ Li!a licifoQK.

b ^ m:9 ilKir« irnd^f

■ 77«i ttfsin gPBir

K^Mn^ iii ordisr tn ii»i^.

^^■■hkl tlld q\MQ ol

^^^^HpiP^f j..tJl^r j4 . .rf

^^Kpi x^d^i ^» wC iiv

^^HJL th» pr Cf^rUiid I'

^Hw') '

^^^BNt *^-'

^K^

' [/\»*'

n^^T^J^ t.

^^^H'r

alu

fmdii^

IP^R

'■'*"M

fiUlffil, ti' ,.,......,, ^.

C^-'

«fltl ret' nWr k ooi^

k5^'''

» •_ Ai^ ! 1 r .' M r liL •> il t»* i

^■{a bi^r

h'^

672

0ATHABISI8

OATHOABT

thoughi^ lHx>ught with him from the <)ekBM
regions a higher ethereal body. He was sent
by God to recover men from the earthly sphere
in which they are bound, and to bring them
into harmonious connection with the upper
world ; and the final resolt of his coming will
be the destraotion of the creation produced by
Satan, and the return of all visible things to the
origiiuJ chaos, to which wicked spirits shall be
banished. — ^The ideas of the Oatharists were
rather popular than metaphysical, and the sect
was more influential by the ethical than by the
speculat^e part of its system. They all agreed
in opposmg the prevalent traditional and cere-
momal usages, and atteinpted to realize the idea
of an invisible church. They renounced baptism
by water, and laid great stress on the baptism
of the spirit^ which should be performed by the
imposition of hands in connection with prayer.
Their church edifices had neither images, cross,
nor belL and their worship consisted only of
the reading and exposition of a passage of the
Kew Testament, followed by the b^ediction,
which was received kneeling. Though, in some
respects, the precursors of the Protestitnt prin-
ciple, they were yet essentially removed from
it by the merit which they ascribed to works
over faith as a condition of salvation. Their
rij^d asceticism admitted neither of animal food,
conjugal relations, nor the possession of earthly
goods. Yet this standard was rather ideal than
actual. It was attained by the perfeetiy the
esoterics of the sect, but was modified in the
case of the credenteB, who constituted the large
exoteric portion. IVom the former, who were
popularly known as ^' the good men,*' and who
copied the example of Christ by wandering
about homeless, and in poverty, were chosen
all the officers of the sect. — ^The Oatharists
were zealous disseminators of their principles.
Originating in some Greek-Slavoniaa cloister
of Bulgaria (whence one of their names, the
Bulgarians), tiiey prevailed for several centuries
in the western countries of Europe, maintaining
themselves in Bosnia in spite of hostility, till
near the close of the 16Ui century, when the sect
passed over into Mohammedanism. In 1036
the first Oatharists were discovered in Italy, near
Turin, and their chief was burned ; but within
a century from that time Oatharist dhurches
and dioceses were formed throughout upper
Italy and France. It has been maintained,
without sufficient authority, that Dante be-
longed to the sect^ was even a preacher to a
congregation of Oatharists at Florence, and that
the Divina Oofnmedia was a pasquinade in their
favor against the prevalent church. St. Ber-
nard travelled through the country south of the
Alps, trying in vain to convert them, and
found them protected by princes and nobles,
whose sons and daughters were intrusted to
them for education. In 11 67 they held a synod
near Toulouse to arrange uniformity of policy
and doctrine. They spread throughout Spain
and Germany, but though some of them were
discovered in London in 1210, they seem to

hare made little progress in Enf^d. They
availed themselves of the dilutes between the
popes and emperors to spread thdr doctrio^s,
and in the 12 th oentuiy dared to elect for them-
selves a pope in France, and in the ISth cen-
tu^ another in Bulgaria. In later times the
knights templars were asserted to have been
Oatharists. The courage and cahnuess with
which they uniformly met death for thor futh,
excited the admiration of their Mends, and was
attributed, by their enemies^ to diaboHcal sap-
port

OATHABPINGS, in nautical parlaDoe, ropes
serving to brace in the shrouds of the lower
masts behind their respective yards.

OATHOAKT. L Wiluam Shaw, earl, a Brit-
ish military officer and diplomatist, born in lt55,
died June 17, 1848. According to a custom of the
Scottish gentry, he completed hia education hy
taking a degree in law, although without inten-
tion of practising that proibssion. On the brew-
ing out of the American war he entered the Britr
ish army, and speedily rose to be aide-de-camp
to Gen. Spencer Wilson and Shr Heniy Clinton.
Subsequently he commanded the 29th regiment
of infantry, and finally was appointed quarter-
master general. Becalled to England, he joined
the Walcheren expedition with the rank of brig-
adier-general. Having distinguished himaeli at
Boonmel and elsewhere on the retreat, be car-
ried back the remains of the cavahy to Eng-
land, where he was promoted to a higher rank.
In 1607 he took his seat as a representatire
peer of Scotland. The same year he was ap-
j)ointed commander-in-diief of the troops des-
tined to act against Oopenhagen, and on tbe fall
of that city and capture of the Danish fleet was
created a peer of England. In 1812 he was sent
as minister plenipotentiary to Russia. Tbe em-
peror Alexander being then with the amir,
Lord Cathcart joined him at hcad-qnart«^,
where he remained during the campaign* U^
was a witness of the interview between tbo
sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Fmssia; »
Dresden he stood but 2 paces from Itorwo
when that general received his death woond;
entered Paris with the aUied sovereigna, m
subsequently acted as British plenipotcntiiunr ffl
the congress of Vienna. On the £bI1 of Boniw
parte he again repaired to Paris, and signed
the treaty of peace which followed Waterloa
An earl's coronet recompensed these ser-
vices. Several succeeding years of ha ii»
were spent as minister at the court of ^^
II. Sib Gkokob, a British general, son oHW
preceding, bom in London, May 12, IW ^f.
Nov. 6, 1864. He was educated at Eton and
Edinburgh, and entered the army in ISl"*. j\
father having been soon afterward appomwu
minister to Russia, young Oathcart aocomPJ
nied him as attach6, and was wbeeqnentiy fl»
secretary at the congress of Vienna. B^^J^*
the army,^e servedas aide-de-camp to w

ington at Waterloo. The return of
him on the list of lieutenant-colon
rank he held oonmiands for some yean

^ which
iji5oT»

GATH1PWAC.

rATtoamiLX

S71

1^60^ 9^*^^^ " - ^ - '^^^^tt*. in IBM Ti^

fat lb* irtrntym ifi»it 1

iLlariautj: •

. , -.rt_i »%-,^ - 1 ik^. ,.:_

#1 fir'

ilitr mnd i.- -

./"if .'«t*»ftH'*T.

^m UmV^U 1&, hi-

M4 .il.i^ L.I

rprstidiiratdi

. _^ . : ... ..... }«Uillnif cwji'

674

CATHEDRAL

the oopola. The cathedral ia in length 887 ft,
the traoflept 884 ft; the nave is 168 ft high,
the side fusles 96 ft 6 in. The capola is
octagonal in fonn, 188 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and
hi height from cornice of the dmm to the e je
of the dome 188 ft 6 in. Kiohel Angdo nsed
this dome as a model for that of Bt Peter^s.
The interior of the dnomo jb rather dark, the
windows heing small and the glass darklv
stained. The pavement is tessellated in reo,
hlae, and white marhle. The frescoes in the
cupola are from designs hy Yasari. The entire
edifice covers 84,802 sq. ft — Germany has
some fine cathedral churches, among which that
at Cologne is one of the most imposing Grothlc
structares in Europe. It was begmi in 1248,
during the reign of the elector and archbishop
of Cdiogne, Conrad of Hochstedten, but it has
remained unfinished. The original architect is
unknown. The length of the cathedral ia 511
ft., breadth 281 ft, and height of the towers 500
ft. Extemallv it has a double range of flying
buttresses and intervening piers, and a peifect
forest of pinnacles. The cathedral of ]Dantzic
was begun in 1848 and finished in 1508. The
vaulted roof is 98 ft above the pavement, sup-
ported by 26 slender brick pillars. Around the
interior are 50 chapels founded by the chief citi-
zens of the place, as burial places for their fiEuni-
lies. The great ornament of this building is a

Sainting of the ^ Last Judgment," attributed to
ohnVan Eyck. It was painted for the pope, but
on its way was captured by pirates. Being retak-
en by a Dantzic vessel, it was deposited in tiie
cathedral in 1807. — ^In Antwerp is the cathedral
of Notre Dame, one of the largest and most beau-
tiful of Gotiiio buildings in the Ketherhmds. It
was commenced about the middle of the 18th
century, and comnleted in about 84 years. It is
500 feet long, ana 250 wide. In 1588 it was
much ix\|ured by fire. It contains the celebrated
masterpiece of Kubens, the '^ Descent from the
Cross." — ^During the ISth century, architectural
art was highly cultivated throughout all Europe,
and among the magnificent works of that age,
those of France are by no means in the last
rank. Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, and Paris
each possess beautiful cathedral churches. The
one at Rheims was conunenced in 1211, and dedi-
cated in 1241. It occupies 67,475 sq. ft The
cathedral at Amiens was begun 1220, and com-
Dleted in 1257, but was partially destroyed by
fire, and not again fimshed until 1272. It covers
71,208 sq. ft The cathedral of Notre Dame in
Paris stands upon the spot once occupied by a
Roman temple. It is said that a church dedicated
to St. Stephen was erected on the same site about
865, in the time of YalentinianL, and was enlarg-
ed in 522 by Childebert, son of Clovis. Robert,
son of Hugh Capet, undertook to rebuild this
church, which was called Notre Dame from a
chapel which CMldebert had dedicated to the
Virgin. But this church was never finished
and fell into ruins. The first stone of the pres-
ent edifice was laid about 1168, by Pope Alexan-
der IIL, Maurice de Saliao being bishop of the

diocese. The high altar was oonsecnted in 1183
by Henry, legate of the holy see, and in 1185
Heraclitus, patriarch of Jerusalein, officiated in
the church. The west firont was finidied by'
liaurice de Sully, the bishop in 1223. The
southern transept with its portal was completed
in 125T, and the northern transept and portal in
1812 by Philip the Fair. The western doors with
their iron work were made about 1670-^80 bj
Biscourette. The dimensions are as follows:
length 890 ft., width of transept 144 it, height
of vaulting 102 ft., height of western towen
204 ft., width of front 128 ft., length of OATd
to transept 186 ft. The pillars of the lu^e
are 4 ft in diameter, resting on gravelled beda
18 ft below the surface. The style of ftrchi-
lecture is pure pointed. The nave and side
aisles are paved with marble ; the aisles around
Hie choir are paved with atone and black mar-
ble. An immense vault, extending the entire
length of the nave, was oonstructed in 1666 for
the interment of the chaplains, &c The organ
is very fine, 45 ft high, 86 in breadth, and has
8,484 pipes. The interior of Notre Dame moi
so ridi in decorations as the exterior. The arches
of the nave are pointed ; the piers are circolar
pillars, with large and well-formed capitals.
The pillars of the aisles are alternately circolar
and clustered. The cathedral covers 64,108 sq. it
— ^England has many cathedrals worthy of par-
ticular mention. That at Salisbuiy is the mofit
perfect and beautiful specimen. It was foimded
by Bishop Richard Poore, in the year 1220, in
the reign of Henry III., and was fimshed in
1260. Its plan is a double cross, in extreme
length outnde 480 ft, length of transept 2S2
ft---St. Paul's, London, was commenced m
1675, Sir Christopher Wren being the architect,
and was finished 1711. It is buUt of fine Fort-
land stone, in the form of a Latin cross, its
length being 500 ft, the transept 285 ft.
long, and the west front 180 ft wide. Tm
towers at the west front campanile are each 2^
feet high. The dome is thrice the heiglit of
the rooi^ being 865 ft. from the gronnd, and m
from the floor of the church, and it is 145 ft. iQ
diameter. Simple ratios exist between the
principal dimensions. The windows are ^^J
12 ft. wide by 24 high, the aisles 19 tL dea
width by 88 in height; the central avenue is^
by 84 ft.; the domed vestibule at the vest end is
47 ft. square by 94 ft. high. The architectn™
elevation has two orders, the lower being Co-
rinthian and the upper composite. The inten*
or lacks in ornament, disappointing one ^"^
has seen the cathedrals on the continent a
still graver defect is the darkness under tw
dome, the light being scantily admitted and o^
weU distributed. It was bepin and fintfhea
under one architect, with a few in««n ^*^
tions. The organ was built in 1694 by Bernaw
Smydt St Paul's is the 5th cathedral of M-
rope in extent, being smaller than 6<^f®7|^
and the duomosat Florence^ Milan, and Aime»
—The comer stone of a new and roBgo^^
cathedral was laid in New York, Aog. 15, 1»*

^^^^ OATnOJHSAD

■

Q4m«D7E

B15

HMafctHELI>-^- • ( >--'^- -nnadWifm-'

mit^^ r.I»l>- *

-.*..!

1!,* 1--*. *..V ■ *- -- '

i:.t .-45^

^^Br«0(t«*v • vUvc t

^^^^^■itfciflKrv k - ' i'~in»

.«0

^^■^MiM^ JL 1

.L«

^■UiScfW^^i^

>r^^

■k*fi wp:

7%.

^■U^Aliirif

^^HB^, E V^oLl

IMil

II*

^^^Kik ItfHli^

tmf

.i»

^^K^^Ur

^^K^

^^^^^^H^l^^k 1

♦ llf fJ,CE«llLi*t

f -;

^^HR"

UriKtfiMi b9C^^

^^^^K^rv'

tV r,..^JL.

Lii

vitnl Uic

• 3

U4< CM

^ ooniiiiQftJ

11. 6io Iiaii4y Ca0^

^^^Ut' : 'JTTn<r;l^

^^■plkt^li^ to Uk^ Ssnilf i-

uH4ffl%

tiir

.il

^^5Ri

*yri

ili

k ., fMi :^;lIUi=, tiTOLi^u uiiiJtru'U',fii rvi irmi

-3l

^^^lAvti 0*^ i^ifM0cn' ' -^ ^ ^ ' <^- ^«i d^lviifM coajr

.vdji

:»^

^■■iDr fv(;niiiftil ii% GQdml, «Ai9r *

^HHHD dilf of *^' ' ""'T* riunr vlli tr*

»1t^# ■

fiorr

^^^^^r_ii

Aqil'

^^^^^^ft «^' !

! ^

^^Hf^^ iu .iit:- U--J.

^^^B IUC13S of Ui«

^^^mi*^}, 4iifi<f»d b

Il*:i*Wir<-

liter ^^.

^^^pdk^lriii r r ', di^ M

Qomob t^

,i'>A

^^K^Hihigl, ... ^, ilMOaiyl

fi.'Mi T..^.

"1,

^^^Bixd t*is]{»ii, h^t > r 4t tbfi «blMtf

^^■tiOo'^<^\ ij[^!':-T "f C*JtT.*L

^^pOUriLr^ '

' tti

^^ ha^ ..

^^^^^

tod U4(»4«i''

'T£

Ih* itKHi '

.ilttf» smJir ■•r

^^n. lUii^ 'lU^ciiJMbjr

IM*rit#0

^«

^^H Fkmk^ ^Afi wlii^ it

RPcWrtaki

^^^Kg«»1 h* T*t:Mrii iby eii«L(!iTjL^ e^ff^edli aaA

L« wa# 1^

mhh tu

^^Bli**f n*thr^' "' » --v . , .^.. „v: /L , „,.

1 1 . ./ .

Bi ^ pmttlit^ tatti 1

^fc^^ ■ < i'lrmit Ij ipiiiw-jscin • ■

llofiM. i

iif

676

oahlike

OAtnOEAlT-LABOOHE

, rained nobles of all rsnkfl, eager to
Moape by some ohange the ooDBeqnencea of
bankruptcy, profligates and intrigning persons
of both sexes, Joined him ; many yeterans of
SylhL who had sqnandered their spoils, were
found ready to renew the familiar soenee of
proscription; the poor and restless populace
oould easily be used. His chief coOperators
were P. 0. Lentulus and P. Autronius, ex-con-
sols, L. Oalpumins Bestia, tribune elect, Cethe*
gas, 2 nephews of Sylla^ and others. It was
now his interest to be elected consul; he be-
came a candidate, but was again unsuccessful,
Oicero was elected with 0. Antonius. Catiline^
who dreaded the patriotic activity of the
former, but counted on the criminal connivance
of the latter, now pushed on with greater
▼igor. The plot was matured ; troops were
levied, especially under 0. Manlius, a centurion
of Sylia, m the vicinity of Fmsula. in Etruria;
«rma were provided, the parts of the drama
distributed, the lists of proscription made out,
and the dav fixed for the assassination of the
consuls and the general conflagration of the
city. The watchfulness of Oicero saved himself
and the republic. Ful via, the mistress of one of
the conspirators, was induced to communicate
all the particulars ; 0. Antonius was made harm-
less by the promise of Macedonia as a prov-
ince. Informed by Cicero, the senate intrust-
ed the consuls witn absolute power to save the
republic from the threatening danger. At the
following consular election Catiline was again
rejected, and in the night of Nov. 6, 68 B. 0.,
he decwed in a secret meeting to his ringleaders
that the time of action had arrived. Cicero,
who knew every thing, summoned the senate^
and delivered his first great oration against
Catiline, giving full and ample information of
all the facts. Catiline was bold enough to be
present and to attempt his Jnstification, but his
voice was drowned by the cries of " Enemy "
and ^^ Parricide " from the indignant senators,
and he was left on his deserted bench a specta-
cle to the assembly. But he was still free, and
left Rome in the following night to join the
camp of Manlius, leaving the management of
afiairs at the capital to Lentulus and Cethegus.
Cicero now addressed the people in the forum,
lustifying bis conduct ; the senate declared Cati-
line and Manlius enemies of the republic, while
legal evidence against the conspirators at Rome
was furnished by the communications of the
ambassadors of the AUobroges, who, being sent
to Rome for the redress of grievances, were
tempted by Lentulus to Join the conspiracy, and
to induce their nation to assist in it. Cicero^
who received the intimation frx)m their patron,
persuaded them to feign an active participation,
and to draw from Lentulus a list of the con-
spirators, as if by it to induce their countrymen
to Join in the enterprise. Lentulus and his
friends fell into the snare. They were now
brought before the senate, assembled in the
temple of Concord (Dec. 4) ; their guilt was
proved. Having delivered his third oration

befbre the people, CSoero on the next daj
again convoked the senate to deliberate oo tlie
punishmoit of the traitors. The debate was
highly animated. Bilanas, the eonsol elect
gave Mb opinion for the immediate death of \2
of them ; this was oombated by the joxn^z
Julius Csasar, who was satisfied with their m^
and the confiscation of their estates. €icero
gave no opinicm, but painted in strong terms
tiie dangers of the state. Cato, voting for doatii
and for immediate efforts against the rebei: j
the field, made an appeal to the patriotism uf
the senate, and prevailed. A decree was
passed, and Lentulus and his companioDs were
strangled in the night in tiieir prison; an army
was sent against Catiline under the consul Ad-
tonius, but unwilling to fight agidnst his fritid,
he gave the command to his legate Petriiu^.
They met near Fassulsd. Catiline deteno«i
himself desperately, but in vain; when tbo
batde was lost he threw himself into the n\M
of his enemies, and fell fighting.— The reoow a
gdned by Cicero by the detection of the con-
spiracy, is equalled by the celebrity of his ora-
tions against Catiline. Sallust's life of iVs
conspirator is one of the most remarkable pro-
ductions of ancient history.

CATINAT DE LA FAUOONMERIE, Xic
OLXs DB, a French general, bom in Paris, Stp-
1, 1687, died Feb. 22, 1712. He entered iLe
army as an ensign, and at the siege of Lille la
1667, so conducted himself as to attract tbt)
notice of Louis XIV, His subsequent exi'l >:t3
obtained for him in 1688 the rank of lieuui-
ant-general, and in 1698, after he had Cv>
qnered the greatest part of Savoy, he receiv. .
the marshars sta£ In 1701 he oommacai:
the army in Italy against Prince Engene. 1 -jt
failing to arrest the progress of the prince, > i^-
leroi was appointed to his phwe, and Catinal
served under him, and in attacking tlie i:-
trenchments at Chiari he was repulsed ai'i
wounded. He conunanded in Gcnnanyi"^*
short time, and spent the rest of his life at -:!
estate of St. Gratien, near St. Denis.

C ATINEAU-LAROCHE, Piekeb Mabie ^e-
BASTEXN, a French irmctionary and lexiajrsj
pher, bom at Saint-Brieuc, March 26, 1772, <^-^
May 22, 1828. He studied at Poitiers, and cu;-
igrated to St. Domingo, where he publisbe<u
journal, rami de la paw et de Vvnm, }^^
was sentenced to deati for the opinions vbua
he advocated, but, by the timely vsi&^^-''
of the agents of the king erf France, siC'
oeeded in escaping to Cape Haytien ("'^^
called Cape Fran^ais), where he alone, oi
17 of his countrymen, was saved from ii«-
massacre which broke out in that citj- '
now visited the United States and W*''^
and on his return to Paris, m 1797, (v^*
posed several dictionaries. Hisprintmg om
having been destroyed by fire, the go«r
ment employed him in various P^*^^i? ...i
pacities. Once more he visited the m^^
States, and on his return, in 1819, he W ^^'
missioned to go to Guiana, and stody toe u

OAIiaHH

tU3tl

577

CDiM sii«1 y*»<i»ff»«Pf

-.p.4ln-^

*;J4 to tm mmutUmm isor^ bif dk%i»*

U lulf. J1%M, WiLb

'If

vl^

1 in grc«4 fitimb#^ uf^

lai wlkmi liu liMrdiil III

•1,

lf;iu«ioji» it ju-u

uid pu^hlf «tt All

rot. Hf J— 37

578

OATO

foiTDfl, of Tirtne. Qoing to Rome, be began to
praotioe at the bar, having already been ac-
customed to act as counsel for himself and his
neighbors in the small borough towns of the
Babines, and soon acquired some distinction, as
much by the integrity of his life and the purity
of his morals as by his forensic abilities or elo-
quence. At the age of 80 he was sent as mili-
tary tribune into Sicily, and thence as qusBstor
with the army of Scipio which carried the
war into Africa. In the course of this war be-
gan his enmity against the family of the Sqipios,
which he never abandoned daring his life, and
which was the cause of the least creditable ac-
tions of his whole career. On his return to
Borne, he accused his late commander of ex-
travagance and luxury; and, though he was
defeated, obtained praise for the public spirit
ond high moral sense which he was thought to
display, when it seems far more probable that
he was actuated by party animosity, and a one-
ideaed adherence to old notions. Being sent,
6 years afterward, in the capacity of prsstor, to
Sardinia, he in that office distinguished him-
self by his honest, unselfish, and unoppressive
conduct toward the provincials. On the island
he became acquainted witli the poet Ennius, a
Calabrian by birth, who was serving with the
contingent of that district, from whom he
learned the Greek tongue, and by whom he
was accompanied on his return to the capital
of the republic. In 195 B. 0. he was elected con-
sul, together with his friendValeriusFIaccufi, and
made himself notorious rather than famous by
his violent opposition to the repeal of the Op-
pian law, a sumptuary enactment restricting
the expenses of women, which had been passed
during the public distresses caused by Hanni-
bal^s occupation of Italy, and which had served
the purpose for which it was intended, and was
now properly rescinded. On the expiration
of his consular term, during which he conduct-
ed a war which had broken out in some re-
volted districts of Spain to a successful dose,
and obtained a triumph for his conduct in the
same, although not without being accused of
perfidy and cruelty, he followed Sempronius,
the consul of the ensuing year, into Thrace,
where the war against Philip II. of Macedon
was yet in progress, in quality of his lieutenant.
Tliree years later than this, the war against
Antiochns broke out, and he was employed in
forcing the passes of Thermopylsa, under M.
Acilins Glabrio, the consul of the year 191 B. 0.,
in which action the greatly distinguished him-
self. The consul attributed this victory, which
saved the Roman army and comfielled the
Syrians to evacuate Greece, entirely to Oato,
whom he embraced at the head of his army,
telling him that neither he nor the Roman
people could adequately reward his services of
that day, and afterward sent to Rome as bearer
of despatches with the tidings of victory.
Seven years after this success, he was elected
censor, 184 B. 0., in spite of the strenuous op-
position of the patricians, who dreaded, it is

generally said, his severe morals, in ocm-
quence of the spread of Asiatic Inxory and the
relaxation of the antique code of austere and
pristine virtue. His conduet, neither it this
time nor subsequently, is dear from tiie re-
proach of factious bitterness, and of perwnal
prc^judices and dialikes. He degraded Lndos
Scipio, by taking from him his hone at the
equestrian census; expdled Manilius from the
senate, for kissing his wife at what he consid-
ered an untimely occasion ; and procured an
order for the dismissal of Cameades and hu
colleagues of the new academy from Rome, lest
by the introduction of Greek learning thej
should corrupt the martial morals of the yooth
of Rome. More objectionable still was his after
conduct, when he seems to have oonstitnted
himself public prosecutor against the nobles in

r)ral, and the Scipios in particular. ItwasoD
accusation that Sdpio Africanus, the con-
queror of Hannibal, was banished from the coun-
try which he had saved, and that Sdpio Asi&ti*
cus would have been imprisoned in a dnngeoo
but for the interposition of Tiherios Gracdins,
his political opponent. His whole life iras em-
broiled in accusing others and being aocnaed him-
self having to stand his trial 50 times, the bsfc
at the age of 85 years, when he complained that
it was a hard thing for a man to have to defend
himself before the men of an age different from
that in which one has himself lived. He was in
all cases acquitted ; but the number of the acco-
sations against him shows the pugnacioiu and
aggressive character of his mind, and the state
of constant civil warfare in which he lived vith
the most considerable citizens of his time^ and
against the natural advance of sodetj. His
last public employment waa an embassy for the
reconciliation of the Oartiiagioians with Kas-
sinissa, king of Numidia; on his retam fr^
which he adopted his setUed idea of the neces-
sity of destroying the rival repnblio. I^
that day forth it became his habit, whaterer
question waa in debate before the senate,
when voting on it, in the affiimatiye or nega-
tive, to add the words: "I vote, moreover,
that Carthage be destroyed." His death took
pkce about 149 B. 0. The fragality and
severe economy of Cato in some sort re-
sembled that of Dr. Franklin, as it ^
connected with a profound respect for the
possession and acquisition of wealth in a ntili-
tarian point of view, although the Boniao
was opposed to its expenditure in any of we
hunumizing arts or appliances of sooal hfe.
He was a large slave-breeder and slave-dealer;
and the measure of his humanity may ^ /? .
mated by his advice to farmers in oneof W
agricultural treatises, "to sell wom-ont iron
implements, old sUves, sick slaves, and other
odds and ends, which are of no ftarther ^
on the farm." Oato was, in addition to n»
other pursuits, a voluminous writer, altnongo
but few of his works have come down to oar

time. Hiswork on agriculture (i^-&i^/*J2
has oomedowntousi^parentlyinainatuatea

CATO

579

fbtt^ It coDssti merely of & seHes of drr
rales for the nso of farmers^ expressed wttL
Twh brevitj^ mid without systemftUc arrango-
UivnL The host edition of it Is c<>ntained in
Geaner^s /?^i RuttkiB ScripUftci. He left a han*
flrtd trnd ^dy orations, eJttarit, althon^^h ntg-
■, 1 : <'-'rijs thno; a. v^ork oft military
discipline, some of which is incorporated into
the writings of Vegetius; 7 books of history
and antiquities, entitled Originet^ which have
unhappily perished; beside a book of episto-
lary Questions, a book of apophthegms, and a
formula of morals. Cato appears to have been a
6terD, hard-headed, obstinate, nearly one-ideaed
man, with a strong sense of duty, and a strong
desire to do what was right, accompanied with
an inability to understand that any thing could
bo right unless it coincided exactly with his own
prej iidices. He had no refinement, and therefore
hatod, and would, if he could, have prevented
all refinement, both of mind and body. He
saw the advance of corruption growing with the
growth of the state; and therefore, hating cor-
ruption, and seeing no other mode of arresting
its progress, would have arrested all progress.
II. Marous PoRcrus Cato, the son of the pre-
ceding, by his first wife, distinguished him-
self in the battle of Pydna, against Perseus,
king of Macedon, under Paulus JEmilius,
whose daughter, Tertia, he subsequently mar-
ried, lie died a few years afterward, while
serving as prmtor. III. Poroius Cato Saloni-
rs, or Salonianus, the second son of the censor
by his second wife, who was the daughter of
one Salonius. This man had been his secre-
tary, and was ptili attached to his household
when the marriage took place. He, like his
half-brother Marcus, died while in the exercise
of the oflSce of praetor, leaving one son. IV.
Marcus Porcius Cato, who was elected consul,
t(»;rether with Quintus Marcios Rex, in the year
of Korae53G, 117 B. C, and died while in office.
Ho was remarkable after his death only, and
then as the father of the most famous of the
name and lineage, surnamed Uticensis. V.
Ma ecus Poroius Cato, surnamed Uticensis,
from the place of his death, born 96 B. C, died
4 '3 B. C. the great-grandson of the censor.
>hortly after his birth he lost both his parents,
and w*as educated by Livius Drusus, his mater-
ij;l1 uncle. It is told that on one occasion, his
preceptor Sarpedon being in the habit of tak-
ing him, while a boy, to visit at the house of
Sylla, who had been a friend of his father, Cato
Boeing the bloodshed of the conscriptions going
on around him, he asked his tutor for a sword
t hat he might slay the tyrant The first pubhc
ar>I>oarance of Cato was on the occasion of an at-
tempt of the tribunes to remove a certain pillar
i)( the Porcian basilica, which was in the way
of their seats, Cato resisted, with the eloquence
arxl energy peculiar to his house, a motion
\v liich oHended the pride of his family, since the
tMsilioa in question had been erected by his
LToat-^andfather, the censor. Of the further
merits of the question we are not informed, but

it appears tliat the yomig Oato pravaUed, and
that Ilia ancestor's column was retained, to the
discomfiture of the tribanea. His first military
command was that of tribune of the soMiers in
Macedon ; but he had served as a private legion-
ary in the carapai^ agaiDst Spartacns, in which
his half-brother Cfppio was atribtinej aui! had
been oflfered a prize of valor by Gallus the pno-
tor, which he declined. During his service in
Macedon he was summoned to .£nos in Thraod
to attend the deathbed of his half-brother
Csepio, to whom he was fondly attached ; and
after the expiration of his military term, he trav-
elled in Asia, whence he brought back with
him Athenodoms, the Stoic philosopher, having
adopted the tenets of that school, and pushed
its practices to the extreme of their austerity.
He was elected city quaestor after his return,
and conducted himself with integrity so unusu-
al in that office of responsibility in that corrupt
age, that on the close of his term of service,
the people escorted him home in a sort of civic
triumph. At this time he had obtained credit
for such uncompromising and austere morality,
that it IB related of him that, during the celebra-
tion of the feast of Flora, the most licentious of
all the Roman festivals, the people hesitated to
call on the female dancers, as was usual at a
certain stage of the proceedings, to throw off
their tunics and dance naked, until Cato should
have left the circus. This fact, related by Va-
lerius Maximus, whether true or not, is equally
conclusive and characteristic of the received
opinion of the man. In the conspiracy of Cati-
line, Cato strongly supported the aristocratic
and conservative party of the state, against the
conspirators. He earnestly promoted the elec-
tion of Cicero as consul, at that crisis, and when
elected sustained him with all his accustomed
weight and power. After the flight of Catiline
himself, and the arrest of the other conspira-
tors, when Cains Julias Csesar had spoken' so
eloquently and plausibly against the capital
punishment of the traitors, which undoubtedly
was forbidden by the Porcian and Valerian
laws, as to bring over M. Junius S'danns, the
consul elect, and many other leading senators
to his opinion, it was Cato who, by a speech the
tenor of which and its general argument, if not
its actual wording, are preserved in Sallust^a
history of the conspiracy, confirmed the deter-
mination of the senate, and procured the death
of the men, not as citizens but as enemies of
the state and parricides of the republic. It cer-
tainly appears that the crisis justified the means
adopted to suppress it, and that had less vigor-
ous measures been taken, it would have been
too late to punish when the crimes could no
longer be prevented. He was the first who,
on the suppression of the plot, hailed Cicero
as " father of his country." On the usurpation
of what is usually called the first triumvirate,
that of Crassus, Porapey, and Crosar, being op-
posed to their proceedings, he was sent into A
sort of honorable exile as governor of the isle of
Cyprus, and at the end of hia service paid

580

OATO

above Y,O0O talents of direr into the pnbHo trea»-
nrj, returning as poor as he was on assuming
offlcev^' He still continued to oppose the acts of
I the triumvirate, until, on the occurrence of the

nzpture between Pompej and Ciesar, he, to-

y^ther with Cicero, espoused the party of the
y n>rmer, which was undoubtedly the narty of the
y old constitutional republic, and adnered to it
/ with the stem determination which was the at-

tribute of his &mily and name, until he believed
that idl was lost He was not present at the
battle of Pharsalia, having been left in com-
mand of Dyrrachium to guard the military chest
and magazines; but on hearing the result of that
disastrous day, he embarked his troops in the
squadron under his orders and sailed to Oorcyra,
where he offered the command to Oicero. By
him it was declined, when Oato, sailing to Gy-
rene, where he hoped to meet Pompey, heard of
his murder on the seacoast of Egypt, and united
his forces with those of Scipio, Pomney's father-
in-law, Labienus, Varus, and the Mauritanian
prince Juba, at Utica, near the modem Tunis,
of which town he undertook the defence; while
his colleagues, contrary to his advice— for he

' counselled them to protract the war — ^marched
out and offered battie to the Csesareans, at
Thapsus. As might have been expected, and
as Cato did expect, they were completelv de-
feated, and the relics of their army which es-
caped from the field were so entirely dispirited
that they refused to defend the city. Onner-
ceiving the impossibility of holding out, Oato
now sent off all his friends bv sea, advising
them to join Sextus Pompey, who was still car-
rying on the war resolutely in Spain : and then,
according to the philosophy of the Stoics, de-
termined not to survive tiie fortunes of the party
to which, he was attached, and which, in fact|
by his impatience, he largely contributed to
rain. He supped calmly, nothmg doubting that
the fldse pride which urged him to suicide was
a serene and noble virtue ; passed the evening
in reading the '^Phsddo" of rlato, a treatise on
the immortality of the soul, and then gave him-
self a wound of which, though it was not
in the first instance mortal, he afterward
died, tearing off the bandages with which
his friends had endeavored to stanch the
bleeding, and expiring from loss of blood.
The trae reason of this unphilosophical death,
which, as such deaths usuafiy do, turned out in
the event to be a premature and rainous dere-
liction of duty, was simoly that Cato was too
impatient to straggle to the end, and yielded to
the first reverse ^ fortune ; and that, even at
the worst, he was too proud to owe his life to
the clemencv of Caasar. Had he Joined Sextus
Pompey and his partisans in Spain, taking into
consideration the events which followed, the
long duration and abUi^ of their defence, and
the mere accident which turned the victory
against them at Munda, it is more than doubt-
ful whether his firmness, his virtue, and the
weight of his name might not have carried the
day, even agamst the fortunes of Cssar, The

OATBOn

bad example of his death Hved after him, in-
fected his party, and being, by the false pliilo-
sophy of the day, extolled as a proof of noble
fortitude, instead of being denounced as a piece
of cowardly impatience, was followed by Gas-
sins and Bratns, who threw away the came
of the republic before the words of Antony
and Octavius, as Cato had done before them at
the feet of Caosar. YI. Mabous Pobcius Oato,
the son of the preceding. He was spared by
CsDsar, led a somewhat dissolute fife, but died
worthy his name and lineage at Philippi, the last
of his race. — ^There were 2 other Catoa, not con-
nected with this family, Y alxbiub, a distingnish-
ed grammarian, in the time of Sylla ; and IhoNT-
sius, a writer of the latter Boman empire, sap-
posed to be a contemporary of Conunodos and
Septimius Severus, who wrote the 2>ii(ieAa in
Jioribiu, which has been confounded with the
Carmen de MorHnu of the ^der Cato ; but they
are worthy of no more than a passing notice to

Erevent oonfhsion. There was yet another,
>uoiuB, of the Porcian house, who waa ooDsd,
and was killed fighting in the Marsio war, in the
year 89 B. C. But he has little to give him note
except what is here stated, which he owed prob-
ably to his name as a Porcius and a Cato.

CATOPTRICS, that part of optics which
treats of reflected light.

CATOPTROMANCY, among the andenta, a
spedes of divination by the mirror. PaiuaQias
says that before the temple of Ceres at Patns
there was a fountain, ana an oracle verv troth*
fhl, not for all events, but to the sick only* 1^
mck person let down a mirror suspended bj s
thread till its base touched the smrfiioe of the
water. Then, looking in the miiror, he saw the
presage of death or recovery. acoordiDg as the '
face appeared fresh and healthy or of a gfaastlj ,
aspect Another method of using the mirnr |
was to place it behind a boy or girl's bead,
whose eyes were bandaged, and to decide bf
the visions which the person should fancy ^^
self to see.

CATRAIL, DrviDiNo-FEMrcE, or Piore-Wotf-
DITCH. This angular name is applied to fiomi
ruins in the counties of Selkirk and Rozborgt^
Scotland. They consist of the remains of I
fosse and double rampart, relieved at interralsi)^
round forts or towers, and are supuosed to bail
formed in ancient times a line of aefence raiNt
by the Britons against their Saxon inTadciw
Thev extend from one mile west of GalaahiJ
southward to Peel-Fell, and cover a space frol
20 to24 feet in width.

CATROU, FRANgoiB, a French writer, b^
in Paris, Dec 28, 1669, died Oct. 18, 1737. AM
oflSciating as a preacher, he wasemployedl
editor of the /oumoZ de Tretern^ 9, v«^^ ^
voted to the interests of the order of Jesuits I
which he belonged. Among his works sr*
translation of Virgil, with critical and histonl
annotations, a history of the Mogul ^"^V^^
history of smaticism, and an extensive Bom
history, which has been tranalated into "*
foreign laoguagea.

OATS

CATSKILL M0TTNTAIX3

5gl

CATS, Jacob, a statesman and poet of Hoi*
land, born at Brouwershaven, in Zealand, Nor.
10, 1677, died at his rural retreat, Zorgvliet,
near the Hagne, Sept 12, 1660. He studied at
Loyden, Orleans, and Paris, and on his return to
his native land published some successful poems.
The end of the peace ended also his fortune and
retirement, his possessions being submerged by
water, or devastated by armies. In 1627 ho
was ambassador to England, and in 1636 grand
pensioner of Holland, but in 1648 devoted him-
self again to literature. The disagreements be-
tween England and Holland during the protec-
torate of Cromwell caused his return to England
as ambassador in 1652. He is one of the fathers
of Dutch literature, and a new edition of his
works, in 19 vols., appeared in Amsterdam in
1 790-1 800, aGkrman translation of part of them
having been published at Hamburg in 1710—
1717. A monument was dedicated to him at
Ghent in 1829.

CAT'S EYE, a semi-transparent variety of
quartz penetrated by fibres of asbestus. It is
commonly of a greenish gray color, though
sometimes yellow, red, or brown. "When pol-
ished, it reflects a pearly light resembling the
pupil in the e\e of a cat.

CATSKILL, the capital of Greene co., K. Y.,
is situated on the W. side of the Hudson river,
about 111m. from New York ; pop. of the town-
fibip in 1855, 5,710; of the village, 2,520. There
are 6 churches, a court-house, a jail, and 2
newspaper offices. A ferry crosses the river,
connecting with the railroad on the E. bank.

CATSKILL MOUNTAINS, a group of the
Appalachian chain, on the W. side of the Hud-
son river, lying mostly in Greene co., N. Y.
Their E. base is 7 or 8 m. distant from the vil-
lacre of Catskill. These mountains range parallel
with the river only for about 12 m., spurs from
their N. and S. terminations turning respec-
tively N. W. and W., and giving to the group
a very different form from that of the parallel
ranges of the Appalachians, as seen in Pennsyl-
vania. It differs from these also in assuming
more of the Alpine character of peaks consider-
ably elevated above the general summits. It
resembles them in the precipitous slopes toward
the E., and the gentler declivities, which are
lost in the high lands on the W. side. Its geo-
lus-iral structure is almost a repetition of that
of the main Alleghany ridge throughout Penn-
sylvania, the same formations succeeding in
tiio same order from the E. base to the sum-
mit, and giving to it, even in a more marked
dotrree than is there witnessed, the terraced
outline due to the alternation of groups of
strata, that are easily worn away, and that
powerfully resist denuding forces. Along its
K. base the strata of the old red sandstone for-
mation are seen dipping in toward the central
axis. These are succeeided by the gray slaty
wmdstones of hard texture, which make up the
most precipitous slopes, except those or the
hi^^liest summits, which are capped by the con-
glomerato of white quarts pebbles. This ia

fhe floor of the coal fonnation. Upon the
Alleghany mountain it forms the highest knobs,
which present their vertical fronts to the EL,
and slope away to the W. The dip in this
direction being there steeper than the declivity
of the mountain, the coal beds find a place
above the conglomerate; but upon the high
peaks of the Oatskills this rock lies too horizon-
tally for higher strata to appear, and a descent
to lower levels in a W. direction only brings
to view again the same formations met with on
the E. side. Thus for want of 100 feet perhaps
of greater elevation the Oatskills miss the
lowest coal beds. Even in the midst of tho
strata of the conglomerate its carbonifer-
ous character is seen by the black shales
here and there pinched among its massive
blocks, and by seams of anthracite of a few
inches in thickness contorted into strange forms.
These, before their real relations were under-
stood, led to vain hopes and futile explorations
to discover workable beds of coal in the hard
sandstones of these summits. But it is now
well understood that the Oatskills can never
claim regard for tlie vaJue of their mineral
productions. Their chief interest lies in tho
variety and beauty of their scenery. In a
field of very limited area, easy of access and
soon explored, they present a multitude of
picturesque oDJects, which have long made
them a favorite resort of artists and of those
who find pleasure in the wild haunts of tho
mountains. The traveller upon the river is
struck by their quiet grandeur and more impos-
ing appearance than that of any other scenery
along the Hudson; or, if so fortunate as to
view them from the high lands, a few miles E.
of the river, when the sun is descending behind
their summits and gilding them with its part-
ing rays, he may witness most beautiful dis-
plays of colors, and purple tints reflected into
the atmosphere from the mountain sides, such
as before, seen only upon canvas, he regarded
as the exaggerations of the painter. From the
village of Catskill a stage road of 12 miles leads
to the " Mountain House," a conspicuous hotel,
perched upon one of the terraces of the moun-
tain at an elevation of 2,500 feet above the
river. Here the traveller finds a cool and quiet
retreat from tlie heat and bustle of cities, and a
convenient starting point for his explorations of
the mountains. Their features of especial in-
terest are the high summits, which afibrd
extensive views of the fine country around, of
the Hudson river, visible with all the towns
upon its banks from the Highlands to Albany,
and of the mountains of Vermont, Massachu-
setts, and Oonnecticut, in the di.stant eastern
horizon. The sunrise, as seen from these sum-
mits, or even from the windows of tlie hotel
which look toward the east^ presents a spectacle
of such magnificence that it claims the first re-
gards. The twin lakes nestled beside each
otlier in their mountain bed are soon reached;
and their outlet conducts to what are perhaps
the most striking features of the OatskiUs,

582

0AT8EILL HOUHTAIKS

OATTARAUGUS

the oasoades of the mountain streams, and the
deep gorges or "doves " throagh whioh these
find their -wbj to the lower lands. The 2
highest snmmits are called Round Top and
High Peak, the elevation of which ahove the
sea, according to the harometrical measure-
ments of Capt. Partridge, is ahout 8,800 feet.
The dove of the Oatterskill, or Eaaterskill,
which commences a mile west from the litUe
lakes, lies hetween these and Bound Top, the
latter heing on the S. and the lakes on the
N. side, msh Peak is 6 m. distant l&om
the head of the dove, and is reached from
thence only by a foot-path. The clove, (mean-
ing that of the Oatterskill), is a remarkable
ravine of 6 m. in length. At its head the
rivulet from the lakes meets another branch
from the N., and their united waters flow
with increasing swiftness to a point where, as
described by C!ooper in the '* Pioneer,^' the
mountain divides like the cleft foot of a deer,
leaving a deep hollow for the brook to tumble
into. The first perpendicular descent is here
about 120 feet over a projecting shdf of sand-
stone. Other falls and precipitous descents
succeed below, till in 100 rods the total dif-
ference of elevation is estimated at 400 feet.
In the winter season the upper fall becomes
encased in a hollow column of bine ice, which
reflects in the rays of the sun the brilliant
colors of the prism. Below the falls the sides
of the gorge nse in a succession of walls of rock
tothehciffhtofSOOfeetormore. Other falls are
met w.ithl)y following the stream down toward
the Hudson, till 2 m. above the village of Oats-
kill the waters are discharged into the stream
of this name. The gorge called the 8tony
clove is 6 m. W. f^om the head of that just
described, in a portion of the group called the
Shandaken mountains. It is only H m. long.
The clove of the Plattekill is 6 m. to the S.,
beyond the Bound Top and High Peak. Its
scenery possesses the same wild character of
deep ravines and tumbling torrents as the Oat-
tenkilL Numerous side streams are seen de-
scending the steep mountain on its 6. side
from an altitude of 2.000 feet, in cascades —
sometimes conceded by the forest, and then
flashing to light through the evergreen foliage,
leaping from ledge to ledge till they minsle
their waters with. the Platteskill. Where Uie
stream first falls into the clove it is said to de-
scend in successive falls 1,000 feet in a few
hundred yards ; and, as stated by others, 2,500
in 2 m. These streams which flow, down the
£. slopes of the mountains soon find their
way into the Hudson. On the W. side
the drainage is into the Schohariekill, which
runs northward and falls into the Mohawk 50
m. above its junction with the Hudson. These
streams, particularly among tiie falls near their
source, abound with the fine speckled trout,
which fish are dso taken in the lakes dready
noticed, and in the few others that are met wi^
about the mountains. The forest growth near
the foot of the mountains is black and white oak,

with a variety of other trees intenpened,
as hickory, chestnut, butternut, and leTeral
spedes of pine. Oedars and swamp a& are
found in the swamps. The hard-wood growth
of maple, beech, and birch is met wi£ upon
the better soils up the mountdn sides, while
hemlock, spruce, and the bdsam fir occupy
the more barren and rocky places, and shade
-with their dark, evergreen foliage the currenta
of water, whether these fiow upon the summit
levels or in. the deep chasms of the cloves.
The valleys beyond the £. ridge contdn eiteo-
dve forests of hemlock, with the beech, birch,
and wild cherry tree intermixed. The abnn-
dance of the hemlock has led to the establish-
ment of many tanneries about the mountaips,
and the gathering of its bark, together with
getting down the more vduable kinds of
timber, has been the only employment for*
nished by the resources of these moontaiiia
to the population thinly scattered among their
recesses.

OATSUP, or Catchup, a condiment prepared
firom mushrooms, tomatoes, or the rinds of green
wdnuts. The substance is well macerated for
seyerd da^s in water, saturated with salt The
liquor drained off is simmered as long as scam
rises to the surface. It is then seasoned with
ginger, aUspice, pepper, doves, and boiled gen-
tly for half an hour; when cold, it should be
dosely bottled up, and left to stand for
some months or a year before using. Care
should be taken to boil it in vessels lined with
tin or enamelled ; for it is rendered poiaonous
by being boiled in copper. Much of the article
sold in England is found to be of this character;
and it is very probable that copper may be d^
tected in the article sold in our shops. At all
events, it is of most uncertain oompomtion, and it
is likely to consist of very different materials
from those of which it purports to be made.

OATTARAUGUS, a co. in the W. S. W. part
ofN. Y.; area about 1,250 sq.m.; pop. in 1855,
89,630. It borders on Pennsylvania, and u
partly bounded on the N. by Oattaraugns creeL
The surface is hilly, but there are few monn-
tdns of considerable dtitude. The soil is rich
and productive, yielding good crops of grun,
and affording excellent pasturage. The prodQ^
tions in 1856 were 79,000 bushels of wheats
809,762 of Indian com, 697,670 of oats, 800,24b
of potatoes, 1,770 pounds of tobacco, 1,957,183 oi
butter, 1,717,484 of cheese, and 62,347 tons of
hay. There were 20 grist mills, 169 sawmill?,
15 tanneries, 1 brewery, 4 furnaces, 1 machine
shop, 1 woollen factory, 61 churchM^ 242 school-
houses, and 6 newspaper offices. The Alle|ha-
ny river and the numerous creeks which floir
through the county fiimish motive-power. B<^'
iron ore, peat, marl, manganese, ana sdphnrare
found in different places ; sdt springs haTeheen
discovered, and petroleum springs exist in the t-
part of the county. It was formed from a por-
tion of Genesee co. in 1808, and during the last
few years has increased very rapidly. CatUe
and lumber are the prindpd exports, the trans-

CATTAEa ^1

^^^B OATXl $6*

■ nmtstfjif rifwMth b ^ttn*3t fnt^WiilrA f-y tbi*

irfo ltiv»ixf-uT tM m7Tr,ff*j H ibc Ttti fl^lMne

1 <'-

iu Uk^^ QA^^ilid,

^^JF

1 ''

i. . -1 #•*- .

_. . ,

b • . iia^

■ c

H '

,. ♦♦J nifc

I ^

w ~

*«.'.. u

■^ i.

S:.

t*u.

ttrwl^

dl»

fur»»fl^4

, O^M

•-^. TU..

t^l 4lno;r t

til'

^,iUrj£i

If.
I

I>.,

Tiritb«UKhu.

^' Vf^t'i^V 't r (!^...,, -., f-s „i'.r *-. [ .1

.;_, ,^ „.,,,,. ,_

■ AMy lo oil

., i^r. m liH ^1

U,n

S£J-

TJw

ftmii4 kb'

TfHS

jrr^tap -

Ot,'-

,i'.L4 a v/m.

B*- 1.

MB. in» [

1^,. ..-

.T.,«, H ..

lit.

ft-

21-

'^iftJh

mi • ■ . . . . ,,.

»<

,» * . ^ ... ' ,

t*'

lU«flL, U^l

nui ♦iii'ur**ij;i '''^^7 ■*^*^' i»iAiwgeiRni»

Ift

mdi&r ib«

lul vtMOcfl n:> y Mrmdjf jMflif*

.1 ^ r KJi^Mnh Of

i£UI3b i{«lf of ^tllU

. Ml? V r-t I'* ■* JlIf.'TS"

584

OATTUS

now IfiBrbnrc^ on the Lalm,and that another of
tiieir towns was Castellnm Oattorom, now Hesse
Cassel, on the Fnlda. In another we find them
on the river Lippe in the bishopric of Pader-
boni, a fhll degree to the N. of Marbnrg. Last-
ly, we find it distinctly stated by Tacitos, in his
"Germany " (80, 81, and 82). that their conn-
try lay between the Rhine and Danube, extend-
ing from the Black Fore^ on the S., to what
were called the I>ecumate$ Agr% a tract of
land which pdd tithe to the Romans, and lay
iJong the latter river, to the northward. To
make tiie various statements agree, their terri-
tory mast have extended over more than 6^ of
latitade, indading Hesse Oassel on the K, and
Baden on the 8. According to Tacitos, who
perfectly describes their character, habits, and
manner of life, they were far less barbarous, so
far at least as regards their military tactics,
than the other German tribes. " They divided
the day,'* he says, " into watches ; fort&ed their
positions by night; hdd fortune of war among
the chances, valor among the certainties, of
life; and, what is most unusual, they trusted
more in the skill of their general than in the
valor of their army, a thing which belongs in
general," he adds, " to the Roman discipline
only. All their force lies in their infantry,
whom, beside their arms, they load with tools
and provisions ; so that, while other tribes go
out prepared for battle, the Gatti march in a
condition for a campaign." They did not allow
their young men to cut their bur or trim their
beards, until they had slain an enemy ; and all
youths of unusual strength and size were com-
pelled to wear an iron ring, after a certain age,
as a mark of dishonor and reproach until they
should have gained the right to remove it by
slaying a man in battie. They had no individ-
ual property of land or houses, no care for to-
morrow. Every one was fed, wherever he
chanced to be at the moment ; equally careless
of their own, and lavish of that of others,
whether it were property or life, they persisted
thus until extreme old age deprived them of
such robust and hardy vigor.

CATTLE, a dass of domestic animals. In
its primary sense, horses and asses are included
in tne term, as well as oxen, cows^ dieep, goats,
and perhaps swine. In England, beasts of the
ox species are more precisely described as
black cattie, or neat cattie. In the United
States, the term cattie is usually applied
to homed animals alone. like that of
many other species of animals now domesti-
oateo, as the sheep, the dog, and our com-
mon barn-yard noultiy, the origin of the ox
cannot be tracea distinctly to any tvpe now
existing in a state of nature. The distinctive
characteristics of the common domestic cattie
are smooth un wrinkled horns, growing sideways
at their ongin^ and directed upward, or in some
breeds downward and forward, with a semi-
lunar curve. The forehead of the common
ox is flat, longer than it is broad, and has the
round horns placed at the two extremities of a

projecting horizontal line, separating the front
from the occiput; but tiie horns tiiemaelTes
differ so widely in the different breeds, which
have been the result of thousands of years of
domestication, that no specific character can be
founded upon them. In color, like all highly col-
tivated domestic animals^ they run throngh all
hues and shades, from tiie pl^ bkcks, whites,
browns, reds, duns, grays, and blues, to eTerj
variety of piebald, mottied, spotted, flecked or
brindled ; the colors being in some d^ree dis-
tinctive of the various select breeds. Thus the
Devonshires run to self-colored red and light
tan or dun, the Durhams to dark red piebald^
with the white portions sometimes flecked or
sanded, though this is rather an Ayrshire mark;
the Aldemeys to light red, or yellow, and
white ; the Ayrshires to roan and piebald ; and
the small Scottish kyloes. or mountain oxen,
to self-colored blacks, reds, and briudles. In
Calabria there is still a large breed of snow-
white cattie, formerly in great request for sacri-
ficial purposes, which has descended unchanged
fi*om classic ages ; and every traveller in Italy
knows the large, genUe, gray and moose-colored
oxen of the Gampagna, wita their soft, langnid
eyes. In Hungary there is a remarkable breed
of gray or dark blue cattle ; a bull of vhich
breed was imported some years since into the
United States by the late Boswell Golt, of Pat-
erson, N. J. They have wide-spreadinghonisand
coarse flesh, but fatten easily. In the East^ there
exist many singular and aistinct species, the
most remarkable of which is, perhaps, the cele-
brated sacred or Brahminio bull ; a heayy, in-
dolent, phlegmatic aninud, with short reflected
horns, large pendulous ears, and an enor-
mous hump and dewlap of solid &tty matter,
which never, even under the heat of an Indian
sun, is known to '* melt, thaw, and resolve
itself into a dew." Its coat is smooth, and
sleeker than even that of the common cattie,
while its form approaches nearer to that of the
bison. Beside this, they have the hnge, mo-
rose, almost hairless-hided bu£Gik>, both wild
and half domesticated, with its grea^ ^
orescent-shaped horns, of 18 inches girth at the
root, and 4 or 6 feet measure round Uieextenor
curve ; the beautiful, littie, hump-backed, gentle
2ebu ; that strange animal, the yak, or grant-
ing ox of Thibet, witii a t«l Kke thi^ a »
horse ; and probably many other varieties, yei
imperfectiy Known and undescribei— It wm
formerly supposed that domestic cattle vere
descended from the wild European bison, w
urus; but Ouvier has shown that this ideatf
wholly erroneous, by pointing out permanent
characteristic distinctions in Uie osseous strnc-
ture, particularly in the formation of the swi^
and insertion of the horns. It appews tbtt
there has been generally overlooked bv nat-
uralists a race of perfectiy wild cattle pe-
culiar to the British isles, which, formerly
known as tiie wUd bull of tiie great Caledonian
forest, seems to have ranged all tiw ^^
northern regions of the island. Thejr ^^

CATTLl

of mediiim sIm, oofnpactly bailt, Invuriably of
a dingy, cfeam-flolored white, with jet black
horns and hoofe, and th<i upper half of the
^ra either black or dull red. They are rep-
reaettted as having fdnntrlj had mane^; bnt
tha! eharaet^mtic 13 losl;^ althotigh tbeir iDdomi-
table spirit and desperate fercwlty reraain no-
chaag^d, Within a few yaara throe herda of
these cattlo were in eKisteuco ; one In the chusa
of ChilliDpham castle, tho propeHy of the carl
of TankerTillo^ in Northumberland ; one in that
of the dake of Ram il too, at Hamtlton cufitlo,
in Scotland ; and one at Drumlanrig^ in Dum-
^'-^'■-liire. Lord TnnkerYilli^'^j ht^d wero r^d-
eared; those of the doke of Hamilton had the
black ears which are considered characteristic
of the pure Scottish race. Although kept in
confinement within vast enclosed chases^ these
cattle were perfectly wild, tameless, and savage.
They would hold no connection with other
cattle, more than the red deer will with the
fallow ; they would not brook the approach of
man, and evinced their original wild natnre by
the pertinacity with which the cows concealed
their calves in deep brakes of fern or under-
wood, and resisted any approach to their lair.
It is said even that^ if discovered, they would
themselves destroy their offspring, as the bulla
were known to do their disabled or superannu*
ated companions. The structural characteris-
tics of these cattle differ in no respect from
those of the domestic ox ; their invariable self-
color is a certain evidence of the purity and
antiquity of their breed, as it is a strong proof
that they are not the descendants of tame
animals relapsed into a savage state; since
such — as is the case with the South Ameri-
can herds — ^long retain their variegated hues,
the tokens of domestication and servitude.
—Of the cattle of continental Europe, the Po-
lish or Ukraine oxen are large, strong, and
fatten readily, the flesh being succulent and
well flavored. The cows are shy, not fit
for the dairy; color light gray, seldom black
or white; oxen docile at work. On the
plains of Jutland. Holstein, and Schleswig,
there is a fine breed with small, crooked
horns, supposed to be allied to the Friesland
and Holderness breed; colors various, mouse
or fawn interspersed with white being most
common. Red cows of this breed are seldom
seon. The cows are good milkers in moderate
pastnres. The oxen fatten well when grazed or
8tall-fed at the proper age, being fine in horn and
bone, wide in loin, but not as hardy and strong
for labor as the Hungarian breed. Nearer the
^Vlpsthe cattle are stronger and more active.
The largest are among the Swiss. TheFreyburg
race have very rich pastures in the vicinity of
Greyers (Gruy^res). The cows most prized ar^
large and wide in the flank, strong in the horn,
short and strong in bone ; they show a prom-
inence about the root of the tail which would
bo considered a blemish by short-horn breeders.
Their milk is rich in pasture, or when stall-fed
on clover or lucem; the oxea are good work-

era^ but heavy aod slow, and fatten welt. In
the Jura there ii n small, active motintajn breed*
that ke«p well on little food ; they arc of a li^hl
red color; oxen activo and strong for their siM^
drawing by the boms. They are not jirofitaWd
for atall-fceding, but good for mountain cot-
tagers, as they clirab liKd goaU, feeding 00 tha
pat<::he3 of pasture. The Norman breed giTt
character to all the cattle in the north of France^
except near the enstern frontier; they are light
red, sometimes spotted with white; horns shor^
BDt sellout, and turned up with a black tip ; legtf
fine and £$knder ; hlp9 high ; thighs thin ; good
m il k f^ '■^ , w\*h r io li "■■, "^^k. Th e y *iry u ? af*JJ y !\'d oil
thin pastures, along roads and the balks whidi
divide fields. In Normandy the pastnres are
better, and the cattle larger. The Alderneys or
Jerseys, in France, are supposed to be a smaller
variety of the Norman, with shorter horns and
more deer-like forms. This breed is very do-
cile, having been for generations accustomed
to be tethered in fields, along the roads, or in
yards. They are found in gentlemen's narks
and pleasure-grounds in England. A large
number have been brought to Uie United Stat^
but they are not considered so profitable as
some other breeds. The Italian breed is
most remarkable for immense length of horn.
No pains is expended on this breed except in
northern Italy, where the Parmesan cheese is
made. The Italian cattle resemble the Swiss.—
In England the breeding of cattle has been car-
ried to the greatest perfection. The " Commen-
taries '' of Ofl}sar state that the British in his
time had great numbers of cattle, though of
no great bulk or beauty. The island being
divided into many petty sovereignties, cattle
were the safest kind of property, as they could
be driven away from danger. When more
peaceful times returned, cattle were neglected
for other productions, their size and num-
ber diminished, and not until within the last
160 years was any considerable effort made to
improve them. The breeds in England are as
various as the districts they inhabit, or the fan-
cies of the breeders. A curious classification
by the horns has obtained, having been found
nsefuL The long-horns, originally from Lan-
cashire, were much improved by Mr. Bakewell,
of Leicestershire, and are now found in the
midland counties. The short-horns first ap-
peared in Lincolnshire and the northern coun-
ties, but are now found in most parts of the
island. The middle-boms, a valuable and
beautiful breed, came from the north of Devon,
the east of Sussex, Herefordshire, and Glou-
cestershire. The crumpled horn is found in
Aldemey on the south coast, and in almost ev-
ery park in small numbers. The hornless or
polled cattle were first derived from Galloway,
and now prevail in Suffolk and Norfolk. "Which
is the onginal breed of all has been a bone of
contention among English breeders. It is held
by some that the long-horns are of Irish extrac-
tion; that the short-horns were produced by
the efforts of breeders ; while the polled, though

M«

OATILB

loondiiKMrtaiiiplMesfroDi time ImTnemorial,
•re Buppoeed to be aoddeatal; and that to tho
niddle-honui mnat therefore be asoribed the
honor of beinff the original breed. Aa the na-
tiTea of Britain retired before invaderBi tbej
drove their cattle to the fastneasea of north
Bevoa and Oomwallf the mountain regiona of
Walesi the wealda of Snasex; and there the
cattle nave been the aame from time immemo-
rialf while on the eaatem coast the cattle be-
came a mongrel breed, conforming themaelvea
to paatnre and climate. . Obaervation wovea
that the cattle in Devonahire^ Snaaez, Walea,
and Scotland, are esaentiallj the aame— mid-
dle-homed, not great milkers, active workers,
eaqrto fatten; aU showing traces of likeness to
one breed, however changed by soil, climate,
and time.— The earliest importation of cattle
to America waa made by Oolombna in 1498;
he brought a boll and several cows. Others
were brought by succeeding Spanish settlersp
from which the wild cattle of Texas and South
America must have origmated. The Porta-
gneee took cattle to New&nndland about 1558|
but no trace of them now ezists. Norman oat*
fie were brought to Canada about 1600. In
1611, Sir Thomas Gates brought from Devon*
shire and Hertfordshire 100 head to Jamestown.
In 162i, Francis Winslow brought 8 heifers
and a bull to MasBaohusetts. At this period no
fixed breeds, as such, were known in England.
In the United States there is now a class of
native cattle, arising from a mixture of various
breeds imported by the early settlers, who, for
the want of bams, and from habits established
in a milder climate, allowed their cattle to suf-
fer severely; many perished, the survivors de*
generating in size and quality. As agriculture
advanced and settlers became more prosperous,
the cattle were improved; and there are to be
found in different aistricts native cattle varying
with the richness of soil, salubrity of climate^
and care of breeders. The English breeds,
gaining celebrity, attracted the attention of en-
terprising breeders here, who ocMumenoed im-
porting theDurhams, Devons, Ayrshires, Here-
fords, and Alderneys, with a few Galloways
and some long-horns, and occadonally a few
Scotch cattle. These cattle^ imported at great
oost, and not inured to our climate- and rough
treatment prospered only in the best situationa,
and for a long period attracted little attention
from ordinary farmers. At present there are
many places where the pure breeds are propa*
gated, each having its advocates; while £ann«
ers who make money from milk, butter, and
cheese, stoutly maintdn the value of native cat*>
tie and their crosses with the best breeds. There
are, however, few neighborhoods where traces of
imported blood may not be found ; indeed, the
high prices for cattle and their products which
have prevailed since 1850 have done much to
stimulate breeders to improvement. The short-
horn or Durham is becconing the favorite breed
in the West, where beef is the leading object of
ihe cultivator. The model of this breed forma

aaclid reetsD|^ or paiilMqpiped, whsa the
head imd legs are removed, leaving no m-
filled q>aoe and much solid meat with utUe oflU.
The famous herd of Mr. Samuel Tbotne, of
Dutchess CO., N. T., contains 70 of the finest
animals gathered from English herds, and from
the choice importations of OoL Lewis G. Morris
and lir. Beoar, who have kwg been known as
breeders of this admirable stock. Thesesoinub
eostfrom $300 to $6,000 per hesd, beside the
cost of importation. Mr. Thome's purchase of
lCr.Monis*a herd amoonted to |M,OOQ, and the
offiipring are eaflerly sought for by improTiog
Maimers. Of this breed ^* Men's Americsn
Bfiort-Hom Herd Book" saya: ^^They are, as s
race^ good milkers, remarkable in the richness of
its Quality, and the quantity is freonently sa^
prising. Eor bee( they are unrivalled. Their
capacity to accumulate fledi is enormoos, and .
they feed with a kindliness and thriftnerer wit-
nessed incur native breeds. In nulk, ixBtanoes
have been frequent in whidh they have given 34
to 86 quarts a day, on grass psstnre onlv, for
weeks together; yielding 10 to 16 lbs. of butter
per week. Ck>w8 have slanghtered 1,800 to 1^500
lbs. neat weight, with extraordinary proof; and
bullocks upward of 8,600 lbs." The short-
horn crosses with native stock are modi prized,
forming good milkers, easy keepers, and profit-
able anunals for beef, and in the handsofordiosiy
fjarmers prove better than the pure breed of
short-horns. About 1886 aome Ayiahires veie
imported, and this breed has ever sinoe borne
in the United States a high character for milk,
yoke, and shambles. The Herefcvd breed does
not seem to find general favor. Ahoigeherd
of Aldemejs, of the most symmetries! p^opo^
tions for that breed, was imported a few yesn
nnce b y Mr. B. L. Colt, of Paterson, K. J^ u^
seem admirably adapted to light thin pastares.
Though their ndlkis very ridi, the quantity is
small They are poor for bee^ and not famoos
as workers ; some breeders in the esaterastsiei,
however, belieye them to be very profitable for
butter and cheese. The long-horns have been
sparingly imported, and do not &id ftvor. The
Sussex are better liked, though few have been
introduced, while their soppomd coogeaers^tfae
Devons, are held by many mtelligent men to be
superior to theDurhams for^t^e southemsod
most of the older statea. Being an crigw
breed, and without cross or admixture of blood,
they have sustained a superior cspabilitj of
improvement among the best breeders who-
ever they have been bred with care. The hide
is soft and mellow, indicating an aptitude to m
ten, the bones small, and in color, grace, apd
elegance of carriage^ they poasesa a superiontj
over all other Britiah cattle. The deeoendsnts
of imported stock bring a high pricey sod athor
oughbred cow can raxely be purchased. Psvy s
"Herd Book" gives afnll account of this breed
of cattle. The little Kerry cow of Irelsnd, term-
ed the " poor man'a cow,^' haabeen reoomintf<^
ed for poorer lands in mountainous r^g^oos, m
as yet no steps hove been tdcen to introduoe her

^^^^^ (UT1TWA&

CA3TJUUB US

^^g^OMdftbftT - -

"^ -TTM^ ODM pdter!ri«l«d» Iteatf iMt^ 7^

^^^^^^k M» aavi

cC A|ir#^i>l1d»c,»!l«iUMii%,ii>illialib^

^^^■K^tliit

.»1PVI rsti..J K V 3i^ ,i V,Of r^.l tl.„*,'»m^*i ^n>r k.. Ii,i.-f4

Stt^W.

■ mat «iol>:i.

r ::

'itam

V r^

wl^ liliwigiii So Oliii Df It

l«..r UJ :

ckmt esmdM^ nv mniiwiry to mAinialJi food

L lufe^Oi to cvbUtt fir ill Imfiit^- f^"- "*ki(IU

■ tifiu, Vftfktf pf&i^i0£ii»tm. food'

AfAl^pAWe'

■ TIm> pf»aUr^' ..(*Mfi it4 turner I'l hiffyRft^'

th6 r»-r

■ idT^oainlm^l

■ llbci«Q whn !uivl

.n.^

f aadfr. ,Li,o3r£*flrtff^n]iefiAai*^^ln-*i^,

■ 1"J31

OlovitT, taxjjluiia, &e^ Af fi .

liKciii. TliMi«$r*«iitfatttiii&<

let wiliwd b«>l - '

' , T •'. p .%_

ftufawlt bilag ti

didKM Add^UitJUL ^r;,.'

1 ..i'-jj *. *f^ J J • »

Mac tiifiiaa i)#{iiftfciii e^ n

ifc JU^p#«, A ^ol

loond^t^ tliAE imliw> &mi

Ti.v. -- r. ,- , .t

iboakS t*p iiUiPi>^ in t!h« oil

, _.

Lmris iii« tDiDUTue Btii < iM.

mnAlWa^

C^T'l " ?unTPv1 tLt. niji;,: ., f*r-

fcft'ini', l^ 1

ill" ^aitft.

div,

^ fi 4iW

01^1'

H 1^ 1 gti liuuiuffli il

of mk^

B ^r^ ^^j«klj ir^rflQio

R*»fi*r.

V " .;t:.iia til Ljitiu in^ thi^ dtj of XtW Turk

tr^i. • • -ji: ^liiii

■ ifi mm% tiimrcA &, ami, £«!««* tS0, enWi

K. i^tSt^ CL

■ ^j|^ , iolJl ^r C]i0 7e*r. biftiiiM I^ST^ ealfvQ

■ df Xn&ka «ri» ttrtiuL.: ' * - ^ r,f tlia

elk»i>rT u riT ubHidAAlt^,ljmpo0i»lmMiMV09

■l l««i. EfuiiitU oi^Q* CL 'SUQO

innnmiu; Ithk liiiup fund* iJCk iMfOfflttl
opodi {ft l&ii klftfir^ «r imr rill|(iK)^ m mmm *W

ninT 1;< tTjii^i*JL twill In fLvif fi'il iif. 1 m>j-i 1">

^ oil tL^*r|roo^« fm3F.

■ O ATTTTWAIl, Of KATmrAfc iKovisw dobk

tl.i ■

pt^Hfe^

UfU&

RhUTi biMWL*, ■ ^ ?

]

■ ^0 «xh1 .

^^^M6,fKlO.

vpu in«i fcirrr i*-ti*- iv, **«* >*■»> m^j .u'lr^n-

^^^■ih ICor

> Tb«iit 4ra tevenl ptwowftf nfilcxi^jwii

^^^Mr^ F

^^■BvaS^ •

ilny fmtfktim* IM iiymnt^mm

^^Pl^^r r^LUr. i

-. ^^oTJittin IViMr^hnvBtMKiii: '^

588

GAUB

QAUOASUB

liaT6 been ivritten by Floru in the td eeotiir/.
In his epigrammatio poems the Boznan spirit
pfrevftils, and in the elegiac the Greek. Most of
his epigrams are pleasant light impromptosy foU
of irony and satire, of yarioos forms and on a
great varied of sabieots; ibej contain many
obscnre passages ana some allosions offensive to
modem ears ; they are composed in 18 different
metres. The elefl^ are imitations of the Greek,
especiidly of Oammachns and Sappho; thev ex-
hibit, however, great vigor of langoage, and leas
frivolity than his epigrams ; some of the best
are the 58d, 66th, and 66th. A good edition of
his woi^ is that of Sillig, G<)ttingen, 1828.

OAtTB (Germ. Kdb), a German toirn, in the
duchy of Nassau, parish of St Goarshansen, on
the Rhine, which was here crossed by Blacher
with his army, Jan. 1, 1814. The ruins of the
caide of Gutenfels rise on a steep rock above
the town, and in the middle of the river between
Caab and Bacharach istheLeyenfels, a rock np-
on which is the famous castle called the Old
Pftk or the Fit^zgnfeuMtemf supposed to have
been built as a toll hou8& and spoken of in the
legends of the Bhine as the place where in for-
jner times the princesses of the palatinate used
to be delivered of their children. The inhabit-
ants are ensaged in navigation and in trade
in wine, and more actively in slate, of which
there are extensive quarries in the lateral val-
leys. Pop. about 1,500.

OAUOA. a state of Now Granada, bounded
N. by the Caribbean sea, W. by the Pacific, S.
by Ecuador, and £. by the provinces Magdaleoa
and Oundinamarca, divided into the 4 districts
of Popayan, Ghoco, Buenaventura, and Pas*
to. Area 68,800 sq.m. Pop. in 1858, 49,000 Oau-
casian whites, 25,000 civilized Indians, 88,000
negroes, 14,600 quadroons, 88,049 mestiEos^
114,800mulattoes, 2,800 zambas; total, 276,249.
The principal town is Popayan, near the 2 far
mous volcanoes of Pnrace and Sotara. The
principal mountains are the Paramo de Gnana-
cas, the Qnindin, PastOjSindagua, aU branches of
the OordiUeras de los Andes. The principal pro-
dnctions of the state are gold and platioa. The
soil is very fertile, and cattle and sheep abound.
Ckicoa, cotton, tobacco, coffee, and various kinds
of grain and rice^ are also produced. The sea
cf Papas in this state is the source of the Mag^
dalena river. Among the rivers is the Pussm-
Uo, which springs from the vdcano Purace, the
hot acid waters of which are poisonous and
produces a dangerous disease of the eyes; the
Atrato, which is united with the San Juan
by the canal of Baspadura in this state ; and,
beside other smaller rivers, the Oanca, which
rises in that part of the Andes called Paramo
de Guanacas, flows through the provinces of
Popayan, Antioquia, and Oarthagena, and after
a course of 600 miles between the central and
W. OordiUera of the Andes, fiOls into the Mag-
dalena, between the small towns of Pinto and
Tacaloa. Oali, Toro, and Antioquia are the
principal towns on its banks, and the Nechl is
Its largest trlbotaiy. The valley of the Ganoa

is one of the ikliest, most IbrtSle^ nd most pop-
ulous districts of South America.

OAUCASIAN BACE. one of the 5 varietiei
into which mankind was oivided by BlumeDbaoL
It is also one of the 8 varieties in the dasoficsp
tion of Ouvier, one of the 15 spedes in that of
Bory de St. Vincent, and wpears in other das-
nfications. Accordhig to Blumenbaeh it is the
central and original race from which tibe othen
have been produced. Its characteristics area
white complexion, reddish cheeks, nut-brown
hair, round he«d, oval &ce with regular festiires»
even brow, thin and regulariy curved noao, aiDall
mouth, perpendicular front teeth, and M roosd
chin. It embraces the most powerfol asd en-
lightened nations of the world, and its geDonl
external appearance is such that Keiners recog-
nized but 2 races of men, the Oancssian or
beautifhl, and the Mongolian or udy. To it
belong aU the ancient and modem i^peani,
excepting the Finnish tribes, the Indiana, Fe^
sians, PhcBnicians, Hebrews, Arabs, and other
tribesof W.Asia, and the Egyptians, Abysriniaiat
Guanches, and other inhabitants of H. Africa.

OAUCASUS^ a general name given to the
region and the chain of mountains therdn vhidi
stretch between the Black and Osapiaa bub,
dividing the Bussian provinces of Cucaocasi
fr^m Transcaucsffla, aiid forming part of the
boundary between Europe and Asia. An out-
line of the country would represent a system of
round»topped mountains (exhibiting fm of
those peaks which distingidsh the Alpine and
other chains), their sides seamed with deep but
fertile valleys, descending to the steppes or
plains which stretch N. into the ooontiy of
the Cossacks, and & to Asia IGdot. The
whole region known aa Cancarian is comprised
within lines extending from the mouth of the
Kooronthe088pian,inlat. 80'',orosaDgtbe40th
and 4l8t parallels in a N. £. diieotion to the
mouth of the Bion, or Phasia, on the Black sea,
lat 42<> N., and from the mouth of the Terek
on the Oaspian, lat 44% to the embouchure of
the Koobem, on the Black sea. in lat iS''; its
extreme points bdng, on the N^. W., in long.
8r^ and on the S. R, in long. 60^ Its area
is roughly estimated at 56,000 sq. m. The
territory N. of the Caucasian chahi vai
formerly known as the Bussian provinoe or
government of Oaucasus, also as GbcaoeBaUf
but it now forms the Bussian government <»
Astrakhan. The vast tract of country S. of ^
mountains forms the present govenunent «
Transcaucasia. The C&ucasus proper coow
of the mountain provinces whidi Bofloa has
so long sought to conquer. It commenoea m
a line of difb frx>ntiog on the OsqncD a^
at the peninsula of Aptheron, whence w
main chain stretches in a N. W. direction to the
shores of the Black sea, a distance of TOO m^
and terminates in the promontoiy where the
sea of Azof unites with the Black sea at the
Bussian fortress of Anapa. From the main cbaffl
other ranges branch N. and 8^ giving the hPiU
country a width of from 65 to 150 d. W

CkTIQJmUS

^3U

eftbAfaar o mwl

|l*,WH*f**.*^ ■ -" ■

HjVK' V. f , .,. .;... ■. _

iii*»utj.Uiiii3 b uffiMil^ t!i^

PtCMHbii^ oei« vmli ] , 1-

b«lliii or !«]fmiitk i^^ti^ i*i L^U^ukin ti**i

Qlklkid Um ikto reuiiniadli

^fUiU^ URL *>T T'lijn- I gVOiUCrinl

jv mcud tkmm on moMMted tcr enloir^

di : ilm aarA sior^ ftliv^ptfw

giiaBtit«yfo U it^iihcieA. 8lifiwr fmom iiti Mjttimibi

Xbtf ^«di»9 an n^d no

ee^vM viiio»tMK-i ..'A Are

n- r

a of ITdUiil ElMiki twi.4t

oo til. pdmrNil riTfi* ee Oift nottli-'

^. • -luiIjTm ^ f!ri^v^ E, Aftd Ilia

laiMSi L ,1 ffie and

u wOl

Uia iraila^ Hlc«, ikx, ltfifattc00| asiJ ifidisu tre

»ad (KtOan hm \mm iniradaooA toto fcflni} lo-
Q4Uti» ijf Uia RiiMMi ilktfieia. Axonof Um
pPodQviiiam pc^liAr U> t^tm GKOgogMi mo a #p&-

i>* ! Cirafoatfwiloir,

0 ■ iM bilir; jiad it

m high elmmr. 4 ^nc^UljlE,

Wild i3atli?iirt? :vj[ ^^o]nJH

l&ixaaiii AtD ttiisftrifaii m" >*if*.'L vr iii« ordi^
fksi7 Wmlf of <I>M la Wof lail tl&e* AJiatfii
p^^^ ...v-^Ewi ../ 1 > l^ kflovrv to Hie latitiMlaira

.1 i^^ liTl,

Ti***

FliW In

!•'

-j^ —^ cfidowafivi

docalt.

Tlllagt ■

iaif! ill tii4«

a f)4ff«dlliiry prt« t ^ . » : <- ti* c nm r^ i
Isdailj modidad XhnL U^nu. Uu^:^
*■'-/ mM Tbmr tidtetnti ii HA uli.im
laadJoHtaif oomptadlkvtai iuio> v^i

nkuzivBd llifOBtfb kliiiid^ Pti^tMf Um mhd

UavTlfltiiriil^*^
■udiElnl iriUi l^

Ikrtaciv sail Tdi ^.'au^^if^t ».ut!rk^M.iT>
lUa«oU3Ui4«» tft Ua boM. Bona n
tliMi fftrasM fis^ ita ymtmma^
ItlS, Ow EuMfauw hmmm waa^u
ftl ol il l7 vWMttivia ^iqotJfiiL
|)04C iu THAI'S a ojmtsiiii wm W

riod oe btfiaratit tin' Cii*irf^»-irtn mf. -■-.

Add Il4« Euonai Wh^^ «j€<iruia

Bofliliiuaa bat* liono tixiiir^iif io ibiir efll'r

114? U^ Uue^r ttiliraiioR iwcwar<i

taisiffcm Woe TtdfcL

taeifMSiaitl qinifir «p i^^ um> rin-.iciuur**
lijfiifkiaa, Ili0 Miilkk onommiaDd ai|3kif»r
Hxiailiiiii a nanif^itL uiJJi^IiaataftL A t^ i^i^ * o
iiaaiiid Ean^Motiali WM ioao itQOg&lail m iki
litfftil of l)i^ nififwoiaiiti liarli^ fur hbi iM

690

OAUOASITS

OAUOUS

become flunotui as the CSroaasians^ chief. This
chie( Easi, kept up a brilliant resistance to
the Rufisian power till 1881, when he was shnt
up in Himry. The Russians stormed the place,
and gained possession of it only when the last
of its defenders had perished ; the chief him-
self was shiin. Hamsad Bey next took the
field, and devoted his first care to coercing
into nentrality the disafiTected tribes, but his
career was cut E^ort by assassination. The
Holli^ Mohammed being now dead, Shamyl
was elected his successor. From that day to
this the war has been carried on with varying
success, but has never flagged. The campaign
of 18dT terminated by the capitnlation of
Shamyl, who was bedeged in Tilitla. During
1888 the Caucasians were employed in prepar-
ing themselves for future resistance, several
of the disaffected tribes joining them. The
passes of the mountains were fortified, and the
strong position of Akulgo was put in readiness
to stand a siege. In the succeeding year the
Russians, under Gen. Grabbe, entered the ter-
ritory, defeated the Oaucasians, and drove them
back upon Akulgo, which was finally taken
after a blockade of 72 days, and 8 days' hand-to-
hand fighting. The Oaucasians once more nom-
inally succumbed to the Russian power. In
the next year, March, 1840, they again revolted.
Having found European tactics mefife^tive in the
previous campaign, they fell back on their old
system of guerrifla warfare. Lesghistan and the
Tchetohentsi were formed into a military organi-
zation, which enabled them to throw their force
on any point. Gen. Grabbe again attempted to
penetrate into the mountains, but was compelled
to retreat With much suffering to his army. The
next attempt to conquer this brave people was
made in 1845 by Prince Woronzo^ who bore
the appointment of governor-general of the Rus-
sian Caucasian provinces. Woronzoff penetrated
to Bargo, which he found in fiames. The cam-
paign being over, Woronzoff returned home.
By his recommendation a new plan of action
wasintroduced against the mountaineers. Hith-
erto the tactics had been to bring them to
pitched battle, with the hope of breaking their
strength at a single blow. Now the plan was
to send detached columns against isolated spots,
and wherever a footing was obtained, to erect
a fort on it. Notwithstanding this, the Cau-
casians have been able to carry on offensive
operations. In f 846 they swept the line of
Russian forts, and returned to their monntiuns
laden with plunder. In 1848 and 1850 they
made similar expeditions, and in 1858 they
took from the Russians several guns, and drove
them back from 8 letmies of territory. During
the Crimean war the Circassians refrained from
taking a conspicuous part They embraced the
opportunity to consolidate their own resources
for the renewed struggle with Russia, which
they foresaw awaited them when the Crimean
war should be over. The destruction by the
allies of the Russian forts on the eastern coast of
the Bhick sea was a fortunate drcumstance for

the Caucasians, and of which they made good
use. As soon as the war was over the Rnssans
again turned their arms agunst them, and the
struggle continues to the present hour. The
whole territory allied to Shamyl h divided
into four provinces, each of which is adminis-
tered by a lieutenant-general. Each province
is subdivided into 6 districts, called Naibdoms,
over each of which presides a Naib, who is re-
quired to maintain 800 horsemen. PHnoe
Bariatinsky left Rusria in Oct. 1856, to assume
the functions of governor in the Caucasus.

CAUCASUS, Indian. See Hindoo-Koobh.

CAUCHY, Attoustin Louis, a French math-
ematician, bom in Paris, Aug. 21, 1789, died
Mav 23, 1857. His father, the poet of Rouen,
and keeper of the archives of the house of
peers (bom 1756, died 1847), gave him a care-
ful education, and he early showed signs of a
talent both for poetry and mathematics. Ad-
mitted in 1805 to the Scale polyteehniquey he
distinguished hunself by the solution of difficult
problems, and maintained the first rank in this
school, and afterward in the hole de» jmU et
ehauMiee, From the vear 1818 down to 1846, he
poured forth almost mcessantiy the riches of a
mind singularly adimted to algebraic and mathe-
matical research. Scarce a branch of mathemat-
ics, pure or applied, does not owe something to his
labors. His fame will rest chiefly on his resid-
uid and his imaginary calculus. He was ad-
mitted to the academy in 1816, and about the
same time appointed professor of mechanics in
the polytechnic school. He published in 1821
** Lectures on Analysis ; " in 1826, "Lecturea on
Differential Calculus;" and in 1826-'28, "Lec-
tures on the Applications of the Infinltedmal Cal-
culus to Geometry." The joriraals of theacadem;
and several European mathematical jooroals
contain numerous and valuable memoira from
his pen. He is highly honored hi his natiro
country both for his genius and the ezcellenoe of
his private character; but bis consdentioua at-
tachment to Bourbon legitimacy prevented
him f^om taking the necessary oath of allogi'
ance, by which alone he oould retain the public
oflBces which he held in 1880, or accept those
offered him on subsequent occasions. In 134^
however, he was appointed to the chair of
mathematical astronomy which was then insti-
tuted at the Paris university; but reftising to
take the requisite oath of allegiance, he relin-
quished thU post in June, 1852. His poKtico-
religious writings testify both to his faith in le-
gitimacy in politics, and in Roman Cathohcism
m religion. One 'of his most charact^tic
works of the kind is his poem Charkt F. «*
Ewagne^ which was published in 1834. ^

CAUCUS, a word of American origin, cm-
ployed in the United States to desiffnate a pan
of the political machinery of the oountiy,
which, though unknown to its written con-
stitutions and resting merely on usage, forms
a marked feature of the American poUtic«
system. The oldest written use of thia wort u
probably in the foUowing pasiage m Jo^

OATJOUB

591

Adams's diary, dated Boston, Feb. 1768 :
'* This day learned that the caucns club meets
at certain times in the garret of Tom Dawes,
the ac^atant of the Boston regiment He has
a large house, and he has a movable partition in
his garret which he takes down, and the whole
club meets in one room. There they smoke
tobacco till yon cannot see from one end of the
garret to the other. There they drink flip, I
suppose, and there they choose a moderator
who puts questions to the vote regularly, and
selectmen, overseers, collectors, wardens, fire-
wards, and representatives are regularly chosen
before they are chosen by the town. They send
committees to wait on the merchants^ club, and
to propose and join in the choice of men and
measures. Capt Cunningham says they have
often selected him to go to those caucuses," &o.
Gordon, in the following passage of his " His-
tory of the American Revolution," under date
of 1775 — at which time he was minister of Rox-
bury near Boston, and very intimate with the
political leaders of the day — traces back this
practice to a much earlier date : *^ More than 50
years ago Mr. Samuel Adamses father and 20
others, one or two from the north end of the
town where all the ship business is carried on,
used to meet, make a caucus, and lay their plans
for introducing certain persons into places of
trust and power. When they had settled it, they
reported and used each their particular influence
with his own circle. He and his friends would
furnish themselves with ballots, including the
names of the parties fixed upon, which they dis-
tributed on the days of election. By acting in
concert, together with a careful and extensive
distribution of ballots, they generally carried
the elections to their own mind. In like man-
ner it was that Mr. 8. Adams first became a
representative for Boston." It has been plaus-
ibly coiyectured that caucus is a corruption of
calkers. Very likely the caucus club which
met in Tom Dawes's garret was originally a
mechanics' club, called, from the leading trade
in it, the calkers' club, which name, with a
variation, it still retained after it had passed
into the hands of politicians. The change of
government consequent on the revolution led,
in the northern states especially, to a great in-
crease in the number of elective oflSces, while
the prevailing idea of the impropriety of self-
nominations and of a personal canvass for votes
made some nominating and canvassing machin-
ery necessary. Meetings held for this purpose
received the name of caucuses. These caucuses
were no longer private clubs. — Soon after the
o<loj)tion of the federal constitution, the people
of the United States became divided into two
strongly marked parties, the federalists and the
republicans. Even the local elections of the
smallest places speedily came to turn for the
most part on this great national party division.
Each party held in each election district its own
caucus to nominate candidates. Public notice
of the time and place was given, and every
voter of the party was at liberty to attend ; but

of course the attendance was chiefly composed
of zealous poUticians. A moderator and clerk
being chosen, a nomination list was opened.
Each person present nominated whom he pleased.
Several copies of the list were made and dis-
tributed through the meeting, each person
placing a mark against the candidate whom he
proposed, and the candidate having the highest
number of marks was declared the nominee.
This method, however, was evidently inapplica-
ble where the constituency was large or the dis-
trict extensive, as was the case when state sena-
tors or representatives in congress were to be
chosen. Hence the substitution of a representa-
tive caucus, delegates being appointed at meet-
ings like that above described, held in case of
cities and large towns in the wards, and in coun-
try districts in the townships. These elective
caucuses commonly took to themselves the name
of nominating conventions, and their introduc-
tion marks a third era in the development of
the caucus system. A considerable period,
however, elapsed before this convention system
was applied to state or presidential nominations.
The members of the state legislatures in the on©
case and of congress in the other — those of each
party holding their own separate caucus — took
upon themselves to make these nominations.
At first these legislative and congressional cau-
cuses were held privately, the result being grad-
ually diffused among the local leaders of the
party by private correspondence. Afterward,
however, they came to be formally and avow-
edly held. Committees were appointed to look
after the elections, and beside a state commit-
tee the legislative caucuses assumed the p^er
of nominating the chairmen of the local county
and district conventions. At length it began
to be objected that in these legislative caucuses
only those districts in which the party was in
the majority were represented, and this and
other causes led, between 1820 and 1880, to the
substitution in New York and Pennsylvania of
state conventions in their place — a custom since
universally imitated. Congressional caucuses
about the same time fell into disfavor. That
held in 1823 to nominate a successor to Mon-
roe was but slenderly attended ; and its nomi-
nation was extensively disregarded, so that Mr.
Crawford, its nominee, was behind both Jack-
son and Adams in the popular vote. At the
presidential election of 1828, Adams became
the candidate of one party and Jackson of the
other, without any formal nomination. Indeed,
it may be observed of the congressional caucus-
es, that so far as the presidency was concerned
they all, except the last of which the nomination
failed, did but select the candidate already des-
ignated by popular expectation. The con-
gressional caucus system being exploded, the
Jackson or democratic party held in 1832 a
national nominating convention, each state
being entitled to the same number of votes as
in the presidential election, and similar conven-
tions of that party have been held to nominate
candidates for each succeeding presidential

OAUDEBEO

OATTUFIXyWEB

term. Hie oppod^iif tiben known a* whigi.
adopted the same policy in 1837» ana
nnoe that period all nominations for the preai-
denoj, bj whatever party or fragment of party,
have been made by a similar agency. The
soathem states, in which orig^naUy there were
few elections l^ the people, ezoent for the
state legislatures and congress, ana in which
the English ^stem of self-nomination and a per-
sonal canvass prevailed, long stood oat against
the canons system. Bat as the choice of
state governors and other state ofScers has
been given to the people, this system has grad-
naUy worked its way, till it is now foirly estab-
lished in all the states. The power of assem-
bling these bodies rests with a committee an-
pointed by the previous convention. Beside
Judging the quallncations of their own members,
and nominating candidates, they assume the
pow5r of drawing up party creeds or platfonnsi
as they are call^ and of determining, in case
of new and important questions, what position
the party shall take. Though their authority,
like that of the religious organizations of the
United States^ to which they bear a certain re-
aemblanoe, la destitute of any legal sanction,
yet it is rigorously upheld by the force of party
feeling, especially in times of great party ex-
citement, fidelity to regular nominations being
sealously inculcated by caucus politicians, both
aa indispensable to success and as the greatest of
poUtical virtues. Membership of these conven-
tions, when made an object of contest, is gen-
jQCsUgrftttiained by superior adroitness and auda-
city. Gross frauds, and in some cases open
vio^ce, are resorted to, possession of the major-
ity m the convention ordinarily carrying with
it^ as between the differeut cliques contending
for its control, the leadership of the part v. The
caucus system is thus often converted into a
contrivance for the distribution of offices among
men more distinguished for intrigue than for
talent, who, by combination and mutual sup-
port, and by serving each other^s turns, are often
raised to offices, and sometimes very high ones,
for which, apart from a caucus nomination, they
would hsjrdly have been thought of as can-
didates.

OAUDEBEO, a French town on the Seine, de-
partment of Seine-Inf6rieure, 26 m. E. of Havre.
Pop. 2,667. The principal edifice is the parish
church, a celebrated Gothic building in the
florid style of the 16th century. It was taken
by the English in 1419, and by the Protestants
in 1662. In 1692 it was besieged by Alexander
Famese, who received beneath its walls a fiital
wound. Its industry was rained by the revoca-
tion of the edict of Nantes in 1686.

0 AUL (Lat eauloy a fold), a membrane which
sometimes envelopes the head of a child when
bom. It b of interest only for the superstitious
feelings with which it has long been regarded.
The child that happened to be Dom with it was
esteemed particularly fortunate ; and the possee-
sion of it afterwaitl, however obtained, was
highly prized, as of a charm of great virtue.

The aoperstition la thoni^t to have eome iW>m
the East; and, aooording to Weston, in bis
** Moral Aphorisms from the Arabic," there are
seversl words in that language for it. With the
French, etrs tU eaiffeS was an aneient nrorerb,
indicative of the good fortune of the inaividaal.
The alchemists ascribed magical virtnea to it ;
and, according to Grose, the health of the p^ -
son bom with it could, in after life, be judged
of by its oondition, whether dry and crisp, or
rehixed and flaccid. Medicinal virtues are
probably atill imputed to it by the ignorant, as
18 the property of preserving the owner of it
from drowning. It is consequentiy bought and
sold occasionally at a high price, and advertise-
ments of it are met with in foreign joamals,
and in one instance^ in the year 1857, in a
journal of New York. The purohasen are in
general seafaring men.

OAULABAG&, or Eaiulbaob, a town of
the Pux\}aub, in the Salt Range, 68 m. from
Peshawar, lat. 88° 12' N., long. Tl*^ 85' E. It
is built on terraces cut out of tiie dedivity of a
lull near the river Indus, which waters the
town. In the vicinity are large masses of pure
rock salt, and a considerable trade is oarried on
in thb article and in alum.

OAULAINOOUBT, Abkavd Avgubkiv Lona,
marquis o£ and duke of Yicenza, a French
general and diplomatist, bom at Cauluncourt,
department Aisne^ Dec 0, 1778, died in
Paris, Feb. 19, 1827. He entered the army
at an early age: being of noble birth he
was deprived of nis property at the revola-
tion, and cast into priaon, but vaa libera
ated; and by the interposition of Gen. Hodie
reinstated in the army. After being attached
to the Turkish embassy for 2 years, be distin-

Siished himself in the campaign of 1800 under
oreau, and after the peace of Lun^ville was
sent by the flrst consul to congratulate the Rus-
sian emperor Alexander on his accession. On
lus return Napoleon attached him to his own
8ta£ While he was superintending aome
operations on the Rhine the duke d'£nghien
was arrested and shot, and sospicion lunted
that Oaulaincourt had a hand in his death. lis
accompanied Napoleon in his campsSgns of 1605,
'6, and 7; in the latter year being appointed
minister to Russia, whence he returned in 1811.
After the burning of Moscow Napoleon chose
him as his travelling companion to France.
He took a prominent part in the deliberations
of the 2 chambers during the Hundred Days,
and lived in retirement after the seoond resto-
ration of the Bourbons. — ^Auetjen Jmasx Gx-
BRixL, brother of the preceding, bom at Oao-
lainconrt, Sept 16, 1777, died Sept. 7, 1812.
He served with distinction in the campaigns of
the Rhine, Italy, and Spain, obtained the radc
of brigadier-general, and commanded a division
of cuirassiers in the expedition to Rusna. He
fell in the battle of Borodino, at the entrance of
a redoubt which he had forced.

OAULIFLOWER (Prauka oleraeea hotrytu,
De Oandolle), a cultivated plant of the cabbage

^V CXUHA

<Mt9£ ^B^^H

H Ut^\ ft Im t> CCilUr»»C* tnrrT'TM »^vr/iif t,f ^^L

dwij(t*i fen t^TT '-^J!:^ I', t^ t«wT^ 'ssi-f tc« ^^^^|

■ £>.•

■ b..

■ 1^¥4^ lifW I' >

^m T« u fc^rm '.

H i'j

-t>i

^^^^H

■ i^

Oiii

eamttm ^^H

Hun

!lrt! - ^^M

i^M

^^^^^^^^^^.

, r.}^

^^^^^H

Hi^Bi

■ tr.'

■ ^

■ wh

■ b:

,4 U ilk jiiiWiiiJUkiA, ■ ^^^^M

■ F

0^f\ \] ^MiH^ ^ A ^^^H

■ m

^^^^_

H **

• orv

i> ^^^^^H

^^^g^U'

i^Oisii^miil^

: 1 iwi hi-A.'

^^H

ick fTrake*! tr ^^t

' ^^H

^*''^rB vii liiU mny^ c, — .

^^^^^^H

i'<i.

fioiail i ^^^H

■.'•1l iin.ifiLL'fir CiioTi%

tHia.m<jr ^^^^|

^^^^^^to 1

liiuii;4is,

^^^^1

^^^^^^^^Hli

n^t^tii^;

^^^H

■

^^^^^^^^^^P i LI '. > n. .,

t'j»v 1 ^^^^^H

^^^Ki^ In Qtm 01

oefiJt^] ^^H

^^■pVf^Qrf^ milVlU •

^^^Kuj4 eocitltmi

^^^^^^A » 4i.'i.'iL<

^^H

^^^^^^H|b# bucf^>

^^^^Ke^rvJ^

■fS^Ttti^j

: U4 iU 14U4J

^jvlt tX 1^'^Ji v^ 4 U Lri LL£ ^JOiii-^pUUM ^; 4 £«-v* ^^^^|

OAUSE

oles niher than of an indiTidaal, are distiii-
apikhfld from other indiTiduals or meeiM,
These properties may be called formal vith
relbrenoe to the laws of indactioiL In this
view of them, the material properties are a
cause or groimd of reality to certain others
wMch are implied; thus, threeangledness
wodd be a material property and bo a ma*
terial cause of a triangle, bat the eqaalify
of tiie mm of its angles with two right an-
gles would be an implied property, not obTi-
COS on the first conception of a triangle, but as
necessary to its reality as the material property
of threeanglednesB which necessitated it. 80
also caoine teeth, for example, are a formal
property of all the eamtdcB, and a camiToroiia
mode of life is the modal property, denoting the
mode of li£» or beiiig which a formal property
necessitates, and of which it is in some sense of
the word the oaose. S0| too, in regard to final
caoae, it may have a sabjectiye and an objective
meaning, a psycholog^ciJand an ontolog^cal ap-
plication ; thas, the end attained or accomplished
would be the final cause in the objective or onto-
logical sense. In this sense alone does Ar-
istotle appear to have used the word. But in
some cases there is no ontological or objective
end, no material or substanthd result ; and in
that case the motive of the agent and his grat-
ification have come to be called the final cause,
though this is more properly, and generally in
&ct in modem times, called the moving cause.
Swedenborgj however, and after him the
Swedenborgians also, generally and perhaps
exclusively use the words final cause or end in
the metaphysical or suljective sense. That
which was called efSdent cause by Aristotie
has ^ce been diatinguished into two classes.
And even his definition seems to be somewhat
▼ague, ** that which first moves something," that
out of or from which the force emana^ss that
caused the motion ; this definition is found to
apply equally to two distinct forces, called in
later times the efficient and the occasional cause.
For example, in the explosion of gunpowder,
the spark which ignites it would be called the
cause of the explosion; but yet the spark is
a cause in a very different sense from the expan-
sive force of the gases, especially the nitrogen,
which are consolidated in the powder. The
gases would not explode without the spark, nor
tiie spark cause an explosion without the gases,
or in case it had fallen upon sand or onion seed ;
and yet both are included in Aristotle's defi-
nition. The importance of this distinction
was first appreciated only in modem times,
and since the more vigorous prosecution of
the natural acienoes in the inductive method.
Cousin mentions, in his "Review of Locke's
Essay on the Understanding,'' that the fail-
ure to recogmze this distinction by that dis-
tinguished philosopher led to the most serious
and fundamental error of his system, treat-
ing sensations aa the efficient cause when
in fact they are only the occasional cause of the
ideas whieh we fonn of aoiaibld objects. This

f»rm of cause, that ia, the oeeadonal, is^ as we
have said, sometimes in reference to the motxvea
of free agents called the moving caoae (the
agent himaelf beinff the efficient cause) ; and in
the use of medicaT men espedally, it ia often
called the exciting cause, that which puts a pre-
existing agent or force into a state of activity.
Then, from another point of view, we spedc of
first and second causes, and likewise of absolute
cause, each of them varieties of effident canae.
Absolute cause is the uncaused cause, God alonei
In Him there may have been final cause, henoe in
physics the doctrine of what is caUed tele-
ology, or the science of final causes ; and His
own volitions would then be occasional eacaes.
The absolute cause must of neoesaty be a first
cause. But by a first cause we always mean
an agent which acts with intelligence and from
moral fi^eedom, in distinction from one which, as
do most if not all the objects in nature, mainly
acts with the force which has been imparted to
it. Thus, if one throws a ball against a wall,
the ball itself is a canse of the indentation
made, so also is the man who threw it The
former we call the second cause, the latter the
first cause. This distinction arises from the
fact that we refuse to recognize in mere mat-
ter any thing but inertia, any form or power to
change itself from rest to motion, or vioe cem
from motion to rest; hence purely material
olnects have been rery generally regarded as
omy secondary causes. Another distinction in
causes arose among the schoolmen, by which
they are called tnmsient, permanent, and im-
manent causes; these 8 winds stand for
the 8 great theories of theism in reference to
the creation and continuance of the material
world. A good illustration of thedifiTerenoe is
as follows : The man who in the night comes
along and lights the street l&mps is the transient
cause of the light which is diffused through the
streets ; the gas or oil that bums is the pexmft>
nent cause ; and the ignition or process 01 burn-
ing itself is the immanent cause. From this it
will be seen that transient and permanent canses
may bo efficient causes, while the immanent
cause must be not only the efficient cause,
but in the physical sense the material cause
also. I^ now, Ck>d is the immanent causg
of the universe, we have pantheism, and na-
ture itself is only God appearing as matter.
This is the theory of Hegel and his follow-
ers, And in fact is common to aU forms of
pantheism and monism, tf God is only the
transioat cause, then we have matter en-
dowed with certain dynamic powers, and the
universe capable of going on of itsdf, and
we are prepared to deny, if we do not actu-
ally deny, the existence of a providenoe and
moral government of the world ; this is the
Epicurean view, having been first prorounded
by Epicurus. The view which makes God the
permanent cause would esteblish a rdation
between Him and the objects in the created
universe which ia best illustrated, perhaps
by the relation of a man to his own thoughts;

ai&si&

tfi»

lit-

Mi.. ...i..:.!, '.ifa ...r iJj^ ..nt-f. *^.lT>.^ ^TLCJ «^li,T.l-.1 Vl CT I Ka ^ik^T I r#n c*i.iJi ^»«^ltt- ^M 4 hc. Irrtr.f1 ji.

^T,.

1 . r :iM|tf OS^0& VTM HOJ O0«

■1 I • -.:

& ■
11

fill'

<L Oudoicm liio It

lis ellkki>ov

' < T -' 1 r -• in HI

mI I^ hlmkt^ «•«

^ip^ V^fV tillVi H tl^^^k «>il*l^i# %iLLn*l*

596

OAUSE

CAUSSIN DS FEBGEVAL

areliitkm, or a mode of ezifitenoe in or by
which we have cognized some reality, Just as
whiteness denotes a property by wliich we cog-
nise snow for example, and life is a mode of ex-
istence in which we cognise certain bodies
which hence we call living; or antecedence is
a relation in and by which we cognize two ob-
jects as going the one before the other. Ante-
cedence IS the product of sense-perception, and
common to man and brate. Oaose is tne prodaot
of direct intnition into the nature of the rela-
tion subsisting between the two— an intnition
which sees that the one, the antecedent, not
only precedes but is the ground and cause on
which the existence of the consequent depends ;
this is what the animal does not see. And hence,
as above said, since what we cognize we cog-
nize in the concrete, and as a suDstontial retd-
ity, whether matter or spirit, whatever is truly a
cause — itiat is, an efficient cause — ^must be sub-
StantiaL and the mode at best can be only an oc-
casional cause or condition of activity, but fur-
nishing none of the forces of which the effect is
the resultant. Li this view, it is held that ev-
ery effect must have a causo, and that the effect
is therefore absolute proof of the existence of
its cause — a cause which is both homogeneous
and adequate — that is, the same in kind as the
effect, and sufficient in quantity to produce the
effect Thus, heat is a cause homogeneous to
fluidity, and 212^ Fahrenheit sufficient in quan-
tity to produce the boiling of water; whereas
a much lower degree would be inadequate, and
electricity (except as producing heat) would not
be a cause homogeneous to the effect The
laws for the investigation of causes are re-
served for consideration under the head of In-
duction.— ^The question has been raised whether
our ideas of causation imply the actual creation
of any thing, or only a change in the form of its
existence. At first, the idea of cause only in-
cludes the latter ; for that is all that there is in
the external phenomena from which we gen-
eralize our idea. And here again we encoun-
ter another peculiarity of the theories of causa-
tion, namely, the occasional cause of the idea
of cause. It is conmionly held that the idea of
cause arises from seeing the changes that take
place in outward nature. Maine de Biran held,
on the contrary, that the idea doubtless first
arose from observing in the phenomena of con-
sciousness the fact of volition, in which we are
conscious of the causal act of producing not
only the volition or ninu that immediately pre-
cedes the physical act, but also of producing
that act itself. And Coleridge appears to think
that the idea of causation is especially obtained
from the consciousness of the activity and the
products of our imaginations. In either of these
views, the idea of causation would imply that
in causation there might be the production of
something out of nothing — from no preexisting
material. This view Sir William Hamilton de-
nies. " We cannot conceive," says he, " either,
on the one hand, nothing becoming something,
or, on the other, aomething becoming noth-

ing.** But as hifl Christian ftfltii, to wj noth-
ing of his philosophy, would not allow him
to hold to SQoh a view as the utmost of
causation, he taught that the principle itaelf
which, teaches that eveir efleot most have
a cause, is only a subjective neoesuty of the
thinking agent» ^'a negative impotenoe^'* or
ntter inability of conceiving of any thing ex-
cept as an effect which had some cause, both
efficient and material Qn the phyacal senaeX
preceding it To this it is objected that we do
mdeed cc^ize and conceive of whatever
is oognized or conceived as finite, as oansed;
and regarding it therefore as an effect^ the
mind does necessarily ifevert to its antecedent
cause and ground; but that in our oognition
or conception of the Infinite, the mind does
not and cannot cognize Him as effect, and so
does not and cannot ask for his canse, or sup-
pose he had one. We might as well ask for the
radius of a triangle, or the hypothennse of an
ellipse ; the figures have no such parts, and the
question implies that the person who puts it
has not the conception of the triangle or the
ellipse in his mind. And, accordingly, Btr Wil-
Uam Hamilton denies that we have, or can have,
any idea or conception of the infinite, the ab-
solute^ the nnconditioned, or the uncaused, for
he thinks that these are all but names and al-
ternate conceptions for the same thing. We
cannot examine Hamilton's doctrines on the
subject in this place, but would merely sug-
gest the inquiry whether that distinguish^
philosopher nas not committed a great mis-
take, and supposed that it is the same thing
for the object of the conception to be nncon-
didoned, and for the conception itself to be
unconditioned? No conception is«nnoondi-
tioned. If podtive, it is limited in logical quan-
tity, and conditioned by and so dependent npon
the essentia and differentia which oonstitnte its
material cause. But can we infer from the ibd
that the conception of the Highest is limited and
conditioned, that therefore either He most be
conditioned or we can have no conception of
Him? which last is Sir ATiUiam's horn of the
dilemma. The general doctrine therefore is that
we have ideas or conceptions of the Infinite and
absolute ; that while they are conditioned He is
not^ and that never can the mind, with an ade-
quate idea of Him, ask who or what caosed
Him. On the contrary, we recop:nize Him ss
having the ground of His being m Himself, so
that uie supposition of His non-existence is an
absurdity, and in Him we find the cause of all
substantial realities, and to Him all our investi-
gations of causes tmd, and in Him find tiKur
completion.

CAUSEWAY, or OAvnnr, an elevation of
stones, stakes, and earth, which serves as a dry
passage over wet marshy ground, or as a mole
to keep the waters of a pond or river from
overflowing. The word b derived fran die
French ehaiuUe^ which has a similar meaning.

CAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL^ Jmas Jacqitib
AiiTOim, a French orientalist| bom June 24^

^^^^^^ mntrra ^^

VAVASaUAO

• tV*

^^M !«■«,. . 11 , ^ ' , ■: 1 T.. *- C-l! V'*''; P :•

1 ^»^ 1

... .| _.^_ _,-_^_ _t.^

B ^'

^^ * 1 •

■V

4^11

h "

■ r.

■ fW4 itjj. ki^i^i*.

^_ iarQtoFraiMMil!}

h *ir€: tJM c

■ tii^fwyti

^ tLr ■ . "

Hr-

k FU'."-

■ MorS .

V t«^^ ''-^.

W n.

■ 1-

1 ^ r, lUld itr\MriJ tmH^^

h ^.

H ^

^B tL

H m

H dr

H °'

^1 T

H or

^H Iv^'.

^ -'HIJ,

^1 pol "^

QcWfiit.

■ S

-,..T 'f^.-.

^P 1l*

^^B ;i^ :.t

■ , piofwii]

■ lb. divjt*^

H io

H r*"

V li^k^ ii:;ji^MiIi')i ^^a^iei ^rti;.!

^m ''!»£<)« tlir

■ lb. xhmK ^

H |Mi- ' i-'v'3- i'ii« ^navid-

«'j

■ ... 1 ' 1 ]iiHiol£^i flua tbP

I>n

P Ur

..I.JI..J t^..

r(j of

arr

«L*f«r»l i

■ T^, , J V.1

-'■-.

HB||fc *raa

to [

^^a

^^^^^^^^^^^■il 'ILlCH],,

1»'^

^I^Br

^^H^^^i"*

^H -y

IK li-ri^.

^^^^^^^

. , . , . i> £^>L>r^'

^^^E»

ffw^iftm^mhs

.' fi

698

OAVAIGKAO

0AVAILL02T

sob-Hentenant of engineers, took part in fhe
IVenoh expedition to the Morea, and was ap-
pointed to a captaincy in 1829. On the revo-
lution of 1880, he was the first officer of his
re^ment to declare for the new order of things,
but being soon dissatisfied with the tendencies
of the ffovemment he entered the assoeiation
natitmaUy an organization of the opposition,
in consequence of which he was for a while dis-
charged from active service. In 1882 he was
sent to Africa, where he had to moke his way
by his own talents and prowess. Being Intrust-
ed in 1886 with the command of the fortress of
Tlemcen, he held this advanced post for 3 years
anunst the related assaults of the Arabs.
When relieved in 1889 from his arduous task,
Bis health having been impaired by incessant
exertions, he asked to be placed on leave ; he
was then made a mijor. A few months later
be returned to Africa, where his defence of
Oherchell was no less brilliant than that of Tlem-
een. In 18iO he was promoted to a lieutenant-
Colonelcy, and then to the colonelcy of the
Zouaves, ilnally, in 1844, he was made briga-
dier-general and governor of the province of
Oran. On the revolution of February, 1848, he
was appointed governor^general of Algeria, and
promoted to the rank of general of division.
The same year he was elected to the constitu-'
«nt assembly by both the departments of Seine
and Lot ; the latter being the native place of
his family, he gave it his preference, and waa
allowed to leave Algeria to take his seat as a
representative. He reached Paris 2 days after
the disturbances of May 15, and was immediately
appointed minister of war, with the condition
that he should bring to Paris a sufficient number
of troops 4o protect the capital against any popu-
lar outbreak. In a few weeks 76,000 regular
txoops were gathered within the walls, while 1 90,-
000 national guards were ready to support them.
AH was ready for civil war, which broke out
on the dissolution of the ateliers nationavx.
On June 22 barricades were erected in the most
central parts of the city. The executive com-
mittee of the constituent assembly advised that
troops should be sent in all directions to antici-
pate hostile preparations; but Oavaipnac re-
fused, and concentrated his troops in order
finally to bear on the principal points with ir-
resistible force.^ The assembly having at last
invested him with dictatorial powers, the strug-
gle commenced in earnest June 23, at 11 o^dock,
and lasted f6r 70 hours with scarcely an inter-
mission. At last victory was secured to the
government through the skilful measures of Ca-
vaignac, the intrepidly of his fellow-generals,
Bedeau, Lamorioidre, Foucher, the firmness of
the national guard, the courage of the regular
.^oops, but above all, the exertions of the
yoxmg gardes mobilea. On June 29 Cavaignao
resigned his dictatorship, and the assembly
unanimously elected him chief of the executive
power. He was then the most popular man
among the Ixmrgeoisie ; but he was disliked by
the • lower daases, and had, beside, drawn

upon himself Che unrelenting hatred of mrvnl
journalists, especially Ihnile de Girardin, wlio
at once waged against him the moet formidable
warfare. SeverupropositioiiB were made in the
assembly to make him prendent fi>r 4 yean with-
out recourse to an election ; but the idea was con-
trary to his prindplea, and he rejected it. When
the presidential election came on (Deo. lOX
although Oavaignao had at his dispoaal dl the
government patronage, he was defeated by
an immense majority. Out of 7,449.471 votes,
Oavaignac received but 1,448,802, while Lonia
Napoleon had 6,584,620. Oavaignao bore this
defeat with dignity and tranqnillity. On I>e&
20 he resigned his powef into the handa of the
newly-elected preeident, and modestly letamed
to his seat in the assembly. He continned to take
part in the proceedings of that body, q»eaking
rarely, but with marked ability and effect. On
the eoup tTStat of Dec. 1861, he waa anested
and taken to the castle of Ham, his name being
placed at the head of the list of the proscribed.
Previous to Has event he had been betrothed
to Mile. Odier, daughter of a wealthy banker of
Paris ; after the eaup d'etat and the ruin of the
republican party, efitorts were madetobreek off
the match, but in vain ; and the first finendly
face which Oavaignao saw in the fortresa of
Ham, after his imprisonment, was that of the
maiden who a few days later become bis wUSb,
the marriage taking place immediately after hk
release, when he was at his own request placed
on tho retired list of the army. He subse-
quently lived for a time in retirement in Bd-
^um, and when he returned to Pranoe redd^
mainly at his country seat in the department of
Sarthe. In 1862 he was elected to the legia-
lative body, but refns^ to take the oath of al-
legiance to the emperor. In 1867 he waa again
chosen to the same office by the electors of the
8d district of Paris, as a kind of protest agabist
the ezistinff form of government, but again re-
fused to take the oath. This was the 1^ pnb-
lie act of his life. Grief and chagrin at the
measures of the government and t^e sufEbrings
of thousands of Us political fHends oondeouied
to exile and misery had long cansed in him
emotions which aggravated a disease of the
heart, the germs of which had been oontracted
in Africa ; and one morning, aa he was ieavi^
his house to visit a fHend, he saddenly enired
in the arms of an attendant without nttenng a
word. His devoted wife conveyed hia remains
to Paris, where they received tiie honors of a
funeral procession in whioh many thousands of
persons took part He left an only son.

OAYAJLLOK, a French town on the river
Durance, in the department of Yanolose, and the
arrondissement of Avignon ; pop. 7,405. It has
an active trade in raw silk, fruits, andpieserves,
and manufactories of vermicelli and madder.
During the revolution its fortifioatioBa were de-
stroyed. It was an ancient Roman town» b«t
having been repeatedly pillaged by barbarlanB^
and having suffered much firom an earthquake
in 1781, it haa few remainB of andqai^. The

^V OAT A

^^^V uAVALM nn

H mmiifmme^aM0rit^tci^^^\'

..^ nf rJ:

rr^ fiirrt Vt^iTiT lpTvT»,r,f,*.l jji^fP^n"

■^ «ii|I|iimI x» ffc€Tt luidm^

iiu«t (4r«t»*i.

^H uik «-^^Tu,j

■ wi» tb^iii

^V |VJrfr\- w'

h ^

J niWwQi

M *■

T(i:iorin- '

■ l..^ ;.....

■ r--.L...:-..

■ L.A . ' . .

■ »..•••.,,■•.,

■ ^

■ "

^n ■- tj *■ /L-i*»H, i»;iJ.'

V lij (Jiooi^iisrH Ht >

h^'

^^H^-

■ V.

«m^p '

■ "'

Lte^iMii^ •

^ne'ti^t^ '

■ ^■

■ d

r (.<

ft i

yoGtfti?

|ii«ilMor

■ pir^-i

TiiJtli-i!ii^!

^B ^'

^1 ^J

■ tha^i^

\1*^ Wv«k ^

■ #[l 1.

ftlt-4m«* f^

^M CbvihUir V

^1 |ii>«i dep«n.

w!-t

■ r:' '

■ ^.. . T- -- r

"-,|».- 1,1 '

H lib > ' 't^ltlM'!*!}'.

m»a wdi

H n.. ■ .,..r«,^.

i. lV,^r .i-r

■ r

^1 C'.

MAa&n

■ U'

r.^l^li

' ^, Ttprrnr* sn rr^-

H ^^

■ t:

■ 0'

■ V

■ b..

^B m\^ ^-^ uATj iini-iiiiuij »n ^^juL

.! iiO-

114 A ai'raii-^J'« I"'" li^'^i'iin^ ufii^.i *._. 14-

600

OAYALBT

stady of natural plulofiopbj, he gained a high
repntation as a volaminoas writer and expert-
menter in eleotaioity and th& physical Bdenoea.
He invented an instrument called a condenser,
and another called a mnltipUer of electricity,
and other instruments. His best work was his
"Elements of Natural and Experimental Phi-
losophy" (4 vols. 8vo.Lond. 1808).

OAyALRY (Fr. eanalerU, from ea/oaZier^ a
horseman, from eheoal, a horse), a body of sol-
diers on horseback. The use of the horse for rid-
ing, and the introduction of bodies of mounted
men into armies, natnrally originated in those
countries to wnich the horse is indigenous,
and where the climate and gramineous produc-
tions oCthe soil favored the development of all
its physical capabilities. While tne horse in
Europe and tropical Asia soon degenerated into
a dum^ animal or an undersized pony, the
breed of Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor, Egyp^
and the north coast of Africa attained great
beauty, speed, docility, and endurance. But it
appears that at first it was used in harness only ;
at least in military history the war chariot long
precedes the armed horseman. The Egyptian
monuments show plenty of war chariots, but
with a single exception no horsemen ; and that
exception appears to belong to the Eoman
period. Still it is certain that at least a couple
of centuries before the country was conquered
by the Persians, the Egyptians had a numerous
cavalry, and the commander of this arm is more
than once named among the most important
officials of the court. It is very likely that the
Egyptians became acquainted with cavalry dur-
ing their war with the Assyrians; for on the As-
syrian monuments horsemen are often delinea-
ted, and their use in war with Assyrian armies
at ayeiT early period is established beyond a
^~tloubt. With them, also, the saddle appears to
have originated. In the older sculptures the
soldier rides the bare back of the animal ; at a
later epoch we find a kind of pad or cushion in-
troduced, and finally a high saddle similar to that
now used all over the East. The Persians
and Medians, at the time they appear in history,
were a nation of horsemen. Though they retain-
ed the war chariot, and even left to it its andent
precedence over the younger arm of cavalry, yet
thV great numerical strength of the mounted
men gave the latter an importance it had
never possessed in any former service. The
cavalry of the Assyrians, Eg}T)tian8, and Per-
sians consisted of tiiat kind which still prevails
in the East, and which, up to very recent times,
was alone employed in northern Africa, Asia,
and eastern Europe, irregular cavalry. But
no sooner had the Greeks so for improved their
breed of horses by crosses with the eastern
horse, as to fit them for cavalry purposes, than
they began to organize the arm upon a new
principle. They are the creators of both regu-
lar infantry and regular cavalry. They formed
the masses of fighting men into distinct bodies,
armed and equipped them according to the pur-
pose they were mtended for, and taught them

to act in oonoert, to more ia mkB and fiks,
to keep together in a d^nite taotioalibnnation,
and thus to throw the weight of their concen-
trated and advancing mass upon a given point
of the enemy's front Thus orguAzei, thej
proved everywhere superior to the undtiHed,
unwiddy, and uncontrdled mol» bnnight
against them by the Adatica. We have no in-
stance of a combat of Gredan oavalry against
Persian horsemen before the time thePenams
themselves had formed bodies of amore regokr
kind of cavalry ; but there can bene doubt thtt
the result would have been the same as when
the infantry of both nati<m8 met in battl&
Oavalry, at first, was oivanized by the hone-
breeding countries of Greece only, saeh as
Theasalia and Boeotia; bnt, very soon after, the
Athenians formed a body of heavy cavahy, be-
side mounted archers for outpost and skinnish-
ing duty. The Spartana, too, had the UUe of
their youth formed into a body of horBS-gnards ;
but they had no faith in oavalry, and made
them dismount in battle, and fight as in&ntry.
From the Greeks of Asia Minor, as well as from
the Greek mercenaries serving in their annj^ the
Persians learned the formation of reffolar caval-
ry, and there is no doubt that a considerable por-
tion of the Persian horse that fought against
Alexander the Great were more or less trained
to act in compact bodies in a regular manner.
The Macedonians, however, were more than a
match for them. With t^at people horseman-
ship was an accomplishment indispensable to
the young nobility, and cavalry held a big^
rank in their army. The cavali^ of Philip and
Alexander consisted of the Maoedonian and
Thessalian nobility, with a few squadrons
recruited in Greece proper. It was composed
of heavy horsemen — oataphraetO'-^exmed vitli
helmet and breastplate, cuisses, aud along
spear. It usually charged in a compact body, in
an oblong or wedge-shaped column, sometimes
also in line. The light cavalry, composed of
auxiliary troops, was of a more or less irregnlar
kind, and served like the Cossacks now-a-da/s
for outpost duty and skirmishing. — ^The b*t^®
of the Granicus (8a4 B. O.) offers the first in-
stance of an engagement in which cavalry plajed
a decisive part The Persianoavaliy wasplaced at
charging distance from the fords of the river, is
soon as the heads of columns of the Maoedoman
infantry had passed the river, and h^fofre tbey
could deploy, the Persian horse broke in npon
them and drove them headlong down sg*»°
into the river. This manoeuvre, repeated seT-
era! times over with perfect soooess, shows »
once that the Persians had regular cavwiTw
oppose to the Macedonians. To surprise in&ntry
in the very moment of its greatest *«*°J?^
viz., when pasang from one tactical foruam
into another, requires the cavahry to ^^jlr
hand, and perfectly under the control of vs
commanders. Irregular levies are inc^w o
it. Ptolemy, who commanded the advtfoea
guard of Alexander's army, could maw»?
headway until the Macedonian oxanaam?^^^

CAVAUKV

f.^ jii ^ nj..,^^.... . k.. ft^.^t.

.^n *^rm-

-I

ill

TliOt COl'

■ 4

' ■ . ■ ^ ' -\ tf
J*

r§

I-

..J

^i^

iiAi^i

bviiis iiuMii* ti^mvmiiMrif%ffmmt^t\

eos

OAYALRT

birrier in their rear. Ko socmer was thia ao-
oomplished than he advanoed with all hia troops
against them and forced them to battle. The
I^mana, like the Oarthaginiana^ had th^
infuitry in the centre ; bnt opposite to the 2
Boman wings formed bj cavalry, Hannibal
placed his elephantsi making nse of his cav-
alry to oatflank and overlap both wings of his
opponents. At Hie very ontset of the battle,
the Roman cavalry, thus turned and ontnumr
bered, was completely defeated ; but the Bo-
man infantry orove back the Carthaginian
omtre and gained ground. The victorious Gar-
thaginian horse now attacked them in front
and flank; they compelled them to dedst from
advancing, but could not break them. Hanni-
bal, however, knowing the solidity of the Bo-
man legion, had sent 1,000 horsemen and 1,000
picked foot soldiers under his brother ICago by
a roundabout way to their rear. These fresh
troons now fell upon them and succeeded in
breaking the second line; but the first line,
10,000 men, dosed up, and in a compact body
forced their way through the enemy, and
marched down the river toward Placentia,
where they crossed it unmolested. In the batp
tie of Cann» (216 B. 0.), the Bomans had 80,000
infantry and 6,000 cavalry; the Oartbagimana^
40,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry. The cav-
alry of Latium formed the Boman right wing,
leaning on the river Aufidus ; that of the alliMi
Italians stood on the left, while the infantry
formed the centre. Hannibal, too, placed his
in&ntry in the centre, the Oeltio and Spanish
levies again forming the wings, while between
them, a little further back, stood his Atiican
infantry, now equipped and organized on the
Boman system. Of his cavalry, he placed
the Kumidians on the right wing, where the
open plain permitted them, by their superior
mobihty and rapidity, to evade the charges of
the Italian heavy horse opposed to them ; while
the whole of the heavy cavalry, under Hasdrubal,
was stationed on the left, close to the river.
On the Boman left, the Numidians gave the
Italian cavalry plenty to do, but firom their
very nature as irregular horse could not break
np their close array by regular chargea In the
centre, the Boman infantry soon drove back
the Celts and Spaniards^ and then formed into
a wedge-shaped column in order to attadc the
AfHcan infantry. These, however, wheeled in-
ward, and char^^ the unwieldy mass in line^
broke its impetus ; and there the battle, now, be-
came a standing fight But Hasdmbal's heavy
horse had, in the mean time, prepared the de-
feat of the Bonaans. Having furiously dharsed
the Boman cavalry of the right wing, they dis-
persed them after a stout resistance, passed,
like Alexander at Arbela, behind the Boman
centre, fell upon the rear of the Italian cavahy,
broke it completely, and, leaving it an easy prey
to the Numidians, formed for a grand charge
on the flanks and rear of the Boman infantiy.
This was decisive. Hie unwieldy mass, at-
tacked on all sidesi gave way, qpened oat| was

broken, and BDccambed. H«ver was there or
complete destniction of an amy. The I
mans lost 70,000 men; of their eavalry-y o
70 men escaped. The Oarthaginians lost '
quite 6,000, f of whom belonged to the Ce
contingents, which had had to bear the bran"
the first attack of the Ic^odsl Of Hasdml
6,000 regular horse, which had won the w J
of the battle, not more than 200 men were ki c
and wounded. The Boman cavalry of I iro:
timeswas not much better tl^n that of . the
Punic wars. It was attached to the legionj •^ in
small bodies, never forming an indepenaeut
arm. Beside this legionary cavalry, tfaero
were in Cswar's time Spanish, Celiac, and Ger-
man mercenary horsemen, all of them more or
less irregular. No cavaby serving with the
Bomans ever performed things w(nthy of
mention; and so neglected and ineffective was
this arm, that the Parthian irregulars of £ho-
rassan remained extremely formidable to Ro-
man armies. In the east^ half of the em-
pire, however, the ancient passion for horses
and horsemanship retained its sway; and By-
zantium remained, up to its conquest by the
Turks, the great horse mart and riding acade-
my ox Europe. Accordingly, we find that
during the momentary revival of the Byzan-
tine empire, under Justinian, its cavalry was
on a comparatively respectable footing; and
in the battle of Capua, in A. D. 662, the eunneh
Norses is reported to have defeated the Teutonic
invaders of Italy principally by means of this
ann. — ^The establishment, in all countries <^
western Europe, of a conquering aristocracy of
Teutonic origin, led to a new era in the history
of cavalry. The nobility took everywhere to
the mounted service, under the deaignation of
men-at-arms (gens d^armea), forming a bodj
of horse of the heaviest description, in which
not only the riders but also the horses were
covered with defensive armor of metal The fin^
battle at which such cavalry appeared was
that at Poitiers, where Charles Martel, in *lo%,
beat back the torrent of Arab invasion. The
Frankish knighthood, under Eudes, duke of
A(raitania, broke through the Moorish ranks
and took their camp. Bnt such a body was
not fit for pursuit ; and the Arabs, acoordinglv,
under shelter of their indefatigable irregular
horse, retired unmolested into Spain. From
this bottle dates a series of wars in which the
massive but unwieldy regular cavalry of the
West fought the agUe irregulars of the East with
varied success. The German knighthood meas-
ured swords, during nearly the. whole of the
10th century, with the wild Hungarian horse-
men, and totially defeated them by their clos«
array at Merseburg in 988, and at the Lech in
966. The Spanish chivalry, for several eentn-
ries^ fought the Moorish invaders of their
country, and ultimately conquered them. Bat
when the occidental ''heavies'^ transferred
the seat of war, during the cruflades, to the
eastern homes of their enemies, they were In
their turn defeated, and in most oasea oomplete-

^^ OATAlJr^ ^^^^^^

^^^^^^^H

■iair Kofnf^

wi'ii a'i>»-%i#i, 1 ~i^ "n~. V .

^IJ^VH^I

^^'"^

in 1 liv ^.tifti-j- *

^^^^Ik *^i^ii

>*•

^^^^^^^ " ^^^^

. ■ ' s

J 1.4

.3d

^p.

^^^^Bto|^^4i« V i

/TTJ L-^^

^^^^^Mciiikjit wi#

I-,

i^« pym

^^^^■MiMi «#<r^

.^*^l-Ili3«

^^^^■piocdl urn

rite.r

^^^^^^Km f>T^T.l!ti^i.

1 *JEJ

Ltfflv

ine

■ tr^f

'!«

^^*

liarui*.

^U, . ,

■^"^

^^^^^^^P'

it\ri»j:iM>t. urt

''h^

■■*r
1-

fit w^ t^

^^^^^^b&n Of ifc

mm-^A^

^^^^Ki^<<

■ . h t* ?» i-»

w*r© tilt

^^HStw. I

Hi^n iittids WM «jiiff«}tl^

•f

^^^kbi^ r%

.-a

^^^H^B ' '

£d^

Araf- ' attiinpi^^ <H^

'^a,

^^^^^B^

'■iir

Irjjti Uciltifl cif floi*^

.^A

~ y

^^^^^^^^^P rt

^^^HUlft

]1-

^^^FV(»i f^i?t^

ttl

^^^^■||Mf flH

Q
A

^H(0lrQil«W'

604

OAVAIRY

arms, increased the numerical strengtli of oavalry
to an enormous extent At no other period was
there so large a proportion of that arm in every
army. In the 80 years' war from 4 to nearly ^
of each army was generally oomposed of cavalry ;
in single instances there were 2 horsemen to 1
foot soldier. Gnstavns Adolphns stands at the
head of cavalry commanders of this period. His
mounted troops consisted of cuirassiers and
dragoons, the latter fighting almost always as
cavaliy. His cnirassiers, too, were mnch lighter
than Uiose of the emperor, and soon proved
their incontestable superiority. The Swedish
cavalry were formed' 8 deep ; tiieir orders were,
contrary to the usage of the Cuirassiers of most
armies, whose chief arm was the pistol, not to
lose time in firing, hut to charse the enemy
sword in hand. At this period the cavalry,
which during the middle ages had generallv
been placed m the centre, was again placed,
as in antiquity, on the wings of the army,
where it was formed in 2 lines. In Endand, the
civil war gave rise to 2 distinguished cavalry
leaders. Prince Rupert, on the royalist side, had
as much ** dash '* in him as any cavalry general,
but he was almost always carried too far, lost
his cavalry out of hand, and was himself so
taken up with what was immediately before
him, that the general always disappeared in the
" bold dragoon." Oromwell, on the other hand,
with quite as mnch dash where it was required,
was a far better general ; he kept his men well
in hand, always held back a reserve for unfore-
seen events and decisive movements, knew how
to man'Buvre, and thus proved generally victo-
rious over his inconsiderate opponent. He won
the battles of Marston Moor and Naseby by his
cavalry alone. — ^With most armies the use of
the firearm still remained the chief employment
of cavalry in battle, the Swedes and iSiglish
alone excepted. In France, Prussia, and Austria,
cavalry was drilled to use the carabine exactly
as infantry used the musket. They fired on
horseback, the line standmg still all the while,
by files, platoons, ranks, &c.; and when a
movement for a charge was made, the line
advanced at a trot, pulled up at a short distance
from the enemy, gave a volley, drew swords,
and then charged. The effective fire of the
long lines of infantry had shaken all confidence
in ULQ charge of a cavalry which was no longer
protected by armor ; consequently, riding was
neglected,* no movements could be executed at
a quick pace, and even at a slow pace accidents
happened by the score to both men and horses.
The drill was mostly dismounted work, and
their officers had no idea whatever of the way
of handling cavalry in battle. The French, it
is true, sometimes charged sword in hand, and
Charles XII. of Sweden, true to his national
tradition, always charged full speed without
firing, dispersing caviury and infantry, and
sometimes even taking field works of a weak
profile. But 'it was reserved for Frederic the
Great and his ^preat cavalry commander, Seyd-
litz, to revolutionize the mounted aervioe, and

to raise it to the culminating poisi •ar'slory.
The Prussian cavalry, heavy men on damsj
horses, drilled for firing only, such asFrederi<V
&ther had left them to his son, were beaten in Mn
instant atMoIlwitz (1741). But no sooner was t K ..
first Silesian war brought to a close than Fred-
eric entirely reorganised his cavalry. Firing
and dismounted drill were thrown into i^.t
background, and riding was attended to. *^ All
evolutions are to be made with the greatest
speed, all wheels to be done at a canter. Car.
airy officers must above all things form the mcz
into perfect riders; the cuirassiers to be as
handy and expert on horseback as a hussar, aru
well exercised in the use of the sword.** Tl^
men were to ride every day. Riding in difiBcu.t
sround, across obstacle^ and fencing on horse-
back, were tbe principal drills. In a charge, no
firing at aU was allowed until the 1st and 2d
lines of the enemy were completely brokco.
'^ Every squadron, as it advances to tiie
charge, is to attack the enemy sword in hanl,
and no commander shall be allowed to let hii
troops fire under penalty of infamous cashiering ;
the generals of brigades to be answerabk for
this. As they advance, they first fall into a
quick trot, and finally into a full gallop, but
well closed ; and if they attack in this way, h\s
mi\{esty is certain that Uie enemy will always U
broken." " Every officer of cavalry will have
always present to his mind that there are
but 2 thmgs required to beat the enemy : 1,
to charge him with the greatest possil'e
speed and force, and 2, to outfiank him/'
xhese passages from Fredericks instructioni
sufficiently show the total revolution he car-
ried out in cavalry tactics. He was second t-*!
admirably by Seyolitz, who always command c-J
his cuirassiers and dragoons, and made sncL
troops of them that, for vehemence and order
of charge, quickness of evolutions, readiness for
flank attacks, and rapidity in rallying and re-
forming after a charge, no cavalry has cvtr
equalled the Prussian cavalry of the 7 years'
war. The fruits were soon visible. At Ho
henfriedberg the Baireuth reg^ent of dra-
goons, 10 squadrons, rode down the whole kfi
wing of the Austrian infantry, broke 21 batt^iJ-
ions, took 66 stand of colors, 5 guns, and 4,0C>0
prisoners. At Zomdorf when the Pmsskn
infantry had been forced to retreat, Sejrdlitz,
with 86 squadrons, drove the victorious Russm
cavalry from the field, and then fell upon tie
Bussian infantry, completely defeating it with
great slaughter. At Rossbach, Striegau, £es-
selsdorf, Leuthen, and in 10 other battles, Fr&d-
erio owed the victory to his splendid cavalry.—
When the French revolutionary war broke ont,
the Austrians had adopted the Prussian vysttm,
but not so the French. The cavalry of tLe
latter nation had, indeed, been much disorgan-
ized by the revolution, and in the beginnbg of
the war the new formations proved ahnost use-
less. When their new iniantry levies were
met by the good cavalry of the English, Prus-
eiasB, and Austriansi th^ were, during 1792

^^^^^^^^ OA|rAI.Tir

^^^^H

f..t^ }"«'*-^

K.I .. t.iif .

14P J

^ rw-

^^^^H

^^H

: 1

' 1

^^^^^^■tfhi

^^^B'^''

^^1

' J

i«*

I t^

^ ^^H

eoc

OiYALBT

extent it should be. The idea of reodving the
enemy carabine in hand is scouted; Frederic's
mle is everywhere TeYived, that every cavalry
commander who allows the enmny to charge
him, instead of charging himself deserves to be
cashiered. The galfop is again the pace of the
charge ; and the colnmn attack has made way
for <£arffes in snccesnve linee^ with diqiositioiis
for flank attack, and with a possibility of ma*
noenvring with sinsie detachments during the
charge. Still maoh remains to be done. A
greater attention to riding^ especially across
conntry, a nearer approach in the saddle and
the seat to those of Uie hunting-field, and above
aU, a rednction of the weight carried by the
horse, are improvements called for in every ser-
vice without exoeptioiL — From the history oi
cavalry let us now turn to its present organisa-
tion and tactics. The recruitin|p of cavahy, as
fEur as the men are concerned, is not different
upon the whole from the way the other arms
recruit themselves in each country. In some
states, however^ the natives of piurtioular dis-
tricts are destmed to this service: thus in
BuBsia, the Malorussians Qiatives of Little Bua>
silk); in Pmasia, the Poles. In Austria, the
heavy cavalry is recruited in Germany and
Bohemia, the hussars exclusively in Hungary,
the lancers moptLv in the Polish provinces.
The recruiting of me horses, however, deserves
especial notice. In England, where the whole
cavalry does not require in time of war above
10,000 hors^ the government finds no diffi-
culty in buying them ; but in order to insure
to the service the benefit of horses not worked
till nearly 6 years old, 8-year-old colts, mostly
Yorkshire bred, are bought and kept at gov-
ernment expense in depots till they are fit
to be used. The price paid for the colts (£20
to £25), and the abundance of good horses
in the country, make the British cavalry cer-
tainly the best mounted in the world. In
Bassia a similar abundance of horses exists,
though the breed is inferior to the English.
The remount officers buy the horses by whole-
sale in the southern and western provinces of
the empire, mostly from Jewish dealers ; they
re-sell those that are unfit, and hand over to
the various regiments such as are of its color
(all horses being of the same color in a Bussian
regiment). The colonel is considered as it were
proprietor of the horses ; for a round sum paid
to him he has to keep the regiment well mount-
ed. The horses are expected to last 8 years.
Formerly tbey were taken from the large
breeding establishment of Yolhynia and the
Ukraine, where they are quite wild ; but the
breaking them for cavalry purposes was so dif-
ficult that it had to be given up. In Austria
the horses are partly bought, but the greater
portion have of late been wnished by the gov-
ernment breeding establishments, which can
part every year with above 6,000 5-year-old
cavalry horses. For a case of extraordina^
effort, a country so rich in horses as Austria
can rely upon the markets of the interior*

Pimsria, 60 yean ago, had to buy almost all her
horses abroad, but now can mount the wholo
of. her oavahy, line and landwehr, ia the in-
terior. For the line, the hones are bought at 3
SMn old, by remount commissaries, and sent
to depots until old enough for service ; 8,600
are required every year. In case of mobiliza-
tion of the landwemr cavalry, all horaea in tLe
country, like the men, are liable to be taken
fbr service; a compensation of frt>nL $40 to
$70 ia however paid for them. Tliere ere 3
times more serviceable h<H«es in the countrr
than can be reouired. France, of all Eoropean
countries, is tne worst off for horses. The
breed, though often good and even excellent
for draught, is generally unfit for the saddle.
Government breedusg studs (haroi) have been
long established, but not with the suooeea they
have had elsewhere ; in 1888 these studs, and t}j'«
remounting depots connected with them, CQu]<i
not fhmish 1,000 horses to the service, bought
or government bred. Gen. Laroohe-Aymond
considered that there were not altogether 20.*
000 horses in fVance between 4 and 7 years oid^
fit for cavalry service. Thouf^ the depots
and studs have of late been mudi improved,
they are still insuffident to frilly supply the army.
Algeria furnishes a splendid bre^ of cavalry
honee^ and the best regiments of the service,
the Muaeun d^Afrique^ are exclusively mounted
with them, but the other re^ments aoarcelj
get any. Thus in case of a mobiliaation, the
French are compelled to buy abroad, somedmee
in England, but mostiy in northern GermaDV,
where they do not get the best dass of horse's^
though each horse costs them nearly $1(X».
Many condemned horses from German cavalry
regiments find their way into the ranks of the
French, and altogether the Frendi cavidry, the
ehaiBeun d^Jfrique excepted, is the worst
mounted in Europe. — Oavalry ia essentially of
2 kinds: heavy and light. The real distinctive
character of the 2 is in the horses, I^^
and powerfrd horses cannot well work together
with small, active, and quick ones. The for-
mer in a charge act less rapidly, but with
greater weight; the latter act more by the speed
and impetuosi^ of the attack^ and are more-
over far more fit for angle combat and ekir-
mishing, for which heavj^ or large horses are
neither handy nor intelligent enough. Thus
fkr the distinction is necessary; but iashioa,
fjAn<y, and the imitation of certain national
coetumeS) have created numerous subdivisions
and varieties, to notice which in detail would be
of no interest. The heavy cavalry, at least ia
part, is in most countries furnished with a coirase^
which, however is far from being shot proof;
in Sardinia, its first rank carries a lance. Light
cavalry is partly armed with the sword and car^
abine, partly with the lance. The carabine is
either smooth-bored or rifled. Pistols are add-
ed in most cases to the armature of the rider;
the United States cavalry alone carries the
revolver. The sword is either straight, or
curved to a greater or less degree ; ^ first

CAViU-RT

Q07

,1^ 1..- .V,^..^ 41. . .

^f f.. -^t- *»"■

flMlfr of Ailrt*

rr--'r. niTTi

TTii 1

-»-- -\^f *,rw .

i0& fin

itt cua fi)il iii>

J\iCJ]p%tlui- Ul}

Liir-. n

" ■fj|u. Til* riik*!* nttwi -
«» fuod iiiir»i:iiiiui ii Ibivwi Af

VjL t/m>4 [l- u-l »jji V*.* fall r. ►r-i rn.Ai J .*

iiifaatrf ili*;^ ur^ i..

Tlin tuA lnt>i- ^r^ftjrj ., ■ ..^ ■

■ Ir^

tn'. II y I'

CAVALRY

men). StrongregkaeDtsareapttobeiiiiiTidldy;
too weak ones are very soon redaeed by a
oampaign. Thus the British light brigade at
Bahiklava, not 2 months after we opening of
the campaign, numbered in 6 regiments of S
squadrons each scarcely 700 men, or jnst half
as many as one Bossian hnssar reg^ent on the
war footing. Peculiar formations are : with the
British the troop or half squadron, and with
the Anstrians the diyision or double squadron,
an intermediate link which alone renders it
possible for one commander to control their
strong regiments of horse. — ^Until Frederic the
GreaC all cavalry was formed at least 8 deep.
He' first formed his hussars, in 1748, 2 deep,
and at the battle of Bossbach had his heavy
horse formed the same way. After the 7 years'
war this formation was adopted by all other
armies, and is the only one now in use. For
purposes of evolution the squadron is divided
mto 4 divisions ; wheeling from Ime into open
column of divisions, and back into line £nom
column, form the chief and fundamental evo-
lution of all cavalry mancBUvres. Most other
evolutions are only adapted either for the
march (the flank march by threes, dec.), or for
extraordinary cases (the close column by di-
visions or squadrons). The action of cavalry
in battle is eminently a hand-to«hand encoun-
ter; its fire is of subordinate importance; steel
— either sword or lance-— is its diief weapon ;
and all cavah'y action is concentrated in the
charge. Thus the charge is the criterion for
all movements, evolutions, and positions of
cavalry. Whatever obstructs the facility of
charging is &ulty. The impetus of the chaxige
is produced by concentrating the highest effort
both of man and horse into its crowning mo-
ment, the moment of actual contact wim the
enemy. In order to effect this, it is neces-
sary to approach the enemy with a gradually
increasing velocity, so that the horses are put
to their full speea at a short distance from
the enemy only. Now the execution of such
a charge is about the most difficult matter
that can be asked from cavalry. It is ex-
tremely difficult to preserve perfect order and
solidity in an advance at increasing pace,
especially if there is much not quite level
ground to go over. The difficulty and im-
portance of riding straight forward is here
shown; for unless every rider rides straight
to his point, there arises a pressure in the
ranks, which is soon rolled back from the cen-
tre to the flanks, and from the flanks to the
centre ; the horses get excited and uneasy, their
unequal speed and temper comes into play, and
soon the whole line is straggling along in any
thing but a straight allignment, and with any
thing but that closed sofidity which alone can
insure success. Then, on arriving in front of
the enemy, it is evident that the horses will at-
tempt to refuse running into the standing or
moving mass opposite, and tliat the riders must
prevent their doing so ; otherwise the charge is
aure to faU. The rider, therefore, must not only

liave the finn nsolvticn to brdeik Into flie en^
my^s line, but he must also be perfectly mast^
o^his horse. The regoktiomi of difibrent m
mies give various rules for the mode €d m6LT'an<
of the charging cavalry, but they all ag^ree j
this pdnt, that the line, if possible, be^ns t
move at a walk, then trot, at firom 800 to 1 "
yards from the enemy canter, gradu^y increa^
ing to a gallop, and at from 20 to 80 yards frv> !
the enemy fbll speed. All such regulations, ho v
ever, are subject to many exceptions ; the st ur i
of the ground, the weather, the conditioii of tli
horses, Ac, must be taken into oondderation i)
every practical case. If in a chm^ of cavalrj
against cavalry both parties actually men^
which is by &r the most uncommon case ij
cavalry engagements, the swords are of littii
avail during the actual shock. It is the mrn
mentum of one mass which breaks and scatters
the other. The moral element, bravery, is Lerti
at once transformed into material force; th.
bravest squadron will ride on with the greate>:
self-confidence, resolution, rapidity, ensentlk.
and solidity. Thus it is that no cavalry can (iv
great things unless it has plenty of ^* dash '
about it. But as soon as the ranks of one parrr
are broken, the swords, and with them indirid-
ual horsemanship, come into play. A portion
at least of the victorious troop has aiko to give
up its tactical formation, in order to mow with
the sword the harvest of victory. Thba the
successful charge at once decides the content ;
but unless followed up by pursuit and sin^.o
combat, the victory would be oomparativdr
fruitiess. It is this immense preponderance of
the party which has preserved its tactical com-
pactness and formation, over the one which Lsi
lost it, which explains the impossibility for ir-
regular cavalry, be it ever so good and so na-
merous, to defeat regular cavalry. There is to
doubt that so far as individual horsemansLip
and swordsmanship is concerned, no r^ml.ir
cavalry ever approached the irregnlara of ti.e
nations of horse-warriors of the East ; and yt:
the very worst of European regular cavalrit'S
has always defeated them in the field. From tlie
defeat of the Huns at Chalons (451) to the se-
poy mutiny of 1857. there is not a single in-
stance where the splendid but irregular horse-
men of the East have broken a angle regiment of
regular cavalry in an actual charge. Their i^
regular swarms, charging without oonoert or
compactness, cannot make any impression upon
the solid, rapidly moving mass. Their supe-
riority can only appear when the tactical for-
mation of the regulars is broken, and the com-
bat of man to man has its torn ; but the wild
racing of the irregulars toward theur opponents
can have no such result It has only been when
regular cavalry, in pursuit, have ahandoneii
their line formation and engaged in angle com-
bat, that irregulars, suddenly turning roond asd
seizing the mvorable moment, have defeated
them; indeed, this stratagem has made up almo^
the whole of the tactics of irr^ulara against
regulars, ever ainoe the wan of theFftrtiuaza

B OA7AUtT

«W

^^^|^i^J|MpPi«^ fW t^iU frIumtinA*aftt/ir/i:!Lti..

W"^ fit

^^^^B^ >i»V I ^ttMdiim4m

lA«ir0bA #*d(^ 1^; iftU^ii^ . ,

^^B^^U^ .^ : 1

f^t^tm ^^** *H^^ ^T ^*^'

^^^^^^^^Bufii

1!||]

^^^^^H|'- '. '*jry iiu<iiiLiju

\J^ 'KLIi.

..^

^^^^^^^^^

tllDiBO* '

.iq;

^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^B^ '

rj$4{iU mi

^^^^K^^^^rTt

rufiTVi.

^^^Kiiofj^

illioinasiiii! «

^B^""' '

p«eii and dkU

,^ ic^f»¥^ ttiaif

stnt

^^^^^^^^^Bpi ^^

' « -71 Jii •% ^>' U t Ol liiC-^

^^^HL ^

:> ir**m tf^mtSrtm

^^^^^^■HBB .

..u-Li^^. rn W*»iM», wfiitr^ Ii4

^^^H8,Ai ' P^

rt-M Iq^iiik 1*^ iin« ftRfr t .

^^Kf.-

wl£«S, »tiit tJUtId HMitU lis«

^^^^^^■F!i'

• iUll«4 Tf «tJi»**fUid-;,

^^^^Hm (^ th# noiMfr^ ^.

wf&ob ii i^«r istuCt

^^^^^^■1 cQiii;^ ki !</

n'ii ftm til uf Urnru biiluioilitl^li

^^^■pPU«Ji QUJf bo U

1 ^tmk- Tlio Un* wot tli* irmMrai

^^^prPr - I rOMioi; J.!

il^i^ii&ifell«irni iif 1

^^■r y t«etk«

^^^byc nirnv ihan

^^^fc» mir A Uluc

.aUlmil tttlnBk t

^^^Kf'^ ' ''^«^[4^«l, IL^V ^a^'^^'LVVA^UMI W. ,

.,r. kn* ^*-.TX.-.l.^.*.

^^^^^^-._ tji.1 !*m rIf1i.-T x.ifty |mta^ W^-- -■

1- - „

^^^^^n ii^b ixsnsrnm

ID,M

^^^^^^» IkMiU iEtMti-

^^^■n- '''^. «leff|i

«Mok lliAD mm ti3iv>

^^^^Kt

todE, Tfc«<Wri&

^^^K

^^^^^^^^^K

sWujr nieaiArnQ\

^^^K

«ii«i^lbliEilSm».

^^^^^^^^^Bli

M.i«r

-- mJU^trf i^r r^ c^ru

•,1

^^^^^Hki

ly* V4I? ffr •

^^^^^H^

ill tloe

irSMMUf #

^■■Hi'

dwio0^

.«ifis4 \ft

lh)JH>>l ^iito 41.^ » 4y

<10

CAVALRY

about to yards. With infimtry. oolnmns of
whole diviaioasi one battalion deployed behind
the other, were formed at Wagram. Sach
nanGBUTrea might not be dangerous against
the slow and methodical Anstriana of the
time, bat in every later oao^ign, and with
more active enemies, they ended in defeat.
We have seen what a pitiable end the great
charge of Marat at Wachao, in the same forma-
tion, came ta The disastrons issue of D^Erlon's
ereat infantry attack at Waterloo was oaosed
by its being made with this formation. With
cavalry the monster column appears especislly
faulty, as it absorbs the most valuable resources
into one unwieldy mass, which, once launched,
is irretrievably out of hand, and, whatever suc-
cess it may have in front, is always at the mercy
of smaller bodies well in hand that are thrown
on its flanks. With the materials for one such
column, a second line and one or two reserves
might be prepared, the charges of which might
not have such an effbct at first, but would certainly
by their repetition ultimately obtain greater re-
sults with smaller losses. In most services, in-
deed, this charge in column has either been
abandoned, or it has been retained as a mere
theoretical curiosity, while for all practical pur-
poses the formation of large bodies of cavalry
IS made in several lines at charging intervals,
supporting and relieving each other during a
prolonged engagement Napoleon, too, was
the first to form his cavalry into masses of
several divisions, called oorpB of cavalry. As
a means of simplifying the transmission of com-
mands in a large army, such an organization of
the reserve cavalry is eminentiy necessary; but
when maintained on the field of battie, when
these corps had to act in a body, it has never
produced any adequate results. In fact, it was
one of the main causes of that faultv formation
of monster columns which we have already men-
tioned. In the present European armies, the cav-
alry corps is generally retained, and in the Prus-
sian, Bussian, and Austrian services, there are
even established normal formations and general
rules for the action of such a corps on the field of
battie^ all of which are based on the formation
of a first and second line and a reserve, together
with indications for the placing of the horse artil-
lery attached to such a body.— We have hitherto
spoken of the action of cavalry so &r only as
it is directed against cavalry. But one of the
principal purposes for which this arm is used in
battie, in &ct its principal use now-Srdays. is its
action against in&ntry. We have seen that in
the 18th century infantry, in battle, scarcely
ever formed square against cavalry. It received
the charge in line, and if the attack was direct-
ed against a fiaiiJc, a few companies wheeled
back, en poUnee^ to meet it. Frederic the
Great instructed his infimtry never to form
square except when an isolated battalion was
surprised by cavalry; and if in such a case it
haa formed squarcL <* it may march straight
against the enemy's horse, iive them away,
and, never heeding their attacks, proceed to its

destination.'* The thin lines of infiantry

those days met the cavalry charge ^vrith f I
confidence in the efiectof their fire, and indei
repelled it <^n enough ; but where they on

g>t broken, the disaster was irreparable, as
ohenfriedberg and Zomdor£ At preset
when the column has replaced the line in i
many cases, the rule is that infiintry alwaj
where it is practicable, form square to recei
cavalrv. There are indeed plenty of instann
in modem wars where good cavalry has sncp ri^^
infimtry in line and had to fly from its fire ; bi
they form the exception. The question no
is, whether cavalry has a fair chance c
breaking squares of infantry. Opinions &i
divided; but it appears to be generally aij
mitted that, under ordinary circarastance^,
good, intact infimtry, not shattered by artilk r
fire, stands a very great chance agunst cavaJr^
while with young foot soldiers, who have Uh
the edge of their enersy and ateadiness by i
hard day's fighting, by heavy losses and K»rj
exposure to fire, a resolute cavahry haa the be-i
of it. There are exceptions, such as the ch&r:rj
of the German dragoons at Garcia HemaatJvj
(in 1812), where each of 8 squadrons broke aa
intact French square ; but as a rule, a cavalr;
commander will not find it advisable to lamiL :.
his men on such infimtry. At Waterloo, Ne.^ r
grand charges with the mass of the Prench re-
serve cavalry on Wellington's centre, coold not
break the English and German squaresL becsii5<;
these troops, sheltered a good deal behind xsn
crest of the ridge, had snSered very little iron
the preceding cannonade, and were almost bl\
as good as intact Such charges, therefore, are
adapted for the last stage of a battie only, when
the iofemtry has been a good deal shattered anu
exhausted both by actual engagement and by
passivity under a concentrated artillery fir&
And in such cases they act decisively, as ax
Borodino and Ligny, especiaUy when snpport^i^
as in both these cases, by infantry reserres.—
We cannot enter here into the various duiia
which cavalry may be called upon to perform
on outpost, patrolling, and escorting service, 6x.
A few words on the general tactics of cavalrj,
however, may find a place. Infantry hav-
ing more and more become the main stay of
batties, the manoeuvres of the mounted arm are
necessarily more or less subordinate to those o^
the former. And as modem tactics are founded
upon the admixture and mutual support of the
8 arms, it follows that for at least a portion or
the cavalry, aU independent action is entiivlj
out of the question. Thus the cav^rj of an
army is always divided into 2 distinct bodies:
divisional cavalry and reserve cavaby. The
first consists of horsemen attached to the yari-
ous divisions and corps of infantry, and under
the same commander with them. lu battle, its
office is to seize any favorable momenta
which may offer themselves to gain an adran-
tage, or to disengage its own in&ntry whefi
attacked by superior forces. Its actioD is nato*
rally limited, and its stirength is not sufScient

^^^^^ OATAH ^^*

^^^^^ GAVE ill

vr .*% iii4a«G0i m^Mdlii liie :>— ^- - - -

^^^^K»D MM m€ aii« <9% 1

(li» tiA'M <il^tgdi,ftM»y<it

HMRb* lomii ^ikirdin.

K|y^^ dow tOWiSll tin 1:

l_ ^^ ..,,: ,._.:,. „ i ^_i. -.1,

btt^MKtlMd 10 Urn ipwik t^ t tn*

Il^OK

^^^^^^K| !

3.'4A|&fsCir {»

^4^4, ^^ of

^^^^r^^

f ur

'-' .. U« t'v^It ■

^ ' neuirve U

■ - .uUau$^,

• r,otF»_-li 31

■ <MMv«.

M^i^skOiraMI

V '1 .tJklMtdlintii liiy £ir. n

! - )Li un^:;..in ii^ipxra ucul Uml tUUla oC

V inifftlaii mm ; bot »

•

^^^ "^^ljoe»bst«iiMii wtT t....^

-TrTPy A-nnno Ja** - ^ Waii

ti4t r»allkJ«a 1 (lij

^^K ffiiif|ii3rt<

nkHMl Ikii l»edlc=Uftla^^

^^^^! / *l an^V

'ii !f^^l>^ tl* !lj>,. i**ft-CiI

^^^^ m%^ mil

^^Ki -A*-tOT t^r

VET

H K

V ULfi^^J, ^CMI iMClk

H n^l na msirpto !<'

^■1 full IraL

met'Lirj l riiiri;ii»^<tjs lv Aidv^ li iiipi<ii*rui* ui*-

MTtAliOQ 00 tli« >^^ 4Q4 OtW FI«1lt»llPiy1|lf iD

"*^- *- *-*;.!. i* - y ?c4it4to, with ^»i«i; ne&ft

^■BrMilfir lAo Q«l« witli a fkfr «Uikm of •f%Gom^

ii^iinisi ii< VokiKk,*' a viik

:_ . , .

^mSiim <i liM a mn^rj ihU cua botb HiKi mi^

< tnMlei ««2}r^t«{r^^

■ %1'L

JOT- t-ul ID ri"jfiil'vt^ ffjc t ^ (

H '^TlUSCNXt r

H K iii-'ii't O^t

pr!?^t»r ftni!

J* IT Hi i^ i/.>nijt ,

^^Mvtan

Lii«J tiif^itt. Uir

^^^^^M^

^, ifi07»JW<tliL T. LUU-

^^^^^BNi^<

.^•ttecsuiil lEirlli* £iilai»^

^^^mm'-

^^^^^■Hl '^'

^^Kdl:

-M'Im -1. -]ii-iM"fv^

^^B(£*>r -M^ns

^^But 1. . r!Hffr£i^f

^^^^^H ^'

'ii.^i!jjj 4mL iii Mu.ii^r4.'CJi iUi an Ji

^^K

^■^' Ldifiinit ftk% ttad &

cber tiem y l ^

612

CAVE

«z4saT8tlon. Theee sabtomme&n 6bBmher%
of varioDB Ibrm and sUe, found in nearlj
all parts of the worlds of femtastio architeo-
tore, daik and ^oomy in appearance, and
often of nnknown extent, are well calculated
to awaken the ooriosity and excite the
imagination. The priests of antiqnitj, for the
purpose of producing an efTect on the minds of
the ignorant populace, localized in caverns their
false divinities. The original Delphian orades,
veyerenoed by the Greeks, and resorted to by
the monarchs of the andent world, were dellTer-
ed by a priestess seated at the mouth of a cave,
who pretended to be inspired with a knowledge
of future events. The primitive inhabitants of
northern Europe selected caves aa appropriate
places for their barbarous rites. Among these
is Thor's cave, in the limestone district of Der-
byshire, as Darwin describes it:

The blood<«iieared mansion of gigutlo Thor.
Greater use has been made of caverns in India
than elsewhere for religious purposes, and at £le-
phanta, Salsette, and EUora. beautiftil temnles are
constructed, as is supposed, from natural open-
ings in the rocks. At an early period, before
the art of building was practised, the inhabi-
tants of the earth probably dwelt in caves, and
they are used as habitations, doringthe winter,
at this day in some countries. The ancient
dty of Petra consists of artificial caves cut in
the sandstone rock, which might have served as
dwellings. We read in Genesis xix. that Lot
'^ dwelt in a cave, he and his two daughters."
The practice of burying the dead in caves seems
to have been the origin of catacombs. Nearly all
the great caves of the world are in limestone
rocks, of comparatively recent date. In the pri-
mary formations, these rocks being of limited
extent, the caves, though numerous, are small.
They are produced by the action of the water,
which, running in httle streams through the
strata, and carrying with it carbonic acid gas
(by which limestone is rendered soluble), par-
tides of the rock are taken up and removed.
Thus the rock is hollowed out more rapidly than
others of a softer nature are excavated by any
mechanical action ; and the work goes silently
and steadily on through long geological periods,
until subterranean passages of wondeif ul beauty
and extent are formed. In Sweden and Nor-
way the granite presents caves of extraordinary
fflze; that of Marienstadt, which has been only
partially explored, is most prominent. In the
neighborhood of Quito caverns are found in
modem porphyry, and in the Isle of France in
lava. In the lava of Iceland is one of enormous
extent, that of Gurtshdlir, 40 feet in height, 60
in breadth, and nearly a mile in length. Hum-
boldt has furnished a great amount of informa-
tion respecting the cavities in the earth's sur-
face, their differences in form and origin. He
divides them into 8 distinct dasses. The 1st
appear in the form of cracks or fissure^ having
only one opening, and penetrating fieur into the
mountain. The 2d are distinguished from these
by reaching the daylight at both ends. The 8d,

and most frequent form of cavema, !a tiasta;. ij
which there is a suooesdon of apartmex&^sB oi
dmilar appeanmoe connected wi^ each 9%^^^ r i
The caverns of Agtdek In Hungary, aad Ajd^:! ^ ^
berg in Oamiola, are among the moat remaax-l: &^
ble in Europe, The latter preaeotB a boa^--
nificent and imponng i^pearance, anuao/^^Ai'
ed with vast numtos of pHlarB of alxxios''
tran^>arent whiteness, and ghttering stalactir.^ -
hanging from its roof. The protena, a atrajo^r^
spedes of reptile, in shape between a lizard sji ^
an eel, is found here, which lives indiacrizzii-
nately in air or water, on the rock or in mud, ,ac d
to which the nreseqce of light is entirely niixie-
cessary. Humboldt gives an interesting accoixzir
of the cave of Guaoharo in Venezuela, named fc. r
a spedes of nocturnal birds whidi make it
their abode, among the most inaocesalble pr^
dpices of the mountains, the entrance beix:^
through a deep ravine. FoUowing the course
of the subterranean stream, he found the banks.
to his surprise, adorned for the distance of mao r
yards with a luxuriant growth of treea and
plants. The damor of the birds, which oost>
gregate here in vast numbers, made the dark
and gloomy recesses of the cave frightfol with
their hoarse discordant notes, which so a^^ailed
the Indian guides, that they refused to proceed.
and Humboldt was thus compelled to retrace
his steps. A singular atmospheric pheaomeuoa
in connection with some caves has been ob-
served, and has attracted the attention of acien-
tifio men. A blast of cold air poura thioogh
the opening, so strong in several inatanoea as
to extinguish a candle. When the temperatnre
without is higher than that within the cave, the
current of air sets out, and when the rererse is
the case the current is reversed. But if the
prevailing current is outward, it ia probably ow-
ing to dr carried into the cave by ndlinfl^ water,
and set free as this daahes over the rocxs in its
course. On this prindple the blowing tni>A>iiTH>
called the wntilateur du Earta ia constmeted,
for furnishing supplies of air for mechanical pur-
poses. (See Blowing MAOHiincs.^ SirBoderic
Murchison, making some geological roBearcha '
in Russia, met with a freezing cave near Het^
which is destitute of ice in the winter, bnt ia par
tially fOled with it during the summer. Cav-
erns in various parts of the world yield nitre,
which ia found incrusted upon their waBa* It
is detached with picks, and is abmidant in
Kentucky; this state furnished from its
caves a lai^ portion of the nitre oonsomed in
the United States during the last war witk
England. The interiors of many European esrei
present another feature of interest and im-
portance, viz., the bones of extinct ^>eGies of
animals, on which account they have been aome-
times called bone caverns. Dr. Buckland, exam-
ining a cave disoov^^d in 1821, at Kn^dale,
in Yorkshire, found an immense quantity of |
bones, some of them in a good atate of preserva-
tion. The animals to which they bdonged were i
the bear, tiger, lion, hippopotamna, an) many
others: those of the hyena were most abund*

^^^^ VAVKAV

■

f]^Vl[&T #tS ^^H

..„^^«.!

^^^Kpmm m\

^^^^nadiCits c

^K^:

^^^^VjMOVtR^

^^H

^^^■Qtt proU. - - ^

. .*

^^^^H|Im eivfion^

, 7»'»-

irsft

^^^^^^Hrtii »'IU ru »4i

.If:-

nr.A ■

^^RsTi^ut.

^^H

^^Baiiltrtm^i

u- ^^H

^Hmn of mm* J vj

^K iiT9r iiftTigstU'^

^^^H

HUiia rjiTi

^K^ ar*.

^^^■j^Bf KVJi lu«ll 1

^^^^1

^^^ 4 Uin OfiUod l^tiio^ li

^^Mb ' dl^JiYt'fiT. V

JUdtli-

^^^^v ^

' '''^

Hnty

^^^H

^^^^fe* '

-In

TTaT.'

^^B^ti"

^^BL)t ruiLictUf^

' pon* ^H

^^^^Mioii demfUi^

d«i«r H

^^^^^Eictt^tljr btf^o

1 ^^^H

^^^VwEiUtb frtiQii

■■ta«oa»iaiii^.

iti]^ ^^H

KTing ^«ifi»i!u«

' j^Un ^H

^^■j|^gwJiiHt9 «aiat>

'- dmm$ ^M

^^Kg^lNx&lOOti^

-^ f netiQifi^ ftfii&o ti£BA i& i^fiysutufiii ^^^^1

^■Kfmd llie iQOf

Un ihi. P^diu oomfk §h0m llprf ^H
.fli (KOitr tinm^ Mia ^H

i£»cii^loiia«i with 1 ^H

^■ninf b ^taomft;

■Mbtf of ipsn^

rm^ deicHlHfd b

.ij«c ia-

iUui^i

^TOilliijr rff Uiem I

.fc?h*rf-.

VT5tt*'

I Olio S^mhh 4#fl«f«. ^H

^BS^ trt>t*n ivx|kkir&d a

^^H^ fi^iil «t4l«itffitt<ti I

< jiflft^mlii, ^m^ Uy ^H

^^^K^ .LEiiiu :2 Uli^« '■

tl^ ti9^fu »rtiu- ^^^^1

^H^. ibovi»ai«>i»^

uH) tll# IMP^ of ^^H

1 r. e4 ^^^^^^H

^^^n^AT (Ial itt«wv^ to bprufcX ^

Ibrmal

^^^H

^^^^^^^^^^_ .

^■Sfc^lin>t|«>l wad tflhi mi w ^nf ili»

iioarg^ii

iiicioi«liAi<fi<7ry Mii^iwir^boiHPiiigf ^H

614

OATERYPAUK

OAYOmt

Iffllabflr, 4,000 feet above tbe level of the sea, in
lat 12«> 25' N., long. 76* 84' E. It flows in a
drcuitons course S. £., diyiding in the vicinity
of Trichinopoly into several branches (the prin-
cipal of wnicn is the Ooleroon river, 92 ra.
long), which descend in separate falls of 200
and 800 feet, and enter the sea by numerona
mouths in tiie province of Tazjore. At Sisa-
aammndram one branch of it is crossed by
a bridge 1,000 feet in length and 28 feet in
height, which was erected in 1620. The prin-
cipal tributaries of the Oavery are the Henna-
vutty, the Lechman-Teert, tiie Oubbany, the
fittiimska, the Arkavati, theBhowani, theNoyel,
the Ambrawutty, and many other less important
rivers. In connection wi& the branches of the
Oavery, extensive systems of irrigation, by
means of canals and embankments, have been
recently constructed, the effects of which have
been to render Tanjore one of the most fertile
provinces of the presidency of Madras. The
whole course of the Gavery is about 470 m.,
and it is navigable only for small boats. The
oraft in use are circular baskets, from 9 to 14
feet in diameter, covered with buffalo leather.
In these produce is brought down the river,
but as the violence of the stream makes upward
navigation impossible, they are taken to pieces
and the leather taken back on the heads of the
crew.

CAVERYPAUK, or Oauvkrtpatjk, a town
of British India, in the presidency of Madras,
district of N. Aroot, on tne road from Madras
to Arcot, lat 12* 64' K, long. 79* 88' K A
victory was gained here by the British over the
French and ueir allies in 1764. The town is a
poor and meanly built place, but contains a tank
8 m. long and 8 m. broad, which is perhaps the
finest work constructed for irrigation through-
out southern India.

OAVI, a picturesque Italian town, on the
slopes of the Monte di Mentorella, in tiie Pon-
tifical States, 8 m. from Palestrina; pop. about
2,000. It was built by the Colonnas, who held
it as early as the 11th century, and is memora-
ble for a treaty of peace signed here in 1667
between the duke of Alva and the Oaraffeschi.
On the ancient road, which was probably the
line of communication between Palestrina and
Anagni, is the battle-field on which 0. Aquilius
Tuscus defeated the Hemici, 487 B. 0.

0/LVIANrA an island of Brazdl, 86 m. long
and 20 m. wide. It lies in the N. mouth of the
Amazon, under the equator; is level, fertile,
and well stocked with cattle. The small town
of Roberdello is on its 8. £. side.

OAYIARE, a kind of food prepared firom the
roes of large fish, especially the sturgeon. It
is chiefly made in Bussia, which country mo-
nopolizes this branch of commerce. From
Astrakhan alone, 80,000 bbls. have been ex-
ported in a single year. The process of manu-
facturing consists in thoroughly cleaning the
roe from its membranes and rubbing it in the
hand to a fine pulp. Salt is then well mixed in.
and the liquor pressed out. It is next dried and

packed in kegs for aalcb An inteknr Icixi
made into small thin cakes. It ia maoli i
during aeasona of fest in Italy and BussIa, 1>
eaten on bread with oil and vinegar.

OAVITfi, a province of tlie ishmd of jjoz'
and one of the 86 which constitute the Spar..
Philippines. It is bounded N. by Tondo,
which Manila is the capitaLE. by IjBkg;xui& <
Bay, 8. by Batangas, and W. by tlie bay ^
Manila. Area 489 sq. m. ; pop. 185,000. Tii
provmce has a fertile soil, which ia -well ir
gated by the numerous streams wliich ti.i
from the slopes of the southern Oordillcrj
which extena through the western porti* i
Its chief prodnds are rice, coffee, pepper, coc' j
and hemp, which are hugely expoited. A hij
degree of civilization exuts among the znii-
races wMch have come firom aD parte of L .
zon and the Philippines to people this provici
In the district odf Marigondo, near the S. ^
extremity of the province, there ia a nati^ j
Christian settlement, estabUshed by nstivcis t.
the Moluccas^ who accompanied the Portngni^
Jesuit missionaries that were expelled fr«:
Amboyna and Temate in 1668. There &^
about 7,000 Chinese mestiaoa, who are th
only pagans in the province. — ^The new to? :
of this name contains the great naval arsenal . .
Manila, which has been rendered by fortifi* 3-
tions a place of great sfcrensth. It la about 1'
m. distant from Uie city of Manila, with wkii ::
it is connected bv an excellent military ror.d
A low tongue of land running for about 6 zii.
into the bay of Maniht shelters the harbor ( i
Cavit4 from every whid except the N. K TLe
anchorage is good and secure at all seasons
except during the changes of the mon8ooD5.
when the destructive typhoon takea plaoa In
1881, during one of these terrific wind storm n
a Spanish sloop of war of 600 tons burden w±>
driven fixxn its anchorage, and cast upon the
ramparts of the town. The population of tht
town, outside of the government establish-
ments, does not exceed 2,000 persona. The oA
town, or Cavity el Yi^o, is ntuated 4 m. & of
the arsenal^ and contains 10,000 inhabitants.

CAYOLINI, FnuTo, in Latin Oaulzrts, ac
Italian naturalist, professor of zoology in the
university of Naples, bom in Naples in 1*156,
died there March 26, 1810. He was edncaUMi
as a lawyer, but also studied i^iydos and chem-
istry, and devoted hhnself to the atady of mi>
rine polypi, in which he soon became funoas.
He lost his property by the French invuion ut
1806, but was recompensed by being elected
professor of natural history and member of the
academy of sciences. Soon afterward he died
of fever, caused by the upsetting of a boat

CAVOUR, Camillo di, oount| a fianiinian
statesman, bom in Turin, July 14^ 1809; and now
(1868) president of the coumuI of minis-
ters, minister for foreign afiain^ and finance
minister, in the government of the kingdom ot'
Sardinia. His &ther was ennobled by the late
king Charles Albert, and left him a consid-
erable fortune^ aoquired by trader fie first

^^^■MUilrit Ui \^Mtc Tifv In I^IT TL«< <jqo uf

^^^H
^^^B

1r-

^; J

^^H

^^^^H

L "■■ "

■1 ^

616

OAVY

OAWHFOBS

teeth, the imperfeet condition of the paltte be-
fore alloded to, the narrow bodies of the sphe*
noid bones, and the small brmn cavity ; the
skull, howeyer, is not so large in its fadal por-
tion, and is more depressed, with much smaller
incisive openings, tlniting the 2 groups of the
true oavies and the hares, comes the typical
species of the genns doHchotis, the Patagonian
oavy (D. patachoniea^ Shaw). This animal is
from 2^ to 8 feet in length, about 18 inches
high at the shoulders, weighing from 20 to 86
lb& when full grown. It inhabits the desert
and graveUy plains of Patagonia, fr^m about
48i** 8. to 87^'' 8., on the Atlantic coast, and
extending into La FUta as far as Mendoza, 88^''
&, The for is dense and crisp, gray on the up-
per parts of the head and body, yellowish
rusty on the sides; chin, throat, and abdomen
white ; rump black, with a broad white band
fanmediately above the tail; limbs rusty yd-*
low, but grayidi in front It lives in burrows,
but wanders occasionally to great distances
from home in parties of 2 or 8 ; it runs much
like the rabbit, though not very fast; it sel-
dom squats like the hare, is very shy, and feeds
by day ; the eyes are protected from the sun
by well-developed lashes ; it produces 2 young
at a birth, in its burrow ; its flesh is white, but
dry and tasteless. It has been generally mis-
taken by travellers for a hare, which it resem-
bles in its legs, ears, and tail ; the head is large,
terminating in a blunt muzzle dothed with
hairs; the upper lip is slightly notched; the
mustaches are . very long and black. The
genus eavia (Klein) is characterized by short
Hmbs and ears, by feet naked beneath, by mo-
lars nearly of equal size, each with 2 prindpal
lobes. The genus presents 2 modifications of
the molars : in one, the lobes are nearly equal,
and the hinder lobe of the upper series has no
distinct indenting fold of enamel ; for this F.
Cuvier has instituted the genus eerodoUy which
Waterhouse retains as a sub-genus; in the
other (containing the Guinea pig), the hinder
lobe is the larger, and in the upper series
has a deep indenting fold of enamel on the
outer side, and the corresponding half of
the lower molar with a deep fold on the inner
side. The following species belong to the sub-
genus eerodon; those of eama proper will be
described under Guinea. Pio. The rock cavy
((7. rupeitriSy Pr. Max.) inhabits the rocky dis-
tricts of the interior of Braal, in the higher
parts of the river courses. The nails are short,
obtuse, and prcnecting from large fleshy pads ;
the soft fur is of a grayish color, with a rufous
tint on the back ; lower parts white, with a
pale ochreous-yellow tint on the abdomen;
fore legs whitidi with a rufous tinge, hind legs
chestnut red behind. The length is about 14
inches, and it stands higher than most cavies.
Its flesh is much esteemed by the Indians. The
rufous-brown cavy (C. flatidem^ Brandt) is
somewhat larger than the Guinea pig, but its
head, ears, and fur are shorter ; the incisors are
yellow ; the color above inclines to a yellowish

brown, below to yelbwkii white; it inSMnVi
BraziL 8ome of its varieties are o^ a nv
rufous-brown color. Spix's oavy ((Z ^i^Cl it,
Wagner) inhabits Brazfl from Bio Janeiro to
the Amazon; the general oolor is gray% ^with a.
tinge of brown on the back ; the space betipreen
the eye and ear, a patch bdiind the e^r, sn*!
the lower parts, white; the incisors y-eDow.
It is larger than the Guinea pig, with sIiort<:r
and softer fur. The Bolivian cavy ((7. Soliri-
entif, Waterh.) inhabits the elevated regioixs of
Bolivia; the incisors are orange yellow ; ^n-
eral color of the fhr gray, with a fiunt yelloxr
tinge; throat, abdomen, and feet whitish* It
rarely exceeds 10 inches in length. Same of
the lofty plains of the Andes are so iind^nxiiiied
by the burrows of these animals, that everr
step of a horse is attended with danger. It f?
very shy. The sonthem cavy {G» aitutraliM.
Is. Geofl^) is found in Patagonia from the
straits of Magellan to the 89th deg. of 8. lat.
The incisors are white ; the fur soft and of a
light grayish color ; the eye edged witJi white,
and a spot of this color behind the ear. It i«
about 9 inches long, and is veiy tame; it lives
in families, digging burrows in sandy bills over-
grown with bushes ; its food coneosts of see^
and ffreen herbage, and it has been seen to
ascend trees to feed on their fruits. It may be
distinguished from all others of the group bj
the shortness of the head, and the comperati^
length of the tarn. Numerous remains of
fossil oavies have been found in the diluvial
strata of Brazil; M. Lund has described 4
species from the caverns of that country.

OAWDOR, or Caldeb, a parish of Scotland
mostly in the county of Nairn, with a small
section in Inverness, pop. 1,200, area 4 sq. m.,
noted for the remains of Oawdor castle» a strong
feudal fortress of the 15th century, in which
tradition asserts that King Duncan was mur-
dered by Macbeth, thane of Cawdor, as narrat-
ed by Shakespeare. That event, however, took
place in the 11th century. Lord Lovat hij long
concealed in this castle after the Scottish re-
bellion.

CAWNPORE, Oawnpoob, or Oauxfokk, a
district of Britieh India, under the lieut-gov.
01 the N. W. provinces, bounded N. E. by the
Ganges, which separates it ttom Oude, and S. W.
by Uie Jumna, which divides it fitxn Bundel-
cund. Area, 2,887 sq. m. ; pop. in 1868, 1,174,-
666, of whom over 1,000,000 were Hindoos.
Hie chief productions are cotton, sugar, wheat,
barley, maize, pulse, tobacco, oil-seeds, and po-
tatoes. Schools are numerous, good roads trav-
erse the whole district, and the great East In-
dian railway will pass through it. It was ceded
to the East India company in 1601 by the
nawaub of Oude. — Oawkpobb, the principal
town of the district, is ntuated on the right
bank of the Ganges, here about one mOe wide,
near the junction with the Ganges canal, 145
m. N. of Allahabad, about 270 m. below
Delhi, and 1,000 m. frt>m Calcutta by river.
It covers an area of 600 acres, and has a pop-

(fkWKfOBK

OAXMAUllO

I»I9

**A, or wkf^ *Q »^» if« di^

into lip

-Ml ojm-

.1, U^ ^^K^V4-i

r«^^ <oirr«i. III* fAilitc^' tod pr^nsoA^

[bio au ^^i«ii&«« Wu^bciiPi) wifjntily

UK whkk sD»t

^ _ . _ : iL^4l iHttilui or ih&

a, oinbinMMiM tA fen^rnmi gmvtjE mid fu^

crrrr»7m>«!ri! with ii r^'rr vaHiity of Mirt^m

Li AbDQt tmw

I— WJiil'. ^ dnf

I lit C*"^ iip^"'-j <-iiHi«M»o«t*-J ' 'iiU^h

«ld oil

PMi the v7|i0cliid

Ur« i^^smiA Hi

liofMMs vumt md

ins

mI ATi l»j»i iiMtLi oi ^i^ia uia Mieil tin (bft
, mi»d ibd iMrfl <]«/ ipfoiupod IfoRoffit Uia bir

llivtr orlflJial noniW, fldSiitin^ frum |pm*

i^A'Sru**? ..♦ rf *.«.,... H *i-i

ineotii^il'
Iff tfta i*jt
itrntfrtti
flante. I

miiS9 i«f tJi|^« wLii^u Ifif^-Hj
Eiiffvl, 4 DaiiO* 4iM«nt for i

firr

ih.
tier.

Am'

Uil

1^ ^MiAMtmx^ ofii» oi ihlt ^

wnv^ oi

|1' ilMibooltf^

tia 1j« laoH^ *W^t IffOfliijT,
1 lota Q iraU. «ta sn; kipt^iMi
Uci4, « c^iiif tmtliA \mihM of fl

tlirunr mm mpiik uf 1 1

tu- T,i»it .*r wiiMttf Ata^L -,-^^

618

OAXIAS

OATBMBS

name; pop. of town, 6,000; of the wo^nod,
about 26,000. It is ritoatod on the W. slope
of the Andes, at the head waters of a stream
flowing into the Paoifio. In ita yicrinity are sil-
ver mines. The climate, altbovgh eztremelj
oold^ is not nn&yorable to the prodnetion of
grain and cattle. There are mannfactories of
doth, and an aotiTe export trade in ooohineal
and in fine wooL

CAXIAS, or OAomAfi, formerly called Al<»
deaa Altaa, an important oommerdal town on
tilie Itapicom, in the Brazilian proYince of Ma-
ranham ; pop. 6,000. The chief articles of trade
are cotton and rice. It soffered severely during
the civil war in 1880-'40, having been for
some time in the possession of the insnrgents.

OAXTON, WnxiAic, the first English print-
er, bom in Kent about 1412, died in 1491 or
1492. He received the mdiments of knowledge
from his mother, and in his 16th or 16th year
was apprenticed to Robert Large, a London
mercer, who became lord mayor in 1489. In
1441 Oazton became a freeman of the mercers^
company, who ^>pointed him th^ agent in the
Low Countries. In this situation he remained
88 years. In 1464 he was joined with Bobert
Whitehill in a commission to continue a treaty
of commerce between Edward lY. of England,
and Philip, duke of Burgundy, or if they thought
it better, to mtke a new one. When the Eng-
lish princess, Margaret of York, married Charles,
duke of Burgundy, she took Caxton into her
household. While in her service, he trandated
from the French into English Raoul le Fdvre'a
JBecueil dM histoires de TYoye^ a work which he
oommenced at Bruges in 1468, and finished at
Cologne in 1471. Having been long absent
from his native oountry, he needed the assist-
ance of his mistress to correct his English.
From the prolognea and epilogues of this work
it appears that he was acquainted with the art
of printing, and from the character of his types
it is evident that he had learned the art in the
Low Countries. The first 8 printed works of
Caxton were the original of Baoul*s *^ History,"
tiie oration of John Russell on Charles, duke
of Burgundy, being created a knight of the
garter, and tiie translation of Raoul^ the last
completed in 1471. There is no certain evi*
deuce of the exact period ci Caxton^s return to
England ; the usual suppodtion dates it in 1474;
it is beyond doubt, however, that in 1477 he had
taken up his quarters in the vicinity of West-
minster Abbey, London. His printing office
was in the Almonry, as appears from an old
placard in Caxton^s largest type, which is now
preserved at Oxford. The placard runs: ^^ If
it plese any man spiritnel or temporel to bye
ony Pyes of two and thre oomemoracions of
Sansburi vse eoprynted after the forme of this
present lettre whidie ben wel and truly correct,
late hym come to Westmonester in to the Al-
monesrye at the reed pale, and he shal have
them good chepe." Caxton appears to have
made use of several different sets of letters,
the £Bo-Bimiles of all which are to be found in

Dibdin'a aooomit of Oazton'a wodca. Ho ^ad
at first two kinds of the sort called eeoretary;
afterward he used three fouits of great prinoer,
a rude one employed in 1474^ and two im|Hro>7ed
sets later; one fofunt ci donble jnca, whidi
first appears employed in 1490; and one of
long primer. All his works were printed ia
blad[ letter. Some entries in the paridi ao-
oounta of 8t Margaret, Westminster, in the
▼ear 1491 or 149S, are the only informatiaii we
have of the date of his death: ^'Item; atte
bureyng of William Caxton to iiy. torches yf .
viy. item; for the belle at same bnreyng,
^'." The largest collections of books from
Caxton's press are thoee in the British maee-
nm, and in the library of Earl Spencer at Al-
thorp. The names of about 64 productions are
known. Warton says that by translating a
great number of woiks fh>m the French he did
much in his day to enrich English literatnre.
See Lewis's "Life of Caxton," Loud. 1737,
and Oldys's account in the Bi/ogropkia Bri-
iamniea. The latest authority is ** William
Caxton, a Biography," by Charles Knight, Lond.

CATAMBE, or CATAMBBuaoir, a summit ci
the Colombian Andes, lying directly under the
equator, in Ecuador. It rises in the shape of a
beautiful and regular cone to a height of^l 9,535
feet Its top is crowned with perpetual snow,
and its geogri4>hical position and great elev»>
tion render it one of the most xemarkable
mountains of the world.

CAYC08. SeeC^ioos.

CAYENNE, the name of an Island, a river,
and a town in French Guiana, South America.
The island is separated from the mainland by
the rivers Cayenne and Oyac, and a branch br
which both these rivers are united. It is 83 m.
in drouit, and is simply an alluvial tiaet, rising
over the level of the sea. Bemde the town of
its name, it contains some plantadons and
hamlets or dusters of log cabins^ with a pop-
ulation of 2,718, mostly Africans. The river
is a tolerably large stream, jrisiuff from the
neighboring hills cm the mainland. Among
the various trees of Cayenne must be men-
tioned the caoutchouc, which was diaeov*
ered there by Frismau in 1761.— Catszsvx,
the capital of French Guiana, and a noted
penal settlement, is situated on the western
extremity of the island, and at the month of
the river. Pop. about 6,000 bedd^ the ooo-
victs. Since Louis Napoleon*s emip ^iut^
many pdliticd offenders have been sent to
Cayenne and mixed up with the oonviets.
The climate is extremdy hot and deadly for
Europeans; hence the pdnful aensation pro-
duced in France by the selection of the place as
a prison for pditicd exiles. Cayenne contdns
about 500 housee, mostly of wood, and is di-
vided into the old and new towns ; the Ibnoer,
founded about 1635, is ill built, while the new
one, Idd out at the end of the last centmr, has
wide and r^ular streets, mostly paved and
dean. The Plau d^ArviOj a lar^s open i^aoe
planted with orauge treea, aepMatea tfie two

^ATETiTIE

QATE^Of

»l»

I* ih-

-r.lV

•baojr; Urn fcmfiaru, of wiau^ .*iu.^i-, .-..- t-

^u a lbs gf ibt* "4f^ tmcMa.

1 ta t!n* r

limjjaitbd

** Qfuirt4rrif

Bm Giifaoir^ ft i^Wil ofv

CI)*.

wllkiafinrbMiylDAi

■ dMill

fi ill ffrti^yj

frrii!^ Cavmaift. eiiiflecW^UkhiyjffiiKiilaflJik
^<< '\ nrmiuiftfvrtftcif fVMirttlltjr w«*4il

pftit 4^ t«&fti ana 44 « mW^ji^i^ I««-^ ^

IkniMii, ami ilii f^tam of Mr. Bfoa^tiikm wip

gulf «p]i„^, tv 4* twninkHf fii^ ??%-4.rl»if»iur'

OATICAN

CAZfiU^S

goiBhed hhnself intiie war of th6 Spanidi flino-
oessioa. He ^en deroted hiniflelf to literary
pursuits and to travel, and wrote a learned
work on Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, Roman,
and Gallio antiqnitieB. He left also Beveral
shorter treatises.

CATMAK. See Auioatob.

CAYMANS, three small islands of the British
West Indies, in the Caribbean sea, forming a
dependency of Jamaica. They are low islands
of cond formation, and 2 of them are barren
and uninhabited. Grand Cayman, the largest
of them, is 24 m. lon^, by 2^ broad, is covered
with oocoanut trees, nas an anchorage on the
8. W. side, and a population of 1,600. The in-
habitants are bold Mulors, and much employed
as pilots. They also catch laive numbers of
the tnrtie on their shore, to supply the markets
of Jamaica.

CATO ROICAKO, a long, narrow island on
the N. coast of Cuba, divided .into 2 parts by a
channel about i m, wide. It is 66 m. long,
and averages 2i m. wide ; area, 172 sq. m. Tim*
ber, horses, and cattie are the principal produc-
tions. It belongs to Cuba.

CAYOR, or Katob, a maritime state of N.
W. Africa, pop. 150,000, between the mouth of
the Senegal and Cape Verd. It produces cot-
ton, indigo, millet, and gums. The inhabitants
are Jolofb and Mohammedans. Capital, Ma-
oaye.

CAYUGA, a county of New York, a littie
W. from the centre of the state, bounded N. by
Lake Ontario, W. by Cayuga lake, touching
Skaneateles lake on the E., and traversed by
the Seneca river and other smaller streams,
which furnish abundant water power. O wasco
lake, a beautiful body of water 10 m. long,
lies in its centre. The county has an area of
about 752 sq. m., with an undulating 6ur£Euse
and fertile soiL Salt, gypsum, and limestone
are found here in abundance. Wheat, Indian
com, oats, and hay are the staples. In 1865
this county produced 868,548 bushels of com,
221,156 of wheat, 956,686 of oats, 67,782 tons
of hay, and 1,957,188 lbs. of butter. There
were 80 grist mills, 2 carpet factories, 2 cotton
fiictories, 8 woollen flEustories, 18 tanneries, and
10 iron founderies. It contained 100 churches
and 8 newspaper establishments. Pop. 58,571.
Capita], Auburn.

CAYUGA LAKE, in the W. central part of
Kew York, separates Cayuga ftom Seneca co.,
and extends S. into Tompkins co. It is about 88
m. long, and from 1 to 8^ m. wide. It is
navioable in all parts, but for about 6 m. from
its N. extremi^, is comparatively shallow. On
advancing S. it becomes much deeper, and in
some places is said to be unfathomable. It is
rarely, if ever, frozen over, except at tiie shal-
low portion. Its surface is 146 feet above Lake
Ontario, and 877 feet above the sea. The out-
let of this lake flows into Seneca river.

CAZALKS, Jean AktoinbMaeib db, aFrendi
politician, bom Feb. 1. 1768, died Nov. 24, 1806.
The son of a counsellor of the Toulouse par*

liament, he served for some thne in Jsmsc's
regiment of dragoons. Being chosen in 1789 a
deputy of the noblesse to the states general be
became one of the most able and eloquent
opponents of the revoluticm, but was treated
with ingratitude by the royalista, although he
had labored and suffisred much in their cause,
and bajrely escaped being pat to deatii. Having
travelled abroad during the reign of terror,
he returned to France in 1801. Kspoleos
conferred on him, although he had refused
to enter his service, the cross of the legioo of
honor. His J)Uc<nin et opinionM and his dt-
ferm de LouU XYL were published in 1821.

CAZALLA DE LA SIERRA, a town in the
Sierra Morena, Seville, Spain; pop. in 1853,
6,652. It contains numerous religious edifices,
ruined villas, and Roman and Arabic asti-
quities.

CAZEMBE, or TCAwnimt, the titie of th€
sovereign of a principal negix> state, in the iot^
rior of S. E. Africa, ffis fortified and eitei-
sive capital, Lucenda. is in the land of the &
chinga, about lat 9*80' 8. ; long. 29'>16 £
The territory of the Cazembe ends 850 m. W.
of the capital, and that of the Muropue begins
Toward the S. E. his rule reaches about 150 m.
to the Zamberi river. The precise bonndariei
of his territory are not yet authenticated, bot
it is weU known that the Oazembe is master «
a huge portion of the established oonmnmicstioo
across the African continent Part of the ter-
ritory to the W. consists of devated pto;
but the descent into the valley (tf tiie Ixxm
leads to a region of swamps and wxmsm
of luxuriant trees. The rivera are extremely
numerous : the most important, the La^Q^
the Luvin, tiie Zamberi, and the Bo«we«ft
The clhnate is unhealthy, the atmosphere loaded
with humidity; rains abundant and k«^'
probably lasting from October till Jtotfl.
The chief products are pahn wine, vtM »•
nanas, the sugar-cane, sesamum and o^er ou
plants, and various fruits. The ctoef ww
of the people is manioc or cassava. ™^
session of cattie is regarded as a P'*'^^^-
of tiie Cazembe, His suWeots We ^
a few goatB, but breed fowls and fcUe ^
as weU as game. The cattie in theCwj^JJ
territory sleep during the day and grase aun^

tiie night The chief articles of ti»de •» sUri^
ivory, salt, and copper. The peopw aw "
scribed as tall and strong negroea, fonwj"'
in war, but docile and Chorions in V^^'^^.^IL
amy is allowed. No marriage <»remOTi»^^
place beyond carrying the bride f®* *Lj
ban's back. Funerals are celebrated ^^
solemnity. They worship on}y™*JrJ^rf
then" ancestors, but admowledge « ^^^Jtud

absolute, and beside the Oawmbe t«wt^^
populous country of the Fnmo Cnipw » ^
imdly his vassal He is invested iw» "*

■«•••'

.i ■ I ' ^ < i - J,«J^ 1-rirl ■,1nr''.«"»4 Ills -*«^Tii^n n.i

2ias£ jut.

.^ri:!

filL^liUf IddA-

BOj tannviMtLctftitiipkiilRisiat] hi

L , /40Mt7»i.« FnAt; Kim

il. ■ , i,ira. ill , J *UitL ':;i; ;■; - ..; bi^

I. - T t M,A Mia«| c/iiriff,

«ilM» nlifL' *is<|a*t to

kiiti u?»peirt^t luiTi Li nil II ![_-.* m

lliiie» 111 illiigiAiitoBi ftud UartSL

.' T, Z *ni .\ fill Pr.T Mmr AMMEi se»
irrporuiii pork* vd*

TLii fiijuMUi l» Imi« 11111

hmnm iloD^ ihmo' ore h < r

{MsnttMiM

<kiiii ui^jjvMKi Ml ajoerftM, and b liiif\»(l<ii!JMl

'. li«lniit«ijfl]kiciaiiin^tl#Bci8Vfii0iiit|

ipto^il i*f«mpl(^

iMt-!*ii«, i^ijri rititii

ro>i«i^ <ii

[ iStfMtrbi

:v!if-h

Itn*

fttt^Vlfioil '

%if iU4 '

irikn^U

CtCtpiillC^

«», bf**'

t-3i0rt iJ

#111^ I

:. tiaonil

f tVtirfTw t^l III;

i.m 1/ rmti- -'

•Cvla anil Jip
of iLlaw '^

t^iatf^ T

-^i,.*.4^

Ipi^^iir.

fif t'^t

at).

li^

li.Hjr W M •

41*.

cmsa

GECBL

'^Fletnre" of Oebes. It has bem tnndated
into almost all the modem langoagee, evea
into Arable. The beat editiona are tfiose of
SGhweigh&aaer (Strasbourg, 1806), and of Ck><
caes, in hia edition of Epiotetoa (Paris, 1826).

OkBU, or Zebit, the name of a provinoe,
idand, and town of the Philippfaie archipelaga
The laland lies between lat. 10^ BO' and 11« N^
87m. long and 16 UL broad; area 1,211 sq. m. ;
pop. 272,000, and 220 to the so. m. This
Idand was the first land of the Phiuppines with
which MageUan held interoonne; ne landed
npon it April 7, 1521 ; and it id noted in
the archipelago as being the first npon which
Ohiistianitjwas preaohed. Howeyer, the rapid
oonversion which then took place, the bap-
tism of the king and queen of Oebn and all
their oonrt, was mainly effected b^ the per*
snasions and threats of the zealons cironmnaTi*
gator, and after his violent death a speedy and
general apostasy ensued. It was not till the
arrival of Don Miffuel de Legaspi, the first
Spanish governor of the Philippines, 44 years
after the death of Magellan, that the thorough
oonveraion of the inhabitants began. The gen-
eral adoption of Ohristianity by the people of
this considerable island, and their heuty aban-
donment of a horribly degrading idolatrous wor-
ahip, is attributed mainly to the zeal and energy
of Ajidrea de Urdafieta, a humble priest of Sev-
ille, who ranks with Xavier as an indefatiga-
ble, fearless^ and pure-hearted missionary of the
cross, and who accomplished far more than
Legaspi and his army in effecting the conquest
of the Philippines. The progress of the island
in population and agricultural development
has been rapid; its population in 1785 was
only 28,320, in 1799 it nad more than trebled
the previous census, and now there are in
Oebu 12 times the number of inhabitants that
there were a century and a half ago. The
surfoce of the idand is very uneven, and the
soil is thin and stony, and except in a few fer-
tile valleys generally unfavorable to cultivation ;
but the docile and industrious Oebuans produce
an ample subastence for themselves of rice and
other vegetable productions, and export some
tobacco, hemp, and cocoa. The climate is very
healthy, and instances of natives exceeding the
age of 1 00 years are quite common. An enumer-
ation of 82 Oebuan centenarians is given in Span-
ish statistical reports, one of whom had attained
to the advanced age of 187 years. A low range
of mountains forms a water-shed the whole
length of the island ; the streams that descend
from the slopes on either side are all too incon-
siderable in depth and too tall of shoals to be
available for any purposes of navigation; but
gold has recently been found in large quantities
in all these streams, and the mountains are said
to be rich in fossil coal. Exports of both these
minerals are beginning to increase the impor-
tance of the commercial port of the same name,
situated on the W. coast in kt 10° 18' N., and
(^posite to the small island of Mactan, which
is noted as the place where Magellan was

dain. Tlie popdtlion of tbe town Is aboi
7.000. It is tiie seat of a biahoprio, and of til
avil and military administration of the proi
inoe, which includes, beside the main ialati^
the neighboring islandsJBohol, Olangoi, Idiu^jit
IGno, randaa Fuega rolo^ Datda, and 87 in
considerable islets. The population of tlie pro^
inoe in 1850 was 889,078, of whieh nearlx ooti
third are on the small idand of B<^1. Tlie bis? i
op of Oebn has Jurisdiction over 18 of the ^
provinces of the Spanish Philippines. The fer
vent Ohristian character implainted by Urdanetj
amonff the first converts of Cebu baa been pre
servea by their descendants, and pvea to theij
ecclesiastical establishment a marked diatizic
tion in the archipelago. The people are chiefly
of the Bisaya nation, and there are no uegroea
or wild races in the province. A mestizo race^
the descendants of £uropeans and native wo^
men, are the chief merchants of the town ; and,
although they are the most opulent inhabitants,
yet are regarded un&vorably by natlTea oi
pure race, as well as Europeans, and are com-
pelled to occupy a quarter of the town by
themselves. The prejudice agdnst mixed racc^
is probably stronger in the Philippines than in
any other portion of the eastern hemisphere.

CECIL, a N. E. county of Maryland, ares
about 800 sq. m., bordering on Pennsylvanis
and Delaware, and situated at the head of
Chesapeake bay, which forms its 6. W. boun-
dary. Pop. in 1850, 18,989, of whom 844 were
slaves. Its W. border is washed by the Susque-
hanna, and Sassafras river bounds it on the S.
The surface is slightly uneven, and the soil
fertile and carefully improved. The produc-
tions in 1850 were 410,060 boslwls of com,
168,112 of wheat, 208,880 of oats, and 9,28S
tons of hay. Butter, cattle, and awine are the
other principal articles of export. There are a
number of factories, mills, fiimaoes, Ao. At
Port Deposit are immense granite quarries, and
the country also contains gneiss, slate, iron,
chrome, and sulphate of magnesia. It is inter-
sected by several railroads leading from PhUa-
delphia to Baltimore. Orgamaed in 1674;
capital, Elkton.

CECIL, Robert, earl of Salisbury, an English
statesman, son of Lord Burleigh, by Mildred,
his 2d wife, bom about the middle of tbe
16th century, died at Marlborough, May 2i
1612. He was of weakly constitution and
deformed in person, but gifted with grest
acuteness and energy. On his election to pir-
liament as member for Westminster, his abili-
ties attracted the notice of Queen Eiizabeth,
who attached him to the French mission, aiui
subsequently appointed him aasistant secretary
of state. The earl of Essex was atthistime
the queen^s favorite. His influence and tiist of
the Cecils (father and son) continually came
into collision ; consequently a rivalry eprong up
between them, which continued, openJy or se-
cretly, until Essex perished on the UoeL h
1590 Secretary Walsingham died. Essex de^
manded the <^oe for a nominee of his own,

^^^^ fflllPIIUi ^^^^^^B

F^F

DM ^^1

rrhTT-ft nf . -t r '^^^«T«J.ri* ik>i.*h l.kiF i|i r^Mil* 1*1

r li. ^^^1

1 tf""

^^^^■y It:

■■ * ■.".•■.-I u ,

.Lj'il It 111'

'^^

^^H

CW£) Willi

^^^^H
^^^^1
^^^^H

H ., Ujir-

^^1
^^^1

^^.^^^^1

6S4

CEDAR

CEBXBtlS

the temple of Minerva, in favor of wMcth god*
de80 he u said to have decided a diapnte with
Neptnne concerning the possesaion of Attica.
He was also worshipped in the constellation of
Aqnarios. In scnlptnre he was represented as
half man half woman, or half man half serpent ;
hence his name ^uputis (Lat Geminui),

OEDAR, the name of several species of ever-
green trees of the order eaniferoy the principal
of which are the cedar of Lebanon (jnnua ee-
dru9, Linn.), the cedar of Qo&'(cujsre8au$ Lwi-
tanica^ Linn.)) the Indian cedar (ptntu deodara^
Lambert), the white cedar (cupresnts thyoidesy
Linn.), and the red cedar (juniperus Virginiana^
linn.). — ^The cedar of Lebanon, or cedar larch,
is a native of the coldest parts of Mt. Lebanon
and the range of the Tanras, and from its
superior magnificence became with Scripture
writers a favorite emblem for greatness^ splen-
dor, and mflgesty. The dorabilitj and fragrance
of its wood caused it to be sought for costly build-
ings, as the palace of David and the temple of
Solomon. Though it formerly covered Lebanon
with dense forests, so that fourscore thousand
hewers were employed by Solomon in obtaining
timber from them, yet the destruction of the
trees for architectural purposes was more rapid
than their erowth, and in the 6th century Jus-
tinian found it difficult to procure cedar timber
enough for the roof of a single church. The
cedars of Lebanon have now dwindled to a few
groves, the principal of which is a thick forest
containing about 80 very large trees, 60 of
middling size, and 800 smaller and young ones.
It occupies a natural amphitheatre at the foot
of the wildest of the gorges of Lebanon, and is
regarded by the people as sacred. The largest
of the trees have a diameter of 9 feet. This
cedar is now extennvely cultivated as an orna-
mental tree in Europe and America^ one or two
specimens of it giving variety and force to a dull
front of round-headed trees. — ^The cedar of Gk)a
is found wild in parts of India and in Japan,
and has been naturalized in Portugal around
Cintra. It is the handsomest tree of the genus
cupres8us, and distinguished by its abundance of
long dichotomous pendent branchleta. — The
Indian cedar is a large tree found wild on the
mountains of Nepaul and Thibet, at a height dt
about 10,000 feet above the sea. Its timber
possesses the qualities attributed by the ancients
to the cedar of Lebanon, being compact, resin-
ous, and fragrant. It is much used for building
in India, has been introduced into England as
an ornamental tree, and has been successfully
grafted on the cedar of Lebanon. — The white
cedar is an abundant tree in swamps in the
United States southward from Massachusetts
and Ohio, reaching a height of from 80 to 70
feet. It has a fibrous, shreddy bark ; leaves of a
dull, glaucous-green color, very small and scale-
like, and an exceedingly durable wood of a red-
dish color. Every part of the tree is strong-
scented. It is used as a material for fences,
and is in the highest esteem for shingles and
coopers' staves.— The red cedar is a native of

North America, the West Indies^ and also .
pan, and attains a height of from 15 to 80 fd
Its wood is odorous, of a bright red color, t6
compact and durable, and offensive to m;
insects. It is mudi used for the pnrpo<^^
the cabinetmaker and for the ontsides of bl: t
lead pencils. — Several varieties of the ce i
are described as attaining an immense size
California.

CEDAR. L A W. oo. of Mo., intersected I
Sac river; area 485 sq. m. ; pop. in 1856, 5,3 1
of whom 196 were slaves. The surface i? n
even, the soil productive. In 1850 it } iel . i
147,225 bushels of com, 9,067 of wheat, i^:^
769 of oats, and 202 tons of hay. The pul i
schools numbered 820 pnpils. Capital, Tri
mont. II. An E. co. of Iowa, intersected b
Cedar and Wapsipinicon rivers ; area 676 sq. m
pop. in 1866^ 9,481. The surface is diversity i
by fertile undulating prairies and woodlac^
In 1856 the productions were 770,971 busLc i
of com, 256,742 of wheat, 117,002 o{ oats.s:
142,797 lbs. of butter. Cedar river, from vl.i
the county is named, flows through a DaiT>T
pass in the W. part, on either side of wtii
Its rocky banks rise perpendicularly to a gr^^
height CapitaljTipton.

CEDAR MOUNTAINS, a range of Csr-
Colony, south Africa, extending from lat. SI
5.7' to 82' 24' S., and nearly along the meridii
ofl9°E. They are of primitive formatioi
with peaks from 1,600 to 6,000 feet above ^^
level of the sea, covered with gigantic ctHb
trees. At heights of from 800 to 1,000 fee:
above the valley are found many Bosjesina:
caves with weU-executed drawings in red ochre.
An ash-colored quartzoee sandstone precioii^i-
nates in the higher parts, and marine fosjL^i:
the lower. The valleys between the hills art
very fertile.

CEDAR SPRINGS, a post village of Spar-
tanburg dist., S. C, is an oldwatering-ps«
and the seat of a state deaf and dmnh asjlp^
a prosperous and well-condncted ins^ticn,
originally established by the Rev. N. P. w

OEFALU (anc. C^haMU), a fortified scs-
port town, at the foot of a rock, on tho >. «'^'
of the island of Sicily, capital of a district of t^'^
same name (which is divided into 13 a^ton-^;
in the province of Palermo, and 89 m. b. t. o-
that city ; pop. 8,040.. The town is tte seii ^
a bishopric, and contains a fine <»*°^ p^-
several other churches. The remains of a ^^
nician edifice, a casUe built by the Bsr9f:ev^
and several marble quarries, are in the vicidi..
Sea fishing is prosecuted with great acm.v
The port, however, is oanable of receitiog ol
a smallnumber of vessels.

CEHEGIN, or Cshbjzn, a

tOWD,P^

vince of Murcia, 8 m. E. from OaraTSca, W
in 1862, 6,854. It contains noin««JI" „^,i,. '
some houses, buflt of marble from the ^ .
boring quarries, and has raanufactontfwj^^
doth, sSap, pottery, oU and br«drdj;f„«
and conumerod m wme, frmts, grain, ^ »f'*> -^
flax, and cotton- There are^ besde the l»^ ,

UELAKOWSKY

CELEBES

825

clinrcb, 3 chapels^ eeverfll schools, a theatre,
and various imndsome public building
. CELAKOWSKY, Frajjtihoc Ladlsuiw, a
Bohemi&n poet and philalogiat, born at Stra-
koniu, March 7, 179 &, died in Pr^gud, Ang. 5,
1852. Having learned G^erman in his child-
hood, he entered the gTmnasinm of Badweis in
1812, and studied sabsequently at Pisek, linz,
and Pragne. He was destined for the pnlpit, but
from patriotic impulses declined to adopt that
profession, and engaged in 1821 as instructor in
a nobleman^s family, where he could at the
same time pursue his literary occupations. He
soon published a series of original and translated
works, remarkable at that period of transition
from the old classical to the modem national
style in the Cechio literature. In 1828 he be*
came associate editor of the " Quarterly Review
for the Catholic Clergy," published by the con-
sistorium at Prague, fmd in 1884 editor of the
*' Bohemian Gazette," and of the ** Bee," a lite-
rary joumaL He also commenced a series of
leotures on the Cechio language and literature,
at the university of Prague, He lost both his
situation as editor and that at the university, in
consequence of a remark against the emperor
Kicholas. The favor of public opinion, however,
and a comfortable situation as librarian of the
prince, afterward of the princess Kinsky, were
the rewards of his liberalism. The Bohemian
society for the propagation of science elected him
a member in 1840. In 1842 he accepted a pro-
fessorship of the Slavic language and literature,
recently established by the king of Prussia foi
the benefit of his Polish subjects, at the unl
versity of Breslau. After the events of 1848,
the Austrian government, which now sought
for support from the Cechio nationality, offered
him a professorship at the university of Prague.
He did not live long to officiate in this capacity,
his death having been accelerated by domestic
misfortunes and mental suffering. Of his nu-
merous works, the following are most remark-
able: "Poems" (Prague, 1822, new edition,
1 S30) ; " Slavic National Songs " (8 vols., Prague.
1822-'27); "Lithuanian National Songs"
(Prague, 1827) ; a metrical translation of Walter
Scott's "Lady of the Lake" (Prague, 1828);
a translation of Augustine^s De Cititate Dei, 5
vols. (Prague, 1829-*82); "Echo of Russian
National Songs" (Prague, 1829); "Echoof Ce-
chic National Songs" (Prague, 1840). One of his
latest works was the " Popular Philosophy of
the Slavic Nations in their Proverbs" (Prague,
1851). After 1835 Celakowsky was engaged in
a comparative study of all the Slavic dialects,
the fruit of which is given in part in his ad-
ditions to Jungmann's Cechio dictionary. As a
poet he is distinguished by the grace and naiveti
of his popular songs.

CEL13KIDGE, a town of Ireland, in the
county of Kildare, 15 m. W. from Dublin, on
the riffht bank of the Liffey, which is hero
crossed by a handsome stone bridge; pop. in
1851, 1,674. Manufactories of straw hats and
woollen and linen wares are carried on herew
VOL. IV.— 40

In tho vicmity are Eeevea castle, this scat of
the earl <jf Leitrim, and Lyons castle, the &eat of
Lord Oioncsurry, Swift^'e Vanessa r*;sided for
some time at Gel bridge abbey, the residence of
Me. H. Grattan.

CELEBES, an island of the Malay archipel-
ago, of singular conformation, representing in
appearance 5 extensive peninsulas grouped
around a small central body. The northern, or
peninsula of Menado, intersected by the equa-
tor, about one degree from its junction at the
bay of Palos with the central mainland, ex-
tends from this point nearly due £. to its ex-
tremity at Cape Polisan, 480 m. ; the N. E., or
peninsula of Balante, is 182 m. long; the S. E.,
or peninsula of Teboonkoo, is 170 m. long ; the
8.W., or Boni peninsula, 160 m. ; and ^e W.,
or Mandar peninsula, is a short projection about
i a degree in length. Celebes extends 800 ro,
from its N. E. extremity to its most southern
point; it has an extent of sea-coast equal to all
the Atlantic United States, or about 2,600 m. ;
and yet its area is but 66.500 sq. m., or about
the extent of the state of Missouri. The 8 ex-
tensive gulfs, Gorontalo, Tomaiki, and Boni,
which serve to form these peninsulas, are very
fihidlow, especially Gorontalo or Tomini, which,
though making an indentation of 240 m., yet
has not sufficient depth of water to per-
mit the entrance of the largest class of Euro-
pean vessels; and even those of the lightest
burden have not been able to approach
within 10 or 15 m, of its almost unknown
coasts. But at the period of the first Euro-
pean intercourse with the island, 8 centuries
ago, Portuguese frigates freely navigated this
broad bay. There has been a sensible diminu-
tion in depth of the waters surrounding this
island, and it is manifest that a gradual up-
heaval of this portion of the archipelago is in
progress ; and m the course of time, this and
the neighboring island of Gilolo, which is also
a group of peninsulas, will have their great
bays filled up by terra firma, and will exhibit
an unbroken outline Uke Borneo, which evi-
dently at one time presented the same singular
configuration as these two islands. Elevated
mountain chains extend throughout the whole
length of each peninsula of Celebes ; but the
peninsula of Menado alone is of volcanic ori-
gin, and it has 3 active volcanic peaks, about
5,000 ft. high, near the E. extremity. The
highest peak of the island, Lompo Batang, 8,200
ft. high, is near the extremity of the S. peuin-
Bula. The surface of the central mainland and
of portions of the S. W. and 8. peninsulas, is
mostly elevated table land, covered with excel-
lent pasture grasses, upon which are found graz-
ing great numbers of wild horses and buffaloes.
as on the prairies of America. These natural
pastures of Celebes are a peculiarity, not ob-
served on any other island of the archipelago ;
but it has recently been found to bo the case
upon some of the Papuan islands, lying between
the Malaysian and Polynesian formations. These
extensive plains, which serve for hunting

626

GELEBSS

grounds, and £he great extent'Of ^earcoast, !iaye
eontributed, no doubt, to distiDgiiish tiie inhab-
itanta of Oelebes for an ardent lore of the
chase, and a love of mazdtime adventure, above
all other people in the archipelago, or in the
eastern hemisphere. To capture the wild
horse of their grassy plateaus— a well-shaped,
spirited animal— 4o subdue him, and to train
mm for the pursuit^ the wild deer and babi-
rusa, is apassion^mong the free-spirited races of
this island, especially those of the S. W. or
Boni peninsula, which is only, equalled by their
love 'Of adventure by sea, whether commer-
•dalfpiraticad, exploring, or -colonizing. In these
respects, one race in particular, the Bugis of
Boni and Tuwiga, are distinguished above
all other people in the eastern seas. (See
Bnois.} The chief seat of this people is on
the borders of Lake Labaya, or, as called by the
natives, Taparang Danau. It is 25 m, long and
13 broad, and haa an average depth of 82 feet
in the dry season, and 60 feet in the wet season.
Upward of 100 neatly-built villages, tastefully
embowered in the stately fruit trees of the
tropics, border and adorn its shores, while its
surface is covered with such numbers of sailing
craft of every description, that, as stated by a
Bugis chieftidn at Smgapore, it would not be
difficult on many davs to pass a signal by voice
from vessel to vessel the whole length of the
Jake. However much we may regard this as
A native exaggeration, we know that this re-
markable lake is a great inland harbor of sup-
ply imd repairs for the great fleet of Bu^
pxtJius, or padewakans, which cruise through-
out the archipelago. The only outlet of the
lake is the Ohmrana river, which disembogues
in ;the bay of Boni, in lat. 4^ 15' S. During the
K, W. monsoon, the largest native craft can
descend this stream. It is about 53 m. long.
And has an average depth of 2( fathoms. The
Bngi» occupy that poa*tion of the S. W. pen-
insula Iving l)etween lat. 8*" 80' and 5^ S. To
the southward of them, the Mangassar tribes, and
ihe small states of Tooratea, Bonthein, and
Boolekumba, which occupy theextremity of the
peninsula, have been subjugated by the Dutch.
JS, of the Bugis is a nation called the Mandara,
who have like them invented a written alphabet
The S. E. or Teboonkoo peninsula is very
little known ; its interior has not been explored
by Europeans, And is possessed by severu wild
tribes, who are descnbed asAltiiraa, the pe-
culiar aboriginal race found in all the islands
of the Molucca seas. Sir Stamford Baffles is of
opinion that the principal races of Celebes are
of Tartar origin. The centre of the island is
possessed by a barbarous people called Tursjaa,
who resemble the D^aks of Borneo ; they have,
like them, a passion roripossessingliuman heads,
and they spend much time in hunting, not like
other savages for subsistenoe. alone, but for the
aake of tlie sport, and they follow the chase
with as keen a relish as the English sportsman*
They are a good-looking type of the brown
raoe^ they are pagan^ not having jet adopted

Mohammedanism, like (lie rest of the inh
tants ; and their country preeents an interes*^
£eld for the labors of the Gbrisdan missions
The W., or peninsida of Bakmte, is even ]
known than that of Teboonkoo, and is pe^jp
by the same race. The Menado penin8i]l:i
the most fertile of the whole island. The Ui
tory of Minahasa, near its £. extremitj, pi
duces the finest quality of coffee in the arcl
pelago, superior to the best of Java. I
annual product has been for a few ya
past about 1,250,000 lbs. This territu
also produces about $(50,000 lbs. of coc>:
and it is said to be the only territory in tl
archipelago in which this delicate plant bi
been successfully cultivated. Upon the ta^
lands of Minahasa, which are about 2,500 fd
above the level of the sea, the American pH
tato and all the esccdent vegetables of tempo
ate climates are cultivated with much succ^ij
This territory exports also about 45,000 cwt. ^
rice yearly. Rich alluvial deposits of gold haTj
been found in many places tnroughoQt the eo
thre length of this peninsula, aod some d
those now worked by the sultan of Meoaa
are said to be tiie richest in the arcbi:»:^'
go. Tin and copper are also found. TLe in:
ore of the island is of a very superior qui^iiy;
and there is a peculiar kiod, called pan: :.
which is almost white like tin, and U ly- '
by the famous Dyak cutlers in damaRt^
ing their celebrated sword and knife hh^^
There are no large ferocious animals upon th j
island ; none of the feline race exist iiiwn -
neither does the elephant or rhinoceros, i; ^
principal wild animals are the horse, btifa- 'i
and ox, which are readily domesticated bv tiv
natives ; and in the forests and grassy piJi^
are great numbers of a species of zebn, several
varieties of deer, the hog deer, or babi-msai ^^
common wild hog, and severiu varieties « tw
marsupial or pouched class of animals, like ue
kangaroo and opossum. A very dense tor^^
covers the mountainous portions of the u^l^ j
and the woods of several trees are estee^
very valuable for economic and artistic P"^P^
The sago palm is found very plentiWi ^J
fhrnishes a light and pleasant bread, ch;f
.used by the least dviliaed inhabitants ot ^^
island, but the staple article of food of rj
people of Minahasa. About } of the isisj^ "
•elevated prairie land, and the rest J^ J° ^,j.
dense forest, with the exception of « i^!'^^ ,
vated districts in the N. and a W. V^^"^
which do not comprise more than aDou

part of the surface of the isIan<J. ^^
to population, the Dutch esUm«« ^-^^^
>r their jurisdiction in the ^^^u^i;
Dsulaa, who occupy about j otvi^ > ^
it is probable that the popnl^^^^^L,^. u>

than 1,600,000, which in P^oportw

area is not more thaa A ^^^Ti^-ik' i'*'
Jation on the island of Uy^-^Tnhvn^
discovered in 1525 hy a fwaU band oi^^^ jj
guese adventurers, who sailed fro"J ^ ^^ ^
A small JiaUve <sraft in quew « ^*^

and
Jess

CELERES

OEr.ESTINE

627

termed ft group of iilanda enid to abound id
gulcJ^ nod spuken of aa ii labih^ ^^fUU more'*
i.^lanQ^^ wht;re the European iatrudera might
find i:o\d aad spices the Fouio &3 ihay lijid found
in tlie Molucca group of islauda, Thio Por-
tu^riL'S^, who touaked at the points of 2 peain-
sulfi-j, thought they were different islanJe; and
in tlji?ir report named thorn as ilhoA Celkb€9^
wliii h designation being- adopted bj DeB:irrt)s,
Do CantOj Cftstafleda, and other Portuguese
cbrotiiflers, bas l^ceome fixed in geography and
liistory as the name of the blaad, But siicb a
name is not known to its inhabitnnta, who
geuerally call it ** Nef^ri BugL%" or the Bogis
Land The most ad v auee d of th o nati ons of Cel e-
bes were converted to Moliatnmedanism some
years after the arrival of the Portuguese in the
archipelago. They disregarded the teachings
of the Portuguese missionaries, which were so
readily accepted and faithfully observed by the
people of the neighboring Molucca islands.
The first intercourse of the Putch with the
island was in 1607- In 16G0 tliey expelled tho
Portuguese from their possessions in the Ma-
cassar country. The Dutch maintained their
p(.)sition in Celebes for 2 centuries, till their
expulsion by the British in 1810. But their
possessions in Celebes, along with those in
Java, were restored to them in 1816. The
Dutch declared Macassar a free port in 1846,
as a rival to Singapore; and Kema, in the Me-
nado peninsula, in lat. 1** 22' N., and long. 125®
19' E., was declared a free port in 1849.

CELERES, in Roman antiquity, a regiment of
royal body-guards instituted by Romulus, com-
posed of 300 young men of the most illustrious
families. They were elected by the suffrages
of the 30 curiaa, each of which furnished 10.
The name has been derived by some from the
name of their firstchief, but more probably was
given to them in allusion to the rapidity with
w hioh they executed tlicir orders, llieir com-
mander was called the tribune of the celeres, and
was, after the king, the highest officer in the
state. This office was held by Brutus when he
exi>elled the Tarquins from Rome. The celeres
are thought by Niebuhr to have been the patri-
cians in general, so called because they could
keep horses or fought on horseback, and thus to
correspond with the later ^quites or knights.

CELERY (apium grateolens^ Linn.), an um-
belliferous plant cultivated for salad. In its
wild state, in which it is found in ditches
throughout Europe, it is rank, coarse, and even
poisonous, but by cultivation in gardens it be-
comes sweet, crisp, juicy, and of an agreeable
flavor. Its green leaves, stems, xmd seeds are
used in soups, and the blanched stalks either
in that way, or more usually as a salad. Quo
variety, called tlie celeriac, is raised only for
the root or base of the leaves, which becomes a
wliite, solid bulb. Celery requires a deep,
J^< li, well drained soiL The seed is sown in a
bed, from which the plants are transferred to
another when they are 2 or 8 inches hij^h. At
8 or 12 inches' height they are transferred for

blanching to trenches whicfa are nearly 1 foot
in dtfJtb, The phinta are repeatedly enrthed up
till they have risen 3 feet or more above thd
natural surface. Oeleriac is not bhinclied^ but
grows openly, exposed to the light.

GELESTIKE, the name of 6 popes. L S^t
OfiLKSTiNE, whose anniversary is odehrated April
6, a Roman by birth ^ and related to the emperor
Valeritiniauj was created cardinal deacon by
Innoceot L, and succee<lcd Pope Boniface, Nov.
3, 422. The heresy of Nestorius induced him to
convoke the council of Epbesua in 431, at
which 200 bisliopa were asaembled, and which
was pr&iidcd over by his 3 legates, Cclestiua,
ttie chief of the Pehigian^i having retired into
Britain, ho sent missionanea there who, in the
space of 2 years, brought back that country to
the faith. Shortly after this he sent Palladins to
Scotland, and St. Patrick to Ireland^ Some
epistles of this pope baye been preserved, but
those written to the hishops who had taken
part in the election of Nestorius and to Fnen-
gius have been lost. He died April 6, 432, and
was buried in the cemetery of St^ Priscilla, on
the Via Salavia. IL Guido di Oaatrllo, was
a disciple of Abelard, and was created cardinal
priest by Honorius IL, and made governor of
Benevento by Innocent IL, at whose death he
was elected pope, Sept 25, 1143. As soon as
he had ascended the pontifical throne he re-
ceived ambassadors from Louis YIL, who came
to supplicate peace, and also absolution from
the ecclesiastical oensuras under which the
kingdom had been laid by his predecessors*
The pope granted their request in the presence
of the nobles of Rome. Having occupied the
pontifical see 5 months, he died March 9, 1144,
and was buried in the dinrch of St John Lar
teran. Only 8 epistles of his are extant IIL
GiACENTB Oesini, a Roman by birth^ and de-
scended from the illustrious family of that
name. He was created cardinal by Honorius
IL, elected pope when past 80 years of age,
March 30, 1191, and died Jan. 8, 1198. The
day after his consecration he crowned the em*
peror Henry YL, and his empress Constance.
After the coronation, the emperor restored to
the pope the city of Tusculum, which the pope
gave to the Roman citizens, who to avenge
some former disputes destroyed it Ha after-
ward excommunicated the emperor, because he
kept in prison Richard CoBur de Lion. Among
other noteworthy events of Celestine's ponti-
ficate was his confirmadon of the Teutonio
military order in 1192. IV. The son of John
Castiglione, of Milan, and Cassandra Crivelli,
the sister of Urban HL He was appointed
canon and chancellor of his native city, and
afterward became a monk in the monastery of
Altacomba. Gregory IX., in 1227, created
him cardinal, and sent him as legate into Tus-
cany, and after this to Lombardy and to Monte
Casino, where he found the emperor Frederio
1 1, preparing to send succors to the Holy I^nd,
Ho was elected poi)0 Sept. 20, 1241. Advanced
in years, and with health much impaired by ior

rOSrjfiTINE

CELlBAOr

Urmiiids. he oooapied the see only a short thiML
•nd died Oct 8, 1241. vithoDt having reoeiyed
conseoratioii, and withoot having published
anj bnlL Y . Foetbo Ahoklerisb, bom about
1215, at Isernia, in NapleSy died May 19, 1290.
Previous to his election he was called Pietro
of Morrone, from a moantain near Bnlmona
where he led a solitary life. When 17 years
dd he became a Benedictine monk in the mon-
astery of Faifolif in the diocese of B^evento.
After performing extraordinary penances for
many years, he went to Borne, where he was
ordained priest in 1289. Having spent 5 years
at Mnrrone, he afterward removed to IConnt
Mi^eUa, near Snlmona, where he lived with 2
other priests in a large cavern. He fasted every
'day except Bonday, and observed 4 Lents in the
year, living on bread and water, working and
praying daring the entire day and most of
the night In 1244, he founded the reli^ons
order called 06lestine«, which prospered so
mnoh during his lifetime that it consisted of
600 monks and 86 monasteries. This order
was approved hr Urban FV., who incorpo-
rated it with the ifenedictine order. Gregory X.
confirmed it m 1274 in the 2d general council
of Lyons. Pietro was elected pope July 7|
1294, after the death of Nicholas lY. The ac-
count of his election being forwarded to him in
his retirement, he refosed to accept the dignity,
though the cardinals and Oharles 11, king of
Naples, and Andrew IIL king of Hungary,
urged him strongly to do so. He attempted to
fiy from his retreat^ but was prevented by a vast
concourse of people. At length he consented to
accept the dignity, and preceded to Perugia ac-
companied by the Kings of Naples and Hungary,
and was crowned Aug. 29. He made his pub-
lic entrance into the city amid the applause of
more than 200,000 people. In the city of
Aquila he appointed 12 cardinals, 5 of whom
were Italians and 7 French, and then went to
Naples. He made 2 constitutions which pro-
vided for the cardinals entering into conclave
on the election of a pope, thus renewing a
constitution already made by Gregory X. in the
council of L^ons ; and also another respecting
the pope resigning his office. After occupying
the |>ontifical see during 6 months, he renounced
the tiara, Dec. 18, 1294, on finding that he was
but littie acquainted with temporal matters, and
stffl retained his unconquerable love for soli-
tude. The see remained vacant 10 days, when
Boniface YIH. was elected his successor. Oel-
estine then retired- again to his solitude at Ma*
Jella, to devote himself fdtogether to prayer and
to mortification. His successor, Boniface Vni.,
fearing difficulties might be caused by artfiii
persons, who would turn his simplicity to their
own account, wished to keep him under his
control, and at first confined him in a house
in Anagni near, his own residence, and after-
ward transferred him to Fmnone, near Feren-
tino in Oampagna, where he languished for 10
months in a climate so sickly that the religious
who waited on him were obliged to be changed

every 2 mostiis. He finally Aed there May
1296, and was canonized at Avignon by Pi
Clement Y., May 6, 1818. Ho wrote the Mi
ing treatises, which were published at Napld
1640 : nelatio Vita iua; De VvrhitQm;
Vitm;DeBbmM9 VanitaU; De&mplit;
SeiUenUk Patrum. Several fives of this [^
have been written ; among them, one
Lelio Marini, which was published at Milan
1680.

OELIBAOY, the state of a person who i
Bounces matrimony. Among Uie daadcal a
tlons celibacy was consodered as an offence \
ward society, and celibates were subjected I
varioDS penalties. In Sparta unmarried mn
were regarded as desert^ from tiie oommnn
ty, branded with in&myy and by the laws (J
Lycnrgns might be seized and severely pm
ished by the women in the temple of Hem' h
Flato^ in his imaginary republic, declared J
those who had remained unmarried till tL |
WCTe 85 years old to be incapable of ho\t\
any public office. By the laws of Borne ^-
bates were forbidden to bear vritnees in cmr^
or to leave a will, and special penalties w<rr
reserved for them in the future life. S.::
opinions and ordinances prove that in tii^^
times celibacy had charms and partisans, fors:
ided disorder would not call forth so irn
rigor. It is remaikable that while cf^^p
was proscribed in Europe, it was anthoriied p
the East. There celibates bore ll«lo^l^
names, were raised to high poeitiona, a:-
styled eunuchs of the sun and fevoriie f
heaven. With the progress of civiltfsboc s
Greece and Kome, the celibate state becaR*
more common, and custom triumphed ovtr \»
laws. Thus often the men of letters, mf-
losophers, athletes, gladiators, and nwsiciaia
some from taste and some from neoeesi^? ^
nounced marriage. This was frcqnenUy t.^
case with tiie disciples of Pythagonj ^
Diogenes. Celibacy was early wHfJw

peculiar privilege and duty of the P"^*^
Among the Jews, those who were intendw ij
the service of tiie temple were pennittec^
marry, but under certain special ^r^'l
Among the Egyptians, the pri«s*8^',^, .„•
bound to chastity. The «S^^^^Z^cZ
Brahmins of India, and tiie hierophantfl oi^
Atiienians, lived in ceUbacy. ™re J^
maidens among the Persians «on^^,
the worship of tiie sun, and vestal "^
among the Romans, who «lo"^J^]iwv
mitted to guard the sacred fire. J^^' ^^
of religious persons was ^^^^^(i^t
Greeks as a supernatural 8^**^*^^ s«cn^^
sublime though vague terms, *°»,7..*erre/!-
was regarded as perfect without the^^^^^
tion of a virgm.— In tiie pn^i^^T^Xn^^
church celibacy came gradually to oe^ ^^^
a higher state than matrimony, ^..^j
fotiiers, especiafly 8t Jerome, «Dti«»i ^j^
celebrated tiie virtue of continen^ ' .^ ^
time of the apostiea tiier© were pej'
priestiiood who practised cclib«>y «»»

CELL

it a moral triampk Yet llaer^ was no law nor
unifoimity of o|>inion or action oo Uie eubje^jt,
and it was not till tbe 4th century that even
the hiLiii^r clergy began geaeraJly to lira in
celibacy. TliO council of the Spanish and Af-
riciin churches at Elvira, in Spain, A. D. 805,
commanded ecclesiastics of the 3 first grades to
abstain from conjugal intercourse under penalty
of deposition. A motion to the same effect
was made in the general council of Nice, in
A. D. 325, but it was rejected. Yet a tradition
became prevalent about that time, tliat priests
ouce admitted into holy orders should not af-
terward marry, and this practice being once
ee-tablished, led naturally to the opinions that
f>erson8 who were married should not be ad-
mitted into orders, and that celibacy was a
holier state than marriage. In the Latin
church the usage of celibacy was most strictly
observed. Near the close of the 4th century
Pope Siricius forbade conjugal intercourse to
priests without distinction, and this interdic-
tion was repeated by the subsequent popes and
councils. The emperor Justinian declared the
child of an ecxilesiastio illegitimate, and incapa*
ble of being an heir. The council of Tours, in
5o6, decreed that married monks and nuns in-
curred excommunication, and that their mar-
riage was null. The Greek church opposed
the action of the Latins, and has always recog-
nized the marriages of priests and deacons
which took place before their consecration.
The monks, and the bishops who are chosen
from among them, are unmarried. In the Ho-
rn an church, councils were frequently occupied
with rigorous measures against violations of the
law of celibacy ; and observance of the law was
most strictly insisted upon under the pontificate
of Gregory VIL, who excommunicated every
married priest, and every layman who should
be present at a service celebrated by him. The
reformers rejected celibacy as contrary to natu-
ral law, and permitted Protestant ministers to
marry. Luther thought at first of maintaining
tlie celibacy of monks, by reason of their vow,
but afterward married himself. This innovation
brought the question up again in the Catholic
cliurcii, and although the emperor, the king of
France, and many of the electors and princes
Were favorable to the marriage of priests, yet
the council of Trent, which closed its sittings
in 15G3, decided finally to retain the disci-
pline of ceUbacy. From that time the law
has been absolute in the Koman Catholic
priesthood. One who has been married can-
not be ordained if his wife is Uving, unless
a separation takes place between the parties by
mutual consent. Those who have yet attained
only the lower orders may renounce their bene-
fices, forsake their orders, and be married ; but
it is otherwise with sub-deacons and the higher
(Ic'ijreea. To such the pope alone, notwithstand-
ini5 the indehbiUty of the character of priest,
niay grant permission to retire from the priest-
hood, and consequently to contract marriage.
C£LL, the simplest form of organic life, from

which all vegetable and mogt animal stmctcr«a
are bailt up* Since the improvement in the
microscope within the last 25 years, and mora
ft^pecially since th€^ r^georches of Bchkid^i in
1837, and of Schwann a little later, the atten*
tion of physiologists has been onoeasingly direct-
ed to the minute elementary structure of living
things. The observers last named have shown
that a oell, containing within it another cell
(the nucleus)^ the latter oontaining a granular
body (the nucleolus), is the primary form which
organic matter assumes when it becomes an or-
ganic structure ; the bodies of many animals and
plants are composed entirely of cells, and the
tissues of the embryo, in the first instance, coo-
fist of nucleated cells, which are developed
into the dissimilar textures of the adult animaL
However great the difference may seem between
the animid and the plant, when seen by the un-
assisted eye and in their perfect form, they grad-
ually approach each other as we descend in the
scale, and finally meet in a common structure^
the simple individual cell ; and, when reduced
to this, no one can say to which of the two greal
kingdoms it belongs. The microscope has re-
vealed the great fact of unity of plan in this
elemental structure throughout the organic
world. In former times the power of sponta-
neous motion and the presence of a stomach
were considered the distinctive attributes of an-
imals ; but we now know that most of the lowest
vegetables possess this power at some period of
their lives, and by the same hair-like nlaments,
or eiliay by which the lower animals move ;
while the sponge and some protozoa have neither
the power of motion nor a proper stomach. No
chemical element can be considered as a char-
acteristic of the animal as distinguished from
the plant; and we have seen that the primarv
cells are absolutely indistinguishable from eaca
other. In the cell, however, is to bo found the
distinction between plants and animals, viz.|
in its power of development, in its destiny : in
the plant, the oell, however changed in form and
contents, always retains the characters of a cell ;
but in the animal the cell usually undergoes a
development into tissues, in which the cellular
form completely disappears. In the developed
animal of the lowest types, where the distinc-
tion is the most difficult, the elements of nutri-
tion are eminently charactenstio ; the simplest
protozoa, which seem to be only a mass of
living jelly, must feed upon organic compounds
derived from other living things which are taken
into the interior of the body ; while all plants
derive their nourishment from the absorption of
inorganic elements by the external surface, azid
evolve oxygen, by the decomposition of carbonic
acid, under the influence of sun-Ught; so that
the simplest members of the two kingdoms,
which cannot be distinguished by any peculiar-
ities of structure, are separated physiologically
by the phenomena of nutrition. Though the
vegetable and the animal cell do not difi'er ex-
cept in their ultimate development, it will ren-
der the subject more intelligible to begin with

680

CELL

the former, which is very easy to observe, and
to ascend in the latter from the embryo cell to
the perfect tissue. In many plants the individ-
ual is oonstitnted by a single cell, living for it-
self and by itself; the higher phmtsare formed
by an aggregation cf such cells, each of which
has its independent life beside that which it
possesses as a member of an organism ; so that,
as Schleiden first maintained, in 1887, the "life-
history of the individoal cell is the first and
absolutely indispensable basis of vegetable and
animal pfarysidogy." What then is the vegetable
eell, and how does it originate and multiply? It
wss the view of Bchleiden and Schwann that
around the preexisting solid fundamental body
(the nudeus) a membrane is formed, which ex-
pands and constitutes the cell. Dr. Burnett Tin
his *' Prize Essay on the Cell," presented to the
American medical association in 1851) consid-*
ers that this is not always the case, and that
there is another mode of cell formation, which is
that the nucleated cell is simply one cell con-
taining another within its walls ; in his own
words : '* With Schwann the nucleua is exoge*
nous and germinative ; with me the nucleus is
endogenous and reproductive." The two con-
clusions of the studies of cell life, according to Dr.
Burnett, are: "1. The existence of an element-
ary particle, having an invariable unity of ex-
pression, the cell. 2. The universality of the
application of this particle for the formation of
organized parts, the tissues.'' The vegetable
cell is a membranous vesicle containing a fluid.
The cell wall is composed of two layers : an in-
ner, called the *' primordial utricle," first formed
and the most essential to cell existence ; it is
thin and delicate, and of albuminous constitu-
tion ; the outer layer is produced after the pri*
mordial utricle and its contents are .endosed, and
takes no part in the formation of the cell ; it is
thick, strong, and principally composed of cel-
lulose, a starch-like substance containing no ni-
trogen. The outer layer Ib merely protective,
while the primordial utricle is engaged in the
vital operations of the cell The contents of
the vegetable cell, more or less deeply colored,
have been collectively called " endoohrome,"
and consist of colorless protoplasm or organ-
izable fluid containing albuminous matter, and
in the interior a mere watery sap. The distinc-
tion between wall and contents cannot be made
out in some of the lowest forms; sometimes the
cell appears as a mass of endochrome, retaining
its form by its own viscidity, the superficial layer
gradually becoming conaoudated, and the inte«
rior becoming more liquid ; and this has been
considered the way in which a cell is developed
from a rudimentary mass of organizable fiuid*
The fungi, alga, and lichens are composed of
simple cells, globular in the lowest forms, but
elongated in the higher types ; each of these
may maintain a separate existence and multiply
itself almost indefinitely. In the fiowering plants
the structure appears more complex, but it is
still only an aggregation of cells, differing from
the simplest forms only in their power of being

developed into stem, leaves, rooted flowen, k
remaining in mntoal conneotion, but alwaji
whether so-called spiral vessels^ tubes, or fiirri
merely modifled or elongated cells serving a
tinct purposes. The name of cellnkr tissiid
properly applied only to the fsbrio of plsLtl
whose most important and active parts are m^
np of cells, the woody tisane h^x^ specMjc-^
ngned for medianical support and for the m
veyance of fluids ; the pith, bark, medolkr]
rays, and cambium are composed of cellaj]
substance; this, in fact, ia found wberer?
growth ia taking place. The cells preserve ticj
oval or globular form only when loosdy aggre-
gated, and become flattened and irregoliKr as d
tissue becomes consolidated. The cells bare htt.
named by botanists oblong, lobed, square cy-
Hndrical, fusiform, stellate ; the latter beingfou::
where lightness is desirable, as in thesteim;
water plants. The dimensiona €i these ctn
vary from ^ to ^^ of an inch In diametf^
but they are generally from ^Jyto^of anioff
and are held together by an intercellular s^
stance analogous to the gelatinous layer betreer
the cells of algaa. The woody fibre, in the It.
analysis, is only a variety of the cellular sn ■
stance, being composed of elongated cells in-
herent by their whole length and hardened t;
the internal deposit of sclerogen. Snch c<^
usually contain an evident nucleiifl» which i»j
Bumes a brownish yellow color when treaw
by an iodine solution ; the nudeus, or cjioi>^'^
contains smaller cells, or nucleoli, h^'
low plants the single cells live isolated and Cf
tinct; others unite t<^ther into yanoci;
shapefd masses; others join in a definite ci^'
ner. In the vegetable kingdanthe ceUsgene:-
ally increase by division into two, cacb pw^
ded with its half of the primitive nndeua; e^
new cell secretes its own gelatinous enreJofiJ.
and soon becomes free from its compJWJ'?*;
sometimes the subdivision is so rapid that a ^
ries of cells is produced without gelstinoos^
velope, hanging on to each other; plants w^j
grow, the cells of the higher forms being defti-
oped into special organs. Generstion m ^
lowest plants is effected by the union or m
of a pair of cells, by a process termed codj^
tion, the membrane as well as the conteQW f^
ing completely fused ; the two wl3j»[«^
into a sinffle mass, the spore, which »>J^?' ^
primordial cell of a new generation jy "» P
cess of binary subdivision. One <» "^Y ^
remarkable properties of the vegetable ^ ^
pecially in the lower forms of aqnaUc p^-^^
the power of motion ; this usaalJy degen ^

of the primordial ntnc^e
amenta which, imp?! ^,

the extenaon

thread-like filaments wmca. iwi^- '-.^^^^
through the water by the contraction w ^
vibratory cilia; these motile ^^^^^'^^tici
cently considered animalcules. The cod ^
the cells of plants are of vsst jmport^^.
man ; at the head of these stand ^^^^^m
ules constituting starch, the fil'"^^-^. om
food of more than half of thehaman^Jf ;
of the most common of the cell

OELL

631

ropLyl, or green vegetable wax, the caTise of
the green color of plants, and existing in the
leaves and young stems when not deprived of
light; it is soluble in alcohol and ether, and
forms a thin coating to the grannies of the cell.
In the leaves of water plants the circulation of
the granular contents of the cells maybe easily
Been, passing up one side and down the other,
never escaping into adijoining cells ; the nucleus,
with its nucleolus, may be distinguished from
the rest by its larger size and its greater trans-
parency. Elongated cells unite in many plants
to form vessels containing milky secretions;
among these are the juices whose concretion pro-
duces caoutchouc and gutta percha. Fixed oils
are found as contents of cells, especially
within the seeds, where they serve to nour-
ish the embryo ; among these are the cocoanut,
palm, castor, croton, Junseed, rape, and other
oils, used in medicine and the arts. Cells also
secrete volatile oils, camphor, gums, wax, and
resins ; they contain crystallized mineral sub-
stances, called raphides, usually salts of lime;
also sclerogen, a gritty substance found often in
the centre of pears, giving hardness to fruit-stones
and nut-shells, and constituting the dense white
substance known as vegetable ivorv. The stings
of plants, as of the nettle, are elongated cells
containing an irritating liquid. The beautiful
colors of flowers depend on coloring matters,
nsually fluid, contained within the cells. All
plants, then, are made up of a primitive mem-
brane existing in the form of cells, each provid-
ed in the young state with a nucleus or cyto-
blast and nucleoli, which by aggregation and
modification make up all their tissues; each
having an independent existence, and secreting
whatever may be necessary for the perfection
of the tissue of which it forms a part, or for
the reproduction of its species. — In addition to
what has been said before (in vol. i. pp. 522,
523, article Anatomy), it may be stated that the
animal cell in its simplest form lives independ-
ently of other cells, andreqmres for its growth
to maturity nothing but a proper nutriment and
temperature. Like the vegetable ceU, it origi-
nates in a reproductive germ or granule, prepar-
ed previously by another cell, which organizes
the nutrient particles in its neighborhood, and
forms from them the cell wall and its contents,
among which are reproductive granules, the
germs of new cells to be set free by the rupture
of its wall ; unlike the vegetable cell, it cannot
combine in itself inorganic elements, but must
have an organizable nutrient fluid supplied to
it, from which each cell selects the elements
proper for the performance of its function. The
animal cell has no cellulose wall, its contents
beinj? enclosed in a single membrane composed
of albuminose ; in its young state it contains a
serai-fluid plasma, which may continue as such
in ceUs of mere growth and multiplication, or
may be displaced by Uie special product natural
to the celL It may multiply by binary subdi-
vision, by the breaking up of its contents into
several particles, or by the aggregation of the

moleonltes of the chxralating fluids into masses
whose exterior forms a cell wall, the interior
becommg liquefied cell contents ; this last can
take place only in high^ organized animals.
The simple membrane of cells and basement
membrane are structureless; after this come
the granules or molecules, very minute, floating
free like those in the chyle, or enclosed as in the
nerve corpuscles, gland cells, and pigment cells;
next to these simple structures come nuclei or
cy toblasts, cells within cells, andsometimes with
granukr nucleoli ; the blood corpuscles are ve-
sicular nuclei, with walls, of simple membrane,
without nucleoli ; the epithelium and pigment
cells have nncleoli ; the nuclei of the lymph and
chyle corpuscles appear granukr. Free nuclei
are found in the gastric juice, in the gray cere-
bral substance, and in some quickly growing tu-
mors ; nuclei in cells (and each cell generaUy
contains only a single nucleus) appear to be In
contact with the cell wall,, without any relation
to the centre of the eeU. The walls of amraal
cells coalesce to form tubes and sheaths, while
in plants, according to Quekett, the cell wall is
always present in Vie oldest and hardest tissues ;
and in the former, except in the true cellular
tissues, the walls disappear and no trace may
be left of the nucleus or nucleohis; in other
cases the nuclei may remain attached to the in-
ner surface of the wall. Nuclei are generaUy
oval or round, and do not conform theraselvea
to the different shapes of cells; but they are
sometimes elongated and divided. In the fully
developed blood corpuscles the nucleus has dis-
appeared ; in other instances, the disappearance
of the nucleus is a sign of degeneration of tis-
sue; in the yolk and milk cells, and in the cell
products of disease, the contents are granular.
In the chyle and lymph corpuscles the repro-
ductive granules are set free by the bursting of
the cell wall, and are in their turn developed
into cells at the expense of the organizable ma-
terials of the fluids in which they float; simdar
granules in the plastic lymph of inflamed sur-
faces give rise to successive generations of
cells by which the heahng process is efiect-
ed. The nucleus, where it exists, seems to
be the chief instrument of the functional ac-
tivity of the cell In many cases the nmlU-
plication of cells is effected by the division of
the nucleus, each portion giving origin to a new
cell, as in the case of growing cartilage ; where
rapid growth is needed, and for a tissue of only
temporary duration, a cluster of secondary cells
is produced in the parent cell by the mmute
subdivision of the nucleus, as in the case of the
cells of secretion in the glandular organs, and,
according to Dr. Barry, of the primary devel-
opment of the embryo; but in all cases cells
must take their origin in germs prepared by a
previously existing cell— As the ceU is tlie type
of organization, we must expect to find m it the
first rudiments of the embryo ; the cell contam-
ing these rudiments is the fn^m or egg; it is a
cell enclosing a second, within which is a third
of granular consistence ; the first is the vitelline

tt9

CELL

membiBiie, the oeD wall; theaeoonditlliega^
xnioal vesiole, or nuolena : and the third is the
germinal s|k^ or nadeoitu!. The embryo he-
comes an aggregate .of cells premselj in the
nuumer that all animal cells grow, viz. : by the
doTelopment of new oeUs within the old firom
the sabdiviaion of the nndena, and by the ag^
gregation of interoellnlar granules into nuclei
which form ceUs. From the cells are foimed the
tissues ; in those consisting of fibrooa elements
the cell walls become elongated and minately
fdded ; in mosdes, nerveS) and smallest blood-
vessels, the cells are joined end to end, their
walls coalesce, and their cayities oomnranicate ;
in these cases the nndd are generally perdstent^
though altered in form. Henle is of opinion
that the white fibresof oellalar iasene (see Ckl-
LULAX Tibsub) are derived from the cell wall,
and the yellow fibres from the nndena ; aooord-
ing to Todd and Bowman, the basement mem-
brane of the skin and other parts is fonned by
ihe flattening and fusion of the cell wal]& In
bone we have seen that the nuclei form the
lacunm from which the eanalieuli are prolonged,
and in cartilage they remain in the cell cavities,
contributingprobably to itsnntrition and growth. '
There does not appear to be any actual conver-
sion of the cell wall or the nudeus into the
proper elements of tissue, which depend on or-
ganizing processes connected chiefly with the
cell walL The corpusdes of the blood are formed
in the first instance fr^m the embryo cella of
the vegetative la^er in mammals and birds, and
of the inner surutoe of the vitelHue membrane
in the lower vertebrates. The cella of bone, of
the brain, and of cartilage, have ahready been
described under those heads. — ^Tbe principal tis-
sues in which cells continually exist are m &t,
coloring Inatter. skin and mucous membrane,
and secretiDg glands. Adipose tissue connsts
of cells with walls of structureless membrane,
containing fat, f^obular when single, variously
flattened under pressure, and without percepti-
ble nudeus except in the embryo ; this tissue is
capable of rapid growth, as is familiarly seen
in &tty tumors. Ck>loring matter in vegetables
may exist in the cdl wall, as in some ferns, or
in a contained fluid, as in chlorophyl gener-
aUy; fluid coloring matter exists in the blood
cells, but pigment usually occurs in the form of
granules. The pigment of the choroid coat of the
eye consists of innumerable granules, about
7^|»f of an inch in diameter, endoeed in 6-
sided cells, the depth of cdor being in propor-
tion to the quantity collected in a certain space
within the cdl ; the coloring matter of the skin
is also enclosed in hexagonal ceUs. The epider-*
mis, or extemd covering of thesldn, consists of
aeverd layers of cdls, incessantly produced from
below and constantly thrown off by desquamap
tion from the surface ; these cells, spherical in
contact with the cerium, become flattened into
flat scales on the surface, without trace of nu-
deL All the naturally free intemd surfaces of
the body are provided with constantly forming
and falUng cutides, called ^itheUa, always in

coatBofc iHtli fldib : ttiesB wont jprodtioed bj s
regular ezndatien or cells, teaBeUatod or paT^
ment-like on the detteito serooB and synoTis!
membranes, on the lining of tiie bloodveGseK
and in some parts of the nmooiiB membrsfles:
and cylinder-like in the intestinal oanal, at the
cardiac orifice of the atonuudi, and in the lax??
duets of g^Umds and other aeeretorjofgana. Thr
free Budaoe of the outermost eells is in som«
parts covered with delicate movable dlia, as is
the mcuoous membrane of the alr^paaasges. Br
means of such minute eells the most importaiit
ftmctions of nntrxtion, reprodacfion, and secre-
tion are performed ; the proooBS of repantkn
is effected through them, and, nnfortanstdr,
many diseased and malignaat growths are formed
by the same organic cella. ^noe the time d
Schwann and Schldden it has been generally ad-
mitted that thenudeated oell is the agent of tfce
most important living prooeeses, boti^ in plants
and animals, from Ihenr embryonio origin in
their final devdopment The aot of secretioa
in glands is peifDrmed by nucleated cefla, vhich
grow by appropriathig to themselves the proper
elements, prepare the material of their pecuHir
secretion, and by their mptnre diachai^ it ioto
the glandular ducts and receptacles; the coo-
tinuance of the secretion depends on the m-
ceasive devdopment and degeneration of tie
constituent gland cdls. The reproductiTe cells
are devdoped in the male in the testes, in tbe^
mde in the ovaries. Absorption from tbe io-
testind mucous membrane, as ftr as cbjle is
concerned, is effected through clusters of minnte
cdls, wluoh take up the nutrient products d
digestion, and reversing the course A tbe Mcre-
tor^ process, convey them into the lacteals;
during the presence of diyle these cells gro^t
select, absorb, and prepare the nutrient materi-
al, and then by their rupture give it op ^ ^
lacteals ; iu the blood, the lymph aodcbjleoor-
pusdes convert the dbuminouis matters into
nbrine, which they set free bv their own ooo-
stent dissolution ; and finally, the red corposdes,
another set of cdls, eflfect the interebao^ w-
tween oxygen and carbon in the lungs and ti^
sues, or p^orm the fimcdon of respiration.--
As each cell has its period of lift, yremy^m
understand the nature of the continual prooes
of growth and decay going on in the Bring, ("*
ganiam. The absorbent, secreting, and fibnoe-
elaborating cdls sre very transient in tn®'^
istence; the cells of organs which prBrntaaa-
icd support, aa of the heart-wood in plants »J

of the bones of animals, have an iQ^^jf t;
prolonged existence; the cdls from nuchwj

muscular and nervous tissues originate are |
first not diflSarent fit>m ordinary o^V^^-^
have a power of transibrmation imprtfsea tJ^ ,
them from the beginning, in virtue rf w^^^ j
they soon assume a peculMr aspect TneJJ^^
the cdls of those tissues in which the inott*j^

tive vital changes are floing on. as *^^^-nj |
and the muacular, is unubrmly the shortest ;
this is of much praetical importanoe «>rr
who are obliged to stimulate the brim w ^

CELLAKABE

CELLINI

crensed fuDctionxil actrritj-. The fitstcr any tis-
sue is made to live, the abort* r will bo Jt3 life,
unless the repose necess(u*y for repamtbn be
ampl«. As in the lower fuogi and th*» early
Btfiirea of embryonic dovdopment, c^Ua ocaa-
sioimlly proceed to the work of multiplicatioa
with extreme rapidity, neither the primary nor
the secondary oelk undergoing any further
change ; this distinguishes fungoid or malignant
growths frova healthy structure. — ^For coil pa-
thology and minute investigations into the his-
tory of the cell, the reader is referred to Dr.
Burnett's *^ Essay ;^' he regards pathology as an
erring physiology, it being impossible to dis-
tinguish the cells of either as to their origin
and general aspect; the difference relates to
their destiny, not to their structure.

CEX.LAMARE, Antonio GnmiOB, prince o^
duke of Giovenazzo, a Spanish diplomatist of
Genoese origin, born in 1667, in Naples, died
3Iuy 16, 1733, in Seville. Brought up at the
court of Charles IL of Spain, he atiterward
fought the battles of his successor, Phihp V.,
against the imperialists. Taken prisoner in
1707, he was detained until 1712. Three
years after hb return to Spain he was
sent to France as ambassador. Here he joined
in the conspiracies planned agiunst the duke of
Orleans, with a view of vesting the regency of
France in Philip of Spain, but the plot was dis-
covered, and the seizure of Cellamare's de-
spatches laid bare the whole details. He was
sent out of France at once, and on his return
was appointed captain-general of Old Castile,
a post which he retained until his death,

CELLARER (Lat. eellaritu\ under the Ro-
man emperors, a functionary who examined the
accounts, and to whom was committed the care
of their domestic affairs. The name was subse-
quently given to the purveyors or agents for
prelates and monasteries. The cellarer was one
of the 4 great officers of monasteries, and had
under his orders the bake-house and the brew-
hoQse. He regulated the harvesting and storing
of the corn, and managed the whole economy of
tlie provisions. His compensation was A of
all the grain received, and a furred gown. The
olhce was sometimes held by persons of illus-
trious birth; thus Philip of Savoy, in 1243,
was cellarer to the archbishop of Vienna.

CELLARICS, Christoph, a learned German,
born at Sohmalkolden, Nov. 22, 1638, died in
Ualle, June 4, 1707. He devoted himself so
closely to the study of the oriental languages and
literature, that it is related of him that during
the 14 years he spent at the university of Halle,
he only once went out for a walk in the streets.
He edited more than 20 Greek and Latin clas-
sical works, and wrote several volumes on the
grammar, geography, history, and languages of
oriental countries.

CELLE (Ger. ZflU\ capital of the bailiwick
of the same name in Hanover, district of Lttne-
burg, on the Aller, which is here navigable, and
on ihe Hanover and Brunswick railway ; pop.
12,100. It is a well-built and paved town, the

seat of the sapreme tsourt of Hanovar, contains
churches of differont denominationa, an old caft-
tle formerly occupied by the dukes of LOna^
burg, a medical college, 2 public librarvoii, an a^*
cultural encicty, and voriouB other public instl*
tutions. Celle is also noted for its annual horse
races. The famous stud of the king of Hanover
and tlie house of correction are near the town.
In the castle park is the mausoleum of Matilda,
queen of Denmark, who died here. The inhab-
itants are employed in the manufacture of to-
bacco, cigars, stearine, &c., and carry on a brisk
transit trade in wool, wax, honey, and wood.

CELLINI, Benventjto, an Italian artist,
born in Florence, in 1500, died there Feb. 25,
1570. Intended for the musical profession, to
which his father was devoted, he gave the pref-
erence to the pursuits of a goldworker and en-
graver. Endowed by nature with a skilful
hand and a fertile fancy, he soon distinguished
himself in chasing sword handles, cutting dies,
and engraving medals. But his headstrong dis-
position tended to involve him in brawls and
quarrels, which were free however from malice,
and frequently blended with a charming vein
of drollery and audacity. His debut in the
sphere of art went thus hand in hand with his
exploits in the field of duelling, and at the age
of 16, when his genius had already excited the
admiration of his townsmen, he was banished
to Sienna. After wandering for some time from
one town to another, he eventually found his
way to Rome, where a gold medal of Clement
VII., of which he had furnished the die, secured
him a favorable reception at the papal court.
The pope took him into his service, and this
position gained him abundant employment in
cutting seals for many eminent prelates. He
also took part ia the defence of the castle
of Sant' Angelo, Rome being at that time the
theatre of conflicts between Charles V. and
Francis L, and Cellini was fond of boast-
ing that he had killed the constable of Bour-
bon and the prince of Orange. At any rate,
when he left Rome he had added the Laurels
of a soldier to those of an artist. At Mantua,
where he remained until an affray compelled
him to leave the town, he became acquainted
with Giulio Romano, and through him with
the grand duke, who gave him some com-
missions. On his return to Florence, where
his military exploits at Rome had reinstated him
in the good graces of the authorities, he formed an
intimacy with Michel Angelo ; but his violent
temper again embroiled him in a quarrel, which
compell(xl him to leave in disguise for Rome,
While at Florence, he devoted himself princi-
pally to the execution of medals, the best of
which are Hercules and the Nemean lion, and
Atlas supporting the globe. At Rome, he was
appointed engraver to the mint, but soon found
himself again in trouble. This time a mistress
of his named Angelica, who had fled to Na-
ples, seems to have roused his wrath. Ho
followed her to Naples, but on receiving the
pardon of the new pope (Paul HI.) returned to

684

CELLULAR TISSUS

BcAne^ and lemained far a ooodderaUe time
in his service, although the pope's natural
■on, Pier' Luigi, was hostile to hun, and caused
him to be imprisoned upon a charge of hav-
ing robbed the castle of Bant' Angelo daring
the war. Through the iDterference of the car*
dinal of Ferrara he obtained his pardon, after
having previously effected his escape. Sub-
aequently he was employed in France, at the
court of Francis L, untU his differences with
the duchess d^lltampes prompted his return to
Florence, where the grand duke Cosmo de'
Medici supplied him with a studio. Here he
commenced his celebrated '* Perseus,'' which, as
soon as it was exposed to public view, created
the utmost enthusiasm. He was now employed
upon many important works, which did not
permit him to accept a proposition made to him
by Catharine de' Medici to superintend the ex-
ecution of a monument to be dedicated to Henry
II« He remained in the grand duke's service
until his death, and was buried with great pomp
in the church of S. Annunziata. — ^Eis auto*
biography, interesting as a record of the inci-
dents of his stirring life, and of the history and
manners of his times, has been translated into
German by Goethe, into French by Faijasse
and A. Mm'cel, and into English by Kugent. The
best edition is tliat of Carpani of 1812, trans-
lated into English by Boscoe. Cellini also left
HSS. on various branches of art, and the acad*
emy della Crusca quotes him frequently as a clas-
sic. The best part of his artistic works are his
smaller productions in metals, the embossed
decorations of shields, cups, salvers, ornamented
sword and dagger hilts, clasps, medals, and coins ;
and the most celebrated specimens of his skill
in these branches of art, in whicli he showed
himself a close student of Sfichel Angelo's
works, are a richly ornamented salt-cellar in
the imperial gallery at Vienna, and a magnifi-
cent shield at Windsor castle. Cf his larger
works, the bronze group of Perseus, with the
head of Medusa, in the Piazza del Gran' Buca in
Florence, and his *' Christ " in the chapel of the
Palazzo Pitti, are the most prominent,

CELLULAR TISSUE, a name given by the
older anatomists to a tissue form^ by a mix-
ture of white and yellow fibres, extensively ef-
fused in the animal body under the names of
cellukr, fibro-cellular, areolar, and fibrous t\A*
sue; the best name is areolar tissue, derived
from the appearance of areola^ or meshes, left
between the intricate crossings of the compo-
nent fibres ; these were formerly noistaken for
cells. This tissue, like others of the living
orsanisra, takes its origin in cells, but in its de-
veloped state it consists of fibres, whence it is
called fibrous tissue by some anatomists; the
old term, cellular tissue, is so well and nni-
yersally understood, that, though inaccurate, it
will probably long be employed in this applica-
tion. Its principal use seems to be to connect
other tissues, allowing at the same time more or
less freedom of motion between them ; it sup-
ports the vessels and nerves in their minutest

branches; it is abmidaiii imder tho elcin ar^
the mucous and seroua membranea ; it entcn
largely into the formation fxf membranes, Ler. j
often called cellnlar membranes, proteotin^ iL i
organs and cavities by their tonglmess a:: J
elasticity. The spaces of the ceUuIar tissue stvi
continuous throughout the body, as xnay :.\
proved by artifioiill inflation by die l>loiir-pi>..
and as is frequently se^ in cases of emphy^exi ;
and anasarca, where air or fluid is effused into ;::
meshes. Under the microscope this tissoe pre-
sents 2 kinds of fibre&inextricably mingled h
various proportions. The one is white and in-
elastic, disposed to a waved or zig-za^ sunnanre-
ment in banda of unequal thickness, created
longitudinally by numerous streaks; the larg-
est of these bands are often j^ of an mch
wide; the component fibres do not branch, ac-
cording to Hassall; this is the white £bro&
tissue. The other kind of fibre is elastic, of s
yeUowish color, composed of branched fila-
ments disposed to curl when not put on the
stretch; they are ^nerally about ^^^ of an
inch thick, interlacmg with the others withcii
becoming continuous with them ; this is tJbe
yellow fibrous tissue. These 2 elements of lis
cellular tissue may be at once distingnxsbeo
by submitting it to the action of dilate htxtz
acid, which instantly causes the former to sveH
up and become transparent and soft, while it
causes no change in the latter. In the eariies
periods of its existence Schwann and mobS
other observers describe the oeUular tissue »
ori^nating in nucleated cells of an elongated
form, from the ends of which fibres prc^^
the cells themselves afterward being absorbed;
according to Hassall, the cella exist &st «
nuclei, around which the cell wall makes its
appearance, assuming a fhsiform shape, ssd
giving rise to unbranched or branched fig-
ments as the fibre belongs to the white or yel-
low fibrous tissue. Cellular tissue is espedaJh
abundant in parts which enjoy free motion, is
in the face about the eyes and cheeks, the so-
terior part of the neck, the arm-pit, the fiei-
ures of the joints, the palm of the hand, and tbe
sole of the foot; the superficial and most mor-
able muscles are separated by thicker lajen
than the deep-seated ones, and the constitaeat
fibres are held together by it during contrac-
tion ; almost every part of the vascular systeis
is held in place by this tissue, whose elastidtT
protects the vessels during the necessary moTe- ;
ments of the body; even its own miuiate bnt
numerous vessels are conducted and enveloped |
by this all-pervading tissue. It is difficult to
say where cellular tissue is not found, unlesB it
be in the teeth, in bone, in cartilage, and in tbe |
cerebral substance, where its presence wodd
be manifestiy useless. The internal vital o^ .
gans most exposed to external vidence are |
protected by lioge quantities of this substance,
as the pancreas, kidneys, colon, and genito-
urinary apparatus; every organ has its invest-
ing covering of cellular tissue, and its processes
of the same penetrating and holding tc^edier

CELLUTJUi TISSUE

CELTjE

its compoDi^iit partB, It is e5{>edallj aUantSjiiit
just under the $kiii, to faclMtflt© its movementa,
and it exists in unoommon quantitj about and
in the interior of the mammary glands. Thua,
this tissue seems to serve as a bond of tmion
between parts, as an element of strength
and protection rather than as a substance of
primary importance in itself; wherever elas-
ticity is required, the yellow fibrous tissue is
most abundant, while the white fibrous tissue
r>re vails in parts demanding resistance and
tenacity ; and the openness of the meshes is in
proportion to the amount of mobility needed.
The amount of cellular tissue varies with age
and temperament, being greatest in youth and
leaf^t in old age; the plumpness and roundness
of the arms in children and females depend on
the presence of this substance around the joints,
which in man are prominent and angular; a
full diet and habits of indolence cause its ac-
cumulation, while abstinence and exercise tend
to diminish it. Like other soft solids, it con-
tains much water in its interstices, which is
favorable for the free movement of the fibres ;
an unnatural increase of this fluid in the sub-,
cutaneous cellular tissue causes the form of
dropsy called anasarca^ so common about the
feet and ankles, and indicated by the skin pit-
ting under the pressure of the finger; in the
English training process it is rapidly lessened,
witli a remarkable diminution of the bulk of
the body ; its natural and slow disappearance
is seen in old age and in chronic disease, in
which the skin, especially about the face and
neck, becomes wrinkled and flabby. Its power
of reproduction is great, and it is rapidly
formed both in healthy and morbid growths;
it undergoes the putrefactive process slowly,
and when boiled yields gelatine from its white
fibrous element, — So extensive a tissue as this
must of necessity become involved in many
diseases ; it is subject to all the eflfects of in-
flammation, with suppuration and mortifica-
tion ; to the infiltration of blood, serum, air,
and urine; to induration, tumors, and un-
natural increase and degeneration. In common
intiammation of this tissue, the capillaries be-
come congested, and a part of their contents
escapes, more or less tinged with blood; the
coagulable lymph thus eff'used causes tlie hard-
ness of circumscribed inflammation ; this may
be removed by absorption, or may become
softened by the deposition of purulent matter,
constituting an abscess, whose walls are formed
by an indurated layer of the tissue which pre-
vents the pus from spreading indefinitely. When
an abscess is formed, the cellular tissue between
«t and the surface of the skin is removed by
ulceration or absorption, or the pus is evacuated
by the knife ; when from excess of inflamma-
tion or other cause the capillary circulation is
permanently suspended, tlie vital properties of
tlie tissue are destroyed, and mortification takes
place, the dead parts being removed in ofl^ensive
fluids and pulpy shreds. In chronic inflanuna-
tlon the cellular tL>sue becomes indurated. In

debilitated conditions of the iyntem, after
poisoned wounds, and in certain epidemic aiter^
aLions of the air, the usual barrier of ciream*
scribing lymph is not effused, and the products
of inflammation spread extensively through the
areolsB of the subcutaneous and internal cellular
tissue ; this is famiharly seen in phlegmonous
erysipelas, and constitutes a most dangerous
disease from the extensive suppuration and
sloughing of the tissues. In wounds of the
lungs a communication is often established be-
tween the air-passages and this tissue, when
the integuments are variously raised by the in-
filtration of air in the areolse, constituting ex-
ternal emphysema; a similar condition is
artificially produced by the butcher when he
blows up his meat. It grows with such ra-
pidity that tumors, often of large size, are do*
veloped from it; most so-caJled "fibrous"
tumors are composed of this tissue ; in such
cases the microscopist is able to detect the fusi-
form cells and the mass of fibres in process of
formation from what was once the cellwalL

CELSUS, an Epicurean philosophef of the 2d
century, the author of a work against Christi-
anity, a large part of which has been preserved
in the answer to it written by Origem Skilled
in both the Epicurean and Platonic philosophies,
he was full of contempt for the new religion,
and argued d priori against its doctrines. By
ingeniously confounding the views of the nu-
merous sects, and by the most intrepid asser-
tions, he ridiculed and travestied in a grotesque
manner the facts related by the evangelists.
The refutation of his work, composed nearly a
century later by Origen, is esteemed one of the
most valuable of the patristic writings.

CELSUS, Atjlits Cobneuus, a Roman author,
who lived probably during the reigns of Augus-
tus and Tiberius. He wrote a kind of cyclo-
paedia 2>0 ArtibiLs, containing a series of treatises
on rhetoric, history, philosophy, jurisprudence,
war, agriculture, and medicine, of wliich, beside
some fragments, only that on medicine is still
extant. Of the 8 books of this work, in which
he made known the system of Hippocrates, fol-
lowing beside Asclepiades and the Alexandri-
ans, the first 2 treat of diet, and tlie general
principles of therapeutics and pathology ; the
rest of particiUar diseases and their treatment,
as well as of surgery. Of its numerous editions,
those by Fortius (Florence, 1478), Millii^n (Ed-
inburgh, 1826), and Ritter and Olbers (Cologne,
1835), are the most valuable.

CELT^ Celts, a people who came into
Europe from the north-east, whose earliest mi-
grations were entirely prior to the historic ages,
and whose origin and primal seats are unknown,
although modem philology has established that
they came originally from Asia, and that their
dialects belong to the great Indo-European fa-
mily of languages. The persons who carried to
Athens the tidings of the sacking of Rome by the
Gauls, who are identical with one tribe or divi-
sion at least of the Celts, related that Rome had
been taken by a great host of Ilyperboreans, that

OELTJI

term fiignifyiagonly apeooleirho dmit beyond
tiii« nnknown monntaiiui of the north-^the point
9i the oompaas being ohangMble at will, in refer*
enoe to the plaoe of tiie SMiker. Thns, to the ear*
Heat Italians it is probable that the Bhmtian and
Snganean Alps were the Hyperborean monn*
taina, aa itia dear that thoae rangea long ahnt
them ont from all knowledge of the movementa
of the wandering tribea to the northward of
tiiem. Afl geographical knowledge and dyilijea*
tion extended to the northward, the Hyperbo^
leans receded to the Harts moontaiaa, and the
Sadetic and Carpathian dudn, for the Italians
and for the Greeka of Hellas ; while for
tiioBe of the eoaats of the Black aes and of
the Orimea, they retired even to the Ural
and Altai monnteina. When Herodotoa first
wrote of the Celts, about 440 B. C, he only
knew of them aa dwelling in the extreme north-
west of Enrope, at so vast a diatanoe that he
belieyed them to have been seated beyond
the pillara of Heronlea, and he evidently im-
agines their migrations to have been fit>m the
west eastward ; bnt In modem times the direc-
tion and oonrse of all the great migrations have
been so thoroughly inrestigated and cleared np,
that we hare no hesitation in pronouncing the
assertion of the old Greek anthor to be an error.
and in asserting, on the contrary, that no great
migration or iirnption of barbiuians ever tra*
▼eUed, on the most extended sode, from the
west easterly^ although hi aome irregular local
movements, in worlong southward, they may
have temporarily assumed an easterly direction
*MUS in entering Italy from the northward,
they most necessarily have done, owing to the
trend of the land. If, however, as there is
much cause to believe, the Cimmerii, who en-
tered and long held the Crimea, were Cimbrio
Celts, we know that so long ago as the reign of
Ardya, king of Lydia ((y78-'29 B. C), they enter-
ed Asia Minor, neoeaBarily from the eastward,
aince they were land joumeyers and not sea*
farers, and held Sardia until expelled fi'om it
by Alyattes, the contemporary or Cyaxares, in
the end of the 6th century before Christ. But
they held yet longer to the Crimea. It has been
atated above that the Gauls and the Cimbri are
both Celts, and in order to show that fact satis-
ftotorily, it is necessary to have recourse both
to etymology and ethnology; this, however, can
be done briefly and simply. In relation to the
first, it is necessary to remark that much diffi-
culty has arisen in tracing the origin of words
dedudble from the Greek, from our having
adopted the Latin c, which even in that language
had no doubt the hard sound, to represent the
Greek jr, which had not nor could have had any
other ; and in the same manner the Latin ^,
which had perhaps a variable sound, to repre-
sent the Greek y, which had invariably the hard
sound of the letter. That is to say, the Greek
c is invariably the English i, and the Greek y
invariably the English g as used in game or
gun, never as in gender or in rin. Our « then
and our g being both eommntable from hard to

aoft, wherever eMber of tbempreoedes the vowi
el s or «, we give a aonnd to the eoaacMajuit acj
tlw word diametrically opposite to tifee aons^j
given by the Greeka. Thia has led to tbe £M
tliat woras which in the Greek tongoe are ai\
once seen and recognized to be IdflDtfoid, wit j
ns appear to have not tiie amalleat poenble ool-
neotion. The Greek word which tlie fiomai.*
thmalated into Galli, whidi we render Gach
and wMbh ia palpably tiie name bj wbiob tLc
Soottiah Highlanders atiU designate ll]einselTe&
Gael, is Vakanu^ Galatai; that whieh- tbe B^
mans translated mto Celts and we vend^^ Celt&
is KiXrm, Keltai; those which the Hoxnans
trandated C&nmerii and Cimbri^ aad wbich we
render in the same way, are KMfif»mpuH and
KifAfipoi^ Kimmerioi and Kimbroi^ the latter
almost identical with the name given to thea-
aelvea by the modem Welah, who are known to
be a Celtic tribe. Kymri Again, -we find
that the Gauls who invaded Bome, Greece^
and Asia Minor in the 4th and 8d centfi-
riea B. C, are variably called G^alatai and
Keltai, the former name being generally limited
to that portion of those raoea wbioli entered
Asia Minor, and eflEected a lodgment in that part
of it which from them took the names of Gala-
tia and Gallo-Grflscia; and that both the great
invading bodiesr— that which occopied for man j
montha all Bome with the exception of the
oapitol, and that which waa repulsed from Dee
phi-— were commanded by men whose name, ss
it is delivered to us by the Gre^ and Ronua
historians, is idenUcal with the Celtic title eqc>
valent to king or diieftain. Now from these
various facts we find that, in the early part U
the 8d century before Christ, the Greeis odj
knew the Kelts as settled in the extreme north*
west of Spsin and alongthe soulii-Westem shores
of France, and that at nearly the same period
a vast simultaneous irruption of these barbari*
ans poured down npon civilized Europe from the
northward. Naturally, therefore, they believed
the invaders to come from the places ia
which they were known to be settled of old,
and to have travelled always fnm the west
eastward, instead of making theur way, as they
really did, from the north-east westward, and
only coming upon the northern frontiers of ciT>
ilization. The aame idea aeems to have pr^
vailed in referenoe to the Kimmerii, to whora
Herodotus also ascribes an easterly course to-
ward Asia Minor, evidently for no other reason
than that he found them still aettled in thi
Crimea after their expulsion from the sonthecn
extremity of Asia Minor; and, conceiving the
Crimea to be their original seat, natnrallj nqK
posed that they had marched eastward aloDg*
the northern shores of the Euxinei and tbea
southeriy between the head of that sea aiid tbe
Caapian, into leaser Aaa. Whereas, the trae
invaaona of both regions were probably made at
the same time, and from the north-east, the mi-
grating hordes taking some the lower, some tbe
upper side of the BUck sea. But those who
came to the southward w^e speedily expelled,

a *, f luif"^ ♦

iMA^mk of dM

if-
1^1* OfembHa CInspwitir

rnli

HlAb npffORn l4j torn; iD«lo& Itt " — t{«i
i^UiJAidL iTnusi enoli ftdmr ^ x^

:j.ml oirtiir-..

frn^i; ^o nie^gklhr

< wnm Ifii mij*«r ^r^^'K^, tJM tfdiir mm

m Mfin Willi MtfiM toil UH^fl^lliaiif
^ l>fif*n vrldiiitlf iiiiMfaf iloira fhitii

<r _jfcifiair« icadUMiportBoii

- ttirial datetisil oo Urn I
m Pr

rb fiU ikm ki^li of OttftL ieii4 bad h6^

i tii« wmmm cif IbofyvtoAn Wliw (Jioar

I €0«i4r7 wm dl? j4ed |p«hn«ii d mil

' IMS Mfl Cwto ; io>

1iiill« or tiMbriv tIM Mi» C3ltiiM iir

■ ji**tn*ilf t* i_L.: L_,

..iifftml, ito4 ffo B^l taMbJi Ilia norlbpm

: ' * ..r .':■, BrfUliv^' ^' ■*■■

t& bo lli0 f»sr«il of ill til* Mskv MlliniS OtfOo
IUI0W1I Ibralfit «roa, mrililf <if INrtttn Vau^A.

.izMmlot IltiLfilarQft Una Uiif
r Iba tiiflMH WifD 1*07^ Giiil,
n&U tb^ ibri» Ciiu wirr^ T»ot ici^ «» b>«i> tluu tl)^
KTisidirwo IboaaGjid wltcr UmJr RiJitiv, piQiii^l
Vi^l, 1S34 Inviidttt JUii llimif. TKbaqaim %
mam miinnl 4Ad fllmfl* ooofMoo aif tbn BMot*
of 1 kiodi^! T " ^ neltlci mo*, lif n irHh^
wbn dil r}f«s ! tlw^ tooft^^ 'flu d

«^ti^f Ow; irbombAoociiBBeiiiiiaiiMEi'ififi

^wm llM b&th diry Qf» fncr^ mm mxt;^'^ CtU^
duaar, oft 1^ nilinr lidnil, niabB iWi aH 0.vJ.

OM; im4 whoa wb eiofnn tii !!»» ili i

Uttir vdfiii lii« «aii| tlie di0?r«paftcr to ^
UuIa vakM^ K<i«r 14 Ia pttiUblis fnm m rt»ri4#v
of ill tlMM cArraiiMiaDmii^ Oi«l i«i •■'I? ftEi i^ llOi
or dtti iminittfj liuTam ChrM' U*ifn» ito* • inm^
ward Otmlirif: or C^tMriaU fnfn^im of — ilwm
bu ^iU fionlm «/ wbkiL fiovfw

da V I a Imt A«i^ #4* iijEpielU or #^

'^ ruicuiLfi^ nr, IuIa U14 gi M tmwmm liiMailtl

llljttd DoAloni of •(fiUtfisni EnrtfHk nioMr ite
■aitf lb* IkJtai aail€«riFrittUaM

GELXA

rangefly to the Bhores of the Baltio and of the
North sea; that kiiidied tribes <tf the Celtic
peoples, whom we know as Gael, either at the
same or at a later period, passing in the same
direction, bat somewhat lower toward the
south, occupied all the central and sonthem
parts of Fnmce, established themselyes on the
shores of the bay of Biscay, and possibly on
the coasts of Morbihan and Brittany, besido
occupying the whole of the island of JBritain,
and penetrating into the interior of 8pain.
These are the (Mis of whom Herodotus speaks
as settled on the north-western ocean, beyond
the pillars of Hercules. In the4th century B.O.
another great passage of the hordes took place,
known as the Brcnnio inyanons, into the north
of southern Europe and as far as Galatia into
Asia. Whether this was Kymric or Gaelic it is
Impossible to determine, but there appears no
reason for doubting that its general course was in
the preoisetrackcSf the former migrations; that
in all probabilitjr both tribes, Eymri and Gael,
were concerned in it; and that the Kymric por-
tion held to the northward, the Gaelic to the
aouth ward of their line of march. Thereafter a
oontinual pressure of the Kymri from the
peninsula of Jutland, the Cimbric Chersonese,
ae^nstohave ensued previous to the last cen-
tury before the Christian era, along the shores
of the North sea end the channel, which occu-
pying both ahores drove the Gael back in
both countries, France and England, from the
aeaboard, and occupied all the coasts of north-
em Europe, from the mouths of the Elbe and
Rhine to Cwe La Hogne, and from the South
Foreland to Portland Bill. In the time of Ma^
rius, this vast torrent— having been beaten back
from Spain, which they had attempted to con-
quer, and which had been conquered and over-
run by a new peofde of unknown origin, the Ibe-
rians, who had hemmed up the original Celtic
inhabitants in the central fiistnesses of the Sierra
Horena, and who had even crossed the PjrrS-
n6es and established themselves about the Adour
and Garonne— came rushing back in vast multi-
tudes, numbering thdr fighting men by many
hundreds of thousand^ principally Kymri,
although swelled by Teutonioand Gaelic swarms
who had Joined the march, and precipitated
themselves on the north-western frontiers of the
Boman empire, only to be utterly annihilated
and dispersed by the discipline of civilized men,
whom now for the first time they fairly en-
countered. From this tune their career as a
migratory and conquering people is at an end.
The Romans sought them out and subjugated
them in France, in Spain, in Britain* After
the &11 of the Roman empire, the Banes, the
Anglo-Saxons, and the Normans annihilated
them in Great Britain, all but a remnant of the
Kyinri in the Welsh mountains, and of the Gael in
the Scottish highlands. In France and Spain,
successive irruptions — in the former of Burgun-
dians, Franks, Goths, and Normans ; in the latter
of Vandals, Goths, and Saraoens-nmbjugated
them first, and then intemuuried with them

to so large an extent tiiat, unless !n a smal!
portion of Armorioa or Brittany, no conti-
nental race exists in which theCeftac blood has
an equal share, much less a mi^ori^; that
portion is Kymria The Celtic race at the
present day exists in a pure state only in the
Kymric in Wales and Cornwall, in the Gaelic
in the Scottish highlands, and in the Gsfelic in
its Erse variety in Irdand. In its mixed form
of the Kymric it is found in Brittany; of
Gaelic, in an infiniteshnal and haidly apprecia-
ble proportion in all the centre and south of
France, and in a still inferior degree among
some of the hill races of the interior of Spain.
Much disputation has arisen on one point in
recent times, as to the identity of the Celtic and
Cimbric races of the present day with the
tribes which struck such consternation into the
civilised men of southern Europe between the
4th and 2d centuries before Christ But much
stress.has been Lddontrifies,aswi]l be judged on
aperusal of the followinff extract fromlh*. Ar^
nold's '* History of Rome." ^' There is one point,
however," he says, '^ in which the difference be*
weentheKelticraoeinandentand modem times
has been unduljr exaggerated. The Greek and
Roman writers invariably describe the G^nls as
ft tall and light-haired race in comparison with
their own countrymen ; but it has been main-
tained that there must be some conftiaon be-
tween the Gauls and Germans, inasmuch astlM
Keltic races now existing are all dark-haired.
This statement was sent to Niebnhr by some
Englishman; and Niebuhr, taking the £act for
granted on his correspondent's authority, was
naturally perplexed by it. But had he travelled
ever so rapidly through Wales or Ireland, or
had he cast a glance on any of those groups of
Irish laborers who are constantly to be met
with in summer on all the roads in England,
he would at once have perceived that his per-
plexity was needless. Compared with the Ital-
ians, it would certainly be true that the Keltic
nations were, generdly speaking, both light-
haired and talL If cUmatehadanythingtodo
with the complexion, the inhalntants of the
north of Europe in remote tunes may be sup-
posed to have Deen fiedrer and more light-haired
than at present; while the roving life, theplenti-
ful food, and the absence of all hard labor must
have given a greater development to the stature
of the Gaulish warriors who first broke into
Italy, than can be looked for among the actual
peasantiir of Wales and Ireland." For the rest,
the mental characteristics d the race appear to
be entirely unchanged from their first sppear-
ance to the present day. They are these:
dauntless personal courage, extreme reckless-
ness of human life, nroneness to be moved
either to tears or laughter, quickness of percep-
tion and readiness to undertake, combined with
slowness to reason and impatience to persist or
endure ; readiness of wit, copiousness of words,
liabili^ to violent fits of headlong passion,
great fickleness, want of enduring attachm^its
or resentment^ grester adherence to tiie sept

0ELTIBERIAN9

CEMENTS

689

or clan than to tho family ; little donfttruOtiTe-
ness, little teatlenejto legialation, to art, unless
to the ru<3est mnsi^ and to wild b^kd poetry ;
remarkable feinaJo cbaatityj and great adh^r^
enco to th»? race, itahflbit^j and tjraditions,

CELTIBEEL\JjfS, Ceitibehi, a ptjo^jle of the
interior of Spain, who seem to bavo occupied
AragoD, and portions of Old and New Cas-
tile and Navarre, Every thing concerning
their origin, the places whence they came,
and their connection with other races, is ex-
ceedingly obscure. According to Diodorus
Siculus, they were composed of 2 nations, the
CeltfB and Iberi, whence they were called Oelti-
berians; but whether, he intends to say that
the people, for it deserves that name, was made
np by a fusion of 2 tribes or races into one na-
tion under one polity, or that the whole people
had gradually grown upirom the mixture of 2
bloods by intermarriage, does not appear. The
Romans found in Spain, when they dispossessed
the Carthaginians, 2 Celtic tribes, as such, still
existing pure and unmixed, one on the Anas or
G uadiana, in the south-west of Spain, and one on
tlie Minho, in the north-west of Portugal, and
beside these the Oeltiberians, who occupied the
country lying about the head waters of the Tap
gus, extending northward to the £bro in the
vicinity of Saragossa, and nearly surrounded by
the precipitous ranges of the Castilian mountains,
of the Sierra Blanca, and the eastern roots of the
Sierra Morena. The 2 other Celtic tribes re-
ferred to, it is worthy of remark, are situated in
still more difficult mountain fastnesses, tlie for-
mer among the spurs of the Vilheercas or Toledo
mountains, the latter in the intricate and al-
most impro^^nable hill country of Gallicia and
Loon. '*With regard to these 8 nations,"
Kiebuhr remarks, '* it seems to have been the
universal opinion that the Celts crossed over
the Pyrenees as well as the Alps, and that from
their intermixture with the Iberians, whom
tliey conquered, sprang the nation in whose
name this intermixture is expressed ; while a
part of their host settled on the Anas, and
some of these went forward to the Minius.
But not the slightest trace is to be found of any
story concerning this expedition. The notion
was probably nothing more than a conjecture
made by foreign historians with regard to a
nation which had spread so far beyond its
borders on other sid^."

CE^IENTATION, the term applied to the
preparation of steel, which consists in covering
bars of iron with fine charcoal, and subjecting
the whole to long continued red heats till a
portion of the carbon has entered into and
combined with the iron. It is also applied to
other similar processes.

CEMENTS, a term applied to those bodies
which are capable by their interposition of unit-
uv^ homogeneous or heterogeneous substances.
This action may result either from chemical com-
bination, or it may be simply mechanical, and
duo to the adhesiveness of the cement, by which
air is excluded from the Borfaces to be united.

Ia tho former category may h^ classed the hy^
draolic or building cementa, need in architeotur0|
and formed from those argtllaeeous limc^toaeft
which on calcination are rendered capable of
setting under water with rapidity, of acquiring
great hardoess in a short tirnej and of being em-
ployed without the admixture of any foreign
eubstancea. In the latter class the most prom-
inent are the bituminoiL^^ olengiuoufi, and resi-
nous, beside miscellaneous cements, a great num-
ber of which are employed in tJie different
branches of the industrial arts. Among the
hydraulic cements, the most widely known are
the Roman, Portland, Medina, and Mulgrave in
England, and the Kingston and Rosendale ce«
ments in this country. — ^Roman cement was first
manufactured by Mr. Parker of London, fh)Qi
the septaria nodules of the London clay forma*
tion, found in the island of Sheppey ; his process,
which was patented in 1796, consisted in cal-
cining the stone nearly to the point of vitri-
factioD, and then reducing it to powder by
crushing ; he applied the term Roman to thia
preparation from its similarity to that formed
by the ancient Romans from pozzolana and trass,
substances of volcanic origin, and nearly allied
to the septaria in their chemical constitution.
At a later date it was discovered that the sep*
taria of other locaUties furnished a cement
similar to Parker's. Medina Cement is pre-

Sared from nodules found in Hampshire, while
[ulgrave or Atkinson's cement is formed from
the argillaceous limestones of the lias. Port*
land cement is so termed from its similarity
in color to the Portland stone ; it is not prop»
erly a cement, but an artificial hydraulic lime
composed of a mixture of cluy and chalk fix)m
the valley of the Mcdway ; the materials are
ground together under water, and afterward
dried and burnt in proper kilns. Portland
cement is noted for its extraordinary hardnesa
and tenacity, but, as it permanently expands in
setting, must not be used where such a property
would interfere with the solidity of the work ;
in external plastering it is of great value. — In the
United States hydraulic cements are obtained in
numerous localities. Cements of good quality
are manufactured in Virginia, on the banks of
the Potomac at Sheppardstown, and in the
vicinity of the Natural Bridge, also in Kentucky
near Louisville, and in many other places where
the silicious magnesian limestones are found.
Those from the state of New York, however, are
considered the best, particularly the Kingston
and Rosendale cements, manufactured in Ulster
CO. ; these were used in the construction of the
Croton aqueduct, and of many other important
public works throughout the country. The
cement stone of Kingston yielded tlie following
results according to an analysis of Dr. Beck :

INfort CAlcimlion. After ealciaaUoo.

Carbonic acid 34.20 600

Llmo ^r.riO 87.60

Ma;rne*ift V2M5 16.65

Silica K>.:n 82.75

Alumina 9.13 18.40

Peroxide of Iron «.85 8.80

lAMyi^ 1.20 UO

640 CEMJENTB

^kn tnalystoof theSheppef rtoiift,fhniiwbkh powder Turies from 0.9S to 1 « iha Qg^ is

Parker's cement is obtained, gives : the best Ko little akOl and attention are 7^

Carbonate of Hme acw Jj^red inthenseof tiieseiiataral eemenfs;fis

Magnesf* aoos if th^ are fiot bfongfat to a xvoper eon3i$t«st^,

ondeofinm J.W7 ^r if the water be nsed too eparingl j or tr^.

B^' "^.^rf:?^;;;;;;;^ abnndanHy, or if anowed to atSd i^ bfi-

Ainmiiu. - -O-Wj made, ther win solidify imeqaaSj, crack, as:

^»*« ^®^ adhere badly to the mafteriala. But a anal

As a general mle it nuiy be stated that a lime* qoantity of water is neeoosary to work up ce-

atone mnst contain finmL 25 to 35 per cent oi meats to their greatest pcnnt <^ resistance. At-

day (silicate of ahmiina), in order to yield a oording to Trenssart, the best proportions sre

good,qaick-setti]ig06ment,thoiighl0tol2per lof waterto 8 of cement by Yolmne; and i£

oent of day will suffice to give it hydranlio mixing, the cement shonld be beaten up fre-

propertiea. Great difference of opinion has ez* qnently, dnce the more it is stirred before set*

isted in regard to this sabject; some have tmg commencesi the harder it beoomesi The

ascribed the hydraolio property to the prefMnoe time of setting varies considerably, being loore:

of oxide of iron, and others to tiie oxide of man- with sea water than wiHi fredi, and being r-

onese, to silica, alnmina, magnesia, and soda, tarded in proportion to the amoont of sand em*

3erthier taa,d Yicat, however, found that the ployed, when used pnre, it will often hadK

presence of silica was indiBpeosable, and they in 5 or 6 minutes^ and l^e time shonld serer

asaogned no importance whatever to the oxides exceed half an hour, or -when nsed nnder vaifn,

of iron and manganese. Withont enteringnpcm 1 honr. If ^ to 2 parts of sand be added to 1

a foil consideration of all the substances involv- of cement, the mixtnre will set in from 1 hm i

ed,itwillbe sufficient to say that certain earth v minntestolhonrl8minntesintbenr,andios

sabstances, and espedally dlica, comlnne with proportionally longer time underwater. Under

the lime which is i>rodaced by the calcination sea water, and especially if the same has bea

of the carbonate of Ume contained in the cement used in mixing the cement, the time msj a-

stones, and that the silicate thos formed, absorb- tend to 24 hours. Pure cement, after an expo-

faig water, becomes solid. — ^The general name of sure of 20 days to the air, offers a resistance v>

Roman cement is often, though erroneously, ap- rupture of about 54 lbs. to tiie square inch ; biit

plied to all the natural hydraulic cements, and If it be mixed with half its bulk of sand, the n-

theprocess of preparation is essentiaUy the same, aistance falls to 87 lbs., and with an eqaal b^

They are burned in kilns, and a lower degree to 27 lbs., ahowing in this respect a rema^al^

of heat is employed than Uiat recommended by ^fferenoe from the limes. The resistanoe ti-

Paricer; the cement being under burnt, economy fcffded by pure cement against the sliding (»

is effected in the process of grinding. In bum- stones upon their beds may safdj be tiiea

ing, the stone loses about i of its weight, and at 9 lbs. p^ square inch, thongh it «ud

acquires a brown tinge, differing in shade accord- readies 18 lbs. The natural cements sit ^

ing to the kind of stone used; it is then soft ployed to the best advantage without sand vbei

to the touch, and leaves a very fine dust upon used in works under water, or where a grt»

the fingers. The blocks of cement might be crushmg weight is to be brought upon tiiem as

preserved for a long while in a dry room, in the once. For cornices, or coatings exposed to tw

same state in which they come from the kiln ; weather, we may combine 2 parts of sand wia

BUdi is the difficulty with which they absorb 8 of cement, and for perpendicular faces 8 pwj

water that Gen. Pasley pronounced them inca- of sand with 2 of cement, being c*'®^^^^*^

pable of 80 doing. For use, however, the cement the formation of fissures, whidi wonld espo"

must be ground, and is then put in ca^ well the coating totheeffects of frost and nltiaAt^

dosed, since exposure to the air ranidly dete- destroy it Cement adheres very ^^^^^^

riorates its quality, the powder absorbing water iron, still more so to granite, and most of >J^^^

and carbonic add, and passing into the state of brick—Beside the cements already t^^^^Z^

a snbcarbonate; its useftilnesa, however, may many others may be obtabed, either of ^ .^

be restored by a second burning at a lower do* calcination of the hydraalic limes, ^^f~^

nee of heat than in the first instance. M. duces a more rapid setting and a K<^^. x^

Fetot has observed that when the calcination of hardness, or by the nuxtore of ^^'^VgijlQ

of cement stones is so extended as to expd all with the ridi limes ; the latter do not sireu^

the carbonic add, the resulting powder is per* setting, as is the case with the fonner, v

Ibctly inert, showing a remarkable difference inferior in point of hardness; they f'^^^

between this dass of limestones and those which ever, often used to advantage ^^^J^J%ip

produce the common lime. This property the dow-setting limes, and c^^S^^^^L?]. god

should be borne in mind in all experiments dtuations, as in the lining of ^f'^r^^ to

made to test limest<mes for hydraulic cement water-tanks; still they are fnt^T ^^k^

Cement should be ground very fine; the French the natural cements, and their ^^f%^j^(0j,

engmeers require that the rieve through which only be advocated on the score ^^ r^]^

it passes shall be of No. 2 of their wire gauze, Another dass of cements are those wn ^^^

and contain 185 meshes to the square of a side is gypsum or plaster of Paris, ^°^^;^ ^ da0

of4inohes. The spedfio gravity of the oement drauHolime; in this ease thebardflDUis

CfEMBNTS

to a onion of the oenMnt with water, and tiot
to the formation of a Bilicate, as in the former
cements ; as gypsmn alone, however, never ac-
quires any great degree of tenacity, it is em-
])loyed in oombination with alnm. In Keene's
cement, powdered gypsnm is mixed with a so-
lution of alam, and Siea heated till all the water
in combination is dissipated ; it is then pow-
dered, and when nsed, slaked by a solution of
alum in 12 or 18 ports of water. Martinis ce-
ment differs from the above only in adding to
the original compound a portion of carbonate
of eoda, or carbonate of potassa, and in naing a
greater degree of heat ; while in Parian cement
borax is substituted for the carbonate of soda
or potassa. These are useful in floorings, skirtr
ings, &c., and especially where damp and ver^
min are to be apprehended ; they may be em-
ployed like stucco in cementing walls, and their
surface afterward embellished by delineations
similar to those of fresco painting. Stucco is
used for coating walls, ornamenting ceilings,
&c., and consists of powdered gypsum, mixed
with a solution of glue or gelatine. 6cagliola
is somewhat similar, and derives its name from
the numerous sphnters or icaglioU of marble
used in the work. (See Stucco.) — Bituminous
cements are employed as substitutes for flagging
in the paving of streets, and for protecting the
extrados of arches from the effects of water,
&c. The former apphcation is limited, but for
the latter purpose they are of great utility, since
in all new masonry there are movements which
fissure the coatings executed in lime or hy-
draulic cements, to say nothing of the crevices
produced by the unequal contractions and
shrinkages of the cemelits, so that it is almost
impossible to render such coatings impermea-
ble ; these defects are admirably remedied by
the elasticity of the bituminous cements ; small
crevices often unite of themselves, and large
repairs, when necessary, are easily executed.
These cements are obtained from the natural
asphaltum; mixed with chalk or other form
of carbonate of hme, it is best adapted
to works which are exposed to the effects
of the sun ; alone, it would melt in such
situations, but for subterranean works is
considered preferable. (See Asphaltum.) The
cement is spread with trowels, and as far
as possible formed into slabs of about 8 feet in
width; it should be evenly spread and com-
pressed, and fine sand then sprinkled on the
surface, and worked in with the trowel, taking
care to fill any crevices that may bo formed
by air bubbles with cement, and not with sand.
For coating arches, a thickness of J to i an
inch is suflScient, giving a quantity of about
4^ lbs. to the square yard; it is also advisable
to lay the cement upon a bed of concrete or
mortar; in street paving this precaution is
indispensable, and the thickness of coating
must be fully } of an inch ; it is also well to
add a little quicklime to tlie boiling asphaltum,
to prevent the cement becoming too soft under
tlie heat of the sun^s rays. The surface upon
VOL. IV. 41

whidh the cement la employed mmi always be
dry, and it should be used as hot as possible.
Should the asphaltum be found too brittle, a
quantity of mineral pitch or petroleum may be
added to correct this defect, but coal tar or
vegetable pitch must on no account be used.
These latter, though greatly inferior to the na-
tural, bitumens, may in some cases serve as
tolerable substitutes for them ; though deficient
in elasticity and durability, they yet make good
coatings for vaults, &c. For pavements, how-
ever, they are not at all adapted. They are pre-
pared by mixing powdered calcareous stone
with the boiling pitch or tar, the relative pro-
portions being obtained in each case by direct
experiment ; the stone must be well dried, for
if wet, the vapor generated by it would render
the cement porous ; and care must also be taken
lest the stone be converted into quicklime, aa
this takes place with comparative facility, ow-
ing to its comminuted state. They are to be
used in the same way with the other cements,
except that it Ib desirable to employ greater
thicknesses. — The oleaginous cements were for-
merly much used, under the name of mastics, for
the purpose of ornamental decorations; they
furnish a smooth, close-grained surface, but re-
quire repaiilting every 8 or 4 years. The ex-
pense and difficulty of manipulation have caused
them to be seldom employed at the present
day. The most widely known ma<)tics are
those of Hamelin in England, and the mastic
de Dhil in France ; their exact composition is
kept secret, but the main ingredients are
pounded brick-dust or well-burnt clay, litharge,
the red protoxide of lead, and linseed oiL — ^The
cements used on the continent of Europe for
mosaic work are of 8 kinds. The first is bitu-
minous, being composed of pitch mixed with a
black earth, and is used in setting the largo
tessercB in floors; the second is oleaginous, em-
ployed for setting stones of middling dimen-
sions, and made of the calcareous stone of Ti-
voli, and of oil ; while the third, for the more
deUcate mosaics of pieces of glass, is composed
of lime, brick-dust, gum andragan, and the
whites of eggs. — ^Among the interminable list
oi miscellaneous cements, we find a very useful
one for joining broken pieces of glass or china-
ware; it is termed diamond cement, and is
prepared by steeping isinglass in water tiU it
swells, and then dissolving it in proof spirit, to
which is added a little gum resin, gum ammo-
niacum, or resin mastic, dissolved in the smallest
possible quantity of alcohol ; it partially resists
moisture, and should be gently heated before
applied. Hatlle'a cement for the same purpose
consists of2 parts of shell-lac dissolved in 1 part
of oil of turpentine, and cast into sticks. Kel-
ler's cement is prepared according to the fol-
lowing formula : Steep 2 parts of finely-chopped
fish glue for 24 hours in 16 parts of water, then
boil till the liquor is reduced to 8 ; add 8 parts
of alcohol, and strain the whole through linen ;
while still warm, mix with a solution of 1 part
of mastic in 9 of alcohol, and i a part of gum

fltt

OSIIXNIS

CQQflCIBSY

«&mioiiiacaiii in &6 powder; add liie latter
flradoallj, and mix intimately hj maoeratkm.
This oemenl is used by heatwg the parta to
which it is to be applied, allowing them to
cool, and then covering with the hot fluid, and
pressing the parta together. The cement be-
comes perfectlj hard in 5 or 6 days. It ia not
▼erj well adapted for very poroos artidea, for
which it would be better to use a ooneentrated
eolation of shell-lao in spirits of wine, i^lied
to the parta to be connected, after the aonaoea
of the latter have been thoroughly dried.
fiheU-lao also forma a good cement when dis-
solved in a concentrated solntion of borax.
Pieces of spar and marble ornaments may be
united by the white of eggs mixed with quick-
lime; tlus makes a strong cement, thoi^h it
will not resist water effectnaUy. By substitut-
ing blood for tiie white of eggs, a cement is
formed for securing the edges and rivets of
boilers, and used by coppersmiths for that pur-
poseu A very strong cement for stoneware is
made by boiling the cheese of skimmed milk
in a large quantity of water, and incorporating
the solution with quicklime in a mortar. The
Frendi plumbers unite the glased pottery tubea
employed by them for the distribution of water
either with a cold cement, compofed of quick-
lime, cheese, milk, and the white of e^gs, or
with a hot cement of rosin, wax, and Ume.
Yarley's cement is formed by melting 16 parts of
rosin and 1 of beeswax with 16 of whiting
previously well dried by having been heated
to redness, and stirring the whole well during
the fusion* Singer's cement, for connecting ar^
tides of brass and glass, is composed of 6 1m. ot
rosin, 1 of beeswax, 1 of red ochre, and 2
toblespoonfuls of plaster of Paris, all melted
together. According to Ure, a cheaper com-
pound, and one well adapted for cementing vol-
teic plates into wooden troughs, is made of 6
lbs. of rosin, 1 of red ochre, i lb. of plaster of
Paris, and i lb. of linseed oil, the ochre and
plaster to be caldned beforehand, and added to
the other ingredients while in fusion. White
wax, rosin, and Canada balsam form a cement
nearly colorless. Cameos of white enamd or
colored glass may be joined to a real stone, lo
give the appearance of an onyx, by the use of
resin mastic, and in the same manner false backs
or doublets may be connected to stones so as to
alter their hue. In these the cements must be
softened by heat before being applied. Iron
pipes are often cemented hj a paste of iron
filings and chloride of ammonium, moistened
with water; the oxidation of the iron expands
and solidifies this cement: Ure advises the
proportion of 99 {Mffts of filings to 1 of the sal
ammoniaa A sixnilar preparation is composed
of 4 parts of iron iUings, 2 of potter's clay,
and 1 of pounded potsherds, the whole being
made into a paste with a concentrated eola-
tion of common salt; on drying, this becomea
extremely hard. In connection with the gen-
eral subject of cements^ see Loo, Mobxab, and

OEKETKBT (Gr. teotfitfnipun^^ m fileepicj
place; mod. Heb. Beik-hatm. the faovne of tj
living; Ger. 6hUetaeiar, Qod'a fieM, JTinaUj
chnxdiyard, and I^iedkof, the court of pefictj
a place appointed for the s^ultnre of the d^
The afifection of the living fw departed frit^j
appears in ail themethods of din>onn^of corr^
which have been practised by aififeraat w*i>fil ^^
Whether the body is reduced to dost M' fire i
4ecay, the commemorative urn or tomb is c^
teemed sacred, and is guarded with pious cxr^i
Cemeteries, consecrated by the lawa and by n^
ffion, have existed from the remotest agesu ^ 1 1
Hebrews had public burial grocmdSg and ih^j
first care after arriving in a new comitry wss : i
select a plot for sepultures. Every dtj had vj
public cemetery outnde of its walla, that of J^n
salem being in &e valley of Oedron. TheGreeb
before they adopted the Phrygian custom c
burning their dead, had their aleepin^-fieki : sr.
at Rome, even after incremation becsttne q«:li
the Appian way was lined for milea ^vith ser i<
chres and urns. In Babylonia and Egypt tl .:
were immense burial places, which are soli i:-
tested by the ruins and mummies that harei^
cently been discovered there. Although it L.I
been a law of the 12 tebles that the dead ^iod»-
ndther be buried nor burned within tbe nj
of a city, yet the Christians early introdooeL
the custom, first of building their churdia a
plots which covered the remains of msrtm
and then of leaving a space around the cbisrtk
to be reserved for burials. Often the tombs
invaded the church itsd^ which was uod^r-
mined by crypts like a dty by catacombs. I:
the earlier middle ages the cemetery was tb?
churchyard, and relics of this usage are f dl
seen in the graves which surround old cbvdies
in cities, and in the common juxtapoatio]! d
the church and burial ground in sm^ viDigei
But with the increase of population it becuoe
necessary to esteblish laige public oemetem
without the city walls, and this practice h»i
become general in modem times. The tbos,
celebrated of the European public oemete?i«
are those of Pisa and Naples, and the Fen ii
ChaUeot Paris. That of Pisa, called the Cmf^
Santo, is a beautiful oblong court, 490 feet Itfs
and 170 feet wide, surrounded by arcades a
white marble 60 feet high, and adorned with
ancient Etruscan, Greek, and Roman bsas-reli^
and other sculptures, and with paintings bj tb0
earliest Italian masters. In its centre is tc
enormous mound of earth, said to have beet
brought from Palestine during the crossd^
and formerly used as a burial ground. T^
cemetery is the pantheon of the Pi&ai2s,B&l
among its most famous monumente is the tombof
Algarotti, raised by Frederic the Great in 1764
The most remarkable of the cemetenes d
Naples lies alongside of the moat aplendid load
leading from the dty. Itcon8ist8of8a5dBepce&
dug into the pozzolana day of whidi the hifl
is composed. One of these cells is opeocNieterj
morning to receive together all the desd bodia
brought during the day. The Fkn la Gum,

QERUr

OEKIS

the Yastost neeropolk of Paris, !s sitnated K. E.
trom the city, and extends from the boondaiy
of Aunay almost to that of Axnandiers. It was
transformed into a cemetery by Napoleon L,
and contains the tombs of Abelard andHeloise,
La Fontaine, Moli^re, Beaamarchais, Delille,
Talma, Bellini, Weber, Laplace, Onvier, Arago,
J>enjamin Constant. Bdme, Boy er-Oollard, Mar-
si lal Ney, the painter David, Siey^ Barras,
Frederic Soali6, Balzac, and others of the most
distinguished men of France. Its highest eleva-
tion commands the city on one side and the sor-
rounding country on the other, and its hills and
valleys are covered with every variety of
column, obelisk, pyramid, funeral vase, and
sculptured flowers and garlands. The ceme-
teries of Bussia are usually distant from cities
and villages, and planted with tall pines. Among
the most noted and beautiful cemeteries in the
Uuitod States are Mount Auburn, near Boston,
^iass. (see CAMBRn)OB), Greenwood, in Brook-
lyn, and Laurel Hill, near Philadelphia.

CENCI, Beatricb, a Boman maiden of the
IGth century, noted for her tragic fate. Her
father, Count Nicolo Cenci, was a man notorious
for Lis bad character and fiendish passions, .
which would have brought him to the block, if
Lis immense fortune had not enabled him to
escape on several occasions from the hands of
justice. In the latter part of his life he retired
with Lis second wife Lucrezia, with Beatrice
and her youngest brother Bernardo, to the castle
of Petrel la, situated in a desolate spot on the
iSabiue hills, near the Neapolitan frontier ; and
Lore in ** tliat savage rock, the castle of Pe-
trelhi,'' where "at noonday 'tis twilight, and
at sunset blackest night," the monster, after
iiaving caused the death of 2 of his sons,
perpetrated a diabolical outrage upon the
person of his own daughter. Beatrice brought
Ler case before Pope Clement VUI., but as her
ap[>e!U for justice remained unheeded, the as-
sassination of her unnatural parent was deter-
mined upon by her stepmother, her brother,
and Ler lover. According to other and more
trustworthy authorities, Beatrice and her rela-
tives had no part in tiie assassination, which is
said to have been perpetrated by some of the
many enemies of the old man, who was exe-
crated all over the country. But, however
this may have been, Beatrice was accused of
parricide, and after having been subjected to the
most excruciating tortures, was executed by the
m-annaia^ Sept. 11, 1599. Her stepmother Lu-
crezia and her elder brother Giacomo were also
st^ntenced to death. Her younger brother Ber-
nanio's life was spared on account of his ex-
treme youth. When the executioner bound
Ler Lands Beatrice said: ** You bind my body
for destruction, but my soul for immortality.**
inuring the torture she is said to have replied to
each interrogation of the judge, " It is true,"
adding : ** O God, thou knowest if this be true."
iieyond this there was not a particle of evidence
a;::iin!»t her. The death of Beatrice sent a
tiirill of horror through Borne, Many of

tlie most illnstrioas ftmlUes bad In rain
sought the pope to iq[>ar6 her life. Pope
Paul v. confiscated the Oenct estates, indua-
ing the villa, which, nnder the name of Villa
Borghese, has since acquired a world-wide
celebrity. More than one life was lost in
attempts to rescue Beatrice. Her remains were
interred at Montorin in the church of San
Pietra Guidons celebrated portrait, in the
Palazzo Colonna at Rome, is said to have been
taken immediately before her execution. In
Whiteside's "Italy," the true story of Beatrice
Oenci is related siter the original MS3., which
for a long time were preserved with the
greatest secrecy, on account of the connection
of the Cenci with many of the most influential
families of Rome. Muratori's ** Annals" con-
stitute another authority, which is frequently
referred to on the subject of Beatrice. The
French author De Custine dramatized tlie
story, but the greatest work on the subject is
Shelley's, who represents Beatrice as implicated
in the murder of her father. Mr. Whiteside,
however, has fully established the fact that the
beautiful girl was sinned against, but no sinner.
An English translation of Guerrazzi's novel of
" Beatrice Oenci," by Mrs. Watts Sherman, ap-
peared at New York in 1858, simultaneously
with one by Signor Monti, of Harvard univer-
sity, Cambridge.

CENEDA (ano. Cenitense Castrum\ a Vene-
tian town of the province of Treviso, on the riv-
ers Meschis and Piare ; pop. 6,200. It is the see
of a bishopric, and possesses a cathedral, sev-
eral churches,manufactories of leather, woollena,
and paper, and several mineral springs.

CENIS, Mount, a remarkable mountain at
the junction of the Graian with the Oottian
Alps. It is an elevated plateau 6,773 feet
above the sea-level, with a peak rising to the
height of 11,454 feet. On the plateau is a
fine lake (La Ramosse), noted for an abundant
supply of trout The mountain lies between
the province of Susa in Piedmont and that of
Maurienne in Savoy. Over it is one of the
most noted Alpine posses. It first appears in
history in the times of Pepin. It was over the
pass of Cenis that Pepin led the French army
(765) against Astolphus, king of the Lombards,
in aid of Pope Stephen HI., in which service,
by the promise of the distressed pope, Pepin
earned an inheritance of spiritual rewards for
himself and all the French nation. Nearly
1,000 years later Catinat, marshal of France,
led his army over this pass, in the wars of
Louis XIV. Catinat improved the Cenis pass
somewhat, though it was still of difficult tran-
sit, and only for mules. In order to facilitate
the intercourse across the Alps, Napoleon or-
dered a road to be laid out and constructed 18
feet wide for a distance of 80 m., so that the
pass of Cenis is now less difficult and danger-
ous. Napoleon^s road leads from Lans-le-Bourg
to Susa. It was constructed at a cost of more
than 7,000,000 francs. There is a toll levied
on passengers, to defray the expenses of the

644

GEETOBITE

CEK80BSHIP OF THE PRJS8S

tMMs. There is Utile vegetation on the fibteaiiy
less on acconat of the rigor of the dimate^
than the force of the vindi which blow here
constantly. The wind from the Piedmont side
is called the LmJbarde^ that from the Saroy
side the VannaUe. It is colder at the Lana-lo-
. Bonrg terminus of the road than on the platean,
for daring 8 months of the year Lans-le-Bonrs
does not see the smi, on account of a high peaik
at the foot of which it is sitoated.

G£NOBIT£ (Gr. xocyor, common, fiui^^ lifeX
a person who lives in community with others,
nnder a common mle. The hermits of the
first ages, who dwelt in the deserts together,
were nsnally called by this name, the place
in which they liyed being called a e€mobvum.
Some writers refer the institntaoa of these to the
times of the apostles, others to St. Paoomins,
who lived In the early part of the 4th century.

CENOTAPH (Gr. Mm ra^r, an emp^
tomb), a funereal monumeot raised by the an-
cients in honor of a person who had not receiv-
ed bnriaL Its origin was due to the belief that
the souls of those deprived of sepulture must
wander for a hundred years on the banks of the
Styx, outside of the Elysian fields. The most
celebrated antique cenotaphs that remain are
at Pisa.

OENSER, a vessel for burning and waft-
ing incense, used in the celebration of reli-
gious rites by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks,
and Romans, and still retained in the Oath-
olio church. The Jewish censer appears to
have beoi a sort of ohafiuff-dish, with or
without handles, which the high priest car-
ried into the sanctuary or placea on the
altar of incense. That used in the Oatho-
lic church is a vessel shaped much like a gob-
let, with a perforated lid, swung by loDg chains,
and carriea by an acolyte. Josephus tells us
tiiat Solomon made 20,000 golden censers for
the temple of Jerusalem.

OENSOR (LaL eenure, to estimate), the title
of Roman magistrates of high dignity and great
influence, instituted in the year 442 B. 0. The
office was vested in 2 persons, originally elected
for 6 years, from and by the patrician order;
but later changes introduced by the dictator
llamercos, 483 B. 0., and afterward, reduced
the term of the office to 18 months, without
ohanginff the period of election, and made it
attainable by plebeians, of whom Rutilius, who
had also been the first dictator of that order,
was the first elevated to this dignity (860) ; and
in 182. even both censors were plebeians. They
bad all the ensigns of consular dignity, except
the liotors, and wore a robe of scarlet. Their
office was to take the regular census and keep
the rolls of all Roman citizens, to distribute
them according to orders, tribes, &a, to valuer
register, and tax their property, to control
public morals and manners, to ffil remarkable
vacancies in the senate, to choose the prineep§
Bmatus, to manage the farming of the revenues,
customs, and salt monopoly, to contract for re-
pakm of public baildmgs and roade in Rome and

Italy, te. Th^ had tlie r)ghfc of poaiftki'l
moral and political transi^resrionB committed i
citizens of distinction, with marks of i^nomk ^
by eiqpulaion from the senate, and ewen bj dc.^
nidation lh>tn a higher to a lower order ; t \
which pnniahments, the ill*treatiiig of memVirH
of their familiefi, extravagance, and tlie parr: I
of mean professions, were regarded as sofficirrl
reasons ; but thdr decisions were subject to u
appeal to the assembly of the people, and the-
eelves to its jurisdietiozL The dignity of cen«(*'
was regarded as most honorable, and origicui:
only those were eligible who bad pas^^-.
throuffh all other offices. The etnperars 5"-
sumed it under the title of morum prtefc^*:
Bedus desired to restore it independently udc z
a particular officer. The brother of OonstantlL':
the Great was the last censor.

0EN80RINU8, a Latin gramnuaifln ar.
ehronolo^t, flourished near t£e middle of th .
8d century. He wrote a treatise tipon acceni-
cited by Oasdodorus, which has not oozne dowr
to ns. Only a fragment of his work IM Met*^
is extant. He is laiown prinoipany bv a cmioi^
and learned work entitied De Die jfdtaU, ad-
dressed to his friend Q. OereDiua, on tike oe»-
aion of his birthday. In this small book ht
treats of the generation of man, of bis nsta:
hour, of the influence which the genii and stan
exercise over his destiny, and of tiie olimaeteTK
periods of his life. He then discnases rrmsi^.
religious rites, and matters relating to astroo
my, chronology, and cosmography. This work
has been of considerable value in estaUiabic;
ancient chronology. By it the commenoemeo;
of the era of Nabonassar and other imporuot
dates have been fixed, and Oensorinns has there-
fore been named by Bcaliger mmnu et ddc-
timmu$ tempornm vindex^ The &st edition
of his work was that of Bologna, in 1497; tk
last is a German edition, by waber, in 180&

0ENS0R8HIP OF THE PRISS, a legub
tion by which books, pamphlets, and nein-
papers are subjected to the examination oi
certain civil or ecclesiastical officers^ who ut
empowered to authorize or forbid th«r pubhca-
tion. Sudi a regulation was suggested by I^o,
and an informal censorship exited in the times
of Greece and Rome. Thus all the copies d
the works of Protagoras were burned it
Atiiens by sentence of the areopagus-'becsiae
he had expressed doubts concerning tiie exist-
ence of the gods. Satirical works and writings
on magic were often condemned to the fiazD«
by the Roman emperors^and Diocletian ordered
the sacred books of the Ghristians to be boraed
After the church acquired a share in tite dTil
power, it induced the state to condemn heraci-
cal books, and the writings of Anns wen
burned by edict of Oonstantine. SubeequeoUj
there were numerous enactments by popes and
councils against the works of heretics, ssdo-
tioning the principle that books objeoted to bv
the church should be suppressed. This prinei-
ple was maintained throughout the middle ag«a,
authors often as a voluntiury act ci respect sab-

p— ^

H^^H

of i-IiiU*. TJ*** ir6fi;*4ii* wvttcr*. UTiiJ witl. Tt 11;^ ^^^|

^Hk

^^^^^^Hji

■

^^^^■^ , tJ«« cmtticU C-]

^^^Et'.r

^^^^H

PpjK'

It'

t4iAiii^ ill ^^H

^^iji^s^ ty44r»i4Li in iMmutfi. 'IW kUu V #1 y^ ^^^H

OBNBUB

German press has been eren more onsettled
tiian the political govermnent of, Germany.
Ifhile the emperors of the bouse of Austria
had Yidnly sought to estAblish uniform rules to
check the press in all the states, Frederic the
Great granted uniform liberty to the press in
his dominions, * ^ because it amused him/^ Dur-
ing the ascendency of the French republic the
press was arbitriuily checked in most of the
states, though it was free in Bavaria, Holstein,
and occasionally in Hesse and Meddenburg.
The censorship was subsequently abolished in
some of the smaller states, as Nassau, Wtlrtem*
berg, and 8aze- Weimar ; but a congress of the
German rulers, assembled at Carlsbad in 1819,
extended it over all printed publications under
SO sheets. Permission also had to be obtained
for selling foreign books. The iVench revolu-
tion of 1880 prompted the German people to
demand complete freedom fh)m the censorship,
except in cases specified by the ^et, but though
liberal regulations were obtained, they were up-
held only a short time, and there was a gradual
reaction toward the decree of Carlsbad. In
the political systems of Germany, the censor*
ship was formerly one of the functions of police,
but is now in Prussia and Austria intrusted to
a commission. In the United States of America
tiiere never has been a censorship of the press.
There are laws agunst publications of a scan-
dalously immoral character, but in general the
only restraint upon printing or circulating any
dass of books is found in the public sentiment.
CENSUS, a registration of persons and their
property, which in some states constitutes their
claim to citizenship, or to dignities attainable
only by members of certain classes. That the
ancient Hebrews and tiieir families were
numbered by age and sex, we have positive
proof in the sacred writings, the enumeration
of the people having been enjoined on
more than one occasion. The most ancient
statistical record extant, derived from an enu-
meration of the people, is that of Moses in the
wilderness. — ^According to the constitution of
Solon, the citizens of Athens were divided and
registered into 4 classes (Ttfifiixara^ rtXtf), ao-
cording to the amount of their taxable pro-
perty, that is to say, of their income. The
1st consisted of the Pentac&siomedifnni, or
persons having a revenue of 500 medimni of
grain, or as many measures of oil; the 2d and
Sd classes, Bippeis, or knights, and Zeugitm^
comprised the citizens next in wealth ; and the
4th, that of the Theie9^ included all whose
income fell short of 200 medimni. Only those
belonging to the 8 wealthier classes could be
elected to public office, while those of the 4th,
which was more numerous than all the other
three, enjoyed the privilege of suffrage in the
public assemblies, where their malority dedded
m the most important affiairs. The medimnus
being valued at a drachma, and the income re-
presenting, probably, the 12th part of the value
of the estate, the Pentacosiomedimni can be
estimated asowners(tf a talent, or d,000dra6hnM»4

While the whole revenue of dfilE^s of the 1 -:
dass was regarded as taxable, those of the 2:
enjoyed the advantage of having only ^ of their?
taxed, and those of the 8d only {. Tina 'was on-
of the democratic features of Siolon'seonstitiitioL.
The valuations were given by the citUEens, beinr
subject to a counter valuation. The Teg^te^^-
were prepared and kept by oenaoro, callei
Nofuerari^ in after times by the demarcha. It
is certain that valuations of taxable property
were common in Greece before the I^elopcm*
nesian war ; the remark, tiierefore, of Thncj-
dides, in the history of the year 428 B. O^ that
the Athenians then £rst raised a propo^y tai
of 200 talents, must have been made in referecee
to the amount of the tax. New ^alnatior^
and new dasses for property taxes, were iDtro>
duced in the year 876 B. 0., whose nature
however, owing to the scarcity of detalla, c^i.
now hardly be determined. A similar desic-
cation for the supply of the navy, the trierarrhy,
was subsequentiy instituted. The influenf^e
exercised by the wealthier classes, according to
the privileges founded on the census, is spoken
of as timoeraey^ or aristocracy of wealth. — ^Tb^
Boroan census origihated in the distribution of
citizens into classes, effected by 8ervins Tnl-
lius, the 6th king of Rome, in a most aolems
manner on the Campus Martins, where every cit-
izen had to appear, and to declare upon oath Ii^s
name and dwelling, the number and age of h'3
children, if he had any, and tiie value of \'>
property, under the penalty of Having his poi«:s
confiscated, and of being scourged smd sold vyr
a slave. The whole people was divided into 6
classes, each comprising a number of centuries.
The 1st class consisted of the richest citiztos.
worth at least 100 mime, the 2d of those worth
76, the 8d of those worth 60, the 4th of thi>^
worth 26, and the 6th of those worth 12, while
the 6th comprehended all the poor dtixiers
who were exempted from all taxes and publ: *
burdens, and were termed Capita eeim or
Proletarii. As each century had to Ibmish and
to maintain 100 soldiers in time of war, whence
its name, not from the number of its members,
and as the numbers of centuries in the class€<6
were 98 in the Ist, 22 hi the 2d, 20 in the Sd
22 in the 4th, and 80 in the 6th, while the 6th.
forming but one, was altogether exempt, it ii
evident that the burdens of the state weighed
particularly upon the richest, who wm, there-
fore, compensated by a proportionate influence
in the Ckmitia Centuriata^ in which the chief
magistrates were elected, laws framed, aod
peace and war decided upon. The vote bein*
taken by centuries, the 98 of the 1st class alone,
which were called first, could dedde eveir
question in case of unanimity, before tiie call ot
the others. In comparison with thcee of
Athens, the poorer classes of Rome had, beside,
the disadvantage of having the whole amount of
their property taxed like the richest, some sorts
of goods bdng also estimated, exceptk>naI]T,
at many times their value. 6ervius Tmlios oor<
duded his census^ which, thou^ hia instito-

CENStJS

d47

tions were modified and overthrown, and but
graduallj restored, may be regarded as an im-
portaot basis in the great stractare of the
Koman power, with an expiatory sacrifice of a
bull, a ram, and a hog, which were first led 8
times around the Campos Martins. This cere-
mony, continued in the similar Suaietaurilia^
was regarded as a purification of the city, or
lu^trum^ which gave the name to the quinquen-
nial period elapsing between one census and
another. Subsequently tlie kings, the consuls,
and then the censors presided over the taking
of the census, imitating the ceremonies observ-
ed by Servius Tullius. — It is mentioned in the
*' lioyal Commentaries " of Peru, by Garcilasso
de la Vega (b. vL ch. 8), that the records
of thes census by that ingenious people were
preserved tand illustrated by a fringe work of
strings of various sizes, number of strands and
colors, knotted "like the girdle of St. Thomas,"
by which they could express "the greatest
number at which arithmetic could arrive ; " and
in this manner they described the several
castes of population, and their enumeration by
a^^e and sex, with a classification, first, those of
the age of 70 and upward, then those of 60,
*' then those by 10 to 10 down to sucking chil-
dren." In this way they preserved the record
of their married and widowed men and women
by age and sex, and in like manner they are re-
presented as taking annually and preserving an
account of the warriors of different orders and
the agricultural productions and wealth of the
people. According to Herrera, the Mexicans
were but little if at aU behind the Peruvians
ill their means of understanding the condition
uf the people by means of the census. — There
exists no official record of the population of
England previous to the commencement of the
present century. The first census of Great
Britain was taken in 1801, and the first enume-
ration of the population of Ireland was made
in 1813 ; but so imperfectly was the work ao-
coniplished that statists place but little confi-
dence in the correctness of the returns, and
the first census upon which they place any
great reliance is that of 1821. The census of
Great Britain and Ireland is taken every 10
years, and includes the general statistics of
popuhition. Attempts have been frequently
made to induce the British parliament to enact
the necessary law for obtaining the general
statistics of the kingdom, but they have been
frustrated in the belief that such investigations
would be distasteful to the people. England
also gives particular attention to the register of
births, marriages, and deaths, and has estab-
lished a bureau of statistics, which publishes
annual reports of great value on the movements
of the population. — ^It is claimed by French
writers, that a census was taken during the
reign of Charles IX. in the 16th century, but
no traces of this work are to be found in the
French archives, although they profess to give
the results. The first census of which the rec-
ords are extant was taken in 1700, the results

of which were publishecl in 1?20. The popu-
lation of France, by what they claim as their
first census, was set down at 20,000,000, where-
as by that of 1700, when their territoriaJ extent
was much increased, it fell short of that by ^ a
milUon. The census of 1720 was designed to
be very thorough for that early period, and re-
vealed pretty clearly the judicial, military, and
ecclesiastical condition of the kingdom, and de-
veloped many important facts respecting agri-
culture, manufactures, and commerce, and the
physical features of the country. The next
census of France was made in 1762, under
Louis XV. The minister Keeker and the sta-
tist Moheau both throw doubts upon the accu-
racy of its statements. A general census was
taken in 1800, another in 1805. A royal ordi-
nance in 1822 provided for a general census ev-
ery 6 years ; but in place of an actual enumera-
tion which should have been mode in 1826, the
number of inhabitants was declared by simply
adding to the population of 1822 the excess of
births over deaths for the intermediate time,
and the result was by royal ordinance declared
authentic; a convenient method of avoiding,
when it seemed pohtic, unpalatable revelations.
From the time of this intermission the census
has been taken with regularity and care. In
France the parish or conamune sends its report
to the chief place of the canton, the canton to the
head of its department, who forwards it to the
minister of the interior, where are collected the
reports of the 86 principal divisions, the 863 dis-
tricts, the 2,847 cantons, and finally the 36,819
communes, villages, &a The population is re-
turned by ages, sexes, professions or trades. — In
Prussia, statistical investigations have been pur-
sued by the government since the days of Frederic
the Great, and the statistical bureau was estab-
lished in 1816, which has the control of the cen-
sus, which occurs every 8 years, when the popu-
lation is registered by age and sex, with tho
principal domestic animals, schools, and indus-
trial establishments subject to taxation. In
this work the principal states of Germany have
recently united, and under the charge of Diete-
rici, the distinguished chief of the statistical
bureau at Berlin, there have been prepared and
published the statistics of the 39 allied states.
— In Sweden, the science of statistics has been
more particularly cultivated than in any other
country, and the frequent enumeration of tho
inhabitants has been pursued for near a century
with great care. In Sweden originated the
earliest mortality tables which are used at the
present day- — In Russia, the census was organ-
ized in 1723 by Peter the Great, who establish-
ed during the previous year the general regis-
tration of births, marriages, and deaths. It
was at that time ordained that the census
should be renewed every 20 years. From the
early institution of these investigations, and
the particular manner with which they hava
been conducted, we are possessed of a know-
ledge of the movements of the Russian popula-
tion for more than a century. The miignitude

048

OBnSDB

of the labor of ezaoating this woik may be
imagined from the fact that the laat oensiu re*
tomed a popnlation of more than 50,000,000w
— ^In Anatria, the oenaoa waa first taken near a
century einoe, bat not freqnendj repeated
mitil alter the year 1804, while at present an
enomeration of the population by sexes and
ages is made every 8d year ; bot the statistics of
amoaltnre i^d mann&otores have been almoafe
wnoUy neglected. — ^The first general census of
Belgium since she became an mdependent state
was taken in 1846. It was unnsuiuly complete,
embracing population, agriculture, and industry.
The few previous censuses were limited to popn-
lation. By a royal decree of March 16. 1841, a
central commission was charged with tne direc-
tion of this important duty. Special commia-
sions subordinate to the central body were
in 1848 established at the capitals <^ the 9 ev-
inces. The central commission, in coiuuno-
tion with the bureau of statistics, directed, re-
vised, and compiled the results. A blank sched*
ule was left with every family, to be withdrawn
when filled up according to the printed instruc-
tioDS left with it. The population waa enu-
merated by name, age, sex, nativity, language,
religion, occupation, education, houses insured,
and the number of houses with pleasure gardens.
Hie statistical commission of Belgium had for
its president the distingaished Quetelet, and was
composed of 15 persons eminent for their
knowledge in the several specialities to which
their attention was severally directed As
might be inferred, the result of their efforts
has been the most perfect work on the pop-
ulation and resources of a government ever pub-
lished in Europe. — ^The census of the United
States presents the unusual fact of being insti-
tuted with the constitution of the government,
the Ist article of which prescribes a general
enumeration of the people within 8 years after
tiie Ist meeting of congress, and within every
subsequent term of 10 years thereafter. The
agents employed to ascertain and report the
^mentary fieicts are the marshals of the several
states and territories, who are the OD]y officers
connected with police affairs known to the gen-
eral government The first census of the United
States recorded the names of heads of families,
enumerated the free white males of 16 years
and upward, the same under 16, gave the
number of femalesi and the number of slaves.
The 2d and 8d census distinguished the sexes and
colors of free persons, classifying the free males
nnder 10 years of age, those from 10 to 16, 16 to 26,
26 to 45, 45 and upward; the slaves were sim-
ply taken by number. By the act of May 1,
1810, the marshals were directed to make return
of the several manufacturiDg establishments
and manufactures within their several districts.
A like division was made of population by the 4th
census, which distinguished tne number of per-
sons engaged in agriculture, commerce, and
manufactures respectively. By this census an
account of manufactures was returned, and a
digest thereof waa published in 1828. The

ttmmentkni of Ui> tfjh ccpsbb dfaHiigiitiflieil fke
iexea of all free wlute persona, and the ages of
white males and females^ by periods of 5 y^ars
vp to the age oi 20, thence by periods of 10
years to the age of 100 and upward ; apecsfy*
ing the deaf and dumb and Dfind under thf
age of 14, those between 14 and 25, and ibtm
Over that ase; the free ocdored persona and
slaves were dasnfied by sex, and the agm under
10,andfroml0to24,24to86,86to55, 66 tolOiX
and 100 and upward, distinguisliing the c(Aon^
deaf and dumb and blind without regard to a^
The 6th census, taken in 1840, distinguished
the whites by sex and by age, as follows : 1, s£
under 6 years, thence to 10, thenoe to 16 asd
20, thence by tens to 100 and upward, Bpedfr*
ing the deaf and dumb, blind, insane, and
idiotic; the free colored population And daves
by sexes and ages, first nnder 10, thence to
24, 86, 65, 100, and those abbve 100; also the
deaf and dumb, blind, insane, and idiotict, with-
out respect to age. By this enumeration the
marshaLB were required to take a oensiis of per-
sons receiving pensions from the United 6t^
with the name and age, and to make retarns ct
mines, agriculture, commerce, mantifactnrM,
and schools. For the 7th oensos, which was
taken in 1850, unusual preparations wete made.
By law a census board was provided, to he cooh
posed of the secretary of state, attomey-ges-
end, and postmaster-general, whose dn^ it wk
to make all preliminary arrangementa, and pro-
vide the necessary schedules, paper, and hlanb^
which of consequence involved the plan of the
census. This board wss organised in June.
1849, and its plan was not only approved bv
congress for that census, but by law made ar>-
plicable to those to be taken thereafter. Br
the adoption of an amendment propooed by Ut,
Vinton of Ohio, the ratio of representation was
established in advance and fbnned part of the
law. The census, which had heretofore beea
under the direction of the secretary of state,
was transferred to the department of the in-
terior, and Mr. J. 0. G. Kennedy, who bid
acted as secretary of the census board, was ap-
pointed to its direction. It is believed that the
7th census of the United States is the most
thorough ever made in any country. The
schedules, to the preparation ctf which much
attention was bestowed, were arranged on a
plan of great simplicity and comprehenstvenes?;
numbering the houses, specifying the toailiest
recording the name, sex, age, color, bhthnbr««
profession, or occupation of every free ixmabi-
tant| distinguishing the married and widowed;
those attending school, and those unable to
read and write ; the deaf and dumb, blind, in-
sane, idiotic, paupers, and criminals. The sLure
population were enumerated by age, sex, color,
and the number voluntarily manumitted; the
number of frigitives, the d^ and dumb, blinti,
insane, and idiotio, by age and sex. Statistics
of mortality were included, which recorded the
name, age, sex, color, civil condition, birth-
place, occupation, and cause of death of each

CDEKT

CEOTAUES

person whc» died wttMn the year previons to the
day of enumeration^ The atatiatics of a^iculttire
oiiibruoe the oamber of aores of knd iinproved
and nnoolti rated, its value, with that of the im-
X)lements and machinery, the number, variety,
and valaeof the live stock, with a full account of
all the productions of the field ; the value of
estate, real and personal ; the taxes, number of
colleges, academies, and schools, with the number
of teachers and pupiU, and the revenues; also
the statistics of churches, public libraries, and
newspapers; those of mines, manufactures, and
fisheries were included, so as to give the capital
invested, the quantity, kind, and value of raw
materials used ; the motive power, number of
hands of each sex employed, with their wages,
and the various products, in quantity, kind, and
value. A digest of these statistics is now being
compiled under a recent law of congress. The
other details have for the most part been publish-
ed.— From what has been written on this subject,
it will be perceived that the census of each coun-
try differs essentially in details and in the times
when taken, so that it is almost impracticable to
iiistitata oomparisons between different nations
as to the increase of population and the pro-
gress of the industrial arts. To remedy, if pos-
sihle, these differences, and examine into the
plans of the European censuses, Mr. Kennedy
was sent to Europe in 1861, and after a confer-
ence with many of the most eminent statists
abroad, all of whom readily admitted the im-
portance of a more harmonious action in na-
tional investigations of so much interest, it was
resolved to hold a congress of statists of all
nations at Brussels. Throe conventions of this
nature have already been held at Brussels,
Paris, and Vienna, and it is hoped that some-
tliing important may result from the delibera-
tions of such conferences. — Independent of the
federal census, a majority of the states, either
in their constitutions or by act of legislature,
have made provision for an enumeration of their
population respectively. That of Massachu-
setts is taken in the same years with that of
the United States, and as much oftener as the
legislature may direct It is very general and
thorough in its investigations. That of New
York, embracing population, agriculture, and
manufactures, is made decennially at inter-
mediate periods, affording an enumeration each
5 years ; so with Illinois, Wisconsin, and Flori-
da. The census of Ohio, Missouri, and Ar-
kansas is taken once in 4 years; Indiana and
Alabama, 6; Michigan, South Carolina, and
Tennessee, 10; Iowa, 2 ; Georgia, 7; Texas, 8;
MLS5»i«sippi, irregularly. Virginia, by her new
constitution, has provided for a decennial cen-
su'i intermediate with that of the United States,
while no provision for a periodical census has
been made by the states of Maine, Now Hamp-
pliiro, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Mary-
land, Nnrtli Carolina, and Kentucky.

CENT (a contraction of the Latin word cen-
tum^ a hundred), a United Btates coin of the

Tftlaa of ihe yl^ of a dollar, first made of tsop-
per tinder act of congress, 1787, In New Ilaven^
Tho same year Miw-^acbii^tts authorized the
makiug of coins of the same value, which was
done the next year. The cent with the symboli-
cal head and thQ inscription of ** Liberty" was
ordered by congress in 1792, and first coined in
1793. In 1857 a coin composed of 88 parts
copper and 12 parts nickel was issued, wluch,
being of smaller size than the old cent and equal
in value, is designed to replace it.

CENTAURS, a mythological race of crea-
tures, half man, half horse, and, in addition to
this, semi-divine, who were believed especially
to inhabit the passes of Mts. Pelion and Ossa
and the great plains of the ThessaHotis and Pelas-
giotis, in upper Greece. They are mentioned 8
tunes in the Iliad, twice under the appellation
<l>rfp€fi which is merely the -^olic form of the
common Greek word irjp^s (wild beasts) ; under
which appellation, with the addition of the
epithet B^iot, godlike or divine, they are also
spoken of by Pindar, and once under their ap-
propriate name Kcvravpo*. They are also men-
tioned by name, as centaurs, in the Odyssey.
It does not distinctly appear whether, by the
writer of the Homeric poems, the centaurs
were understood or intended to be received as
semi-human, semi-ferine animals, no allusion be-
ing made directly to their form or attributes;
but the use of the word <^t;/>, wild beast, as
applied to them, which never, so far as is
known, is used by any classic writer in speak-
ing of a human being, would seem to be con-
clusive. The legend concerning the origin of
the centaurs is twofold. Ixion being, in con-
sequence of an atrocious crime, in the murder
of his father-in-law, Deioneus, refused all inter-
course or fellowship with mankind, Jupiter
invited him in mere compassion to reside on
Olympus. Incapable of gratitude, however,
and forgetful of all rules of hospitality, he at
once attempted to seduce tlie wife of his enter-
tainer, Juno. By a concerted plan, however,
of the god and goddess, a cloud woman, formed
into Juno's semblance and vivified for the time,
was substituted for her, and the intrigue pro-
ceeded, until the seducer, boasting of his success
with the immortals, was bound on an ever-
revolving wheel in the abyss of Tartarus, while
the cloud became the mother of the centaurs;
or, according to the myth as given by Pindar,
of a son of human form called Centaunis, who,
wandering wild about the roots of Mt. Pelion,
fell in with theMagnesian mares, from his asso-
ciation with which arose the semi-human race of
centaurs. As to form, these beings were repre-
sented in sculpture as horses, perfect in all re-
spects below and behind the wiihei-s and the
chest ; there, at the insertion of the neck, began
a human body, the hip joints articulating into
the shoulders of the lower animal, and the ab-
domen of the man uniting at the perinroum with
the chest of the horse. Above this the hnman
conformation was perfect, with the erect bear-
ing, chest, shoulders, arms, nock, and head of a

tfO

GENTAUBUB

OJCMTlKIBDS

eomplete num, endowed with all tiie beet jAye-
ioal proportions and qualitiee of menhood. 80
far, indeed, were the oentanrs from being re*
garded as mde, doll, bmtiah monsters, sndi as
the minotanr, the oydops, and other miaformed
and gigantio varieties nrom natural or hmnan
forms, that extraordinary and nnnsosl powers,
not of body only, bat of mind and intellect, are
attributed to them. The^ were in all respects,
in &ct, saperior, not infenor, to men ; in arts, in
grace, and in wisdom, no less than in swiftness
of foot or strength of limb.

CENTAUBUS, or Thx Gehtaub, a sonthem
constellation, only a small part of which rises
in our latitude. Two stars of the first magni-
tude are catalogued in the portion which does
not appear above our horizon. This is one of
the 48 ancient constellations formed by Ptolemy,
who first discovered the likeness of a centaur
in it On the celestial maps of the Arabs it is
represented by a bear mounted on horseback.

CENTAUB Y, a genus of pknts comprehend-
ing a large number of unimportant species,
which are natives of Europe, Asia, Africa, and
a very few of America. One of the species is
fabled to have cured the centaur Chiron of the
wound in his foot made by the arrow of Her*
cnles, and to have hence derived its name. It
was formerly supposed to have extraordinary
medical powers, and said to cure not only fe-
vers, but also the plague, and the worst ulcers,
but is now in no repute among physicians.

CENTENAEaUS, ah officer in the armies of
the middle ages who had the conunand of 100
men. Also, the person who conducted the ad-
ministration of justice in a village.

CENTIAKE, a French measure, the ^iir part
of an are. which see.

CENTIGRADE SCALE, or the Cewtesmal,
is the division into 100 parts, named grades or
degrees, adopted particularly for the French
thermometer. It was introduced in 1742 by
Celsius, professor at Upsal, the limits of the
division into 100° being the boiling and freez-
ing points of water, though the scale was made
to extend to convenient lengths below and
above these points. In Fahrenheit's scale, tiie
freezing point being 82° add the boiling point
212°, 180° include the same range as 100° of the
centigrade thermometer. The proportion of one
degree of Fahrenheit to one of the centigrade is
hence as 6 is to 9. But as the zero point of
the Fahrenheit thermometer is 82° below the
freezing point, which is the zero point of the
centigrade, this number must be added to the
results obtained as the corresponding degree on
Fahrenheit's scale to one upon the centigrade.
Thus, if the proportion be applied to 15^ of the
centigrade scale, this being multiplied by 9 and
divided by 5, the corresponding degree on the
Fahrenheit scale is found by adding 82° to 27%
which gives 59° as the rebnlt

CENTILOQUIUM, a collection of 100 say-
ings or opinions. The centiloquium ascribed to
Hermes Trisme^^stns contains 100 aphorisms
or astrological sentenoes, and ia auppoeed to

h^re been written by acme Arab of the 4ib
eentnry. There is also the famous oentiloquicn
oi Ptolemy, oontaining 100 doctnnas in than
sentences.

CENTIPEDE, an artieolated axumi^ fonner^
ly considered an insect, bat nnce the time tf
Dr. Leach placed in the daas myriapada^ and
in the genus teolcpendra. This elaaa is djf*
tingnished from insecta by the far greAur
number of feet, by the more nnmeroua Btz-
ments of the body, and by the absence of ^lj
distinct division between the thcmuc and ab-
domen. With the exception of the first, eicz
segment has a pair of legs, termiaated g^^x-
erally by a single hook; from the occnrraiee <.:
the stigmata, or reroiratory openings, on eac^i
alternate segment, lAtreille and oUiera, fruG
the analogy of insecta proper (which have i
stigmata on each segment), have oonside^cd
these as semi-segments, and have conaequeDiIj
given 2 pairs of legs to each segment. Tu
feet are very much ^proximated to each other
for the whole length of the body ; the mandi-
bles are bi-articulated, and followed by a pit<e
formed like a labium with articulated feet-lili
divisions, corresponding in position to the ^ v
guette of enutaeea; then come 2 pairs of Uuls
feet, of which the second, hook-^shaped ofu^
seem to replace the 4 jaws of crustaceans. 'J
the 2 maxilln and lower lip of insects ; thej
may be regarded as maxillary feet. The s>
tenn» are 2, vairing greatiy in their sb&pe.
length, and number of joints. The orp^x?
of vision are usually formed by the union d
simple eyes, but in some they resemble tLe
compound eyes of insects, with larger ikv^
All myriapods are wingless. Unlike insect^ u
this class the number of the rings, and of Ht
feet belonging to them, increases with tlcL*
age; from the fact that some genera are bom
without feet, Latreille asserts that they nnikr-
go a true metamorphons, though the separ^
states of larvct, pupa, and imago do not ei;.**^
in them any more than they do in most apti?-
ous insects. The organs of respiration oons^
of 2 principal paralld tracheaa along the bod;,
into which the stigmata open. The myriapocs
seem to approximate somewhat to the crostsces
on one hand, and to the insecta on the othtr.
They generally avoid the light, conceslia£
themselves under stones, beneath the barku/
trees, in old timber, and similar loealiiks;
some live in fruits, others destroy vegetablea»
and many feed on dead and living animal sab-
stances. Latreille divides myriapoda into I
orders : 1, thilognatluk^ of which the best knovs
genus is %vlu$ ^tr.); and2,eA«20;>M2a,contaixh
ing the genus aoohpindra^ which, in the wot-
stricted latitude given it by linnssna, induded
all the genera of the order, all of which baT«
at various times been deai^mted aa centipedes^
or millepedes. In the order chilopoda the an-
tenna are slender toward the extremity, haTicg
14 or more Joints; the month consbts of 2
mandibles with a palpiform appendage, i^sror
nated like the bowl of a spoon with indented

CENTIPEDE

CENTO

651

oflcres ; tlio UMnm Isqtiftdrifld, and its S lateral
divisionis the largest, are tf an aversely ringedj
and resemble the membraDOQ* t^t of caterpil-
lars ; they have beside 2 palpi or little feet,
Tinitod at the base and nngaicnlated at the end,
and a second labium formed by a second pair
of feet^ terminated by a strong movable hook
pierced at the end for the issne of an acrid
1 i« |n id. The body is membranoos and flattened,
each ring being covered by a coriaceous plate,
and having for the most part but one pair of
foot, the'terminal segment being elongated into
a kind of tail; the sexual organs are interior,
and placed at the posterior extremity of the
body. — The centipedes move very rapidly in an
undulating manner; they can walk backward,
u>wg only the 4 hind legs, which in ordinary
proijression are dragged after them ; they avoid
the light, and are carnivorous in their habits;
tlioy are much dreaded by the inhabitants of
vv:irm climates, where they attain a large size,
and are capable of inflicting dangerous wounds;
it is said that their bite, though more painful
than that of the scorpion, is never fatal; the
(Mammon species of Europe {lithobuu/orficatiia,
Linn.), very abundant under stones in the sum-
mer season, is quite harmless, though repulsive
in its a'^pect. The genus seutigera (Lam.) has
tlio body covered with 8 plates, 16 pairs of
let^s, and large reticulated eyes ; they are noc-
turnal in their habit«i, and pierce their insect
prey with their mouth-hooks, producing almost
instant death; according to Illiger, they are
dreaded by the inhabitants of Hungary. The
genus seolopeiidra (Leach) has 21 pairs of legs,
of which the basal joints of the terminal legs are
armed with spines ; the segments are nearly of
equal size and number above and below. The
S. cingulata (Latr.) of southern Europe is almost
as large as some of the species of tropical
America. Several species of South America
and the "West Indies have doubtless been con-
founded under the S, morsitans (Linn.), one of
which grows to the length of a foot; very large
species also occur in Asia, Africa, and the
Indian archipelago. Ammonia is the best ap-
plication to their bites. Though among the
most disgusting of living creatures, Humboldt
says, in his "Personal Narrative:" **I have seen
Indian children, of the tribe of the Chaymas,
draw out from the earth and eat millepedes or
scolopendrfiB, 18 inches long and 7 lines •broad."
Of the genus erytops^ Dr. Leach mentions 2
species found in the vicinity of ILondon ; the
eyes are very small, the antennro are grained,
and the basal joint of the more slender hind
f«^et is without spines. In the genus geophilus
(Leach), the antenna) have only 14 joints, but
tiie lei^ vary in number from 42 to nearly
300 ; tliey are very slender, and some are phos-
phorescent ; they are destructive to fruit and
vciretables. — ^The position of the myriapoda can
hardly be said to be determined. Siebold says
they do not properly belong either to ardchnvda
or inAfcta^ and he classes them under enistac^a^
Kytiier Jonea observes that they differ from

Crustacea by their respiriDg air by means of
trachero^ and from annelida by their jointed
legs i^nd that tliey ^eom to be an osculant
group, aUled to annelids, insect^ araoliuiday
and Crustacea; they have urinary organs like
insects, which Crustacea have not Prof.
Agassiz makes them the lowest order of tho
class of insects, the other orders being arach-
nids and insects proper. Mr. Newport (" An-
nals and Magazine of Natural History," voL xlL,
1843, p. 223) traces the nervous system from
the highest ehUognatha^ the most perfect of
which are connected on the one hand with
Crustacea, and on the other with true insects,
through the geophili (the lowest vermiform
type of the chilopoda\ to the tailed arachnida
(the scorpions), and through scolopendra, li-
thobitts, and icutigera, the last of which connects
the myriapoda on the one hand with tnie in-
sects, and on the other with arachnida. Tho
heart, or dorsal vessel, as in insects and arach-
nida, is divided into several compartments,
oorresponding in number to the abdominal
segments.

CENT JOUES, the second period of Napo-
leon^s reign, so called because it lasted precisely
100 days, from March 20, 1815, when he reen-
tered Paris on his return from Elba, to June 28
of the same year, when the second restora-
tion was established. (See Bonapabte.)

OENTLI VRE, Susanna Freeman, an English
dramatic authoress, born in Lincolnshire, in
1667, died in London, Dec. 1, 1723. Early an
orphan, and maltreated by those to whom her
education was confided, she fled from school
while very young, intending to go to London.
While travelling on foot it is related that she fell
in with a Cambridge student, who persuaded her
to accompany him to Cambridge, where she as-
sumed masculine attire, and studied several
months. To save her friend from suspicion she
went from Cambridge to London, where nothing
is known of her till at the age of 16 years slie
married a nephew of Sir Stephen Fox. Soon
losing her first and also her second husband, who
was named Carrol, she devoted herself to poetry,
and produced a tragedy and several comedies.
She also engaged al an actress, and while per-
forming before the court at Windsor attracted
the attention of a young man who was chief cook
to Queen Anne, named Cendivre, to whom
she was soon after married. From this time
she lived in intimacy with Steele, Rowe, Far-
quhar, and other literary men, but incurred the
enmity of Pope, by whom she was unjustly char-
acterized in the first editions of the "Dunciad."
Her comedies are esteemed for the ingenuity of
the plots and the vivacitv of the dialogue. The
best of them are the " Busy-Hody," the " Bold
Stroke for a Wife," and the " Wouder, a Woman
keeps a Secret."

CENTO (Lat. cento, patch-work), a poem
composed wholly of verses taken from one or
more poets, but disposed in a new order so as
to form a distinct work. The only classical
example is the Cento NuptialU of AusoniuSy

CENTRAL AIDEBIOA

UBflXKiA

■pi»^i out of Virguito Tsnw p6i vollod into s
new meaning. Afioording to the rules laid
down by Ansoniaa, the verses may be either
taken entire, or divided into haives^ one half to
be conneoted with another taken elsewhere;
but 2 verses are never to be taken together.
The empress Eadoxia wrote the life of Jesos
Christ in Homeric centos; Froba Faloonia,
nnder the emperor Honorias, wrote the same
in verses extracted from Yir^ The same
BQliject was treated'in aViigUian cento by
Alexander Boss, a Scotch sdaoolmaster and
poet, in his Virffilius JSoanfj^eliaaM^ which was
republished in 1769.

CENTRAL AMERICA. See Ajikbioa, voL
I p. 460.

CENTRAL FORCES are forces emanating
from a centre. The only fimdliar examples are
tiie forces of gravity and deetricity. They
produce, in any body upon which they act, a
motion whose path is determined by the rate at
which tiie force varies with a change of distsace
fh>m the centre. The force of gravity is dimin«
ished to i by doubling the distfmce, and in gen-
eral varies as the square of the distance. It
follows from this that a body moving under the
influence of gravity must move in a conic section,
tiiat is, the orbits of all planets, eometa, and
satellites must be ellipses (parabolas or hyper*
bolas).

CENTRAL HEAT. Since the year 1740,
when the first observations respecting the in-
crease of heat encountered with the increased
depth below the surface were made by M. Qen-
sanne in the lead mines of Geromagny on the
upper Rhine, abundant data have been collected
by scientific men in various parts of the world,
establishing this as a general fact The deepest
mines of Mexico, England, France, Germany,
and oth^ countries, and the deeper artesian
wells, and the hot springs ascending firom
still deeper sources, all lead to this conclu^on.
The volcanic fires add their testimony to the
existence of intensely heated masses beneath
the crust of the earth, and the vast extent of
surface agitated when they are suppressed, and
relieved by their outlet, seems to indicate an
almost general difiumon of the liquid molten
masses from which they spring. Not only is
the heat found generally to increase with the
depths but the rate of this increase has in many
instances been determined. It is found to vary in
different countries, in some increasing 2 or ft
times more rapidly than in others. The average
rate is estimated by KupfEer at 1® F. for every
87 English feet; and by Cordier at l"* for every
45 feet These phenomena, all pointing in one
direction, have led to the conclusion that some-
where in the interior the materials of the globe
must be in a state of the most intense heat ; and
calculations have been made showing at what
depth the rocks must all exist as liquid lava,
at what the temporature of melted iron would
be found, at what platinum would fuse, and at
what various matters, solid at the surface, would
be volatilized, but for the enoitnous pressore*

Urns has been estaUiriied the linory of oeatrd
heat. It is controverted by Sir Ctiarles Lyefl,
M. Poisson, and otiier eminent aotlumtaea, on
these grounds: When substances, as metsJa,
are melted, their temperature cannot be ruaed
a single degree above the point of fuaiaii bo Iob^
as a piece of the materkd remaina immdlted
The same principle is exemplified in tlie impos-
ability of raking water to a fai|^er temperature
than SS^'F. so longas a fragment of ice remaiiB
in it The principle may be applied to the ioiid
crust of the earth, whidi could no more rraiaia
unchanged, reposing upon the surfiaoe of a fimd
heated many times above the tempavture at
which its materials would melt, than a stratDm
of ice of the same thickness could remain in die
same situation exposed to the same proportaoiid
di£ference of heat. The crust that forms upca
lava as it cools cannot be instanced in dispnxif
of this statement, for this only forms when the
heat is so much reduced that ebullition has en-
tirely ceased ; if this be renewed, the cn^
soon disappears in the fluid. Were the cnigt d
the globe the result of partial oodini^ from %
state of primitive fluidity, the whole plsaet
must flrst have cooled down to abont the t»&-
perature of incipient fndon, and hence the
enormous degrees of heat supposed cannot eziss
within it. M. Poisson ^Mmagines that if tbe
globe ever passed from a liquid to a solid sttu
by radiation of heat, the central nndens muec
have begun to cool and consolidate firsk^* Were
the central portion fluid, tides wonld be per>
ceived in the mass, sufficient to canae the 5a^
fJEwe to rise and fall every 6 hours ; but no such
fluctuations are observed, even in a crater hki
that of StromboH, which is supposed to co^
nect with the great central ocean of Uti.
The nhenomena that have given rise to tia
hypotnesis combated by these views do sot
perhi^ require this theory to account ior
them. Local heat is without qaestion gdH
crated by chemical changes taking place amoe*
the materials beneath the snrfsce. These give
rise to electrical currents, of the power of
which to disturb the surface we can form little
idea, but Judging from their <^ects upon the
limited scale on which they come under our oi>-
aervation, it would seem quite as philosophicai to
refer to them the phenomena connecting' distsct
volcanic outbreaks and earthquakes, as to call ia
an aid so entirely hypothetical as that of tkt
molten fluidity of the central portion of ths
globe.

CENTRE, in general, a point eanally dktist
firom the extremities of a line, suriaoe, or solid.
The centre of a conic section is a point whick
divides all the diameters into 2 equal parts.
In the ellipse and circle this point ia within tbf
figure ; it is outside of the figure in the hyper-
bola, and at an infinite distance from the sum-
mit in the parabola. — ^The Ckntbb ov Gravitt
is a point in the interior of a body or system of
bodies so situated that a plane passing throu^
it in whatever direction would divide tiie bo^r
into 2 portions of exaetiy equal weic^k

GEHTRB

OSNTUBY

668

CENTRE, A cmiral ooimty of PennsylTania;

area aboot 1.000 eq. m. ; pop. in 1850, 28,855.
It is traversed by the Alleghany, Bald £agle, and
fieveral other monntain ranges. It is drained
by a number of small creeks, which supply sev-
eiiil mills and factories with water power. The
soil is excellent in the ralleys, and agriculture
is in a forward state. The mountains are cov*
ercd with valuable timber, but furnish little
Ifiud suitable for cultivation. There are exten-
si\-e mines of iron, quarries of limestone, and
beds of stone coal in several places. The agri-
cultural productions in 1850 amounted to 438,-
612 bushels of wheat, 816,112 of corn, 186,204 of
oats, 18,530 tons of hay, and 414,716 lbs. of
butter. There were 48 churches, and 4,617 pu-
pils in the public schools. The county was or-
pranized in 1800, and named from its position.
Capital, Bellefonte.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. The tendency
which a body moving in a curved path has
to fly from the curve, has received the ill-cho-
sen name of centrifagal force ; ill-chosen, since
it is not a tendency to fly from the centre, bat
simply to continue moving in the direction
which it has at any particular moment. A
stone whirled in a sling flies off at right angles
to the string at the moment of its release. An
apparently centrifugal force is sometimes mani-
fested where the body is restrained from mov-
ing in a tangent, and only allowed to slide on
a radius. Centrifugal force, in this sense, is a
very valuable mechanical power, of great prac-
tical use in such operations as draining washed
wool, or draining the oil from steel pens ; since,
by the revolution of such articles in a network
cylinder, a force can be communicated to the
adherent particles of fluid very far exceeding
that of gravity, without injury to the fibre or
finish of the solid articles.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE, a central force of
attraction ; that is, a force tending, like that of
gravity, to move a body to a fixed centre.

CENTUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a col-
lege of judges, who decided civil cases, and
questions relating to the rights of family and
succession. This court was instituted, accord-
ing? to Niebuhr, as early as the time of Servius
TuUius ; and as its number was ordinarily about
100, it received the name of the tribunal of the
centumviri. It was divided into 4 sections or
councils, before 2 or the whole number of
which cas^ might be pleaded. This tribunal
acquired its greatest importance under the em-
pire, and was entirely suppressed by Theodo-
sius, A. D. 895.

CENTURIES OF MAGDEBURG, a toIu-
mi nous history of the church, and the first
Protestant work of the kind ; so called from the
plan of arrangement adopted, which was to
treat the history in periods of 100 years each.
It was written in Latin, and published in Basel,
155<j-'74,in 18 vols, folio, bringing the history
down to the 14th century. The originator of the
plan of the " Centuries " was Matthias Flacius,
that violent opponent of the Interim, and so of

Melanohthoii. The first 4 oeiftiiriea were eom-
posed at Magdebnrg (whence the name); the
6th, begun at Magdeburg, was finished at Jena;
the 6th was written while the authors were se-
creted from persecution ; the 7th in Mecklen-
burg, and tne remaining 6 in liie city of
Wismar. The publication was attended with
much labor, from the comprehensiveness and
complication of the plan. Of its execution
Eichhorn, the celebrated German orientalist and
theologian, speaks favorably. Each centnry is
treated under 16 heads, viz.: general histori-
cal view, extent and propagation of the ohnroh,
persecutions, doctrines, heresies, rites and cer-
emonies, government, schisms, cooneils, biogra-
phies, heretics, martyrs, miracles, condition of
the Jews, other religions, political condition of
the world. The authors are called eentnriatorea.
A new edition by Baumgarten and Semler

guremberg, 6 vols. 4to., 1757-65), brings
wn the work only to the year 600, and an
abridgment by Osiander continues it to the
17th century (16 vols. 4to., Ttibingen, 1607-8).
The principal writers, beside Flacius, were
Wigand, Jndex, Faber, Oorvinus, and Holzhuter.

CENTURION, an officer of the Roman
army, in some respects corresponding to the
rank of the modem captain. His conunand
was the military division called a century, een^
turia^ which corresponded with the civil divi-
sion called a ctiriay so that the rank of eenturio
in the army was equivalent to that of eurio in
the state. It is supposed by Niebuhr, and
other writers of the first authority, that the
original century consisted of 80 men, and the
great scholar first named is of opinion that the
influence of the £&vored number, 80, can be
traced throughout the whole of the ancient
array of the Roman army. In later times the
legion of heavy armed foot, hastati, prineipeSy
and Priarii, without including the velites, or
light-armed skirmishers, consisted of 80 mani*
pies, each of which contained 2 centuries. In
the time of JSmilius Paulus and Scipio, the
strength of the legion when at its full war com-
plement was 6,000 men, each century of course
containing 100, each maniple 200, and each
cohort — a later division of 8 maniples, vari-
ously attributed to Marius, Sylla, and Julius
Ctesar — 600 men. The centurion who com-
manded the right century of the maniple, was
styled properly eenturio ; he who commanded
the left, mb-eenturio^ optio^ or uragia,

CENTURY, in Roman antiquity, a company
of 100 men, forming the 6th part of a cohort,
and the 60th part of a legion. Servius TuUiua
carried this military division into the civil or-
ganization, and divided the Roman people into
6 classes according to property, which were sub-
divided into 195 centuries. To each of these
centuries belonged a voice in the eomitia eentu-
riata; but as the first or most wealthy class of
citizens comprised 98 of the centuries, it had a
preponderance in the government. Each cen-
tnry was divided into 2 sections, that of the
$cniore$y consisting of citizens from 45 to 60

<54

OEOS

OBPSALIB

yean old, tnd that of the juniarm, of ddfoHB
from 17 to 45 years old. (See Cxnbus.)
: OEOS, also called Oba, now Zba, a small
island of that Greek group called the Oycladefl^
lying off file point of the promontory of Sonimnt
Oape Oolonna, at 12 or 18 m. distance, a yery
little 8.of K from it, and nearly twice that dis-
tance S. of the sonth point of tne island of Ne»
S'opont, It is now scarcely 12^ m., or 100
reek stadia, in length; but Pliny writes that
it was torn awav from Enboda, or the Negro-
pont, by an earthquake; and that after that a
l^eat part of it was carried away by the sea on
the side of Boaotia. It was famous for its for-
tuity and pasture lands. Herodotus states it to
liaye been an Ionian colony from Attica, and
that it furnished a few salleys to the fleet of the
.confederate Greeks at Artemisinm and Salamis.
It once had 4 cities : lulls, the seat of the mod-
em town of Zea, and the birthplace of Simoni-
des, Oarthea, Ooressia, and Pcsdessa; but in the
days of Strabo, the two latter had been aban-
doned, and their inhabitants removed to the
others.

OEPHALONIA, or Obfhaixenia (Gr. Kci^-
X^MoX called by Homer Samoa (SafMf), or
Same (ZofiiyX the largest of the Ionian islands,
separated ftom Ithaca on the £. by a narrow
chauneL Area, 848 sq. m.; pop. in 1856,
70,481. The country Ib rugged and mountain-
ous, particularly in the N. part, and the Black
mountahi, as the Mount ^nos of antiquity
is now called, constitutes the most pictur-
esque feature of Oephalonia. Tlie climate is
usually mild. The soil produces little corn,
but some wine, oil, honey, and all the fruits of
southern Europei Ourrants, the staple product
of the Ionian islands, come chiefly from Oepha-
lonia. The blight of 1858~'55 has injured the
crops materially, and reduced the exports from
40,000,000 to 11,000,000 lbs. The total yalne
of currants received in the United States dur-
ing the year ending Juno 80, 1856, was $127,-
089, and in 1857, $151,418. The large share
which Oephalonia bears in the currant trade
> may be gathered from the fact that of 6,-
£70,881 lbs. exported to England in 1855,
4,868,400 lbs. were from that island. The
harbor is excellent, and ship building and
various other branches of trade and industiy
are carried on actively. The imports consist
mainly of breadstuff and of the manufactures
and wares of Europe. There are 11 public
schools in the island, and 78 private schools.
The Greek church is the predominant religion,
and the inhabitants are chiefly Greeks. Property
is much more divided in Oephalonia than in other
parts of the Ionian islands. About i of the cul-
tivated land belongs to the oonvente, of which
there are more than 20, and many of them, as for
instance the convent of Sisi, are very ancient.
The island is supposed to have been originally
inhabited by Tapnians, and to have derived its
name from the mythical Cephalus. There were
4 cities in Oephalonia in the times of antiquity,
viz., Pale^ Oranii, Proni, and Samoa. The site

thai of Samoa, stin ei-

ulna. The Liti^r

ofFMil,«idBtin]

hibit extensive and interesting ruina.
city, which was more populous thaa the otl^
8, is frequently mentioned by Homer, wLJe
the inhabitants are spoken of by the poet n
the O^hallenians. Thucydidea called ut
ialand a tetrapoUs (composed of 4 staUi.
and still other names were implied to ^
But the name of Oephallenia first occu.-!
in Herodotus. — The island belonged bqoc.^
sively to the Greeks, the Macedonians, ut
Boman Byzantine emperors, the Koroafci.
the Venetians, the Turks, and the French. I;
forms now one of the 7 Ionian islands xjnia
the protection of Great Britain. In Aug. li^4 .
a terrible insurrection broke out in the is^O.
which could only be suppressed by the tl<
energetic measures on the part of the Bhtl^
ffovernor. Oephalonia sends one member t£> in
Ionian senate, and 7 deputies to the legi:Jsiivc
assembly. Oephalonia and Zante form ^u
diocese, the bishop^s seat being at lixurl. -z
Oephalonia. The capital of the island :>
Aigostoli.

CEPHALOPODA (Gr. K^ffxDifh head, s^:
irovff, foot), a class of molluscous animals cL^-
acterized by their organs of motion being ^•
ranged about the head. These organs ir-^
called feet and arms, either of which uxux-
may be properlv given, since they serve i.
only as means of locomotion but for secariE; ;
hold upon any object The animals are ^.^x
furnished with eyes and organs of hearii.-.
The mouth, which is situated in the centre .:
the circle of feelers, is furnished with a p^ ^:
homy jaws, in shape resembling the bill a':
parrot. The tongue is rough and prick./
Being aouatic, the cephalopoda breathe xhrvzl-
gillsb llost of this class possess something re-
sembling shells, though only the nautilus &: -
argonaut are entirJy covered with tht:.;
Their arms are supplied with suckers, by vrL .1
they fasten themselves to and overoome b:^-
mala much larger and better protected iLx
themselves. Even the firm covering of :t>
sters and crabs cannot defend these snmi^
from their soft-limbed opponents, which Ij
means of their suckers fasten firauy upon :L
shell, and with their strong beaks tear it ^
pieces. To the class cephalopoda belong il.-
nautilus, the argonaut, the loligo, and tbeVi _*
known sepia or cuttle-fish. This last-Ujir.!
species, being entirely unprotected by a sbrll. :»
furnished with a bag containing a dark-colt, rec
fluid. When attacked, it throws out this sei ra-
tion and so tinges the water that it tnakc> :l<
escape. This ink is collected from the fiali s.
the India seas, and forms the valuable |v
ment known as sepia. Many extinct specie? d
cephalopoda are abundantly found in all C:^.
fossiliferous rocks.

OEPHALUS, in Greek mythology, soq o.'
Deion and Diomede^ and husband of Procrlv
whom he tenderly loved. Aurora was enamel
ed of him. and enviously prompted hlai u
tempt the ndelity of his wife. Under the gui»

0EPHIS8IA

OEBCADO

656

of ft strflBger he carad with brCliant presents
to liifi boose, and PJXicris did not withstand the
trial. 8lie Eubaeqne&tly diverted him from his
datv, aud the discovery of their mutn^il weak-
ness led to a reconciliation between them.
Cephalus afterward dew his wife with his
spear, mistaking her for a wild animal,
ns glie was jeaJonsly watching him in the
^vood. According to Ovid, Cephalus finally
occupied and gave his name to the island
Cephallenia.

CEPHISSIA, a village of Greece, 9 m, N.
E. of Athens, with a grotto dedicated to the
saints, and much resorted to by devotees.

CEPHISSIA, or Melas (anc. Cephissus), a
river of Greece. It rises in PhocL<j, flows gene-
rally E.; crosses the N. boundary of Bceotia;
f;ills into Lake Copais.

CEPIIISSUS, the name of several rivers in
ancient Greece. The most famous of them was
() no of the two streams which flowed by Athens.
It had its rise N. of the city, flowed soutliward
from Ml Parnes across the long walls, and
emptied into the Phalcric bay. Modem trav-
ellers describe it as winding its way through
olive proves in several streamlets.

CERACCHI, Giuseppe, an Italian sculp-
tor, born in Rome in 1760, died Feb. 1801.
J To took an active part in the disturbances of
the Papal States, and was obliged to seek refuge
ill Frauce. lie there joined a band of repub-
lican artists, who cherished a violent hatred
iurainst Napoleon, and at length made an at-
tempt upon his life. The plot was formed
in the autumn of 1800, and the fatal deed was
to be committed Oct. 11, at the opera. The
conspirators were betrayed by one of their num-
ber, their weapons seized, and Ceracchi with
his associate Diana and 4 others arrested, and
nfter a long and somewhat intricate trial, con-
demned, and all but Diana executed.

CEIiAM, Ceiraic, Sirano, or Zebam, the
second in size of the Molucca islands, in the
^lalay archipelago, lying N. of Ambo3'na, be-
tween Booroo on the W. and Papua on the E. ;
lat. 2*^ 47' to 3° 60' S. ; long. 127^ 61' to 181° 66'
E. Area estimated at 10,500 sq. m. ; pop. at
220,000. Its topography is imperfectly known,
but the general character of the surface is hilly,
several mountain ranges, from 6,000 to 8,000
ft. liij^li, traversing the island, and giving rise
to a number of streams which empty principal-
ly oil' the S. coast The loftiest peak is that of
Koosaheli, 9,750 ft. above the sea. The climate
is salubrious, vegetation is luxuriant, and the
nutmeg and clove were produced spontaneous-
ly until extirpated by the Dutch in the 17th
century. The sago palm here reaches the
pi;.'antic height of 100 ft., and a single tree
sometimes yields 1,200 pounds of starch. Many
varieties of noble forest trees are found, but
none suitable for ship building. The coasts
are peopled by a hardy, enterprising Malay
race, who subsist chiefly by fishing, and find a
market for the produce of their toil at Singapore
and the Sonda ialaads. Their vesselsi called

prahna or hora-k&m^ are manned by from 80 to
60 rowers eaeJi. Most of these people are
Moharnmedant^, bnt Chrlatian missionme*j have
made many converts among Uieiri ; and in oa&
village of 620 souls, visited by Mr. Bcherins in
1846, the Christians numbered 438. The Hora-
foraa, or Alfoories, who appear to be identical
with the mountaineers of Celebes and the
Philippines, are the dominant tribe of the inte-
rior. They are described as a brave, honest,
and in most respects peaceable race of idolaters,
among whom Christianity has made some con-
quests. A custom once prevalent among them
of collecting human skulls for ornaments, to
obtain which they would not hesitate to im-
molate a living victim, is apparently becoming
obsolete. A little maize, for domestic consump-
tion or exchange for dress, firearms, and fer-
mented liquors, is cultivated chiefly by women ;
while the men are engaged in war or hunting.
The Iloraforas of Coram have prominent fea-
tures, large eyes, and long frizzled hair ; they
are brave, faithful, obedient, and make good
soldiers. The other inhabitants are governed
by several chiefs, who are subject to the Dutch
residents at Amboyna and Banda. The native
princes meet the Dutch residents pnce in 2
years, and have their disputes adjusted by a
court of 24 rajahs, at which the resident pre*
sides. The population has been thinned by the
internal dissensions of the Malays, the attacks
of the Horaforas and of pirates, and the rava-
ges of the small -pox. The Dutch claim the
sovereignty of the island, and have established
several forts on it. On the N. £. coast are the
bay and village ofWaroo, where good anchor-
age, water, and provisions may be had.

CERASIN, the gummy matter that remains,
when the viscid exudation from the cherry,
plum, and some other fruit trees is digested in
water. The portion which dissolves is suppos-
ed to be the same substance as arabin. Cerasin
is a tasteless substance, insoluble in water and
alcohol, and nnfermen table. It diflfers from
bassorin in its being changed by the action of
boiling water into arabin. The substance is
applied to no use. — Also the name of a peculiar
kind of wax which is found coating the sugar-
cane.

CERATE (Lat. eerattim^ from cera^ wax),
anointment of stiff consistence, compounded of
oil or spermaceti and wax, sometimes thickened
with a powder.

CERBERUS, in Greek mythology, the mon-
ster that guarded the entrance to the infernal
regions. He was a son of Typhon and Echidna,
and is represented as a dog with many heads,
the tail of a serpent, and a mane composed of
the anterior extremities of numberless snakes.
His business was to admit the spirits of the
dead into their subterranean abode, but not to
let them out again. Orpheus lulled him to
sleep with his lyre, and Hercules draprged him
from Hades, and exhibited him to the eyes of
wondering mortals.

CERCADO, a proyinoe of Peru, in the de-

GEBDONIAKS

partment of Lima, boonded K. by tbe pcofinoa
of Obanoaj, £• by that of Huarochiri, 8. by
that of Oanete, and W. by the Pacific ocean.
Length from K. to 8., 89 m.; breadth, 24 m.
It has a fertile soil, watered by the Bimao and
the Lnrln, and yielding grain, fruit, sogar, paa-
tnrage, and legumes in abuudance. The diznate
is mud, but unhealthy. Bain never Mis except
in winter; and then in small quantities, but a
gentle distillation of moisture (ffarva) frequent-
stakes place. The province suffers much from
earthquakes. lima, the capital of the country,
and Oallao, its port, are the prindpal towns.

OEBDOKIANS, ancient heretics, whose
belief; half phUosophical, half religious, was
a confused mixture of Christian dogmas with
oriental dualism and Gnostic ideas. Their
founder, Gerdo, was a Syrian, who came to
Bome about the year 189 under the pontificate
of Hyginus. He maintiuned the existence of
the Zoroastrian • two principles, one of good
and the other of evil The ktter, according
to him, was the creator of the world and the
Ood and lawgiver of the Jews. The former
was the creator of Jesus Christ, whose incama*
tion, anfferings, and death were only sensible
appearances, and not vital facts. His disciples
became confounded with those of JCardon, who
some years later propagated similar opinions.

CilBfi, Jbak Kiooulb, a French botanist,
bom in the Isle of France in 1787, died tiiere,
May 2, 1810. Under the direction of the
French government he greatly extended the
culture of spices in the Isle of France (now
Mauritius), when that ifdand was a French de-
pendency. The agrioulturA society of Paris
published his essay on the culture of rice, and
awarded him a medal ; and Napoleon confirmed
him in his position as director of the botanical
oarden of the Isle of France, and conferred on
him a pension of $120. A tree of the island
has been called after him, CerM, — Hobtxnsv,
his youngest daughter, has translated several
novels from English ioto French, and written a
tragedy and sacred poetry.

CEBEAL GBABSES, those grasses which
produce the bread corns, as wheat, oats, barley,
rice, rye, and maize ; these having been called
the gift of Ceres.

CEBEALTA, a festival celebrated at Bome
every April in honor of Ceres, if the oitizena
were not in mourning for some public calamity.
If they were, its celebration was omitted, be^
cause no person wearing monminff could be
present at it On the occanon of this festival
the wanderings of the goddess in search of her
daughter were represented by women dressed
in white, running about with lighted torches;
and games were celebrated in tiie circus max-
imua, the spectators of which flf>peared in white
robes.

CEBES, the goddrea of grain and harvest
among the Greeks and Bomans, was a daughter
of Saturn and Bhea, and the mother of Pro-
serpine. She dwelt with the immortals on
Olympus, till after the abduotion of her danghter

ProaerpliM by Vhito fAA tiie tDPaifanae ^
Jupiter. Ceres then abandoned In ber anger li J
abode of the gods, and desoanded to earth %\
wander among men. On all who veomed L
kindly she conferred prseenta and blesB££>
but on those who treated her inhoapitaUT, -
slighted her gifts, ahe inflicted aev«n pont-
menta. In her grief she took neither neetar a-
ambrosia, nor attended to her perKMi; and s
stead of exhibiting her oelestial charma, she we: i
in the guise of an old woman. In the cocr-!
of her wanderings she came at length to Ek-
sis, where ahe was hospitably reoalTed by '
king, Celeus, whose wife, Metanira, eogafc.
Ceres to nurse her infimt son, Demof^- -
Under the care of the goddeas the ^nld tfarc
like a celestial. Aa he lay on her boeom, C«rt-
breathed on him, and anointed him with a:. •
broBia ; and every night, ere ahe put him '
rest, she immersed him in the fire unknown *
his parents. Ceres purposed to make the ci..
immortal, but the fbUy of hia mother frustrsrr .
her intention. ICetanira, wondering at t^
marvellous growth of her aon, became cnrici&i
to know how his nurse treated him* Watcbr *
one night, therefore, she saw with terror si.
astonishment the ordeal through vhidi V -
child was made to pass, and she shrieked al^
at the sight The goddess inatantly drop^v
the infant, and he perished in the flames ; :
to make up for the loss, ahe bestowed gre-
&vor8 upon Triptolemus, the other tea '•:
Celeus. Ceres then cast off her disgui^
and appeared in her real character, oommA: .
ing the people of Eleusis, at the aame time *•
bmld her an altar and a temple. A terr-^
was presentiy raised in the vioini^, in wl>>
the sorrowing Ceres took np her abode. ^
the mean time, the indignation of the v.
vine mother had visited the earth with i
famine. Jupiter therefore aent Iria to Elf^
to entieat Ceres to suffer the earth once ic> r
to bring forth her fruits, and to endeavcr :•.
prevail on her to return to Olympoa; but ▼.::
neither request would she comply, aave on en:
dition that her daughter Proserpine abould I'.
first restored to her. All the otiier divinif
of Olympus were successivdy sent to her ^:
the same mission, but in vain. Jajnter, findir:
at length that it was impesnble to ahake he
determination, sent Mercury to Brebna to b*^:
of Pluto that he would permit Proeeipinc i
return to the earth on a visit to her mother.
The king of Hadea at once complied with ;hi
request, but while announcing to hia coas^r^
that she was at liberty to retom to her parect.
he cunningly handed her a pomegranate tt«i
which she iucautiouBly swaUowedL Proserpi: -
was then conducted by Mercury to Elensis, tLz
delivered to Ceres. After the first bo:
of joy at this uuexpeoted meeting had foacc
vent, Ceres asked Proserpine if she had tastec
aught in the nether wond, to whidi the U^
ter replied that she hadr-a a&ngle poiM-
granate seed. Then, said the UM^er, j^*=
moat qtend one-third of evecy fttne yasr

J^ I A . . J.l

t , __r ^ ^-^^> -^ .

T,4

If)

11 -^ IIJ (L

1 iiifji^rtV^,

to
h

ai ftJiiMii fftflO 4*1 Minir«] f^irtlw

< ^iil iM MoUlfs. J '

GEBINTHUB

from 1 to 8 HL Geiigotto abounds wiUi .oli^
trees, and produoes some fine wheat In former
times it was a noted retreat of pirates.

CERINTHUS, also called deristyely MxRnr-
Tin7s(ft. e, cord), a religions personage of the
apostolio ages, who is supposed to have come
from Alexandria to Asia Jiinor, and to have
resided at Ephesns simnltaneonaly with St
John. He was a leader amonff those Gnostic
Christian sects which appeareasoon after the
death of CSirist The Gnosticism of Oerinthns
had a strong Judaistic element in the impor-
tance he attached, in common with the Ebion-
ites, to an observance of the Jewish law as e»'
■ential to salyation, and also in the notion of
the vast chasm between (jk>d and the material
world. He tanght that it was not the Snpreme
Qod who revealed himself in the Jewish Scrip-
toresi bnt a subordinate an^l commissioned hj
the Snpreme, with whom m his ignorance he
identified himsel£ In this way he justified both
the strictly divine character of Judaism to the
Jew, and its subordination to Christianity to
the Christian. Jesus he taught to be a mere
man in his birth and existence until the bap-
tism, when the Holy Ghosts which he consid-
ered to be the Christ, united itself with Jesus^
and remained in this union until the crucifixion.
Then, in time to leave the dying Jesus only a
man again, the Christ or Divine withdrew. He
attached no importance in the redemptive
plan to the death of Jesus, but made salvation
to depend on legal obedience. Cains, an anti-
Hontanistio writer, attempts to fasten upon
Cerinthus the grossest and most sensual millen*
nianism, and even accuses him of having inter-
polated the Apocalypse to make it suit his
chiliastic doctrines. It is true that Cerinthus
tanght the coming of a millennium on the earth,
when Christ was to make Jerusalem the centre
of his vast empire. This time he supposed
would come after the earth had stood 6,000
years, and would be a perpetual sabbath of
1,000 years, a view which was common among
the Jews of that age, and which has more or
Jess perpetuated itself to the present day in
Christian faith. His disciples were called Co-
rinthians, also Merinthians. A Hi&teria Cerin-
Mi was published by Paulus in Jena, in 1799.

CEBITO, Frakcesoa, commonly called Fan-
ny, acelebrated danseus^bom in ifaples in 1823,
is the daughter of an officer who served in the
Neapolitan army under Mnrat She made her
debut at the San Carlo theatre in 1836, and, al-
though only 13, was received with great enthu-
masm. At Milan, in 1888, and for 2 years at the
JELdmthertkartheater inVienna, and afterward in
Paris and London, everywhere the same storm
of spplanse greeted her appewance, especislly
ia London. She excels most in lively, gentle^
arch, and delicate gestures and attitudes, and
less in heroic or dassicsl parts. Since 1850
she has been separated from her husband, Mr.
8t Leon, who is favorably known in Paris and
London as dancer and violinlBt

CESIUM, a metal disoovend in 1808 by

eEBKAT

Hidnger and Boaelins, and named M
planet Ceres. The minerals which cu J
the metal were known long before i!i|
recognized. As obtained and descrl)^
Mosander, it is a chocolate-brown pi|
which oxidizes by the moisture of the d
composing this and setting hydrogen irq
takes fire in the air below red bear.
rapidly, and passes into an oxide. It dv:g
with chlorate or nitrate of potaaL li 4
be alloyed with any other metal, ami i
known to posseas any useftil properties,
extremely difficult to obtain it free Im
oxide. Mosander succeeded in isoIatlL^
decomposing the chloride with potsssioni.
protoxide of the metal forms 66 per cdt
the mineral cerite, which forms a bed in gl
at Bastnos, Westmannland, Sweden. It ill
discovered in small quantities in sermld
minerals of no particular importance or icu«i
in other respects. i

CERNAY,'or S«nhhkiii, a French uw:
the department of Hant-I^in, 18 m. 1 1
Miihlhausen, watered bv the river Tbscs, j
on the railway from MtUdhansen to Th&Da. c
necting with Strasbourg and Basel Pup. ■- '
engaged in the manufacture of cotton aitt^ J
goods, and in iron and oopper fbunderiea. ' <
place is specially remarkable for its oiiw
eole^ or rural asylum, for the training of i ^
tnte and vagrant children who, though not i
demned as criminals, have ahown d^rsTe^l r-
Densities. This asylum owes its origio i>
benevolence of a few gentlemen of Uie l- ■ i
borhood, who in 1847 formed a socierj i
raised a suitable foundation fond; shoi^
piece of wasteland were hired, where etcli : <
ber of the society, on the payment of 10) t:.
per annum, was entitled to send an orphan. '
neglected child when the consent of the p>^ '
could be obtained. Secondary, of cour^^
religious instruction, agricultiual emploj'
was relied on as the great means of refonm:
but as it was not a penal school, the fm^} ^
tem was carried out to a mach grester «^''
than at Mettray and other similtf institr.
The number of children was limited to y
order that the personal and parental io^ •;.
of the director might be felt by each chilf ^:
director, M. Zweifel, was brongbt up icj'
school of Fellenberg and Jacob Yebrli. "
boys are instructed for 2 hourB, morning «^
evening, in the various studies adi^ted to t.
oondition and wants. During the atj h^'^
gaged with them in every desolation of -^
and garden labor. By their efibrts and hu o^
aided only by a single farm servant, he^^-
brought a large porticm of the barren m^
Oemay into a high state of cultivation; mj-'
thus exerted a valuable influence in stimi^^:;;
the ambition of the small ftrmen of the ta-;
borhood, while his boys are p^^X *" '^^T.'
as kboren and assistants on t£e adjacent li^n-
A small portion of land is allotted asa^.
to each chUd, which he is taught to cduTs<^
and to raise both flowers and pnfitahld r '

OERRETO

OERRO GORDO

nco, which be is allowed to dispose of for his
wn h<:^[iefiL Great rwdas are taken to avoid
Very thinff liko displays or grftndottr in the
nildi rifTi^^ uie apparatus or farnitor© of the es^
U'lishnmat, or the dress of its inmat433. The
esigi i ^J fit riad adapt the boj3 for an latelli-
out peasant life. The director, though a man
f superior edacation and talent, had in 1853 a
ilary of only $260 per annnm. The results
ttiiined by this establishment have been most
itisfactory. Of 41 boys who had been dis-
h:ir^'ed in 1858, and apprenticed or placed with
null farmers, only 2 had turned out ill, and one
f these was a young man admitted at the a^
f 16, whose vicious habits were too fimuy
^tablished to be readily eradicated.
CP:RRET0, a well-built town of Naples, pro-
iiico of Terra di Lavoro, on the Apennines, 21
1. N. W. of Benevento; pop. 6,600. It has a
ithcdral, a collegiate church, and a diocesan
liool, 5 annnal fairs, and cloth manufactories.
t occupies the site of the Oernetum of the
lornans, near which Pyrrhus was defeated,
75 B. 0.

CERRO GORDO, a mountain pass in Mexico,
n the national highway between Vera Cruz and
lie city of Mexico, rendered famous by the vie*
•ry gained by the American forces, under Qeru
' ott, over the Mexicans under Santa Anna,
vT»ril 18, 1847. The ealeada^ or paved portion
f the national road to the city of Mexico, ex-
onds from Vera Cruz N. to the city of Jalapa,
rue 70 m., crossing, halfway, the stone bridge
illed puente nacional, and is carried through
he detile of Cerro Gordo, at an elevation of
/2G4 feet above the sea-level. Fifty miles
lom Vera Cruz a small plain stretches out,
liled the Plan del Rio. From this plain the
(fid gradually ascends a distance of 4 m.
!;ro!i£?h winding defiles, till it reaches the
nrge of the Cerro Gordo (big hill), a ooni-
il hill, which rears its summit 1,000 feet
'vor the adjacent ascents. On the right^ the
•>ad is alternately shut in by cliffs and cha-
-irral, or thick brush, and on the left by
'rt'ri[)itous walls of rock. Gen. Scott de^
• rjl.es the locality as "a field of operations
overi ng many miles, broken by mountains
!i<l deep chasms." It was along this road
at the Americans, flushed with the recent
i[)tiire of Vera Cruz and the castle of San
lan de Ulloa, were pushing onward to attack
.♦-• enemy's capital. Scott was encamped on
''.ie Plan del Rio when word was brought him
fiat the Mexican general, with a force equal to
•r exceeding his own, had fortified the pass of
..rro Gordo, and was determined to dispute
f'lo passage. The whole American force pres-
et in action and reserved was 8,500; the Mex-
in was estimated at 12,000 or more. Gen.
-oft acted without hesitation. Making a
.refill reconnoissance, he found that the en-
ly liftd fortified himself on the ridge at the
\{ of the pass, and on the hiU itself, and had,
r4de, established 2 batteries across the road,
iio nt the throat of the paas, near the base of

the hill, and the other fhrther on the T0i4
toward Jalapa ; bh defences on the heights bo^
ing ft fic?ries of breastworks covering each other^
as well as oommmiding the road ; the glope in
front of his gims broken by ditches and bras&
to obstruct the advance of ^futiricni; tho ex-
treme left of his position covered by the river
flowing at the base of the ridge, his right being
guarded by thick chaparral toward Jalapa, with
which city his commonioation was open. In
general terms, he held a fortified position, ex-
tending in a semicircle of 2 m. on the slope of
a mountain defile, at the base of which lay tho
only road by which the Americans could ad-
vance, and which road was enfiladed by bat-
teries. A tower near the summit of Uie hill,
defended by 8 guns, commanded the whole of
his works, and was, in effect, the key of his po-
sition. Neither the strength nor the weakness
of this disposition escapea the American com-*
mander. In the forenoon of the 17th he or-
dered Gen. Twiggs to occupy a certain ridge
on the right of the road. The American col-
umn, advancing boldly, drove in the outposts
and took possession of the first ridge. The Mex-
icans, being reenforced, took possession of a
second alope within range of the batteries on
Cerro Gordo, and made a stout resistance, but
were speedily dislodged, and driven at the point
of the bayonet completely over the hill, a party
of Americans boldly pursuing them to the edge
of their lines. Daring the night the Ameri-
cans managed, with incredible labor, by tlie
aid of 600 men to each gun, to drag up to
the summit of the hill 1 heavy 24-pounder.
and 2 24-lb. howitzers. The appearance or
this battery on the morning of the 18th greatly
astonished the Mexicans. An 8-inch howitzer
was also placed opposite the enemy's right bat-
tery. These preHminary operations being com-
pleted, Scott, on the evening of the 17th, drew
up the programme of battle. This document is
a model of perspicnity. Its substance is as fol-
lows : The enemy's whole line of intrenchments
and batteries will be attacked in front, and at the
same time turned, early in the day, to-morrow—
probably before 10 o'clock A. M. Twiggs's 2d
division of regulars will move forward before
daylight, and take up position across the na-
tional road to the enemy's rear, so as to cut off
retreat toward Jalapa. Twiggs may, or may not,
be reenforced by 1 or 2 volunteer regiments, as
circumstances shall determine. Worth's 1st di-
vision of regulars will follow the movement
agfunst the enemy's right at sunrise to-morrow
morning. Pillow's brigade will march at 6
o'clock A. M., along the route already reconnoi-
tred, and stand ready, as soon as he hears the
firing on the right (sooner, if circumstances fa-
vor), to pierce the enemy's line of batteries as
near the river as he may select. Once in rear
of the batteries, he will turn to the right or
left, or both, and attack them in reverse ; when
the enemy abandons the batteries he will pur-
sue with vigor, until further orders. Wall's
field battery and^ tho cavalry will be held in

OOEBBO GOBDO

wum I i, ant of Tfew sad rmgi^ until tlie 60-
maj^B Mtteriet are carried, wnen thejr, and
aU the diTisiona and corpi^ win panne the
' vaatH stopped hj the ni^t or by foti-

ied poritiooa toward Jalapa. The wmn body
of the arm J will not return to the field of
hattkL bot win be foUowed nnfnediat4
amboiaiioef^ and to-morrow by the
Briefly: Twign was to attack on the
Pniow on theleft^ the cavaliy in reserre,
Worth to support where neceflMiT. Thedetails
of this genersl programme were left to the dis-
erationofthe respective generals. Gen. Twiggs's
diTinon comristed of 2 brigades of recnlan, the
1st nnder CoL Harney, the 2d nnder GoL Biley,
and 00 the ni^t preceding the batUehe was re-
•oforoed by^ields's brigade, compririnff the
Kew York Tcdonteers, and Blmois 8d and 4th
Mgfanents. Harney's consisted of the Ist artil-
lery, rifle regiment, and 7th influatiT; Riley's
^the 4th artilleiy, and 2d and 8d mfantry —
an of the regolar army. FiUow's brigade con-
sisted exclosiyely of volanteers, viz. : the 1st
and 2d resiments of Tennessee, and 1st and 2d
of Pennsylyanifl, foot Tolonteers, a company of
Kentnoky yolonteers, and a detachment of Ten-
nessee hoTM. Twiggs decided that himself and
Harney should storm the heights of Oeno
Gordo, and that Shields and Riley, flank-
ing the enemy's right, shonld occupy the Ja-
lapa road. Pillow divided his command into
2 parties, under GoL HaskeU supported by
Col. Campbell, and CoL Wynkoop supported
by CoL Roberts, who were simultaneously to
storm the batteries on their left. Every
thing was carried out in accordance wim
the general's orders. At daybreak Shields and
Riley, with their brigades, Capt Lee, of the
engineers, acting as their guide, set out over a
tract almost impassable, to reach the Jalapa
road, and turn the enemy's flank. By the
time they reached the Jalapa road the battle
was raging in front, and a considerable body of
Mexicans, among them Santa Anna himself had
already withdrawn to this point, with tiie view
to secure a retreat. As Shields gained the road,
a masked battery opened fire. He had barely
time to give his men orders to charge and take
it, which they gallantly did, when he fell, shot,
but not mortally, through the lungs. The battle
in front commenced by the Mexicans opening a
plunging fire on the battery established hv the
Americans dnriuff the preceding night luring
became genecal along the line. Twiggs, think-
ing it time t6 attempt the heights, confided to
Homey a detadhment consisting of a portion of
the Ist artillery imder CoL ChUds, 8a in&ntiy
nnder Capt Alexander, 7th infantry under
Lieut. CoL PlympliPD, and rifies under Msior
Loring. Scott hims^ "had the pleasure to
witness their style of execution, which was
brilliant and decisive." Harney pushed Loring
forward with the rifles, along the edge of the
ravine, to engase the enemy in that qnarter,
while he himself advanced to the assault. His
way lay over rough ground, tangled with brush

waAhnAaaalj dbmam, Dmd&B^ Ids meo i:
iwfamns, they advanoed slowly and stetLj. j
they s^jRoached the base of the hiH&i 1
gr^ie swept into their iaoea. Stes/dilT l|
hegm the steep ascent. As they drew :.j
the first breastwork thdr speed mcresscc. j
moment more^ and they had reached it I j
ins down into the trendies, a hand^^-!^
fi^ ensued. The enemy retned to tleu
work, hi^ier on the hOL Once mcr^ u
Amfnricana advanoed with stttdy step—: j
reached the second breaatworic, ad svep . j
it; again an interchange of voD^ sl:\
ahock of steel, and ere the Mexican coIor i
be hauled down, the enagns of the 1st an., j
and 8d and 7th infimtry floated from the • 1
mit. The general, sedng the hazsid of Ut. I
tacking party, sent Lieat. Cd. C. F. S2. 1
light baUaHon of Worth^s division tos:: i
the assault, but ere tiiey could smve the v j
were won— the key of the positioo was g^:
Pillow had, in the mean time, made S as- 1
on Uie batteries on the left^ both times vh: 1
success. The ground over which hisstor -j
party advanced was encumbered with i I
timber, in strug^ing throng which he ^J
exposed to a gaUiuff &e, and lost c^.
men. Soon after the MU was canied, the y
teries sent out a flag of truce, and in an hui' '
two the remains of the Mexican umj >■
rendered at diso^tion. A large bodjc.
enemy, estimated at 7,000 or more, -
Santa Anna, who had reached the nsc -
fore the division sent to intercept theiM '
in flight toward Jalapa, pursued bj ^r
and Twiggs. The programme had been ^'
ried out in all reiq^ects before 2 P. 1^ ^
spoils of the victory were 8,000 prisoners, i
to 6,000 stand of arms, 48 pieces of aru ■
7 standards, together with Santa Adda's P"^-
baggage and money chest. Rve geDerms vu
among the captured, namely, Pinson, Ja^:
La Yega, Noreiga, and Obando; a fiith.^'^
quez, having been killed. The enemy's l*^ -
computed at from 1,000 to 1,200. TheiJs'
can loss in the two days amounted to 33 ^
oers and 898 men, in aU 481, of whom
were killed. Lieuts. Ewell, of the rr-
Nelson, Gill, and Yearwood, of the Teme^
regiment^ were killed. Oapt Mssod, of the r.
reg^ent, subsequently died of his v<^^*
Gen, Patterson, who was tacky left his \i^^
share in the fortunes of the day. ^^\'
deeming it nnadvisable to be encnmbered ^-
baggage and prisoners, accepted the F;:
both of officers and men. and dee^J^ :^
stores, excepting one field train. ^j^It,;
day he advanced to Jalapa.— The Mec^^
themselves bear testimony to the im^f^
of this victory. Mutual recriminalioDMPg
up between Santa Anna and his geoe^
In a defence of the Mexicsn genf^l
published by Manuel K Jimen. m ^J^.
cial journal, M DiaruK the defeat itf^^^
Gordo is attributed to *^inevitahle niisfortr-
tiie result of the taotioa of the invader, la^

CERRO G0R1>0

CERVANTES SAAYEDHA 661

onr rMeiican) portion was well chosen, it wna
fortitied aa well as ctrctiinstflncea permitted; ita
flanks Wi>ra wcU covered, and all ^ as foreseen that
could be foreseen J in Tegular order, and in the
nsnal tactics of war. Trne it is, that no expec-
tation was entertained of the rare, bold, and
(ksperate operations of the enemy, who, in the
night between the 17th and 18th, broke tlirough
tlie woods, crossed a ravine, np to that time
never crossed, and taking in reverse the position
which the main body of onr army occnpied.
siir[irised it in the time of action, made a general
attack on all parts at once, and cut off the re-
treat of the infantry, artillery, and even part of
the cavalry." The writer then asserts that
Santa Anna did cover the rear of the position,
*' notwithstanding the old opinion, confirmed
by the experience of the whole war from 1810
to 1821, that the road by which the enemy
tl inked us was impracticable." That movement
}ie likens to the passage of Bonaparte over the
Al[>9. The affair of Oerro Gordo made a great
sensation throughout Mexico. Five months
fitter ward the American flag floated over the
Mexican capital.

CEPwRO GORDO, a N. co. of Iowa, formed
since 1850, of a wild and thinly settled part of
the state, named after the above-described
battle ; area, 662 sq. m. ; pop. in 1856, 632. It
> drained by Lime creek and its tributaries.
i'he productions in 1856 were 1,025 tons of
hny, 986 bushels of wheat, 1,135 of oats, 11,795
of Indian com, 8,846 of potatoes, and 6,539 lbs.
of butter.

CERTIORARI (Lat certvs ftri, to be made
more certain, to be certified), a writ used
Kir the purpose of removing the record in
fi particular case, whether civil or criminal,
rVom an inferior to a superior tribunal, either
'IS an auxiliary process to obtain a full return
to some other process, or as a distinct mode
•f appeal. In American practice it is usu-
'illy employed to review tlie proceedings of
r» )tirts not of record, and of municipal cor-
porations in certain cases, and the determi-
n.itions of special tribunals, commissioners,
•tTid other officers exercising judicial pow-
. rs which affect the citizen in his rights or
nis property, and acting in a summary way,
>r in a course different from that of the
1 r.mmon law.

CERUSE (Lat eerussa)^ a name given to the
'.vliite carbonate of lead, the basis of the whit6
c-nd paint. (See Lead.)

CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Mioitkl db, the

4Tithor of "Don Quixote," born at Alcala do

' I onares, Spain, Oct. 1547, died April 23, 161 6, on

}io same day with Shakespeare. His father

[ : o<lrigo was descended from an ancient Galician

.tinily, and his mother, Leonora de Cortinas,

.vas a gentlewoman of refinement. Cervantes

♦ ceived the first rudiments of education from

.< »po de Hoyos, who occasionally published

< elections of poetry, to which his pupil, who

•trly displayed a talent for poetic^ compo-

itiun^ contributed FilenOy a pastoral poem,

and other composltionsp Fitrna obtained
pome repntation, and nttracted the nttontioii
of Cardinal Acquaviva, who, in 1569, invited
tho young poet Uj accompany Lim to Rome,
But the etotely monotony of ecclesiastical
life was little calculated to please the ardent
nature of Cervantes, and yearning for more
stirring spheres of action, he joined m 1671 the
Christian armament, commanded by Don John
of Austria, against the Turks. In the great bat-
tle of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1671), he received a
wound, which deprived him of the nse of his
left hand and arm for the rest of his life ; but
his enthusiasm rose above all physical suffer-
ings, and ho remained in active service nntil
1576, when, on his way from Italy to Spain,
the galley in which he sailed was captured by
Algerine corsairs. He was in their power un-
til 1580, when his relatives and friends pur-
chased his freedom. The whole romantic ac-
count of his captivity is found in his novc^
"The Captive." He was treated with great
cruelty by the Moors, but his cheerfulness and
philosophy seemed to increase in proportion to
the severity of his trials, and excited the admi-
ration of his fellow-prisoners. He returned to
Madrid in his 84th year, covered with a pres-
tige of glory, ronmnce, and adventure, and here
his literary career properly begins. The first
work which he now produced was the pastoral
romance Oalatea, said to have been written in
honor of his mistress, which showed a decided
progress upon his Filena^ and by its command
of language and richness of thought, at least,
raised the expectations of his friends. In 1684
he married an accomplished young lady of
Esquivias, and now had more than ever to re-
sort to his pen to supply the wants of his fam-
ily, and for 3 years he wrote plays for the stage;
which, however, brought him Uttle fame and
still less money. In 1688 he removed from
Madrid to Seville, where he acted as an agent
of a royal commissioner of the American fleet,
and afterward as a collector of public and pri-
vate debts. During the latter part of 1697, he
was imprisoned for about 8 months at Seville,
for a small sum due to the government. From
1698, when he seems to have left Seville, until
the beginning of 1603, when we find him estab-
lished at Valladolid, we lose all trace of him.
He is said to have spent the interval in La
Mancha, and to have been sent there to collect
rents due to a monastery; but the debtors,
instead of making payment, persecuted him
and tlirew him into prison. Here he is said to
have begun to write his "Don Quixote," laying
the scene of the knight's earlier adventures m
La Mancha, and making him a native of the
village that treated him so ill But no direct
proof exists in support of this statement, al-
though it is certain that he spent some time in
La ^umsha. — We now come to the great liter-
ary performance of Cervantes. It must here
be borne in mind that the death of Philip II.
took place in 1698, and the relief which the
end of his despotic role brought to Spain vas

662

GERYANTES SAAVSDBA

Jolt also in the world of letters. Ceryabtes
eoald now give free yent to his opinions:
and tlie general tenor of his life, as well
BB the inflnenoes of the age, enabled him to
perform the task with remarkable sncceas.
fiia ooenpation at Seville and La Hanoha had
given him new opportunities of observation.
m his yoath at Rome, he had observed
jn Cardinal Acqoaviva's house the charaoter
of high lue, and there, and subsequently in
Spain, he was constantly brought in contact
with perscms eminent in church, state, and li^
erature. With the camp and Moorish life he
was thoroughly fiuniliar, from his service in the
navy and his captivity in Alsiers. The mys*
teries cf the stage, the cnaznoteristios of
actors, were known to hun from his career as
dramatist. His frequent journeys had brought
him into close contact with persons of all
elaases. With such a world of experience,
with an inexhaustible stock of humor in his
ffisposition, and with a love of the ideal and
the heroic in his heart, this laughing philos-
cpher, acute observer, and at the same time
classio and polished writer, produced, in the fuU
maturity of his genius, after having passed
the 50th year of his age, his imperishable '* Don
Quixote.'* The first part was published at liCad-
rid in 1605. In this work Cervantes hit the
Vulnerable point of his age. The common sense
of the world had long rebelled against the mum-
meries of knight-errantry, and the fooliah books
Ihat still spoke of a chivalry of which, in reality,
not a vestige remained. People who had smiled
when the absurdity presented itself to their
minds, burst out in laughter when Cervantes
gave it the finishing stroke. The laughter became
universal, and it is still goinff on, constituting a
perennial source of pleasure, blended with a ten-
der Bjrmpathy for Don Quixote, whose sublime
intentions we are bound to admire, while his
ridiculous actions are a perpetual entertain-
ment Grave moralists may object to the gen-
eral hilarity, and argue that to ridicule perform*
ances whidi, after all, resulted from an exalted
sentiment of heroism, self-sacrifice, and unself-
ishness, is ridiculing goodness itself. But
philosophers might as well attempt to stop
the fall of the watcfrs of Niagara, upon the
ground of the impropriety in the noise of the
cataract Mankind began to be tired of the
hypocrisy, sentimentality, aensualit^, and folly
of the hooka of chivalry. A new world had
been discovered by Columbus. A new inter*
pretation of Christianity had been set forth by
Luther. Dante, Petrarch, Ariosto, and Tasso
had published their immortal poems. The
reign of Elizabeth had given an impetus to
Eneiiah progress. The advent of Shakespeare
had taken place. Philip 11., the enemy of the
new, and the champion of the old aystems,
had Just ffone to his grave. Even old Spain
yearned for some fiie-spoken word which
would end the weary spectacle of an effete lit*
erature. Cervantes uttered that word. Its
name was Don Quixote. One day Philip m.

obaeiVed fr6m his baleony a atadent on the ^
ponte banks of the Manzanazea conwlaed ?ii
laughter over a book. " He must ^tber ]
cranr*^ aaid the king, "cff he must hema
the mstory of Don Quixote." This b&ppea^
in 1600, aft»r the court had lemoTed I'j
Yalladolid to the oapitaL Cervantes v:^1
the first part of tiiie book probablj a
ing his residence at YalladoBd, where, after J
return from Seville and La Mancba, be had uktj
np his residence, aa he alleged, for purpose^ i
business. Although he received frequent vbi
from persona connected with tbs eoort a
with the literary world, he was liTing Tii
his W]£a, his 2 sisters, his niece, and a si::!
female domestic, on tne 4th floor of a id^j
looking house, and his pecuniary emkrr.n
menta were great. After his arrival at il^
rid, whfle the puUication of the first part dli
<<Don Quixote,'* and its unpreoedeDtedscfcej
(80,000 oofte heang sold on its first ^r^^
anoe, and translations soon appearing in ak^
an foreign languages), drew upon liimthes:^^
themas and the active hoatlBties of tboseThor^
sented the satire of his novel, he qoietlr u- >
pied himself with the publication of bis 3
eloM Btemplaret^ most of which had i^.^
written many years before, and of wtit i
had already given a specimen in the stor^ 1
the ^^ Curious Impertinent^'' introduced in 1 1
Quixote. In 1614 he published the Tmy '
JPamoM, a satirical work, which gives a r
ture of the state of Spanish litenktnre i;: i
time, in which he describes himself, hot w::
out bitterness, as the oldest and poorest, : i
naked Adam of Spanbh poets. I)tmiigt.i
same year, while ne was prepsriog fcr -!
press the 2d part of "Don Quixote," acoctic:
tion of the same story was attempted bj |
bungling pkgiarist of Tarragona, who assmci
the name of AveUanada. This work contsi: i
Invectives agidnst Cervantes, and was proba- J
published at tlie instigation of his eneici
The 2d part of "Don Quixote" made itsapw-
ance in the beginningof 1615, with adedlcsr
to the conde de Lemos. expresave of gratr:
for kindnesses extended to him by the coop- '
at the same time fnU of self-reapect and dig: r
It was received with the same universal de?.
strations of enthusiasm which had greetei^ -
Istpart. Cervantes had at last gained theo.'f
of his ambition. He had the sdmirstionof ^
pope, while even in Spain, as Lope de Veg*'|-'
dead, there was no one to divide vith bun ^
literary empire. The sale of the «DonQoii<^ ^
also relieved his pecuniary wants tosgritft*^:
tent. But his health beean to ftil, and ^eiu.

a presentiment of the dose of his eartiuj^
peer, indicated in the prefiuw of his j^
Hla y SiffimMinda, a aeriona romaooe iDf^'
led after the "Theagenes and Obaridei ^;
Heliodoms, which he prepared for the pi^^;
at the beginnmg of 1616. tiieogfa rij^^'l
pubHshed until after his death in 16l7J>r f r
widow. On April 19, he dictated to hw »
the following wonla addreawd to his ft^-

CERVANTES 8AA^^EDRA

OlSABOTTI

Lemoa, to whom he deHl^ted tho work, and
which Bhaw thnt to tlie liiet the qualities of
tlio Boldier, p<,>et, and philrisopher were a<i-
mirabJj combined in his gciierous iitid genial
nature : ** I have 1117 feet alreadv in the stirrnp,
I may use this expression since I feel that with
one foot I stand in the grave. Yesterday I re-
ceived extreme unction ; to-day I resume my
pen. The time is short, my sufferings grow
more and more painful; my hopes grow fainter
xind fainter ; yet I should be happy to see you
before I die." Four days afterward he died. —
Like Camoens and Tasso, Cervantes was of un-
usually fair complexion; his eyes were bright
blue ; his hair auburn. His countenance,
Laudsome in youth, was spirited throughout his
life. His manners were cheerful. He was beloved
and respected in every relation of life. He pos-
sessed himself the magnanimous disposition
which he ascribes to his Don Quixote; but
while in the knight the sentiment degenerates
into foUy, it bloomed in the heart of Cervan-
tes into a genial, witty, humorous philosophy
of life, which made hira forbearing toward his
enemieij and amiable to his friends. Of his i\ro-
rcUts BxemplareSy La Gitanilla is the most in-
teresting. Of his dramatic compositions, his
tragedy La Numancia^ founded on the siege
of that city, contains eloquent passages, but is
written without any regard to the Aristotelian
unities. His comedy El Trato de Argel gives a
picture of Algerine life and manners, and is not
destitute of interest. As for his miscellaneous
literary productions, it is needless to say that,
whatever their merit, they are almost forgotten
in the triumph achieved by "Don Quixote." Yet
til is great man was buried without any kind of
distinctio n in the convent of the nuns of Trinity,
Calle del Humilladero. A common tombstone
marks the spot to which his ashes were removed
at a subsequent period; nor was any monu-
ment raised to his memory until 1885, when a
bronze statue of him, larger than life, cast at
Pwomo by Sola of Barcelona, was placed in the
Plaza del Estaraento at Madrid; and a small
bust was placed in 1834, by one of the admirers
of his genius, over the door of the house in the
Calle de los Francos where he died. The most
splendid editions of Don Quixote are those
which appeared in 1780 at Madrid, in 4 vols.,
and at Paris in 1827, (Didot, 18mo.) One of
the best is the Madrid academy's 4th edition,
published in 5 vols, in 1819, with a bio-
graphical sketch of Cervantes by Navarrete.
Other Spanish biographers are Mayons y Ciscar
and Pellicer. The edition of 1833-^89, in 6 vols.,
has a ^QTy complete commentary by Diego Cle-
mencin. The pocket edition of Leipsic, 6 vols.,
lB0G-'7, also deserves notice. His complete
works, excepting his comedies, appeared at
Madrid in 16 vols., 1803-'5, and also another
edition in 1811, which, however, does not in-
clude his Viage al Panuuo, Arrieta, of Paris,
published in i 826-^32 a selection of his works,
in 10 vols. Baudry's edition, published at Paris
in 1840-^41, gives his complcto works. Bos-

coo's *^Lifo wid Writings of Corvont^** ap-
peared in London in 18S9. The most emi-
nent German translators of ^'Don Qnixoto"
are Tieck, Bertnchj and Sultan. The best Eng-
lish version is that of Motteuz, with notes and
additions by Lockhart.

CERVETRI (the Agylla of the Pelasgi,
and the CcBve of the Etruscans), a village of
Italy, in the Pontifical States, Comarca di Roma.
OflDre was one of the 12 great cities of the
Etrurian confederation, and is celebrated by
Virgil as the capital of Mezentius. Some re-
mains of its walls and tombs are still seen in the
neighborhood of Cervetri, which occupies the
site of the acropolis of the ancient city. It
has a deserted palace of the Buspoli family, on
whose eldest son it confers the title of prince oi
Cervetri. The most remarkable of the tombs
recently discovered is that of the Tarquins, found
in 1846, containmg 2 chambers, one of which is
called by the peasantry the Orotta delle I^cri"
zioni^ from the number of its inscriptions.

CERVIA, a town on the Adriatic, in the
Pontifical States, legation of Forli ; pop. about
4,000. It is situated in the vicinity of marshes
which contain the most important salt works
in the country.

CERVIN, Mont (It. MonU Silvio; Ger.
3fatter?iom)y a mountain of the Pennine Alps,
between the Valais in Switzerland and the
Val d'Aosta in Piedmont, celebrated for its
matchless picturesqueness and beauty; eleva-
tion about 15,000 feet At a height of about
11,000 feet is the famous pass of Mont Cervin
(Fr. SL TheoduU ; Ger. matterjoch)^ traversed
in summer by mules and horses. Prof. Forbes
describes Mont Cervin as the most striking ob-
ject he had seen, ^^an inaccessible obelisk of
rock, not 1,000 feet lower than Mont Blanc."

CESARE, Giuseppe, cavaliere di, an Italian
historian, bom in 1783, in Naples, died there
April 15, 1856. He was at the head of the
custom-house of his native city until 1827, when
he was dismissed for politicaJ reasons. When
the constitutional party came into power in
1848, he was appointed governor of the prov-
ince of Bari, but tendered his resignation as
soon as absolutism was again triumphant. He
subsequently devoted himself to hterary labors,
and wrote Arrigo di Ahhate and Lettere
Bomaney historical novels. But his most im-
portant production is his Storia di Manfredi^
re di Sicilia e di Puglia^ which appeared in
1837, and obtained a wide popularity, not only
on account of its literary merits, but also in
consequence of the efforts of the author to clear
Manfred's memory from the imputations of
pre\Hous writers. For several years he edited
a periodical entitled It Progreao; and in Man-
cini's DiblioUca di tcieme morale^ legislative^
ed economiche, he published an able paper on
the philosophy of history. He is also ihe author
of a history of the Lombard league.

CESAROTTI, Melchiork, an Italian poet,
bom in Padua, May 15, 1780, died Nov. 1808.
He officiated as professor in the university of

664

OSSENA

Padua, and gained a high literaiy reputation h j
his translation of ^^Ossian" into Italian blank
vene (last edition, Milan, 1826). He also pxx>-
daoed a free yersion of the Qiad (1796), a
transition of Platarch (1763), a great Dum-
ber of academical essays, poems, letters, included
in his Opere $oelte (Milan, 1820), and a remark-
able philological work, Soffgio iuUa^Uasqfia delle
lingue. A complete edition of his -works ap-
peared in Pisa in 1809, in 42 vols. 8yo.

OESEKA, a city in the Papal States, in the
legation of Forli, on the ^muian way, and the
right bank of the river Savio; pop. about
14^000. It has a cathedral, a large town hall,
a fountain, and a colossal statue of Pope Pius
VII., who was born in this town. There is
also the Oapuchin church, oontaiuing a fine
painting by Guercino, a library founded by the
duke Malatesta in 1452, rich in MSS., and
at a short distance the Benedictine monastery,
long the residence of Pins YII.

OESPEDES, Pablo dx, a Spanish artist and
author, bom in Cordova in 1588, died there in
1608. He carefully studied the works of Michel
Angelo and the great Italian colorists, and during
the pontificate of Gregory XIII. acquired dis-
tinction as a painter. About the year 1577 he
returned to Oordova, where he passed the re-
nuunder of his life. He held a prebend in the
cathedral, but spent his vacations at Seville,
where he established a museum of ancient art.
Oespedes was one of the best colorists in Spain,
and a successful imitator of Oorreggio. He
was an accomplished scholar in ancient and
modern languages, and left a poem on painting
and some essays on art. He had a considerable
reputation also as a sculptor and architect

CESSION, an Englisn law term importing
the avoidance of a benefice or preferment by
the acceptance of a second which may not be
held with the first The incumbent^ however,
may be relieved by dispensation from the oper-
ation of the rule. — ^In politics, cession is the
yielding up of territory to another power.
The knights of Malta ceded their island to the
French when Bonaparte requested them to do
BO. French colonies have been ceded to the
English at various times.

CESTUS (Gr. icc<rroff, sUtched), a band or tie
of any kind, particularly applied to the em-
broidered zone or girdle of Venus, famed for
its power of awakening love. By this, accord-
ing to Homer, Yenus captivated Mars, and Juno
borrowed it in order to win the affections of
Jupiter. The bridal girdle, which was worn
by the bride, and unloosed by the husband after
the marriage ceremony, was termed a oestus.

OETTE, a fortified French seaport town, and
capital of a commune of the same name, in the
department of H^ault, built on the slope and
at the foot of a hill (anc. Mons Setius)^ on a
tongue of land between the lake of Thau and
the Mediterranean, which are united by a canal
that traverses the town and terminates in the
harbor; pop. 19,124. Next to Marseilles, Cette
10 the most unportant port in southern France.

This is in a great metture owii^; to its being c

outlet in the centre of the Bontbem wine ^i-
tricts^d to the canal du Midi which oonntetfr it
with Bordeanz, and the canals de$ EUmgt and it
Beaueaire and the Bh6iie, which connect itirii:
Lyons. The great northern railway connec:!
Gette with Bordeaux and Toulouse, and ti
Lyons-Mediterranean railway with Montpd'
lier, NimeSy and Tarasoon. There are steim-
ers to Algiers, Marseilles, Cannes, and Nice.
The town owes its rise to the mole, wLici
was commenced in 1666, and whidi shelt&'s
the harbor on the S. At its end on Wc
left of the entrance to the harbor is Rr.
St. Louis, which is surmounted by a li^i-
house. A breakwater has been constracted in
front of the harbor, to prevent the aocQiDuktic:
of mud, and the other side of the harbor is fcffm^
by a pier, on the extremity of which rises Fon
St Pierre, completing, with a citadel on tLe
opposite cliff, the defences of the port A m
dock has recently been added to the harbor.
which can hold 400 vessels. Cette ovds 1^
vessels and 12 steamers. The number of ve^^^
engaged in the foreign trade, which entered sal
left Cette in 1853, was 1,544, tonnage 168,#:
and the coasting trade engaged 2,325 Tessci%
tonnage 216,203. There is an extensiTB va^-
ufacture of so-caUed Madeira wines, pnr
duoed by the mixture of Frendi and Spui^
wine and brandy. The total annual exports of
wine comprise about 40,000 oask^ and of bnc-
dy, 6,000. The salt-works in the neighborW
are the most important in the conutiy, i&>i
yield annually above 500,000 cwt of puiesiL
The fisheries of sardines ("which are salted bert.
of cod, and oysters, employ about 400 regsck
There are also glaas-workfi, 4 exteosiTe sliip-
building yards, and an estabUshment for the pro-
duction of sulphates of soda, magnesia, and pot-
ash by evaporation from sea-water. Casks, oorki
soap, sirups, grape sugar, and perfumes are ws^^
there. The town possesses a tribunal of coo-
merce, various courts of justice, an imperial Ij-
drographio school, a communal college, a public
library, a theatre, and is a favorite resort for^j
bathing. It was laid out in 1666 after Colberts
designs, at a great cost, and the works of thebir-
bor were executed by M. Biquet, the engineer of
theeamdduMidi. In 1710 a small British force
from the fleet of Commodore Norris^ defiigniD?^t,o
effect a junction with the insurgents of ibe tt-
vennea, took possession of Cette, but wasdriTec
back after a few days. The duke of Angoulf «*
embarked here for Barcelona, April 16, ISlo.

CETTI, GiovAJiHi, an Italian who contnbate«i
much to spread the knowledge of Buflsiw bt«^
ature in Italy, by translating Karamsin^ ecii>-
gium of Catharine n. (Bologna, 1814), and (^
writings of the same author, into Italian. ^
was a native of Lugano, where he became^
onel in the army, and q)ent the latter pjrto
his life in Bologna, where he died in 18^> ,

CETTIGNE, or Z«ttin«, also Zsrastt^
LsniNiiE, the capital of Monteni
pean Turkey, in the district or

Euro-

GETUB

CEVENNEB

ska, about 6 honn* jonmej from the Anstrian
Beaport Cattaro, is a mountain Tillage, with
about 20 well-bailt houses. It is, however,
the only fortified locality in the oountry, has a
coiiTent which resembles a castle, a school since
1841, and on a plain below the village is a new
(government house, where the public affairs of
MonteDegro are conducted, and where the prince
or vladika resides. Gunpowder is manufactured
here, and some trade is carried on with Dalmatia.

CETUS, the whale, a large constellation of
the 8. hemisphere containing 97 stars, and said
to represent the monster which was going to
devour Andromeda. Its brightest star, named
Menkar, comes on the meridhm at 8 o^clock
in the beginning of January.

CEUTA, or Sebta, the Botany Bay of Spain,
a town and fortress, forming part of the prov-
ince of Cadiz, situated on the N. coast of Fez,
in the empire of Morocco, at the E. entrance
of the strait of Gibraltar, where a small penin-
sola juts out in a N. N. £. direction exactly
opposite Gibraltar, being joined to the mainland
of Africa by a narrow but well fortified isthmus,
on which the town is built. The N. E. of the
town is almost entirely occupied by the Monte
del Hacho (the anc. Abyla\ which is a spur of
the range of mountains called Jebel Zatout (anc.
ttkptem Fratres), On the highest part of the
mountain stands the citadel of Geuta. The gar-
rison consists of 6,000 men, and the population,
which has singularly diminished during the last
50 years, was not above 2, 122 in 1852. The town
ifi well built, gives title to a bishop, who is suf-
fragan of the archbishop of Seville, and is the
seat of a royal court of justice, and the chief
of the Spanish presidios or convict establish-
ments on the African coast. The others,
coin prising in all an area of 82 sq. m., and a
convict population of about 11,000, are under
the charge of the governor of Ceuta. The
town is clean and paved in a mosaic pat-
t^^rn, has a cathedral, several convents, and a
house of mercy founded in 1498, but little trade.
the unsafe harbor militating against commercial
activity. — Ceuta was a town of Mauritania
Tingitana, under the Romans. In 1416 John I.,
king of Portugal, wrested it from the Moors,
who in their invasions of Spain first set out
fr»)Tn Ceuta. In 1680 it passed with Portugal
to Pliilip II. of Spain by conquest, and was for-
iiially ceded by Portugal to Spain by the treaty
of Lisbon of 1668. Afterward it was unsuc-
cessfully besieged by troops from Morocco. At
the beginning of tliis century it was held for a
fehort time by the English.

CEVA (anc. Oeha\ a Piedmontese town, at
the confluence of the Cevetta with the Tanaro,
in the province and 10 m. E. of Mondovi ; pop.
about 4,600. It has a church and 8 convents,
and the chief feature of the town is a rock on
which are the remains of a citadel formerly
used as a state prison. The inhabitants are
employed chiefly in cultivating the vino,
in manufacturing silk, and in iron works.
The celebrated Piedmontese cheese, called

Bobiole^ is made here, and was renowned even
nnder the Romans, and praised by Pliny. Coals
are found in the neighborhood, and truffles
abound. It was formerly the capital of the mar-
quisate of Ceva, and was several times besieged
and conquered bv the French and Spaniards.
It was taken by tlie Piedmontese in 1796, and
successfully resisted an attack of the French
in 1799. Ita principal fortifications were de-
stroyed in 1800, and have not been rebuilt.

CEVA, ToMMAso, an Italian mathematician
and poet, born Dec. 20, 1648, in Milan, died Feb.
8, 1736. He was admitted mto the order of
Jesuits in 1663, and spent his life as an mstruct-
or in various colleges. His more important
mathematical works had reference to angles, for
the trisection of which he invented a mechanical
instrument. He wrote several biographies in
Italian, and many poems in Latin and Italian, 2
of which, entitled Fhilosc^hianova-antiqua and
Puer JestiA, are still admired.

CEVALL08, Pedro, a Spanish diploma-
tist, born in 1764 at Snntander, died about 1838
at Bayonne. In the diflSculties between Charles
IV. and Ferdinand he joined the latter, and ac-
companied him to Bayonne, where he was eye-
witness of the various intrigues which ended in
the occupation of Spain by the French. Joseph
invited him to Madrid ; he accepted the invita-
tion, but soon declared against the French, and
went to London to forward the interests of the
junta. In 1808 he published a celebrated pa-
per on Spanish affairs, especially on the pro-
ceedings in Bayonne, which contributed power-
fully to excite the public mind against Napo-
leon's aggressive policy. He took an active part
in the civil service of the liberal cause during
the war of independence, and, on the restoration
of Ferdinand, officiated for a while as his secre-
tary of state ; but losing this oftice by opposing
Ferdinand's marriage to a Portuguese princess,
he was sent as ambassador to Naples, and af-
terward to Vienna, and in 1820 was entirely dis-
carded by the government and obliged to retire
into private life.

CeVENNES, a mountain range of Prance, be-
ginning at the canal of Languedoc, running N.
£. to near the central canal, and separating the
basins of the Garonne and the Loire from those
of the Sa6ne and the Rh6ne. It extends over
nearly 400 m., and is divided into the S. and N.
C^vennes. The former, which contain extinct
volcanoes, assume successively the names of
Black, Espinouze. Garrigues, and Loz^re moun-
tains, and form the group of G^vaudan, several
branches of which diverge in various directions;
the most important, running N., connects with
the cluster of mountains of volcanic origin
known as the mountains of Auvergne. The
highest points of the Cevennes are Mount Mezin,
5,918 feet, and Mount Lozere, 4,870 feet. The
N. are of less importance, and are scarcely more
than hills, under the names of Vivarais, Lyon-
nais, Forez, and Charolais mountains. They
connect with the Vosges, tlirough the hills of
C6te d'Or, the plateau of Langres, and the Faa-

006

CfEYLOK

fOks moontaina. Beveral riTon ri«e in this
ehaio, the most important of which flow N.
W. or W. to the Atlantio ocean, Boch as the
Loire, the Ailier, the Lot, &o. The H^ranlt
and the Gard, which ran in an opposite direo*
tion and empty into the Bh6ne, are bat abort
streams. — C^vennea was aUo formerly the name
c( a French province, which formed the N. £.
part of Langaedoo, and was divided into G6vaa<
dan, Yelay, Yivarais, and O^vennes proper, the
resMctive chief towns of which were Mende.
Le Pny, Yiyiers, and Alais. It is now indnded
in the departments of Haate-Loire^ Lozdre, Ar-
d^eiAveyron, and Gard.

OETLON, an island in the Lidian* ocean, be*
tween 50 and 60 m. from the 8. extremity of
the province of Ooromandel, the soatheinmost
provmce of Hindostan. It is separated from
the mainland by the golf of Manaar. Its lim-
its extend between kt S"" 54' and 9"" 60' N.,
and long. YO^ 50' and 62'' 10' E. It is ovaL
nearly pear-shaped, extending ii^ length K and
8.; is 270 m. long; greatest breadth, 145 m.;
average breadth about 100 m. ; area, 24,664 sq. m.
Pop. 1,628,000. It has on the N. the golf of Ha-
naar and Palk's strait ; on the 6. and 6. W., the
Indian ocean ; and on the £. the bay of BengaL
On the N. W. its shores are low and sandy, and a
■accession of bold nxdcs, stretching across the
golf of Manaar, together with the holy island of
Bamiaseram, nearly connect it with the mainland.
From its position and geological character, Gey*
Ion indeed appears to have been once part of
the mainland. The straits which now divide
the two are navigable only for small vessels.
The one nearest tne Malabar coast has been
widened and deepened by the Bntish govern-
ment, and is now passed by vessels of 800 tons,
thos mach £Eu;ilitating the coasting trade, and
materially shortening the voyages between the
Makbar and Goromandel coasts. The W. and
8. coasts are low, much indented, and lined
with cocoanat and other palms. Nomerons
small harbors are found along this shore. The
E. coast, from Point de Galle to Trinoomalee,
is an arid but bold and precipitous shore. On
these sides the line or coast is of varying
depth, from 80 to 80 m., surrounding the
mountain ranges which form the centre of the
island. The northern shore, from Oalpentyn
to Batticaloa, is a vast arid and sandy plain,
teeming with swamps and jungle. It is on this
coast &Bt the pearl oyster banks are found;
and on occasions when the fisheries are opened,
vast but temporary towns are suddenly form-
ed, and as suddenly abandoned, in parts of
this great coast plain, by fishers for and
speculators in pearls. The island possesses
2 excellent harbors, Trinoomalee on the N.
E., and Point de Galle on the 8. coast.
Colombo, the capital, has but an open road-
stead; but on account of its superior duali-
ties, it monopolizes the shipping business
of the island. There are sevenl smaller
harbors, suitable for coasting vessels. The
loads of Colombo afford safe but stonny an-

oh(mig«i; but ai pait&OQlar anMcma (espedalhr
June and Octobco'), oommuBicalaoa with iik
shore is difficult and bazardona. Otiier bar-
bors are Batticaloa, Katura, and Caltara on the
8. and K, and Negombo, (Siilaro^ Oalpentnu
Manaar, and Point Pedro on the W. ooasL
There are numerona small laleta along the
coasts, and 2 considerahle peninanlaa^ Jafiaa*
patam on the N., and Calpen^m on the
W.— The mountain ranges of Ceylon rise iz
the centre of the 8. or broader part of tb£
island. The general direction oc the ehki
range is from K to 8*; but minor ranges t^^
off In various direoticHia. The avenge elec-
tion is about 2,000 feet; but aeveral peaks <7
summits rise to a much greater hoght. Pedro-
^agaUa, an abruptly rising peak, is the blu-
est on the island, being 8,280 feet high; Em-
gal PotU is 7,810 ; Totapdla, 7,720 ; and Ads&^s
peak, over 6,500 feet high. The gretur
part of the fertile and highly cultivated hiOadc
country ranges between 2,000 and 4,000 to
high. The plain oi Newera £llia, the ssiuu-
rium of the island, is at an eleTation of €i^lO
feet Candy, the c^iital of the oentral prv^r-
ince, and former capital of the lon^ indept^-
dent kingdom, u 1,078 feet above the sea level
Adam's peak, before mentioned, though not t^c
highest, 18 the most prominent and lemarlL&lk
summit on the island. It is much reaorted u-
by Mohammedan and Buddhist pilgrima, htlz^
one of their holy placea They have a tradicira
firmly believed, among others, that Adam, oa
leaving Paradise, rested with one foot on this sz^^
mit, and with the other upon the ialand of hi-
misseram, using the bowlders which obetmct t>:

passaoe as stepping stones oa his v^y
from the island to the mainland. Atap<untDe:r
the summit of tiie peak, voij difficolt of accc^
and attained by a aeries of stone ateps, tL«.r«.
is a rock, on which is the rude imprint o; t
vast human foot, 6} feet by 2^ in breadth.
This impress is carefully guarded hy attendsLt
priests, and protected from the weather. So*
menella is the Cingalese name of this peaL
It is in kL 7'' N., and k>ng. 80'' 40' £., and 46
m. £. 8. E. of Colombo. — The island has njaDe>
ous small rivers andbroc^ but no considenlle
streams. Pew are navigable for more than a
few miles from their mouth& The diief is the
Hahavilly Gnnga, which ia 200 m. long. The
next, the Kalani Gnnga, has its aonrce at tLf
foot of Adam's peak, and falls into the aea ikt$:
Colombo. There are no lakes of importance ia
the interior, but several extenave lagoons ca
the £. coast. 8ome of these are oonneoted b^
canals and natural streams, and are need f^:
purposes of commerce. Artintiallake8|thex«&s
of native undertaking of former days, are
found. One is still m good conditioai, and
serves to irrigate a larse district between Can-
dy and Trinoomalee. It is 20 m. in oiicomi^
ence, and its waters are imprisoned in the val-
ley which contains them by a vaat embank-
ment 60 feet wide at top. Another, nov h
mins^ appears to have been kept ia boondsLy

CETLON

ft wall of masonrj 13 m. long ttid 160 feet
thick. These ooUectioiiB of water were formed
by damming the natoral outlets of the moun-
tain streams at the mouths of extensive vallejs.
Thej were of great service to the country when
more densely populated and thoroughly cul-
tivated than now« — ^A belt of gray and black
sandstone and coral formations nearly encom-
passes the island. The rocks of the interior
are mostly primitive, consisting of granite,
gneiss, large veins of quartz, &c Limestone
occurs only in Jafihapatam and the north-
ern districts. The surface soil is mostly sandy.
The cinnamon soil near Colombo is perfectly
white, and consists of pure quartz. Ores of
iron, lead, tin, and manganese are found in the
interior. Plumbago is found of excellent qual-
ity, and is a considerable article of export.
Quicksilver mines exist, and were formerly
worked by the Dutch. Various gems are
found, and salt beds are worked to i^vantage.
The most valuable gems are the ruby, sap-
phire, amethyst, cat's-eye, and carbuncle. Cin-
namon stones and garnets exist in great plenty.
The plumbago mines, of which there are 14, are
worked by natives. The mineral is obtained at
depths of from 8 to 80 feet, and in rich seams.
In 1851 the exports of plumbago amounted to
81,136 cwt., valued at $28,000. Iron ore is
worked np by the Cingalese in a rude way,
but with oonsiderable success, the iron being
equal in temper to the best Swedish. Salt is a
monopoly of the government — ^The climate of
Ceylon differs little from that of the neighbor-
ing part of India. The island is, however,
much healthier than any portion of southern
India. The N. E. and S. W. monsoons mark
the changes of the seasons. The changes, which
occur on the sea-coasts in May or June and Octo-
ber or November, bring with them heavy thunder
storms. The highest temperature at Colombo
is about 87^ ; on the coffee estates it is stated
at between 56° and 80° ; and in the high valley
of Newera Ellia, during January and February,
the mercury falls as low as 81^. The prevail-
ing diseases of the country are cholera, dysen-
tery, and fevers. Elephantiasis is a disease
peculiar to the natives. The beri-beri {hydrops
asthmaticus) \a another disease nearly peculiar
to the island- — ^The zoology of Ceylon is much
the same as that of the adjoining mainland.
The elephant, which stands at the head of the
animal list, is of a less tractable or useful spe-
cies than those of India and Africa. They
exist in great numbers in the interior, and com-
mit nufnerous ravages upon the native fields.
They are frequently trapped in vast kraals, into
which they are driven by a great assemblage of
natives. Of late years, English huntsmen have
killed great numbers of them for sport and for
tlieir tusks. Oxen of small size and buffaloes
are used as draught animals. There are 4
species of deer, and a species of the Indian
nmsk, a great variety of monkeys, as well as
the hare, squirrel, porcupine, wild boar, bear,
and one species of ant-eater. Of birds there

are all the yaiidties common to the tropics.
The hirundo esculenta is stated to bnild its nests
on the coast ; but the nests do not form an ar-
ticle of commerce. There are several varieties
of serpents, one of which grows to the length
of between 20 and 80 feet Crooodiles are
found in Uie rivers, scorpions and huge spiders
in the houses, and a flying lizard in the woods.
Fish are of ^numerous varieties, and in great
abundance, some of excellent quality for eating.
— ^The vegetable products are both numerous and
valuable. There are 416 varieties known of
valuable woods, of which 83 are used for house,
furniture, and ship building. Among these if
the satinwood and ebony. The npas tree has
been found in the interior. The oocoanut palm
is altogether the most useful tree to the natives.
It grows readily without cultivation, is not lim-
ited to one soil, and every part of it is made
use of by the Cingalese owner. The fruit,
when green, supplies food and drink; when
dry, oil ; the sap is made into toddy and ar-
rack ; the fibrous husk makes ropes, nets, and
matting; the nutsheUs form housdiold utensils;
the plaited leaves serve the same purpose, and
also furnish thatch for the cottage ; the dried
flower-stalks serve as torches, and the large
leaves as garden fences. The trees bear from
6t) to 100 nuts per annum, and grow so near
the water's edge that the waves wash their
roots. There are several other varieties of
palms, one of which furnishes, in its wide-
spreading leaves, the nmbrella, which is a no-
table article of Cingalese use. The fruit of the
betel palm is exported to the amount of $60,000
per annum. Beside native fruits, which are
not numerous, various European and Indian
fruits have been introduced latterly under the
auspices of English planters, who have formed an
agricultural society. Cinnamon, which grows
wild in the forests, is cultivated to a large extent,
arrives at a high state of perfection, and has long
been a chief article of export Its cultivation
was formerly a government monopoly, but was
thrown open to the public in 1833; cultivators
paid, however, for many years, 8». per lb. export
duty; this is now abolished. When growing
wild, the cinnamon plant attains a height of 20
to 80 feet; cultivated, it is not allowed to grow
so thriftily, the young shoots giving the finest
bark. Coffee flourishes as readily as cinnamon,
and its cultivation has in many places taken the
place of the latter. Rice, cotton, tobacco, pepper,
&C., are fdso cultivated. Bread-fruit flourishes
to a remarkable degree. The sugar-cane doea
not succeed. There are 2 rice harvests annu-
ally, Jan. to March and Aug. to Oct— Cey-
lon was known to the Greeks and Romans nn-
der the name of Taprobane. Pliny relates that
Onesicritus, a captain of Alexander the Great,
first circumnavigated it, and thus discovered it
to be an island. Before this it was supposed to
stretch indefinitely south. The Cingalese have
a legend that the island was once much larger
than at present ; and this seems to receive con-
firmation in the fact recorded by a Roman

e68

OEYLOK

navigator who visited the island some time
before the Christian era, that the constel-
lation of the Great Bear was not visible
from that part of it he* visited. This wonld
tend to show that the land stretched at that
time mnch farther south than at present Se-
ren^b was a former name of the island. Zeylan^
of which Ceylon is a cornxption, is said to be
from ZMalf Hindostanee for lions. The Cinga-
lese annals profess to contain a historical record
of events for 24 centuries back. These, and
existing rains, show that it was thickly settled
by a people of energy and connderable civiliza-
tion, even at that remote period. Hyara, an In-
dian conqueror in 643 B. C, is supposed to have
introduced caste. It was visited by traders at
an early period, by Marco Polo in the 18th, and
by 8ir John Mandeville in the 14th century.
Don Lorenzo Almeida, a Portuguese, visited it
in 1505, and was hired, by an annual payment
of dnnamon, to defend its shores against Ara-
bian pirates. He foxmd it divided into 7 sepa-
rate idngdoms. Through Almeida the Portu*
ffuese obtained footing upon the island, and
held it against all comers, and against many
struggles of the natives, who grew tired of their
control, for 158 years. Capt Knox, an Engw
lislmian, fell into the hands of the Candians in
the 17th century, and in 1681 published an in-
teresting account of his 20 years* captivity. In
1658 the Dutch expeUed the Portuguese. In
1795 the British expelled the Dutch. The
island at first belonged to the East India com-
pany, but in 1802 reverted to the British
crown. In 1815 the Candians, whose territory
occupied the entire interior of the island, and
who were independent of foreign rule, incau-
tiously called upon the British to depose their
tyrannous prince. This proved a convenient
opportunity for the annexation of this valuable
territory. In 1817 an extensive rebellion was
successftiUy put down. In 1843 and 1848 there
were minor attempts at rebellion. — ^The popu-
lation (exclusive of Europeans) consists of 4
classes: the native Cingalese; Moors, who
are found in all parts of the isUmd : V eddahs, a
savage, perhaps abori^nal race, inbabitlDg the
mountain fastnesses, and devoid of civilization ;
and the Malabar and other Hindoos, who immi-
grate from the neighboring continent. Of all
tiiese, the Candian Ceylonese are the finest.
The relidon of Buddha is the dominant native
creed. There are 4 great political castes, and 24
minor ones. The Cingalese are singularly mild
and inoffensive in their manners, and make
very poor warriors. Their genius seems to be
for agriculture and for peace. Christianity was
introduced in the 6th century, but died oufL
leaving no trace. 8t. Francb Xavier preached
again in the 16th century. Since then the
different possessors of the island have la-
bored with more or lees well directed zeal
to spread what each thought to be Chris-
tianity. The English established missions in
1804; the Americans in 1815. They have k-
bored hand in hand, and their labors have been

well rewarded. They have contributed most
laiigely toward the establishment of the preheat
prosperous educational system, by whicb^ sxy
cording to last returns, 1 in 98 of the entire
native population was recdving a liberal ed>
cation under the auspices of American or
European teachers. The government noakts
monev grants to aid the various mbsionAry
schools, beside which there are about 90
other schools supported by the govemmeLt,
The most important government institntiosi
are the Colombo academy, consisting of an up-
per and lower school, and a normal training
school in the same city. — The ^^Temmoit ooa-
sists of a governor (in 1858, 8ir H. 6. Wsrl,
who was appointed in 186^ and 5 coundl-
lors. The island is divided mto 6 province
and these into ^stricts. The ecdesia^ical gcT-
emment consists of a bishop, archdeacon, sod
numerous chaplains. The chief to wns are Co-
lombo, Trincomalee, Candy, Point de Galle, Jsf-
na, and Eamegalle. In 1852 the revenue of ths
island was £411,806, and the expenditiLrt
£412,871 . The pearl fishery was long a source <^
annual income alike to inhabitants and govsn-
ment. After lying untouched fix>m 18S7 to
1855, tiie banks, which are sitnated off tbe
northern parts of the coast, seem again Iike!j
to yield profitable returns. Rice is the stapi
grain. Of coffee, the cultivation of which dstrt
only from 1884, the yield in 1854 waa 500,0(?
cwt. The average yield per acre is finom 6 to 9
cwt. Cinnamon is exported to the amount d
about 5,100 bales per annum. The yield vane!
greatiy with the mode of cultivation, rasgir^
between 50 and 500 lbs. per acre. A bale '^
100 lbs. The planting of cocoannts, for tbd
sake of their oil, has of late been saeees^ul^j
prosecuted by Europeans. In 1852, 4,000 loosis
were engaged in weaving table dotha, handker-
chiefs, and napkins. The salt manafactortd
fix>m salt marshes yields the govenunent a rev-
enue of £81,222. Exports of cocoanut oil,
407,960 galls.; of coir rope, 40,000 cwt. Of ex-
ports, 4 are to Great Britain ; of imports^ }
from Great Britun, the reminder from Indii.
British goods imported are cotton mann&ctnres,
fflassware, hardware, metals, tools, beer, wine,
&c. The foreign trade, which in 1886 engagrd
only 2,500 vessels, engaged in 1857 over 6,000
inward and outward bound vessels. The coast-
ing trade is carried on by about 66 brigs (boOt ia
Ceylon), tonnage about 8,200, and bj about 560
dhimies (a craft peculiar to the ialandX tonnase
about 25,000. The banking business is coc-
dncted by branches of the oriental bank of Lo&-
don, and the mercantile bank of Bombay, tk
former establishment possessing the privilf^
of issuing notes of 10«. and upward. Abo^
40,000 Malabar coolies, who annually emigrate in
lai*ge numbers from the coast of India to Ceylofi,
are employed on coffee estates. The snperintesd-
ence of the plantations, however, is entirely io ibt
hands ofEuropeans. The foreign trade of Oerloiiis
carried on mainly by European firma, the native
houses confining their transactions to British

OILUJEKT

CEABOT

India, and the small native dealers, called chit-
tcrs, to their connections with Madras and
Bombay merchants. The value of exports in
1857 was £2,250,000, and of imports nearly
£2 , 000,000. Adding specie, the aggregate value
of the whole trade of Ceylon in 1857 was £5,-
605,124. The large imports from Australia
consisted almost wholly of specie, the Austra-
lian gold coinage having hy a recent enactment
been made current in Ceylon. The imports
from British India consisted of grain to the
extent of £600,000, and that of specie largely
exceeded that amount. A larger proportion of
native coffee liaving been shipped direct to
France in 1857, the balance of trade was against
that country. In 1858, however, the experi-
ment of direct coffee exports to France has not
been repeated to the same extent. To Holland
and Australia the exports were extensive. The
f(^lIo\ving table gives the exports of the coffee
cropofl857-'8:

Exroim rsoM Cktlok fbox Oct. 1, 1857, to Jmni 24, 1858.

PlAOUtioQ

N«Ut«
Coff««, cwt.

Toulewt.

260,2M
8,«^
8,671
5,S43
29,749
5,2JS3
5,W3
6,171
2,001
81

826,6^4

«0,M1

8,291

44,203

10,078

8,826

2,293

1,301

8,486

1,780

1,250

8,829

1,129

182

136,283

820,S15
11,820

LiverpooL ...>....*•.*

Franco

47,874

Fiihnouth

15,915

jioitcnlain

88,075

Gibraltar

7,576

Trieste

6,950

A'l'^tralia.

9,fi5T

>[»-<liti»rrftne«n

'''"^

Miiulmein

(\ilrutta

1,250

Miiuritiua

8,829
1,129

IfaiJiburg

Viu'ious countries* .........

182

Total

462,916

The total produce of the season 1857-8 is es-
timated at 860,000 cwt plantation coffee;
165,000 cwt native coffee; total, 525,000 cwt;
showing an increase npon the preceding year of
14,000 cwt in the native coffee, and a decrease
of 4,000 cwt in the plantation coffee. — Books
on Ceylon have been published by Knox, in
1C57, new edition, 1807; by Perceval, in 1803;
by Cordiner, in 1807; by Davy, in 1821; by
Forbes, in 1840; by Selkirk, in 1844; by
Knighton, in 1846; by Pridham, in 1849; by
Sirr, in 1850 ; and by Sir John Barrow, in 1857
C' Ceylon, Past and Present")* Among the
various newspapers published in Ceylon, the
" Cevlon Observer" holds a prominent position.

OHABERT, J. Xavim, called the fire king, a
Frenchman who excited attention in London in
1829, and subsequently in New York, where he
still resides, by swallowing 10 to 20 grains of
phosphorus, a teaspoonful of prussic acid, and
also exposing himself to the heat of an oven,
with the thermometer standing at 880°; his
piil«e was then beating 168 in a minute. Ac-
cording to his statement, the antidote which he
used was extremely simple, but he would not
sell his secret, notwithstanding the tempting
otTers made to him by London physicians who
witnessed his experiments.

CIIABERT, Jos£Pa Bxbsahd^ marquis of^ a

French navigator and astronomer, bom in Tou-
lon, Feb. 28, 1724, died in Paris, Dec 1, 1806.
He was an enthusiastic topographer, and planned
and executed maps of the ^ores of N. America
and the Mediterranean, and especially of Greece.
He entered the naval service in 1741 ; in 1758
he became a member of the French academy ; in
1781 he was made commander of a squadron;
he lost his sight through over study in 1800;
and in 1804 was appointed a member of the
board of longitude. He was an accurate observer,
and a patient, industrious, and persevering hydro-
grapher. He was chiefly employed in Amer-
ica and the Mediterranean. One of his princi-
pal works comprises his observations on the
American coast, and is entitled Voyages sur les
cotes de VAmerique SepUntrionaU^ Paris, 1763.
A pension of $600 was conferred by Napoleon
on his widow in 1806.

CUABLAIS, one of the 8 provinces of the
administrative division of Annecy in Savoy,
kingdom of Sardinia, bounded N. by the lake
of Geneva, S. by the province of Faucigny, W.
by the canton of Geneva, and £. by the Valais;
area 856 sq. m. ; pop. 67,562. The country is
mountainous, possesses fertile valleys, with rich
pastures and fine forests. Corn, wine, and
fruit, especiallv chestnuts and walnuts, abound.
The principal articles of trade are grain,
cattle, cheese, and timber. Building stone is
extensively exported to Geneva. The groat
Simplon road traverses the northern part of the
province. The Romans reared horses in this
province, whence its name Caballica provincia^
Caballicus ager, or Chablasium, In the middle
ages it formed part of Burgundy. In the 10th
century it was given by the German emperor
Conrad to Humbert, first count of Savoy, whose
descendants assumed, in the 14th century, the
title of counts of Chablais. Afterward united
to France, and forming part of the Leman de-

gartment under the empire, it was restored to
avoy in 1814, and became one of the neutral
provinces of Sardinia. The chief town is Thonon,
where the governor resides.

CHABLIS (anc. Cabliacum\ a canton and
small town in the French department of Yonne,
in Champagne ; pop. of the canton, which is
divided into 14 communes, 8,879, and of the
town 2,700. There are in the canton 2 manu-
factories of silk, 2 of earthenware, a tannery,
and 8 mills. The principal article of trade is
wine. The best qualities are those of Valmur,
Clos, Yaudesir, ^uguerean, and Mont da
Milieu. (See Buboundt Winks.)

CHABOT, Fni^Ngois, a French terrorist, bom
in 1759, died April 6, 1794. He was the son
of a cook, became a Capuchin friar, was ap-
pomted grand vicar of the bishop of Blois, and
in 1791 was sent to the legislative assembly.
He became conspicuous by the violeuce of hia
democratic zeal, and declared in one of hia
speeches that ^* the citizen Jesus Christ was the
first sansculotte,''^ Chabot was the first to
apply to weU-dressed young men the name of
muscadins; in his person and dress ho afieoted

670

OHABOT

OEAOO

the most eztcaTagant neglect, and be propcwed
to expel from Fnmoe aU persons except tliose
whose hands were nnwashed. At length, bow-
ever, he lent himself to theraabhmations whiob
were set on foot by the enemies of the reroln-
tion. An Anstrian banker of the name of iVey,
one of tibieir most aotive agents, gained him
over by giving him his rister in nuuriage with
a dowry of $40,000. Ohabot, whose head
was turned by this sodden fortone, soon became
implicated inyarions sospioiona operations, and
was finally goillotined.

OHABOT, PHmpn m, a French general,
bom toward the end of the 15th cratary, died
Jmie 1, 1548. Descended from an ancient
family of Poiton, he was bronffht np with
Francis I. Having bravely defended Mmeillea
in 1524, he was made prisoner at Pavia in 1525.
Appointed admiral immediately after his release,
he was sent to Italy in 1520 to ne^tiate the rati-
fication of the treaty of Oambrai by Oharles V .
Made commander-in-chief of the forces in Savoy
in 1585, he e£fected the conquest of psrt of that
country and of Piedmont, but was censured for
not following up his victory. On his return to
France charges of frauds upon the national treas-
ury were brought a^dnst him by the constable
of HontmorencL Found guilty and imprison-
ed, he was soon afterwaid piodoned by the
king at the urgent solicitation of the duchess
d^Etampes, and reinstated in his position after
the disgrace of Montmorenci. He is said to have
been the first to sugg^t the project of colonizing
Oanada. A collection of his letters written in
1525 is in the imperial library of Paris. A
monument, dedicated to him by his son L6<nior
(the same who during his governorship of Bur-
ffondy reftised to carry out the orders of Oha)>les
IX. to enact in that part of the country the
horrors of the St. Bartholomew night), is now
in the Louvre.

OHABRIAS, an Athenian general killed in
the harbor of Ohios 858 or 857 B. 0. In 893
he succeeded Iphicrates in the command of the
Athenian forces before Oorinth. was afterward
sent to chastise the .^Bginetes lor depredations
on the coast of Attica, and assisted Evagoras
in Oyprus, and Acoris in Eigypt, against the
Persians. In 878 he commanded the army
which the Athenians sent to the aid of Thebes
against the LaoedsBmonians. under Agiftailani^
on which occasion he saved his troops from im*
pending defeat by a military mancsuvre re*
nowned in antiquity, commanding them to
await the attack of the enemy with pointed
spear and shield, resting on one knee. In 876
he won an important victory over the Lacedse*
monian fleet off Nazoa. The Athenians having
abandoned the alliance of Thebes, he defended
Oorinth against £h>aminondas. A few years
later he went on his own account to Egrpt,
where he commanded the naval forces of Tachoe,
then in rebellion against the Persians, whose
cause, however, after the desertion of the
Spartans, he gave up as hopeless. After his
retom to Athensi he took part in the expedi-

tion against Thraoe at the ontbresk of fhe eo-
called sodal war. At the nege of Chios bk
vessel was the first to enter the hartM)r, but be-
coming isolated and disabled was soon abeir
doned ; he alone refused to save his life, and M
fightinff . He was the last of the great Athenisi
genenus. Demosthenes sud of him tktlie
conquered 17 cities, took 70 vessela, made S,000
prisoners, and enriched the treatmry of Atheos
with 110 talents.. One of his apothegms, fer
which he was celebrated, was that an artnjcf
stags led by a lion is superior to an armyof Hois
led by a stag. His life was written by 0. Kepoi

OHACHAPOY AS, a district of Pern, in tlM
province of TruxiUo, department of liberty
on the fi*ontier of Ecnaoor, intersected bj tha
central branches of the Andes, and by the riTer
Ohaohapoyas, which fiows N. W. tfarooeh the
district and falls into the Karafion. Die leogtb
and iH-eadth of the district are re^»eotiTeljlU
m.; pop. about 12,000. The mountaiDOiuR-
g^ons are extremely cold and the vaDejB exces-
sively hot Wheat, maize, varioos kinds of
fruits and herbs, sugar, cocoa, indigo, are pro-
duced, and cotton and tobacco in pecruiar abG^
dance. Oatde, horses, and sheep are rearei
Weaving of cotton is also a£Bivoriteoc(ni«tk>&.
Few vestiges remain of the former mineral
wealth of the country. There are bat fe»
mines, and only one gold mine. — OHAOHiroiAi)
or San Juan de ul Fbonteba, thecS|>itaI,i3>
place of much trade, especially in tobtcoo,
which is raised in gfeat quantities in ^e m^
borhood. It is situated near the W. dedititT
of the E. Andes, 186 m. N. E. of Tnnillo, d
70 m. E. N. E. from Caxamarca. Pop.Tan-
ously estimated at 6,000 and 8,000.

OHAOO, Ex. Gran, an extencivs reaoa tf
South America, lying in the centre of tbe cc^
tinent, between lat 18° and 2%"* & and long, f
and es"" W., being the most northern of the i^
which occupy the surface of the provinces of u
Plata, eztendhig on the K of the jom^
region as far as the banks of the ParagaAj,&M
from the N. boundary of the repubBo to t»
confluence of the Salado with the FaraDi,o<!-
cupying the whole tract between these S rijas.
This immense tract of country covers neirlji
of the whole Argentine confederatioD, or »
area of about 120,000 sq. m. The most hb-
portent tributaries of the Paraguay ^^^
verse the country are the Pilcomayo and se-
m^o. The attempts at navigating the m^
river have failed, owing to the ^^^^^J^
course and the shallowness of its wateit. ^
steamboat navigation on the Beim^o bas ben
proved to be practicable, at lew^^^J?
of the year. The climate is eittmdf^^
the E. mountainous regions, but eioeasiv«/ ^
in the low valleys. There are several lakfia»*J
country, and the soil is in many parts of c*^
dinary fertility. Pahn trees of «aw«y®^
orange, mdon. fig,^ cotton, cooo^ a^^
other trees abound. Of m»™*».*^^
horses, oxen, sheep, vicufias^ llamsBL oeer, Wf*
otters, monkeys, and apes. Of birds tberai'*

^^^^H ^^^

^^^^^^^^^^P» 1

iii^ i* ^. ^^^1

^^^^^^^^^^Ki

^^^^1

^^^^^^^^^^R'

^^B

^^^^^^^V^ 1, IS in rrf Pl^

.. ^H

^^^^V '

^^H

^^^^^^^^Bt"

^^^^^H.1

dr ^^^H

^^^^^^^^P^

iil ^^H

^^^^^^^^^^^V . rj:)^

in ••* • ^^^^H

^^^^^^^^^R

Mtkm 0f ^^H

^^^^^K vri of B^' -^^■

^^^^^H

^^^^^^H iu%r c

^^^^1

^^^^^^^^^^^Bt ,

^^^^B

^^^^^^^K'

v^ of mo* ^H

^^^^^^^BIF^u

'in>r. t^iUi! h £| ^^|

^^^^^B.

^^^^BB^*

' ' ^^H

^^^^^^^11^

fe^H;.. ^B

^^^^cnff!

^^^H

^^^^H^^i

«<|HK ^^^^I

^^P^'

i^l«4tV!tifl1i ^^^^1

^^^bui

^^^B

^^^^^H|

^^^^^^H

^^^^! ^d^ti«d' >iaft^«

^^B

ritAr;t!i^. jt M^j., .^. ^H

^^^^^^■^

, 0«i Ifio ^^1

^^^^^L:

IL li ^B

^^^^^^^^^Epi

^^1

^^^^^^^Hpp'>

^^B

^Kr I

^^1

^n^ n. . ... : ,

iiqpi. V liiiir-la^uJLs A: ^^^B

^K. ,1,

A tbm Eadwk ru ^^B

^Bv^ iv.ianh r^-t

'fM^ tJ)« Ifttlsr fn i}j 7* ' ^^^^1

^H^ liCadliliKk: Bi

rLi0tl<e^ aMl 4SlltlCflill« ASi ^^^I

^^^^r. ..ii^oOk^- ^ ''^

^mooii <rf «ntm>-- ^^M

^^^^H: it mnk

^ 1IA tatlniid , iicfTi*^ ^1

^^^Ru.. .„, iMft fci

...^.^^. *\j|ittiiiriii»&lH«ii4tSi^ . :^ ^H

^^Hr iilof oijftfrta Uitek i^

^^B

^^^^j»hlt(^ tL.-! t«.iiinL'f !^%*i'i

::rs inTEn. rT \"rw n-^r.^-u h«m ^H

^^^^^^.,

^^H

^^Hr^l3illl''r'

l^n^a r<»t^i(^ 04 Uii^ ftvvr eoti ^^^B

^^^^^ aifpi

.fJ4l<, _^ ^^B

^^^^^^^^^V ''

^^^^^1

^H|

^^^^H[ > . ^ *b Ulfilt(

liiijE4, flftck T*^ rft| ^H

672

OHAINSHOT

OHALOEDOK

not wisbisg to obtaSn areas in aeres, prefer to
use chains of 50 or 100 feet in length, with links
of 6 or 12 inches.

CHAIN 8H0T, two balls connected by a
chain, chiefly nsed in naval battles to cnt down
masts and rigging.

CHAIN I^AKE (eortmeUa gOula, Linn. ;
genns ophSbohu^ Bd. and 6d.), an American
q>ecie8 first described by Cateeby imder this
name; it is also called thunder snake, and
king snake. It has been arranged tmder
different genera, bnt the above is the name giv-
en to it by Dr. Holbrook. The head is smfdl,
diort, and ronnded at the snout; the nostrils
are large, and open laterally; the eyes small,
and tbe iris dnsky ; the neck is very little con-
tracted, and is covered above with small smooth
scales; the body is elongated, stont, with largie,
smooth, 6-sided scales above, and large plates
below; the tail is qnite short, thick, and soon
tapers to a horny point. The colors of this
very handsome snake are singolarly arranged;
the gronnd-work of the whole upper sur&ce is
a rich shining black, all the plates about the
head being marked with one or more white
spots ; the chin and throat are white, most of
tlie plates being margined with black; on
the body are about 22 transverse narrow
white bars, embracing 2 or parts of 8 scales,
bifurcating on the sides, one branch going to the
ring in front, the other to the ring behind,
causing a nearly continuous waving white line
on the sides from the neck to the vent; alter-
nating with the dorsal bars there are imgular
white blotohes reaching to the abdomen, which
is shining violet black; the toil has 4 or 6
transverse rings. In a specimen 42 inches
long, the head measured a little over an inch^
the body 86 inches, and the tail 5 inches; they
attain a length of more than 4 feet lliough
fond of moist and shady places, it does not take
to the water or to trees ; it feeds on moles, mice,
small birds, and reptiles, and even other snakes.
It is found from New York to Florida; its
western limit is not positively known. The
abdominal plates are about 216 in number, and
the bifid sub-caudal scales from 40 to 50.

CHAINS, a place, or ledge, built on the out-
ride of a ship, abreast of her lower rigging,
and projecting from her side. The shrouds
are brought down to the outsides, and the
chains thus act as permanent outriggers, giving
the lower rigging a wider spread than it could
otherwise have, and affording the mast a firmer
support Chains are now little used except in
large men-of-war. — Chadt Pultss are plates
or rods of iron fiastened to the ship's side under
the chains, and led up the outside of the chains.
The lower dead-eyes of the lower rigging and
backstays are fastened to the chain plates, and
by their means the rigging is set up. Where
ships have no proper chains, the chain plates
are bolted up along the side.

CHAIX D'EST ANGE, Vioton Chablks, a
French advocate, bom in Rheims, April 11,
1800. An able defence of the poUtioal con^ir-

ators of 1620 and 1821 saSned for Lim esH?
popularity. He afterward distinguished hz:
self in criminal trials, where he was ooD^£rr.
as almost without a rivaL Elected to tb.
chamber of deputies by his native city in 1^1
he took his seat among the moderate me^}be:^
of the opporition, and gave peculiar attect::
to the questions of copyright and indirkl:.
liberty. One of the interesting trials in wb:.
he was engaged in 1888 was in reference :
Victor Hugo's drama, Le roi i^amuae^ whai L
was employed by the government to sistaiD t-
suppression of the drama, and in which he b.
the author himself and OdUon Barrot as adrr
saries. A member of the constitoent assem^:;
in 1848, he evinced great zeal in bia oppost: c
to the doctrines of the sociaiistB, -with a leai::^
to the Bonapartists. His qrnipathiea were r>
warded in 1857 by the place of attomej-rt^
ral to the imperial court of Jnstioey in ▼hid
capacity he appeared as prosecotor against :>?
Italians implicated in the attempt of Febu 'A
1858, upon Niu>oleon III.

CHAjLCEDON, or CALOHEZKXEr, a town *
Asia Minor, on the Bosporus, opposite CoBct£i
tinople, and near the modem town of Scotarl
It was founded by a colony firom Megarak ^"^
B, C, was taken by the Persiana, then bj :' e
Athenians, and after a period of independent:
fell under the dominion of the kings of fiiihv-i:.
Its walls were destroyed by Yalens, and'iia
now but a poor village. In ecclesiastical hist'^r^
it is celebrated as the seat of the 4th cecumrri
cal council, convoked A. D.461, at thereqne^ r
the emperor Marcian, to condemn the here^r 1
Entyches concerning the two natnrea of Cbn-;
and to counteract &e bad effect of the man-
thorized assembly held at Ephesns in 44S. t.'
which the title of Latroeiniumy or robbc^syno-i
has commonly been applied. Nice was at ^r<:
designated as the place of meeting^ but tb?
disturbances created there by the partissi;: -f
Bioscorus, who had presided over the robbs^
synod, induced the emperor to select some spi :
nearer his capital. Accordingly 630 W^r;'
chiefly from tne East, assembled in the chsr.i
of St. Euphemia, at Chalcedon, Oct 8. P r*
Leo I., afterward called the Great, presided r ■
his legates. The creeds of Nice and ConsUcL-
nople were adopted as the rule of £aith ; and i.'
ter a prolonged discussion the Latroeinivm Ef^
nnum, as well as the doctrines of £iity<dies ir.1
Dioscoms, in favor of which that synod l^
pronounced, was condemned. The bisbrn*
professed their belief in the existence of two s>
tnres in Christy and declared the Virgin Mv7
truly the mother of God, directing their deem
against both Nestorian and Konophysite doc-
trines. Dioscoms was d^>osed in the fcUk^
ing terms : " The bishop of Rome, tfaroogb oc:
instrumentality and that of the pres^it cooac:'.
witih the blessed apostle St Peter, who is :i ?
foundation of the church and of the Cathc>!.e
faith, has deposed Dioscoms from every dtgiiitT
both episcopal and sacerdotal.*' Fifteen se^
sions were held, in which 80 disciplinary c

OEUweitosn

(Kit

1 ^.««-^>i ...i.M. *^^^ ji -I wi-<, rrr iTr'TTTTrrnr* ,\^ !..Tfi.,.. .»-.^* *v

■^»f>fr c*f f J*fl fi*Trt*t*rf^'Tts t^ ' ■

fj\r m If

•74

GHALDEA

this promontory, and rather on its aoathem
verge, stands Uie modem town and port of
Castro, its walls washed by the tronbled waters
of the narrow strait, through which the irregular
flux and reflux of the current is extremely turbu-
lent and rapid. Over against Ohalcis, at about
8 m. distance, on adiagonalline, running nearly
N. E. and 8. W., is a steep craggy promontory
on the BcBOtian mainland, considerably to the
S. of the strait. This is undoubtedly the
^' rocky Anlis *' of the dassic writers, on which
was pitched the Hellenic camp of Agamemnon
and the confederate kings, when the fleet was
wind-bound '4n the refluent places of Aulis,^
through the wrath of the ofibnded Diana, until
she should be appeased by the streams of vima
gore, polluting the paternal hands of the leader
of the host. This promontory separates bv its
site 2 rocky inlets ; one is of small size, and in-
considerable depth of water, to the N. ; but the
other, to the S., is much larger, and is still called
Vatby, the modem corraption for 0a6vs Xi/ui;y,
the deep harbor, in which lay moored tlie Greek
fleet, the lesser gulf or basin being inadequate
to contain above 50 galleys, according to the
calculation of Strabo. Ool. Martin Leake, who
paid a cursory visit to these interestins locali-
ties, found that the strait was divided into 2
passages of unequal width, by a small square
castle. A stone bridge, 60 or 70 feet in length,
connects the Bcsotian shore with this castle.
A wooden bridge, about 85 feet long, which
may be raised at both ends, for the purpose
of admitting the passage of vessels, communi-
cates from the small castle to the gate of
Castro, which is in a tower projecting from
the waUs. It appears that the round tower is
a Venetian work, the rest of the fortifications
Turkish. Col. Leake could find no vestiges of
ancient Ohalcis, except a few fragments of
white marble in the walls of mosques and
houses, and the bust of a statue in the wall of
a house in the fortress. The lion of St Mark
remains over the gates of Castro, many of the
better houses of which are of Venetian constrac-
tion, and there is a church with a high pointed
roof, a square tower, and Gothic wmdows,
which was probably built by the same people,
as they were in almost constant possession of the
place for 3 centuries preceding its capture by
Mohammed II. in 1470.

CHALDEA was properly the name of the
S. W. part of ancient Babylonia, bordering on
the N. £. confines of Arabia. So it is mention-
ed by Ptolemy the geographer. Strabo also
spealu of a Chaldean tribe living in that region.
This district comprised the most fertile plains
of Babylonia, made wonderfully productive by
the numberless canals constructed by the rulers
of that empire for defence, commerce, and irri-
gation. But commonly the name is applied to
Babylonia in general, designating the whole oi
the province, sometimes even the empire of tixat
name. The Hebrew terxn, probably for all
these meanings, is Ohasdim, or land of the
Chasdim (Chaldeans). The latter first appear in

the Sciiptares as &e owsera of the legkr
which' was the abode of the ancestors <f
Abraham, then as a conquering tribe and natic
and beside as a caste of priests or astrolcc.-j.
TheUr Chasdim (Ur of the Chaldees) of Abe
ham was eonaideied by many modem critics *j
have been a place in Mesopotamia, and idesD^
with the castle of the same name, mentiooed \y
Ammianns as dtuated between Nisdbis and ±'
Tigris. This, as well as the circnmstance tls;
Chaldeans are mentioned by Herodotus »
soldiers in the Assyrian army of Xefxes, ssd h
Xenophon, in the history of tlie retreat of :b?
10,000, as a free and warlike people in t:e
Carauchian mountains, made it appear pr^-
able to the same critics that the onginil h*.::.'
of this nation was among, or at least near, ±^
mountains of Armenia, whence they made t-'^
incursions, it was supposed at different peri. j.
into the neighboring southern oountriei^ r.>
dmng Babylon, and afterward Syria. Gf?^
nius supposed their name to have been origin i j
Card, changed into that of Chasd and CV 1
and preserved in that of the modem Eoorc:
inhabiting the region of the anciez^ Card:di
Their Semitic descent seemed to be proTed br
the language called after them ; so Josepri
represents tiiem as descendants of Arpb&x^
son of Shem, the latter part of that compcci!
name supporting his opinion. But the bis:-^
of this ^ple, particularly its earlier part, ^ i-
volved m great obscurity, and it still renudns :j
be seen whether the discoveries of late j^
made in the ruins of Babylon, Nineveh, i:i
Susa, which throw a new light np<Hi thi« ^^ -
ject, and the results of which are now sj^ta-
atically arranged in George Rawlinson^s fr:t:i:
work on Herodotus (London, 1858), will (!i->

gate all the difSculties. Kimrod, the migi^^
unter, who is mentioned in the bookof Orc-
esis as the founder of the empire (^Babjl<>:^
which is afterward styled the land of theCiul-
dees, is a Hamite, and seems to have extended
his> conquest northward, at least aocordbg to ^
almost generally adopted explanation of the p^
sage which speaks of him. The Greeks c^'^-
Belus as the founder of the same empire. Kothir
is siud in the Bible about the nation to vli ;i
belonged Amraphel, the king of Shinar, tkt ii
Babylonia, who fought a battie in Palatiot is
the days of Abraham ; and a chasm ctf aboct l^
centuries separates the first mention of the Ch^
deans in connection with the Ur of the ance^i*'^
of the patriarch, from their next reappwrsDv^s
in scriptural history, in the time of Isaiah (ex-
cept their being mentioned in the book ofi^^^
capturmg the camels of the patriarch of T::
while Babylonia, which appears first at thesis'
time in relation to the history of the Hcbre**
is known, from the testimony of the 6»^
writers, to have existed during this vlorf
period as a highly developed state, by tons oi«*
quering and conquered, a product of its ^'
vanced industry being also mentioned in ^
history and book of Joshua. A natoial ccc*
eequence of these dates would therefore hate

^^ OIIAIXiS& ^^

^^^^^ «7» ^H

w ■

1 ^^^^H

i ■

076

(TWAT.mgA

(on Nebaobadnezzar, who leads hia fierce
annies and the hosts of his vassals as fiir as
Egypt, or, according to the legend, as far as
the pillars of Hercoles, peoples his provinces
vith nations carried into captivity, and adorns
his enlaiiged capital with the treasures of de-
stroyed cities and temples, withpalaces, tem-
ples, and magnificent gardens. The Ohaldeans
are now the nation of Babylonia, though their
priests appear beside under this name as a
caste, or at least as a numerous college, similar
to that of the magi of the Medes, and de-
voted to the science of the stars, and to the
religious practices connected with it Through
Nebuchaanezzar^s conquests Babylon is made
**ibe mistress of kingdoms," who says in
her heart, ^^I am, and there is nothing else
beside me;" through the canals constructed
by him, as well as those by the queen Nito-
cris (his or his son's wife), she becomes " the
city of merchants." His son, Evil Herodach, is
murdered by his brother-in-law, Neriglissar ; the
son and successor of the latter, Laborosoarchod,
by some nobles, who place upon the throne
Kaboned, the Labynetus of Herodotus, the last
of the Chaldean kings. Babylon, ^ the golden
city," enervated by luxury and extravagance,
becomes an easy prey to the warlike Medes,
'^ who do not regard silver, nor delight in gold."
The " bitter and hasty " nation of the Ohal-
deans disappears as such, and its name is pr^
served for some time only in scattered tribes,
and its glory in the science of its priests.
The determination of the lunar periods, that of
the equinoctial and solstitial points, a more pre-
cise definition of the solar year, the division of
the ecliptic into 12 equal parts, that of the day
into hours, the signs, names, and figures of the
zodiac, the invention of the dial, are among the
improvements in astronomy attributed to the
knowledge of the Chaldeans. In their religion,
so closelv connected with their science, light is
the chief element, and the Sun, the Moon, Sat-
mn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury, and other
stara, as well as the constellations of the zodiac,
are chief objects of adoration, worshipped in
temples with sacrifices and festivals ; though it
may be hard to define precisely to which heaven-
ly bodies are to be applied the names of Bel, Gad,
Nebo, Merodach, Nergal, their divinities men-
tioned in ScripturcL or those of Salambo, Tur-
rfdi, Derketo and Mylitta, which are spoken of
in profane trriters. Their legends speak also
of the monsters of the chaos, of Amorca, or

J>rimitive night. With the decline of Baby-
on their science sinks, and Chaldeans are
afterward known among Greeks and Romans
only as astrologers, magicians, and foretellers,
and as such despised, and finally persecuted by
eome of the emperors. — ^A brief resumS of the
results obtained nrom the researches on the dis-
covered cuneiform inscriptions, according to the
essays of George and Col. Henry Bawlinson, will
not only complete the history of the Chaldeans,
but also bring before the reader the new theory
of the latest critics regarding the earliest period

of Babylonia. It mnafc, however^ be obaervt^l
that only few of the facta and datea ooUectetl L
the reoentiy published diasertatiooa can be. or
are by the learned inquirers thenaelves, i^
garded even as definitely aaoertained, wlik
most of the ofnclusions are givea as oofgectcr^
based on hypothetical decipheringa, often inr\r
nious, but rarely to be relied on witli oertaii : - .
The main points are these : About the ye&r 2. .-^
B. C. the Cushite iuhshitants of aoathem BJ:-
ylonia, who were of a cognate race witL :l-.
primitive settiers both of Arabia and of £ti.. -
pia, are supposed to have first liaeii into iz:
portance. Delivered from the yoke of -^z
Medes, whose reign is mentioned by Berueu- =.-
that of the first postdiluvian dynasty, they 'i-
tablished a native dynasty, founding an en.VjY.
whose capitals were Hur, supposed to he Vx
scriptural Ur, now Mugheir ; Erech, now Wlt-
ka, or Urka, the great necropolis of BabvloL.i:
Larsa, the scriptural Ellasar, now Senker^ti:
and Nipur, the city of Belus, now Kiflfer. T. -j
introddced the worship of the heavenly b -. .-
in place of the elemental religion of the Msu-^
Mc^es. ^^In connection with this plaBe-_7
adoration, whereof we see the earliest tracc> \z
the temples of the moon at Mugheir, of the - _
at Senkereh, and of Belus and Beltis (or J .; .-
ter and Venus) at Niffer and Warka, the ni<,vc-
ments of the stars would naturally be ob^err ■ .
and reg^tered, astronomical tables would .•
formed, and a chronological system fonno -.
thereupon, such as we find to have oontiL.'rc
uninterrupted to the days of Oalli^thf ■.-
and Berosus. A system of pictare-wri:i j.
which aimed at the communicatfon of ic^..^
through the rude representation of natiural «. .-
jecta, belonged, as it would seem, not onlr ;
the tribes who descended the Nile from Ed/ -
pia, but to those also who, perhaps, diren: .-
from the same focus, passed eastward to the ^ \.-
ley of the Euphrates. In the further deTc:< -
ment, too, of the systems which the p^og^&^^ 1 :
society called forth, a very similar gradatiou r^.'
be presumed to have been followed by the 2 d.
visions of the Hamitera^, the original pictiirr<
being reduced in process of time to diarao>>.
for the convenience of sculpture, and t2.t^
characters being assigned phonetic values wl J
corresponded with the names of the olj <..'
represented." ^' To the primitive Hamiu > .
nasty, which is represented, probably, in .. .
Bible by Nimrod, the son of Gush andgranC^^.
of Ham, the 2 earliest of the monumental kii js.
Urukh and Hgi, maybe assigned. Accori':
to Berosus, the chronological limits of the <:•-
nasty are from 2284 to 1976 B. O., and the d.-'.-
obtained from the inscriptions are in agreer.h: :
with this calculation. At the latter date tLi:<
may be presumed to have been a break iu t.'
line, the royal family beine dispossessed by u.
Chaldeans, who seem to have emigrated t^ -:
Susiana to the banks of the Euphrates." ** v:
these immigrant Chaldean IglftTnife^ Chel'.>
laomer may have been the leader, while Ar •
raphel and Arioch, the Eamite kui0s of b^-

■

^^ CIOJM.DEH I.AKf5ljAi.>;

^^1

^^^^^^^^■ik

t'JI^^^^^^^I

^^H^]

^^^^^1

:■

^^^^^^^^Bl

vlrl^V^ ll|<ll||jlftj^^^^^^^|

^^^K.

^^^^^^^^^B 'f

1 n^^^^^^^^^l

;■

^^^^^K]

i be buppa fur tbufi (.1

^^^^^^^^^1

^^M

678

CHALDRON

CJHALK

Zetebueh vwr Bwai^ der Mim^na (Bfeslan,
1845\ are valnable oontributions.

CHALDRON, an Engliah measure containing
86 boshels, used chiefly in the measurement of
ooal.

CHiXET (Ger. 8ewnhutt€\ the name for the
log huts in Switzerland in which the herdsmen
reside. Thej are mkde of pine logs, notched at
the extremities so as to fit together at the an-
gles of the building where they cross. The roof
IS low and fiat, covered with stones to protect it
against the elements. The interior has scarce-
ly any thing beyond the apparatus of the dairy,
including a large kettle for heating the milk.
Li the loft above is a store of straw to serve
as beds. The entrance is difficult, the ground
outside being broken by the feet of cattle, and
covered with heaps of mud and dung. Li the
Semmenthal alone there are about 10,000 cha-
lets, and all pastoral Swiss valleys are covered
with huts of the kind. The herdsman who
resides in the chMet has to collect about 100
oows twice a day, to look idler stragglers, and
to make the cheese, which is the principal oc-
cupation inside the chMets. The owners of
cattle themselves reside also in ch&lets, but
tliey are of a superior kind, and less numerous.
Some of these ch&lets of the better sort, with
their delicious milk, fresh butter, bread, and
cheese, offer delightful retreats to the weary
traveller. — Another kind of ch&let is a shed or
bam, in which the hay is kept until the winter,
when it is carried over the snow in sledges
down to the villages below.

OHALEUR BAY, an inlet of the gulf of St.
Lawrence, separates Lower Canada from New
Brunswick. It receives the Restigouche river
at itsW. extremity, affords excellent anchorage,
and is much frequented by mackerel fishers. Its
navigation is everywhere safe. Length from
E. to W. 90 m. ; breadth from 12 to 20 m. A
French fleet was defeated here by the British,
July, 1760.

CHALFONT ST. GILES, a parish of Eng-
land, CO. of Bucks, on the Great Western rail-
way ; pop. 1,228. It was the residence of Mil-
ton during the plague in 1665, and the place
where he finished *^ Paradise Lost/' In a ceme-
tery of the society of Friends in this parish lie
the remains of William Penn, the founder of
Pennsylvania.

OHALGROYE FIELD, in Oxfordshire, Eng-
land, on the railway from London to Glouces-
ter, memorable as the scene of the defeat of the
parliamentary forces by the royal troops under
Prince Rupert. The celebrated John Haminlen
was mortally wounded in this battle, June 18,
1648. A monument commemorating this event
was erected in 1843, aud inaugurated on the
200th anniversary of the day.

CHALICE (Lat. calix^ a cup), the vessel con-
taining the consecrated wine in the sacrament
of the eucharist. In honor of its sacred pur-
pose, it has usually been made of as cosily a
substance as the circumstances of a church per-
mitted—of glass| crystal, silver, or gold— and

often embellished with scvlj^tures and pr»rior]c
stones. St. Ambrose relates that in period^ c:
distress the early Chrktians sold their Gbali.«^
to aid thepoor.

CHALK, an earthy mineral, consisting of csr
bonate of lime of friable texture, easily mbk^
to a white powder. It constitates to<^ foir i-
tions of vast extent, being seen idong the shur^
of the North sea and the English channc:, ii
England and Prance, towering np in difi^ sc-ut^
times 1,000 feet high, that dazzle the eyo ic v.<
sunlight with their brilliant whiteness^ It is
the chalk difl^ of England that gave it its ori:-
inal name of Albion, in allusion to its wli:c
shores. The rock formation of which chalk L
the principal member, and wMch is called tk
cretaceous, or chalk formation, is the i:]<>:r
group of the secondary series. It is trax:
across the continent of Europe from the X. ci'
Ireland toward the S. E. to the Crimea, a <!L^•
tance of 1,140 ul, and from the S. of Swede: u
beyond Bordeaux, about 840 m.. occnirir:: l
patches over the greater part or the ioclr. K-i
area. It gives to ute topography an inteiv^: i :
variety of abrupt clif& upon the coasts and r.v-
ers, and of bold hills in the interior, iDtersn::i^
in every direction with valleys of smooth u^.
flowing outline ; but the soil it produces i> ii
general too calcareous to be very produciirv.
A remarkable feature in the chalk formation u
some localities is the occurrence of layers o:
flint nodules in the rock, horizontally arrat i:>. '•.
and not' in contact with each other, and ct C
shapes and sizes, varying from nn inch (•> :.
yard in circumference. The flints fire<)i.<:::5
appear to be concretions of silicions m&it.:
around organic substances, as parts of shci *.
sponges, &c., into the most minute pore^ ••
which the silica has penetrated, beanti: i^.<
preserving their peculiar forms. The chalk it-
self is in great part composed of finely cDnin^^'.-
nuted shells and corals, and it is now general;
understood to have been derived from the srjr<-
sources as the fine white calcareous mud vL.L
fills the bottoms of coral lagoons, and the iiiu>
stices of its structures. This proves to K
entirely of animal origin, in part finely- gri>ii:^^
shells and corals, and partly the excrema:
of diell-fish, and of certain gregarious fi>N^<
which, in the coral regions of the F&ii^^
were seen by Darwin through the dear war c.'v,
browsing quietlv in great numbers n: j^
living corals, like grazing herds of gr'n:-
nivorous quadrupeds. In the coral reefe of I'n
South seas Mr. Dana found portions of tlo^
compact and solid as any secondary limesu:-
and parts of the still growing structures Q<'t >|^
be distinguished from portions of the dii
rocks of the cretaceous formation. The f'^*-'
of this geolo^cal group are all of oceanic i^:-
ilies, but of extinct species. Several spc*:-
found in it in New Jersey are identical witli il< ';''
of the same formation in Europe ; but the c! ^
is absent, thoush the other strata of limert< t*
and green sand are recognized as those v^
elsewhere accompany it— Chalk is employ^

vsAUam

CHAUIXRS

it I'tirliT- **.-!fi -rii— t .

A T. ,ii«kJr>'!^.n .i<^i..ir' \i.<r t''-*i. nT>-i<nT** fil' -rt-i^P A ti*

,1 Ibinv-M Xi^wm i>f

fff Ismi «U

Thimbu PT>, .^ F-jKIUTi 11

tb« VUk

680

THOMAS OHAUCEBB

1780, died at Momiogside, ne&r Edinburgh, May
81, 1847. Early destined to the church, he was
sent at the age of 12 to the university of St.
Andrew's, where his favorite studies were
znathematios, ethics, and political economy.
In his 19 th ^ear he received a preacher's license
in the Scottish church, but declined to assume
a pastorate, and spent the 2 subsequent winters
in Edinburgh, where he was employed in teach-
ing, pursuing a wide range of study, and at-
tending the lectures of Dugald Stewsji, Eobin-
Bon, Pkyfair, and other professors in the uni-
versity. When in 1803 he was ordained
minister of Kilmany, a small parish in Fife-
shire, his mind was chiefly occupied with the
study of natural science and with speculations
on moral and social questions. Esteeming a
day or two each week amply sufficient for the

Serformance of all official clerical duties, he
evoted the remainder of his time to science
and scientific distinction, which were the objects
of his highest interest and ambition. He varied
his professional work by lecturing upon mathe-
matics and chemistry at St. Andrew's, and
while little Imown as a preacher was gaining
reputation as an enthusiastic savant by the un-
wonted eloquence with which he imbued his
scholastic prelections. Twice he sought in vain
to exchange clerical for professional life, by be-
coming a candidate for the chair of natural phi-
losophy at St. Andrew's in 1804, and for the
mathematical chair in Edinburgh in 1805. His
first effort in authorship was a pamphlet to prove
that the vigorous prosecution of science was
not incompatible with ministerial duties and
habits. On Napoleon's menace of invading
England, Chalmers joined a corps of volunteers
not only as chaplain but lieutenant In 1808,
upon the alarm created by Napoleon's decrees
against British commerce, he published his
"Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of Na-
tional Eesouroes," to show that the apprehen-
sions were groundless, and thus added political
economy to the sciences in which he was pro-
flcient He had already become a contributor
to the '' Edinburgh EncyclopsBdia," and the
article on Christianity was assigned to him. It
was in his studies while preparing this article,
amid a series of domestic bereavements and a
long and severe illness in 1809, which brought
him near to the grave, that he experienced a
great spiritual change. Then, for the first time,
he thought, he saw the gospel of Christ in its
true light, and he emerged from his triids with
deepened views of the duties of the derici&l
office, declaring that the history of Pascat— who
after a youth signalized by profound and origi-
nal speculations had stopped short in a brilliant
career of discovery, resigned the splendors of
literary reputation, renounced without a sigh
all the distJnctions which are conferred upon

genius, only to devote every talent and every
our to the defence and illustration of the gos-
pel— was superior to all Greek and to all
Roman fame. * The pastor of Kihnany, when he
resumed his duties, displayed a fervor in the

pulpit and in hid hmuebold Titttations vbic

was new to his parishioners. ChnidiiDg scks-
tifio and literary studies with the same ardor Sf
before, and contributing to the "ChxistisnlL-
Btructor" and the "Edeotic Beview,'* jetu
his thoughts were tempered by a deep seose d
reh^on, and made subservient to the higkesi
aims of life. Having before belonged to t^
*^ moderate" party in the Scottish chnrdi, i^
now ranked with the ^^evangelical" panr.
which was in the minority, and his pulpit cl<>
quenoe attracted listeners from great di^anc^
and made him famous throng^ the south ci
Scothmd. In 1812 he married; in 1813 hi
article on Christianity appeared in the ^^Encvclu-
paBdia,"and was immediately republished in ^
separate volume, with additions, under the tiu
of the "Evidences of Christianity;^' snd dic-
ing the next 2 years he was boaly engaged in
organizing his parish into Bible and mi^oi^n
societies, with a view to providing not only for
the spiritual but also for the intellectaal &:j
economic wants of every individual in it. Hi
published about this time review snide C2
missions and on Cuvier's theory of the earti
In 1815 he was invited to the pastor&l cby;«
of a parish in Glasgow, and dunng the 8 ]^
of his residence in that city he ei^jojed uc-
rivalled renown as a pulpit orator, idn}
likened the impression produced byhissenno^
to "what one reads of as the efiect of the elo-
quence of Demosthenes," and Lockhart ^ti
equally enthusiastio in his admiratioQ. Tb.'
"Astronomical Disooursesi" a series of vecv
day lectures on the connection between the cir
ooveries of astronomy and the Christian reje-
liiions, were published in 1817, and riT&Ilc*i
the Waverley novels in popularity. Vithia*
year nearly 20,000 copies of them were & *u
His fame had meantime extended from ^"^';'
land to London, where ho preached first i^ •=
year. In a time of high political eicitemc:^'
all parties thronged to hear him, and jod^ ^
critical as Hazlitt^ Wilberforce, Canning, Ro>^«
Hall, and Foster, could only appLiud. Cai«'
was moved to tears, and wUberforoe vrite^ s
his diary : "All the world is wild about Dr. CU-
mers." The article on " Pauperism," ooDtn>
uted to the "Edinburgh Be view," immedui^
ly after his return to Scotland, and the tiwii
on the " Christian and Civic Economy of W
Towns," which soon followed, indicate ^^
was then the direction of his eflfortB. It ^
his aJT" by a thorough organhottion to renie tw
old parochial system of Scotland, and by &^
ding the community into small mMJ?^^'^
masses, to bring every member of it direci^
under educational and ecclesiastical ^^^^
To apply his scheme, he exchanged the i^
parish for the neighboring one of St J^^i^
which outof 2,000 families there were more iwj
800 unconnected with any Christian ohnrcH,^^
a countless number of untaught ^^^^^^ji^
entire management of the poor in thit f^
was committed into his hands as anexpf»DJ^
and by strict parochial oversight the entire ?>«•

TBoiafi atcAiJosE^

till KiT«De;c^.»i:£i^ BdiTftf^'

, iM^iO All &rdu»n^'

J 10 kKitiKr* Mil ooUnol

ifli/iir^iiir.iifj'iLt irlilr*!'; K(> hur

rtbnL i-

Ml >^HJI < i-ifU L.L4U |4JW|JUf 4kJ , M>' li-'l^

ghmi biioor vrhaitb UMfc «liiart

1- n.* kn-..Jr.N.T t> ^ i>l|af|||Cir' i

la lito Ir

lyiviMK tiittii itd»-

h*d^

•83

OHAL01sr-SUB43AONE

ftUvtioal refonna whicli he inaogarated. Bodi
as a preaeher and thinker he dwelt on the
broadest and cardinal views of things. Many
of his sermons were said to contain not more
than one or two ideas, aronnd which his mind
would revolve as on a pivot, presenting the
same object in a series of new and beantiM
forms. He always retained his broad Scotch
accent, and his vehement and chivalrous resola-
tion and philosophic temper were mingled with
a guileless sunplicity and a profound sjmpathv
with tiie habits and feelings of the Scottish
poorer classes.

CnALON-SUR-SAONE, a town of France,
department of Sa6ne et Loire (Burgundy), on
the river Sa6ne, 215 m. S. E. of Paris ; pop.
in 1856, 19,911. The town is very ancient, be-
ing the Gabillonum of which Cadsar speaks in
his Commentaries. It was pillaged by the
Vandals, the Huns, and the Saracens, burned in
834 by the emperor Lothaire I., suffered severely
during the civil wars of the 16th century, and
not a little from the invasion of the aUies in
1614. It is at the head of navigation on the
river Saone, and is one of the principal stations
of the Paris-Lyons-Marseilles railroad.

CHAL0N8-SUR-MARNE, a city of France,
on the river Marne (Champagne), 107 m. £. of
Paris; pop. in 1856, 16,651. It was an important
place when the Romans invaded Gaul, and was
known as Duro-Catalaunum. Here in 274 the
emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, his com-
petitor. In its vicinity, probably between the
villages of La Cheppe and Cuperly, was fought
in 451 the tremendous battle in which the Ro-.
mans under AGtius, the Visigoths, the Burgun-
dians, and the Franks united to oppose Attila.
During the middle ages it numbered 60,000 in-
habitants. During the civil wars of the 16th
century, it burned the bulls of excommunica-
tion hurled against Henry IV. by Popes Greg-
ory XIV. and Clement VIH. ChAlons is the
seat of a bishopric ; beside a college, it contains
several learned institutions, the most important
of which is the school of arts and trades,
where 450 pupils are maintained at the expense
of the government. There are factories of
coarse woollen stuffs and cotton hosiery.

CUALOTAIS, Louis RenI ds Caradeuo dx
LA, or La Chalotais, attorney-general at the
parliament of Rennes, bom there in 1701, died
m 1785, struck the first blow at the Jesuits in
France by publishing, in 1761, Ze compte rendu
des constitutions des Jesuites. In 1765 he was
arrested for having, in common with other mem-
bers of the Breton parliament, refused to vote
in favor of some financial measures of the gov-
ernment. The persecution to which he was
then subjected was attributed to the hostility
produced hy his action against the Jesuits.
While in prison he wrote an eloquent and
vindicatory memoir, and in the absence of
writing materials, used a toothpick as a pen,
Sfid soot diluted in vinegar and sugared water
as ink.

CUALUS, a small town of France, in the

OHAJCA.

deptttment of Hiaufca-Vienne (limooainX s
the Tardou^ 16 m. H. W. of St. Trii: x;
pop. 2,200. It is divided by tbo riTer into 21
upper and lower town, in the forsMr of vLli:
are the remains of the castle of Chabrol, in :«>
sie^g which Richard Ccsiir de lion was il >
tally wounded in 1199. Near it la the tss
mined fortress of Montbnm.

CHALTBlUS, HinoaoH Mobixz, i>rofc-> :
of philosophy at the university of Kiel t^:: :*
1880, bom July 8, 1796, at F&ffrpdsL, in Sasir.
graduated in 1820 in the divinity school c
Leipsio, and officiated as private teacher ;^>i
professor at Vienna, Meissen, and Dns>c \
until 1889, when, chiefly owing to the rep; '^
tion established for him by faia work ^ 0= :.?
Historical Development of Speoolative F- <
losophy, from Kant to Hegel*' (Dresden, 1^ .
he received his present appointment si i.i
university of KieL He has since publisbt-l s
variety of other writings, the meet im\*jr.-:
of which is his *' System of SpeonlatiTe £tl •'
(Leipsic, 1850). A later work, entitled "P:J:.i-
ophy and Cbristianity," appeared in 1853.

CHALYBEATE (Gr. ^o^v^, steel, and ( V >
(sK, a 8c3rthian race that worked in in^: . s
name now applied to waters and med:c.iti
which contain iron. It generally exists c
them in the state of the carbonate of the pr :-
oxide, which is soluble so long as an ei.^-'
of cartx)nio acid is present; as this ia givea > rl
the protoxide absorbs oxygen, and ia oonvirt..
into an insoluble hydrated seaqui-oxide, \k L. ^
&lls down as a yellow ochreona powder. Cl^ .• •
beate waters possess a styptic taste, and ^ -.
the characteristic reactions indicative 01 i^<
presence of iron by the addition of nntgall^ &i:
of ferrocyanuret of i>otasmum. In this coul: 7
springs that might daim this name are Te:^
common. The most important of them t:\
those of Bedford and Bmndy wine in Penn>} 1 • :.-
nia. Arsenic and copper are foond in £ar« >.
in the sediment of chalybeate springs. T' '
appear to do no harm, on account of the &::l-
dotal properties of the oxide of iron.

CHAM, the pseudonym of Am6d^ dc >' *.
a French caricaturist, bom in Paris» Jan. i
1819, who adopted the name Gham (Uaihi v
one of the sons of Noah, his &ther being M. ic
No^ (Noah). The son of a peer of Franci:, : :
attended the polytechnic school; but fuUou.-
his artistic inclinations, he became a )>upL < :
Delaroche and Charlet, and has acquired cj-
tinction as a caricaturist by bia spirited t.i
humorous contributions to the Paris Ckarir,'.,
and by the publication of several books 01 cji-
catures.

CHAMA (Gr. ya«, to gapel a genQ> :'
lamellibranchiate bivalves of the iamilT <---.-
mida^ which includes, moreover, the 'prz-s
monopleura and diceras^ all distinguishcHi -^
inequi valve shells, one of which has 2 anO :. •
other 1 tooth; the foot is small, as also t..
corresponding pedal orifice. Having 8 &Ni t"-
tor muscles, they belong to the dimyary gr* •.•
and, like the Idndred families of this gro.,

CBJOtWimAJSi

OIUJISS213

8tt

'I"

J .TS. r^iMwl^J 1.1

! iT. n

rii A^ifiirT?*

l'. L,r^L--i.^-

T?^

\ ^t rww-

kMi*J liju J?f\yL:u.

iod

P^J*

t'^ .1 . .1. . ..f

Ikti Bb\

diflh

'jjpitfttJ

hJ -if

684

OHAMBXRS

OHAMBERTUr

style, a maxifflmi for Lord Aberoorn, near Edm-
bnrgh, and honses for Lord Melbourne and the
earl of Gower, at Whitehall and in Piccadilly.
His masterpiece was Somerset honse in London,
which he rebuilt in 1775. He published in
1759-'68 a "Treatise on Civil Architecture,"
which has been several times reprinted; in
1773, a "Dissertation on Oriental Gardening."
— ^MosTAGiT, grandson of the preceding, an
English lawyer and statesman, bom at Hert-
ford, in Huntingdonshire, in 1800. He was
educated at the military college at Sandhurst,
and served as an officer in the army from
1815 to ' 1818, when he retired upon half
pay. He was called to the bar in 1828, be-
came qneen^s counsel in 1845, and has gained
distinction in the house of commons, of which
he was elected member for Greenwich after
Yioe- Admiral Dundas assumed the Mediterra-
nean command.

CHAMBERS, Wiluam akd Robert, Scotch
publishers and authors^ the editors of " Oham-
bers^s Journal," and of many works of a popular
and instructive character, are natives of Peebles,
a small town on the Tweed, where William was
bom in 1800, and his brother Robert in 1802.
Thrown in boyhood, after receiving the educa-
tion which the schools of Peebles furnished,
upon their own resources, William was appren-
ticed to an Edinburgh printer, while Robert,
failing to get the collegiate education which he
had desired, entered upon the career of book-
seller on his own account. Until 1882 the
brothers conducted separate establishments, and
their struggles during the neriod when the yet
anonymous "Waverley novels, the criticisms of
Jeffrey, and the sketches of Christopher North
were distinguishing Edinburgh as a literary
centre, are eminent examples of energy and
diligence. William eked out the profits of a
small trade by working at case and press him-
self, and in 1830 published his *' Book of Scot-
land," an elaborate and comprehensive account
of the usages and institutions, the schools^
social system, and religious and civil organiza-
tion of tiiat country. Meantime Robert, sharing
in the enthusiasm which was then introducing
the national element so largely into Scottish
literature, had published in 1824 his " Traditions
of Edinburgh," an authentic, detailed, and amus-
ing account of the old memories and associations
with which the various localities of that capital
are rich. It was dedicated to Sir Walter Scott,
who had communicated to him interesting
materials for it. This was rapidly followed by
his "Popular Rhymes of Scotland," ''Picture
of Scotland," "History of the Rebellion of
1746-'46," " Life of James L," and 8 vols, of
*' Scottish Ballads and Songs." In 1829 the
brothers united their efforts in preparing the
"Gazetteer of Scotland," published in 1832,
which was written for the most part by them
in the brief intervals of business. In 1832 ap-
peared the first number of the "Edinburgh
Journal," designed " to supply intellectual food
of the best kind, and in such a form and at such

a price as must suit the convenience of ev^rr
man in the British dominions." It immediiit^::?
attained a drculation of over 50,000, whereu^r i
the brothers united their places of bnsineas ht
one establishment This journal has remaicc^I
till the present time one of the most widely cir-
culated of British periodicals. Inl834tiieMes5S.
Chambers began the ^ublicatio!i of a series d
historical and scientinc treatises, written ir a
j)opular style, under the title of '* Informatir-
for the People," the average sale of the numb^
of which was over 100,000 oopies.. They wert
followed by a " Cydop»dia of English Lit^-
ature," at once historical and biographical, iri±
well-chosen extracts from the worla of tLf
principal British authors in every aige; ti^^
" People's Edition of Standard English lro^t^f
" Papers for the Peoplej" " Miscellany ;" *^Be-
positorv of Instructive and Entertaining Tracts ; '
and other collections, all of which were in i
cheap form and widely read. ChambGrs^s "Ix-
ncational Course," which has been completed l?
degrees, includes works in almost every braDrb
of knowledge, and covers the entire grcc^i
fW)m first lessons to accomplished acfaokrslib.
Mr. Robert Ohambers has devoted much atien-
tion to literary and scientific pnrsoita, snd an^u
his later productions are the ^' Life and Works >:
Bums," 4 volumes of *^ Essays," and a hand&xr.^
volume entitied ^Ancient Sea MarginsL as EIx^
trative of Changes of the BeUtiveLevel d
the Sea and Land." To him also has bts
attributed the authorship of the ^ Testiges <t
the Natural History of Creation,'* a work re-
markable for the force with which it ad voo&t^
the so-called development theory. Mr. WiUbri
Chambers has contributed nnmerons eEsays to
the " Journal," has given his impressioDscfi
tour in the IJnited States in a work entitled
** Things as they are in America,'* and has sLct
published a work on " Improved Dwelling-honso
for the Humbler and otiier Classes in Cities.'
The publishing house of the Messrs. Chambers
is one of the largest in Scotland, and empL\T9
nearly 200 persons.

CHAMBERSBURG, a thriving boroi^ s&i
capital of Franklin co., Penn. ; pop. about 5,C>V.
It is pleasantiy situated on Oonecoche&r.^
creek, and at the junction of the Cmnbcoi&ni
YaUey with the Franklin railroad. Good torn-
pike roads connect it with Baltimore, Piitr
burg, and Philadelphia, and it also oomnii!£>
cates by railroad with Philaddphia, Hfixr^
burg, &o. The houses are mostiy of brick cs
stone, and the general appearance of the towa
is neat and comfortable. The sarroondic;
country, which forms part of the great hioe-
Btone valley at the S. E. base of the Bine znosc-
tains, is populous and highly cultivated. Tber?
are manufactories of cotton, wool, fknir, p^>^,
and iron.

CHAMBERTIN, a famous Tineyard c/
France, department of C6te d'Or, a fcv
miles N. E. of Beaune. It is about 15 or i'^
acres in extent, divided among several pro-
prietors; its yearly produce, at an aTerage, doe»

cn^m

1 1 J 1

OluaCBOBI>

^^1

I^^Blinn

J Trlro*

^yTikSi r^tti i>-»urFi Tiv T.Mii> Ttf fcTv.1i-.fn *i,w^. T.

^^^^^

^^1

. M4;^iiirf4« ^

^^^^H

^^^^^^Hft *l

^^HBi^^T

T-»>

■: 1

Bn^kn.! I*^

»l

,-il,..-,t T

^Br

^^^Hfi J*

■

^^^^^^■ij

^^B^ "€v<

^^^^^■T

^^^K

^^1

^^1
^^^1

Hizm:] CmrjE.) Tti-r

^^^H

wtu

64si»iIW

asBH^ET:- —=5 — . —

^^^^^^^1

«8S

CHAHBOBD

of the great fhmfif of Botirbon, which for cen-
turies gave kings to France, and whose mem-
bers stul reign over Spain and Naples. It is a
general belief that the chief object contem-
plated in the mnrder of the dnke of Berrr by
Loavel was the extinction of his race, which
wonld then have been succeeded on the throne
by the branch of Orleans. But at the time
when the crime was perpetrated, the duchess
was pregnant, a fiftct which, becoming known
soon after, revived all the hopes of the royalists.
Still, a contrary chance existed by the Sauc law,
which excludes women from the succession to
the French Ihrone, not to speak of the different
attempts made during the pregnancy of the
duchess to secure by an accident what crime
had felled to accomplish. However, Y months
after the murder of her husband, the widow

§ave birth to a son. Hence the name enfant
u miracle by which he was first celebrated by
poets, and afterward designated by the parti-
sans of his dynasty. Such was. in fact, the im-
portance attached to his birth, that the feminine
modesty of the duchess had to yield to politi-
cal considerations, and her confinement was
witnessed not only by the princes and high dig-
nitaries of the state, but even by citizens who
happened to be on duty as national guards in
the palace. In spite of alL an insidious protest
was published in England, in the name of the»
duke of Orleans, against the authenticity of an
event by which he seemed to have lost a crown.
True, the alleged author affected to deny,
with a virtuous indignation, any complicity in
the publication ; but when the document was
reprinted after the revolution of 1880, he did
not choose to contradict it again, and some
doubt may be entertained as to the sincerity of
his first deniaL The royal child was hardly
10 years old when the revolution of 1880
drove the Bourbons, now for the 8d time, out
of France. Charles X. having abdicated, Aug.
2, 1830, and the duke of Angoul6me having
abandoned his right of succession in favor of
the young prince, the latter was constrained to
follow the exile of his family. The title of dnke
of Bordeaux had been given him at his birth, as
an acknowledgment of the devotion by which
the city of Bordeaux had distinguished itself in
1814 in favor of the cause of the Bourbons.
The young exile now dianged it for one more
appropriate to his present fortune, and hence-
forth assumed the name of count of Chambord,
from the castle and domain of Chambord, pre-
sented to him May 21, 1821, by public sub-
scription in France, and still his property.
What his education was may be inferred ftom
the men to whom it was intrusted. The old
king Charles X., having proved unable to keep
the crown on his head, was not likely to teach
his grandson how to regain it. The dnko of
Angoul^me was known to possess fer more hon-
esty than genius ; while those short-sighted court-
iers, whose fatal advice had led the dynasty to
ruin, were now selected to inculcate in the
mind of the young pretender the ideas and prin-

ciples by which he was to govern his eondc'-'.
Thus, as well in exile as in Fhmoe, he was sn-
rounded exclusively by men most honorabk \i
character, and noble by birth, bat so mnch t:^
sorbed in the traditions of the past as not :d
accept or even understand the exigencies of tlr
present To them the theory of divine ripit
remained the palladium of the French monarch 7.
and the feet of the sovereignty of the people 1
mere rebellion against the law of Gkra. Tit
first tutor of the young prince was the baron Zt
Damas; he was succeeded by Gen. d'Har:-
poul, who was supplanted by Gen. Latoar-lb-:-
bourg and others. In France^ meanwhile, iL?
legitimist partv made it a point of honor to sh-^-
don at once all their public ofl3ces by tender :z
their resignation, or refusing the oaths reqnir^i
from them by the new power. In tiiis manKr
they protested against an order of things wKi. ^ ,
according to their wishes and calculations, vj3
soon to give way from its own radical incapac:'; .
The vacancies were soon filled by pers:?
either adverse or ipdifierent to theBonrlH^XN
Men initiated into public afif^urs by the strap:! o
of the liberal party under the restoration, t. • k
in hand the management of the goremni^:.-,
aided by those who are always ready t
tender their services to the ruling power. A
new generation sprung np, ripened by t!
public commotions, and it became appsr«**
that the government which had issued fr< -.
the revolution of July could go on with-*
the legitimists, and notwithstanding the dl^-
culties inherent in its origin, and its i^l<
position toward the democracy. The ?y-
tern of abstention adopted by the parti?.: ♦
of the Bourbons had simply given up :r^
game. However, this policy was not r-Tr-
sued without strong opposition in the par;
Many among the men then sometimes c«r- '
Henriquinquute$ had a different idea of :' :
interests of their cause. They openly advocx -\
taking the oath, and participating activelv i-
public affairs. Borne influential men acr«>p*i*^
and solicited the legislative tmst, and form^^i t.
the chamber of deputies a small minority, vot- ;
consistently with the opposition against all :' .
successive cabinets — ^tho only signs of 1''-
given for years by the legitimists, aside fr --
some nnsuccessful attempts at civil war in ::
Vendue and Brittany. In fact, the party was d ^
broken up by internal dissensions. In 1SS9 :N
count went to Italy with his mother, and ^ v
received with great distinction by Pope Gw-::"-
XVI. After the death of the dnke of Ar*
goul6me, in June, 1844, it was thought t.\'
visable to awaken the public attennon ^r
some manifestation likely to produce an ef-
fect in France. In 1845, the pretender, 'Bt^
had successively resided in Scotland, tW-
mia, and lUyria, arrived in London. A ct^'f
mansion in Bel^ve square, where he took :,
his abode, became at once the goal of nnmer.; '
pilgrimages among the faithftil. The proxiicr j
of London, and the ease and dieapness of grnc
there, were so many inducements for those i^b'

^^^ dumnito Of) * "" ■ '

y^'usmn

^^H

..A ^t 41. . 4Mi^ ,

^^^^^Hi'

^^^^b Tim

^^1

^^^^^p *

. ^

^^^^^V (i«lf<^<^

^^■bdy* Uinr Md on ^haI t«mu liie pur- U*d^ Ui lifijiai bt

688

OHAMELEOK

of the lugbest nmk were tried. SobBecraentlj
any extraordinary oourt of law was called cAom-
h'e ardenU^ as for instance the tribunal which
in 1535, at the dawn of the reformation, was
established by Fruiois I. for the special purpose
of passing sentence on heretics. Henry IT., on his
entry into Paris, July 4, 1549, was present in the
chambre ardenU while several heretics were
doomed to the flames. Under Louis XIV., the
ehambrea were reopened in 1679, for the purpose
of trying the poisoning cases ; but in IdSO, after
the execution of Madame Yoisin, the ehambra
ord^tes were again closed. The extraordinary
courts under the regency where the trial of the
fJEumers of the public reyenue took place, and
tJiose instituted for the registration of the shares
of the financier Law, were also called chamhret
ardentes,

CHAMELEON' (eJumeleo, Brogn.), a genus
of saurian reptil^ inhabiting the warmest
parts of Africa and India. The genus is char-
acterized by teeth on the upper edge of the
jaws, toes united into 2 groups, prehensile tail,
and body compressed and covered with squar-
ish scales, with or without a series of spiny
processes along the back, belly, chest, and tul.
The skin is shagreened with sniall scaly grains,
the back is sharp, the tail round and slender.
There are 5 toes on each foot, divided into 2
parcels, one of 2 and the other of 8, each united
by the skin as far as the claws. The tongue is
fleshy, cylindrical, and capable of an elongation
of 6 or 7 inches ; the teeth are trilobed ; the
eyes are large, almost covered by the skin, ex-
cept a small hole opposite the pupil, and are
capable of movements independent of each
otlier. The back of the head is raised in a
pyramidal form; there is no visible external
ear ; the first rib is united to the breast-bone,
the rest being continued to their fellows of the
opposite side, enclosing the abdomen in an en-
tire circle. The lungs are large and admit of
great inflation. The most common q>ecies is
Uie chaineleo vulgaris (Lac.), so well known to
travellers in Egypt and northern Africa.
Many other species are described from the
Bechelles islands, Isle of Bourbon, Isle of
France, and Cape of Good Hope. The chame-
leon is well described by Aristotle in Ms "His-
tory of Animals.". The name is derived firom
the Greek, and signifies little lion, or. as some
maintain, camel lion. There is prooably no
animal about which more prejudices and errors
have existed from the remotest antiquity than
the cliameleon. The 2 most remarkable facul-
ties attributed to it are those of being able to
live on air, and of changing color according to
the objects to which it comes near; the first it
certainly does not possess, and the latter but
partially. Like aU other reptiles, they can re-
main for months without gating, which, with
their sudden changes of bulk, gave rise to the
opinion that they Uved on air. They eat flies
and other insects, which they seize by means
of their long and sticky tongues, the only part
of their bodies which they move with any vi-

Taoity. It ia true Hiat the chamdeon char.r:i
its colors with great rapidity, but ^e chaL>
are not determined by the colors of sarroa::-
ing objects, nor by the greater or less w^fzi
of blood sent to the akm. Other reptfles p.^
Bess this power of changing color, as als<} >
many flshes, as the ooryphiena (vulgarlf c£r:
dolphin), and many or the moUusks (as i^
argonaut and the squid). It has been &v»
tained by the experiments of Dr. W. I. Lr
nett and others, that the varietlea of coL .- :
the squid are due especially to changes is u
surface of the skin from the voluntary cottrii*
tions of the muscular fibree in the dennis, t: .r
iying the reflections from the pigment spur- •><
well as from the colorless portions of the -t.
It is probable, considering the scaly chari-^c-
of its skin, ths^ similar snr&ce reflectiooi, t '
contraction of the muscular fibres of the der-
mis, are the causes of the obanges of colvr b
the chameleon; and that the inflation of tl:
lungs and body, and the changes in thek*^^
ous circulation, are merely secondary ac -''•
The natural color of the animal is a fine gn r^
tinged in some parts wiHi reddish boown j..
grayish white; from this the hues vary to ct;:
bluish green, yellow, blackish, and t&t i^
shades of gray ; the colors are the brigfau^' -*
the warmest and sunniest weather. Th<:v :.'.
often seen of the same colors as sarroQD: -:
objects, which they doubtless assume iostir/ -
ively as a means of protection against tr
numerous enemies. The chameleon can :^^
inflate its body, even toJts feet and tall';
slow imd irregular motions ; this in a mcKlr-*
degree may aid the muscular contrsctioLs i
the skin in the producdozi of its brilliant r>
face changes. The chameleon moves r^r
slowly ; it will remain for days on the bra:<-
of a tree, to which it fixes itsdf veiy finnlj .'
means of its peculiarly divided feet and preL^:
sile tail. This slowness of motion, and the i;:-
sence of all defensive and ofiTensive we-ii;''-
render them an easy prey to their econi--
Whether upon a tree or on tlie ground, i' •' '
most disagreeable and awkward animal T-
native Africans and Asiatics conader tl;
chameleon a harmless creature, and eren y^
them in their dwellings on account of the .:-
sect pests they destroy. When kindly tre; v^-
they are very gentle, but they readily n:"
with each other, slowly opening and sbo: ^
their jaws, like liie blades of scissors, in a n^ "^
ludicrous manner. The femiJe lays ab-.^:^' \
dozen eggs, whidi she deposits in the ssi^-
leaving^em to be hatched by the heat of \'-^
" sun. Were it not for their great fecundity : *
species would soon be destroyed. Fronii'j
sudden changes in color and size, the chamj-' j
has from tune immemorial been selectee ^;
authors as the emblem of the hypocrite, t.^
wily flatterer of the great, the ambition tJ<--"
gogue, the cautious knave^ and the fickle iD(^
stant persons, who, from mere indolence or s;
steadiness of purpose, are **all things to ^
men."

mATom

tiuuuaao it«^ ^^M

n^n

TL-i!i»rRIC-

afi EiuflLli r>n r#T[ jt

i^{%i flurnnbilTL ItJ^!^ a-:ji1 4!ir. Lrniln' ^1,., ^^^H

^■M^^i '

^^^p^

^^^^H

^^M

^^^^^M»

^^^B

^^^^BT

^^R;

^^^^Vii

^^^^^Fv.

fir flCMII

TUpMiW^t,

ico^nd Mid

^^1

^^^^^^H!

.-tiLl T*ir.

^^^^^^^^hj

^^^Ki''

^^H

Bp^rl&»u«><

ior lu fUnl

siJ^ Ai lin^ab kb T««« ^^Murtl, ui^bC iiKf ^^^H

^■_

690

OHAMOUKI

ocmsiitDtion of 18$d, a senator for 4 years.
When, in 1648, an attempt for a partial confed-
eration was made by the states of Salvador, Hon-
duras, and Nicaragna, he was chosen supreme
delegate with executiye power. In this difficnlt
office he was able to prevent a war dechired
against Goatraiala; bat, being insufficiently
supported, he retired in 184i. As governor ci
the oriental department of Nicaragua in 1845,
and as manager of the financial imkirs of the
state in 1846, he sought to enforce order, econ-
omy, and acoountabmty ; but his efforts were
resented, and he resigned when Oastellon be-
came the head of the ministry. In 1848 he
was a member of the constituent assembly con-
vened at Managua, and in 1849 the adverse par-
ties of Granada and Leon united in electing him
second in the military expedition under Gren.
Mufioz. He was soon after appointed civil and
military governor of the meridional department
of Nicaragua, ai^ signalixed his administration
by the encouiagement which he gave to the plan
of interooeanio communication by way of the
lake of 1) icaragua. In 1851, Pineda being elected
supreme director, Ohamorro became secretary
of the treasury, and Oastellon of foreign afiGEiirs.
Nearly $90,000, out of a revenue of $120,000,
was expended in maintaining a military force ;
and tiie recommendation of Ohamorro Uiat this
item be reduced produced discontent on the part
of the soldiers. He sought to secure the har-
mony of the ministry by resigning his place;
but (Aug. 4, 1851) a rebellion broke out, which
ended in the expatriation of Pineda. The
legislative chambm at Managua immediately
elected Ohamorro general-in-diief^ with pow-
ers to colleot a force and mardi upon the
malcontents. The revolutionary attempt was
chiefly supported by Gen. Munoz, who was
obliged after one victory to surrender with his
officers and men to Gen. Lope, by whom thev
were transferred to Gen. Ohamorro. Though
exposed to the penalties of treason, the safe
conduct which was guaranteed to them at their
capitulation was respected, and they were per-
mitted to leave the state. In 1858, Gen. Oha-
morro was chosen to succeed Pineda as supreme
director, and he strengthened public credit by
his plans of reform. A conspiracy was detected
in 1854, and the conspirators, having taken ref-
uge in Honduras, soon invaded Nicaragua with
a large force from that country. They were
met by President Ohamorro, who was defeated
and obliged to fall back upon Granada. There
he was besieged 281 days, when the insurgent
force retired, Feb. 10, 1855, leaving the regular
government in possession of every point ex-
cept Leon and its neighborhood. The civil war
was continued under Oastellon, Mufloz, and oth-
ers, after the death of Ohamorro.

OHAMOUNI, O&AHONix, or Ohamoio, a val-
ley of the Pennine Alps, forming the upper part
of the basin of the Arve, in the Sardinian prov-
ince of Faucigny, Savoy, 8,425 feet above the
level of the sea. It is about 12 m. long, firom
1 to 6 m« wide, and contains in its 3 pariahea a

population of 8,800. Ifbnt Bbno hcfOLb :
on the S. E., Mont Breven and the Ai^^
Bon^ endose it on the N. W. The Ant £:
ters it at the N. end, flows through it sod p ntr-
out by a narrow g(»ge toward the 8. W^ th^>.^
whicn also runs, at a great hca^t idwre >
stream, the high road to Geneva. TTitli it
canton Yal^ it communioatea through ti.^r»
mantio passes of the Ool da Balme aod the! -
Noire; the dangerous footpaths of the 0. \
G4ant, a favorite route for smugglen^ lea^ i:
Piedmont, and there are one or two other b
ficult but picturesque roads by which theT&V
may be left. The soil is not fertile, but bj fi>
ful cultivation is made to produce goodr::
of grain and fruit, in tilling which, resrii^ 1 1^
(the perfectly white aromatic honey of Cjr
mouni ei^oys a great r^utation) uid trj-
making fancy articles of oarved wood, spii: ':
and weaving, the inhabitants find their i ::
employment The winter, which lasts frcn >>
tober to May, is very severe ; snow lies 5 :V .
deep in the lowest part, and the routes ot^: li
mountains are altogether impassably Tbti.'
summer, however, is warm. In Jolf c '•
mences the dangmus labor of diims trii
across the Hontanvert and the Mer de (><
to pasture on the mountains beyoDd; &&i'-;
occasion is made a holiday. One man i^ '
on the other side of the glacier, to enani '^
cattle till autumn. The scenery of m vs ;
ever since public attention was drawn to i::
1741 by the English traveUers Wyndbam ;:'.
Pocock, has attracted thousands of tounst^
ery season. Prom the bottom the view h -
fined by theproximity of the mountains, t:--
rise on the W. to a height of 8,500 feet ti> '
the sea, and on the £. to a height of 1
feet The latter, among which is Mont LU
are clad with perpetual snow, and gi^e l'"-
to the glaciers which form the most inter^N^'
features of the valley. The largest of u<
called the Mer de Glace, is 15 m. long, tr(*!t ^ '{
6 m. wide, and from 80 to 120 feet tbicL ^^
is broken by many crevices of fearfol «!': •
through wmch may be seen the remarL^^
purity and deep blue odor of the frozen tjt'-^^
There are 6 or 6 dadera of less dze, ^- '}
which approach dose to the cnltiTated y^-
Beade visits to the glaciers, there are n .'
other interesting excursions made by trs^^-"
to the Heg^re, whence a fine view of X >
Blanc is obtained; to the Breven, which ec^
mands the whole of the c^posite range; t^- '-'
Ool de Balme; to the source of the Arve.y^'
to the Jardin, a flowery island in the nu^^"^
a sea of ice; and to Mont Blanc Abodj -
guides, of over 200 experienced persons ^
been established by the Sardiaian jorerDirfrr^
under a code of laws and with a &ed rtjf '
charges. — Okajcouhx, or OoAMOsa (anc. (; '
pw MunUua^ OcmpinumHim\ the prmp-J^^.
lage of the above described vdley, S9 in> ^ '
Geneva; pop. about 1,800. It owes its on:-
to a Benedictine priory, founded in l(w>''
is hence oocadonaUy oalkd St Fki6an&^^''

1 aiAm DH M^M

■

cmAVPAcn?"K

^^^^^H

^^m^T r* 1 ^ p.l^,. »i ^Ff.^ *^t»-.. !

'^ .^^-.>. ~*. J

'■'* -^t •

, _ 1, .. 1 ▼

^^1

^^^K^

^■kt

^^H

^^^^■lf#(li>jp«i, 111,

;. i

; 1

■

CI;

0HAMPA6NE

OTTAMFAQHY

tftkeg place, in the latter part of September
and the beginning of October, the bonches are
carefollj cut from the stalks and transported in
covered baskets, bj hand or on horseback, to
the press, on which they are gently laid, and
the lever applied with as much celerity as pos-
sible. After the first pressing, the product of
which is placed aside, the moss is stirred, fresh
grapes are added, and another application of
tiie lever is made; and so for a third time.
Water is then poured on the must, and the
Juice which exudes is converted into a bever- .
age for the use of the workmen and laborers. ,
The first and second pressings, known as the
vin de ehoix and the vin de taiUe, are put into
casks and placed in cellars of an equable,
temperature, until the first fermentation has
taken place. In the month of March ensuing,
after being fined and racked twice and even
thrice, they are ready for bottling; previous to
which, the products of various localities are in-
termixed for the purpose of obtaining the neces-
sary qualities of aroma or perfume, delicacy of
taste, and strength of body. Huge vats or
tuns, prepared expressly for the purpose, con-
taining in some cases as much as 6,000 gsllons,
are then filled with the combination, in
proportions determined upon by the person
occupying the position of taster for the es-
tablishment, which, after being thoroughly
commingled and amalgamated, is allowed to
settle, and is then drawn off into bottles, which
are placed in racks so constructed that each
bottle can be raised or lowered, so as to lie
perfectly fiat, or stand almost perpendicular. Up
to this moment, the wines are rarely tampered
with by the introduction of either sugar or
brandy, but, in adverse seasons, those substances
are sometimes necessary to enable them to un-
derffo the operation of a secondary fermentation,
without which it is impossible to make them
sparkle or mouMer. This process ordinarily
oonunences during the month of June, and con-
tinues the whole summer, pending which, es-
pecially when the grapes begin to ripen, or in
stormy weather, immense loss is sustained by
the bursting of the bottles, and the consequent
escape of the liquor. After a lapse of 18
months, during which the carbonic acid gas is
generated by means of the suppressed fermenta-
tion, a thick muddy deposit is precipitated to the
neck of the bottle, which has gradually been rais-
ed to a standing position, and the wine becomes
perfectly dear and limpid, having a very light
straw color, and in this state it will remain un-
changed for years. "When required for exporta-
tion, or for commerce, the sediment is carefully
removed, degorgee as it is termed, and a cer-
tain percentage of a liquor composed of fine
rock candy dissolved and superior brandy, or
an alcoholic distillation from the wine itself, is
added to each bottle, which is strongly corked,
and secured by wire and twine, and the air
excluded by covering the entire neck with tin
foil or sealing wax. The amount of liquor add-
ed to the wine varies firom 8 to 20 per cent,

aooording to the oonntrr in which it isto k
consumed, France uedng the minimum quantir
and Bufisia the maximum. The number of ' >
ties of sparkling champagne produced in i-
district amounts to 18,000,000 on an arenc.
of which 6,000,000 are exported to Gem-:
8,000,000 to the United States, 2,000,'^' >
Russia ; about the same quantity \a reqnirt^l :>
France and Bel^um, the remainder of l^Oi" .''
being consumed in England and ekewhtrv -
The BoU which produces this wine is compc^,
in a great measure, of chalk and lime formati ;
and IS exceedingly stony. The choicest viit-
yards are invariably those having a sonthni':
em or south-western exposure. Amon? ...
factors, the wines termed le$ vim de U <; ■■-
tagne, the product of the vineyards on l:
ridge of hills running the entire length i>f 1^
district, command the highest price; h' <
de la Mame^ ftom vineyards mtoated in --^
valley, rank next; and les tint ds h ^■
d'Avizia^ among which are included the rj: -
yards around £pernay, &c., obUun tho 1 *
est rates. The wines of Champs^ are di^;:
ed into 8 qualities: the sparkling or f^ ■
9eux, which is the most x)opular, being '• i
highly eflfervesoent character; the crean '-'
or cremant, which is considered by connolv-^-^
the best; and the stiU or sallCTy, which :^
sembles somewhat the white wines of ^
This beverage, although factitious, holds &1^::-
er place in popular regard than any other, ''■•^'
is justly esteemed by the amateur, the pV
cian, and the refined epicure; .its sparl-:
qualities and agreeable sweetnes attracu-
the first : its diuretic and strengthening pM :
ties renaering it valuable to Uie seooDd; :^-
its full fiavor, delightful aroml^ and refi^' •
bouquet, endearing it to the third." The in'
at Bheims, the budness centre of the dls: '•
varies ftom 2 to 6 francs per bottle, evj"
thing included; and in the very worst sea- ;•
the maximum price has rarely been excee ■•
CHAMPAGNE, or Ohampaiosb, ?^^
DE, a Flemish painter, bom in Brussels, Mij --
1602, died in Paris, Aug. 12, 1674 He ^

E aired to Paris at the age of 19, and vit-
aving enjoyed the instruction of any fl' -
guish^ master, yet acquired a great n*?^*
tion for his portrdts and landscapes. . -'
coloring is excellent, and his portraits p*^"^^
great merit. His best pictures are to bet-
at Vincennes, and in the church of the Cr-
ites at Paris. One of his best portraits is t-
of himselfl now in the Louvre.

OHAMP AGNY, Jkak Bapttotb Komi^' ^
due de Cadore, a French statesman, K^r ■;
Roanne in 1756, died in Paris in 1884. He ^^'
a member of the states-general in 1789, aui :5
one of the first nobles to unite with the t
estate. Arrested in 1793, he escaped the set*
and in 1799 he entered the council of stejf ^
was in July, 1801, sent as ambassador to A i^';^.
In 1804 the emperor appointed him mm'^' ;
the interior. He went with his ma^'^^ .
Milan in 1805, and in 1807, after thepe*^^

f 4 ^ ? ■ ■ I n -!

PBffY

«iu:;

.'ii 'ir I '\i.\ It !iii

,.,..„..^

'■i:TTiiTil-ii ;

%■'■'

, &Q4 1''

1 Kr. NMT MMnc

10 iffi tif *>L ;
k tu «ftf 1.* tltjc> Mil

,^iMa^ at A Ik'

fir- 1 II ; 11 -.X

fM.il 'Tl 'ill* LVrt!l-

494

ORAMFiOS

▼here there ▼&» no statute on the flmhjeet,
ehampertj has been held to be an offence at
common law. In the state of New York an
innovation was first made bj allowing a person
didming title to lands, possesnon of whidi was
held adveraelj, to execute a mortgage of such
lands, which would be valid and have preference
over all subsequent Jadgments against, or mort-
gages, &c., executed V ^^ mortgucer, in case he
would ultimately recover title. The courts of
that state have also made an exception as to con-
veyances of lands held adversely, if such con-
Teyaoce was in pursuance of a contract entered
into before the adverse possession commenced.
Lastly, in respect to attorneys, the code of
practice of New York authorizes a bargain be-
tween attorney and client as to oompensatkni
for the prosecution or defence of a suit, and
this is understood to warrant an agreement
that the attorney diaU have part of what shall
be recovered. It was a very ancient rule of
the common law that choses in action should
not be assigned, the object of which rule was
to prevent any champertious intermeddling with
dalms to be put in suit ; but courts of equity
long since recognized the right of the assiffoee,
and no other effect of the rule renuuned ex-
cept that it was required that a suit at law
should be brought in the name of the assignor.
But this has now been abrogated in the state
of New York, as well as many other states,
and a suit must be brought in the name of the
real party in interest.

CHAMPION, a term derived from chivalry,
and signi^ing one who undertakes to defend
his cause by force of arms. Oustom allows a
wider latitude of application to the word. ^ In
the ruder stages of society, when might consti-
tuted right, the right was frequently submitted
to such an arbitrament The two elements
which then chiefly entered into the social sys-
tem, namely, religion and love of military glo-
ry, both inclined toward a ceremony in which
God should be called to indicate the righteous-
ness of the cause by success in the trial by bat-
tle. Accordingly, we find from the earliest ages
of feudalism the trial by private combat recog-
nized as a legal mode of settling disputes. The
trial came gradually to be hedged in by for-
malities, until it was only appealed to in cases
of grave import. It is obvious that in many
oases of personal encounter the disputants must
be so une<|ually matched that they could not be
pitted agamst ea<^ other with any chance of a
nir resdt ; the law therefore permitted the
I>laintif^ or the defendant in cases of accusa-
tion, to name a proxy or champion. Appeal to
combat could be made in court-martial, that is
to say, in cases coming under the jurisdiction
of the court of chivalry or honor, in appeals of
felony, and in certain cases upon issue joined
in a writ of right. Ladies and minora, being
disqualified by reason of theur physical incapa-
city, prosecuted their clums by a champion.
The champion usually challenged his opponent
by casting down his ^ove, which the latter

OHAMPLAIN

accepted \f taking up. Conibai was Ik
joined, and carried on to the death, or C
stopped by the judges. Verdict ms gir:
for the victorious party* It is btm. tkusf^
torn that our modem phrase is deriTcd, 't;
appeal to the God of battiee." Judicial ooish
appears to be of Gothic omn. William <^
Norman introduced it into KnglfitH^ vbm i:
was practised as late as 1688. In tbd L-
year of Queen iSizabeth ft trial of kukv^
fought by champions in TothiUfieUs, Wesaii:
ater, on a writ of right. Tlie custom was ^T
pressed in France by Bt Louis in 1270, bv
remained unrepealed on the Engiisli sUtr
book to the time of George IV., wbentlxl
wayman escaped from luatice by dtanm t:
Appeal to wager of battle. In the c/tmn'jr?
until recently in use on the coronitioQ oi i^
kings of England, a champion figures ooibT r :
ously. The championship of En^and b bcr^i
tary in the fSamlly of Dymodce, whose tlo^:
male representative heir, armed eap-d-pUii':^
style of the middle ages, should ride into the riij
and throwing down lus gauntiet dare 8dt<£
to dispute the right of the eovenugn to p
throne. This portion of the ceremonial or
occurred in 1821, at the coronatiaa of Otfr:
IV. William IV. and Victoria dispensed vX
it

CHAMPLAIN, a post Tillage and iont
at the N. extremity of Clinton ca, N. T. ; ? i
of township in 1866, 6,197; of village, U •
It is situated on Chazy river, whidi sappl:<^
with water power, and is connected by t:
Northern raihroad with Rouse's Point i^-
Ogdensburg. It is comprised in Chm-^
collection district, and has some trade, vb^^ *
carried <mi by the Ghaasr river. The vu-
contains several churches, an academy, ft ^^^-^
paper office, and manufisctorioi of iron ^
other articles.

CHAMPLAIN, a N. W. co. of Canada t
on the left bank of the SU Lawrence, tmc^^-
by the St. Maurice river, and indadiogserc^*
small lakes ; area 0,200 sq. m.; pop. in 1851-;
18,896. In 1861-'2 it produced «8,(MB \^^'
of wheat, 300,796 of oats, 19,682 of bwWcs^
11,819 tons of hay, 5,469 pounds cf tobsi^
29,180 of wool, 166,900 of maple sugar, si-
- 81,059 of butter. It contained 8 ^ U "^f:
and 4 fuUing mills, 1 tanneiy, 1 fooBdaT"^
schools, and 8 ohurche&

CHAMPLAIN, Lakb, a mcturesque sheets
water lying between New lotk and y&BHf--
and extending from Whitehall, in the fittp
state, to St. Jdm's in Canada. It ia 1^^-
long, and varies in breadth from 40 vj&r
15 m. Its greatest breadth unobatrwted ,
islands is about 10 m^ at a point near Boric^;
ton,Vt Its deptii varies fitmi 54 to SfiSI"^
and vessels of 80 or 100 tons navigate it^' ^^\
extent The principal islands srs Kortti ^^
11 by 2 m^ Soutii Hero, 18 by im^^^K
Motte, 6 by 2 m.; these 8, with ievw^^;.
ones and the jpeninsula of Alburg^ aU ^^'.
parti form the county of Grand Isle "^ ^^

^^^ cnuuunAnr

aie I

■■■'•• --—•-■" d

^^^^^^■^'

^^^^^^;

M^, ■

U^'i

■

^^^1

^^^Bi 1

^^S^ ^-i lii/**^-.'

^^w ^m of LOT-

^Hm Icv^sJ

^^K«lv».

^^^K '''Lam ',1 ii? *LL''rn»".'rY*a ih I'i' v

■

HX,

^^^^^BIlBl^Di] .

^^1

^^^^fU

^^HHin«^^

jA ^I

.r. ^^M

^Hphair AE9Ed>

HMDe ertfox iskfp'indiL^'ii

Hf«iiil%»rcciR ' Jm itffitftesr

fcjtil Oigiiijfip-^'CTu Ti4f»n-r4*T**»-r-nr.:v.! - -'

^^H

■toif oT PA? i3 fiifiM ofi ai« kX^ f r

^^^1

Bwiye tktit, end tw^jiIi w«fo IwiUi r^nu c.j

^^^1

b i*r (MfviM iH(:b iai9lca& nri>l^* ^'^

■Miljei,t^i«0BilAll«lHwiT«Hd,W'L« >

^^bntiyflt, and WM jAu^ebfiil 4)e Hit j

■

^^KL4 tTr-t Tftn* ii'»4 til Li t IVunk' >*

^^^■^ ' m«^ U^»i,

^Oi^

^^^^H^ c« A*T»tftf!*n

Oiip>

^^^^^Ki

: ki^v** ?t.>si:J^ t!ijdt- ^1

^^^^^^^B^'

ilOOfliflir, ■

^^V^

^V <i>

^^1

ese

CHAHPLAM

tiie whole faroe oompriaxig 16 veflseLa, moimt-
ing 95 grms, and oanying abont 1,000 offloen
and men. As the enemy approachedf the
Americans sprung their broadsides to bean
and a few moments passed in solemn silence and
expectation. The £agle, the headmost vessel
of onr line, opened first with 4 long 18-ponnd-
ers, and soon after the Saratoga opened her fire,
HcDononffh himself pointing the nrst gnn. The
enemy adyanoed steadily and gallantly, and,
with the exception of the Ohubb and the gnn-
boats, which kept under way, anchored at about
9 o'clock in line ahead, about 800 yards from
the American line. The Oonfiance did not re-
turn a shot until she had anchored, when she
fired a fuU broadside principally upon the Sara-
toga, and with the most terribly destructive
ef^ct The water was smooth, the ships were
within point-blank range, and the guns were
pointed with accuracy. This single broadside
killed or wounded about 40 men, or near one-
fifth the complement of the Saratoga. The en-
gaf^ment now became animated and very san-
gumary. It could hardly have been otherwise,
as it was very close, the vessels were heavily
armed, and their crews very numerous in pro-
portion to their size. In fact, they more nearly
resembled floating batteries than ordinary ves-
sels of war. About the middle of the engage-
ment, the whole starboard battery of the Sara-
toga had become unavailable, the long gans hav-
ing been disabled by shot, and the carronades
dismounted. It therefore became necessary to
wind the ship, in order to bring the larboard
battery to bear. This was accomplished by
means of the kedges which had been Imd out,
and the fresh broadside was brought to bear
upon the Oonfiance with great effect. She at-
tempted the same evolution, though unsuccess-
fully, and, about 2^ hours after the engagement
commenced, surrendered. The Saratoga's broad-
side was then sprung upon the linnet, which
struck a few minutes afterward. The Finch
had previously been crippled, and drifted down
upon Crab island, where, upon receiving a
shot from the 1 gun batteiy, she surrendered;
and the Ohubb had earlier in the engagement
struck to the Ticonderoga. The gun-boats struck
soon after the Oonfiance, though they succeeded
in escaping, none of our vessds being in a con-
dition to pursue theuL The American loss in
killed ana wounded was 111. That of ^e en-
emy was variously stated at firom 178 to 204.
The conduct of Oapt. McDonongh. his officers
and men, washighly applauded ; in ract, the cidm
and desperate braveir with which this action
was fought could hardly be excelled. Oapt. Hen-
ley of the £agle, and lleut-commandant Oassin
of the Ticonderoga, were also spoken of in terms
of great commendation. This victory brought
in its train far more important results than any
other naval achievement of the country. Sir
George Pre vest, who was prepared for an attack
upon Gen. Macomb, made a precipitate retreat
as soon as the Brkish squadron surrendered,
abandoning a hirge portion of his artillery ana

stores, and no fbrther atfesmpts st ah inv^.^
in that quarter were made.

OHAMPLAIN, Samukl, a IVench narks ^
and first governor oi New France or io^ r
Oanada, was bom of good &mily, in Broi:&-|
Saintonee, about 1570, died in Qnebeo, in h i
1685. la his youth he served in the Freii
navy. Heniy lY. of France gave him a pen.-, i
and attaohed him to his person. ILdeOhar t
governor of Dieppe, having obtained firom ** *
king permission to foxmd settiements in N^^r.:
America, engaged Ohamplain as his snbstir*'
in the enterprise. Henry lY. gave him the t'
of general lieutenant of Gaiuda, and char:-:
him to send home a flaithful aoconnt of his o
sion. Accordingly, Ohamplain embarked ::
Honfleur, March 15, 1608, on board a ship ccri-
manded by Pont-Grav6, an enterprising sailer /
St Male. On Hay 24 they cast anchor in ti*
river St Lawrence. Here Pont-Grav^ and i:
with 5 men embarked in a canoe and BsoesLici
the river as far as the Sault St Louis, when
Oartier was brought to a stop in his voyage h
1585. Finding it inexpedient to advance, tbrj
retraced their way, carefully examining tl*
banks of the river, to the ship, in which Chszh

ein returned to France, and published in 10 ?
account Dm $a/uicage$. On reaching Frasce,
he found that the concession had been tnnsfen^
firom his patron De Ohastes, deceased, to the siea
de Moots. Letters patent to this genUeman so:!:-
inated him vice-admiral, and lientenant-genenl
of his mi^esty in that part of Acadia formeHj
called Korimbergue, with full power to nuk?
peace and war, and to trade in peltries, from Ii.
40® to 46** N., to the exclusion of all other pt>
sons, also to make grants oflands to lat 54°. P^^
Monts made a new engagement with Champ.ii::
for another voyage. Leaving France together,
they proceeded to the St Lawrence with the viev
of founding a settiement on its banks ; Imt De
Monts finding the dimate too severe, they skiiv
ed the coast of Kova Scotia till they arrived a: ar.
island in the St Oroix river between Maine ssc
New Brunswick, but roeedily left it in coc^
quence of its want or water. Finally thej
decided on Port Boyal. E. side of Nova Scotil
During the winter ana succeeding year Glism-

Elain was occupied in exploring the coast, wbid
e did as far as Oape Ood, Muss. In 1607 be
returned to France. His 8d voyage was under-
taken at the solicitation of De Monts, who b»i
once more taken up the idea to fonnd a oolcnv
on the St Lawrence, near the month of the
Saguenay. He sailed in 1608, again aocomps-
nied by Pont-Grav6, for the port of Tadoasac;
Saguenay river. Ohamplain perceived that thif
was no place for a permanent settlement, asd
therefore, in 1608, selected for a site Qa«-
bee, on the St Lawrence, so called from in
Indian word signifying the narrows. In s
short time this settiement began to grow, uoder
the impulse of profitable trade. Chami^fliB
erected houses, sowed grun, and did aH he coold
to develop the rising f^ trade. Here some of
his people planned to assasonate him and leton

ooLUtPutsr

(huvfvbslc

087

ftrtl Ihit r,\iTi *.'*i« «'i^.M.'i^^r/.J Afl.^ /iid^ Mit* All. .1 tr.f^ii lkMr->'rr»*n T^ n^ ■» ♦ifi • 1 1 ■

■ TTTl tn i'lrjIilLrl-i TTk I hi

I grtr

in*

J* hj ^ nr-

»4( iM^'t^ »4L 4JUa' Ui' mUw «i/

098

CHAIGPOLEIOH

iiw1i6C6lde Bomrnne. There lIirie,^dio at
iint was indebted for her flsttering reception
to her penonalohamie rether than her superior
actisg, became aorpieinted with Badae^ who
gave her lesaona ia docntloii. She improTed
greatly under his instracdon. He wrote manj
tragic parts for her, which she performed with
touching eflTect 8be is enthusiastically praised
WMadame de 86Tign6, LaFontaine, andBoQeaiL
Her snccesB lasted nntil her last performance,
when she was over 50 years old. Her husband
^was a great friend of La Fontaine, and wrote
aeyeral comedies in eonoert with that poet.
One among them, entitled Is Florentine is nsa-
ally printed with La Fontaine's works.

OHAMPOLLION, Jxah Fraxqoib, a French
orientalist and archsBologist, born at Figeao,
department of Lot, Dec. 28, 1790, died in
Paris, March 4. 1682. Edncated at Grenoble,
mider the direction of his elder brother, he learn-
ed the Hebrew, Ghaldee, Byriao, Ethiopio, and
Arabic langoagea. Toniing his attention to
Egypt, he became impressed with the idea that
a thorough knowledge of the Ooptio would un-
rayel many mysteries. He at once began the
study, and was soon satisfied that by ap*
plying his knowledge of this language to various
oriental documents, he should be able to give a
Ml description or Egypt as it was under the
Pharaohs. The introduction and the plan of
this intended work were read by him, in 1807,
to the academy of Grenoble, before he was
17 years old. A few months later he repaired
to Paris, where he became acquainted with
the most renowned orientalists of the time,
Millin, Langl^ Silvestre de Sacy, Oh6zy,
and assiduously attended the lectures at the
oollege of France and the royal school of
oriental languages, giving special attention to
the Ooptio, through which he now hoped to
decipher hieroglyphic inscriptions. He conse-
Quently preparea a Oopdo grammar and
aictionary, which he never ceased to re-
Tise and enlarge. After perfecting his know-
ledge of the Arabic, Persian, and Sanscrit, he
began in 1808 to perceive a dim light through
the arcana of hieroglyphic writing, and by a
minute comparison between the Bosetta iu-
Bcription and a demotic p^yrus, he found out
the 26 Egyptian letters as set down by Plu-
tarch. To this mode of writing he took such a
liking, and acquired such familiarity with it, as
to use it even for his private notes. In 1809 he
was appointed professor of history in the facvltj
of Grenoble, and in 1814 appeared the 2 fiist
volumes of his great work, L*^gypte sous Us
FharaonB, His system of hieroglyphic interpret-
fttion was, however, still in embryo. During
the troubles of the restoration he removed to h£
native city, where he devoted his leisure hours
to remoulding his Ooptio dictionary, and trans-
cribing his Ooptio grammar, which copy, now
in the imperial library, is a masterpiece of
oriental calligraphy. In 1818 he resumed his
professorship at Grenoble. Meditation and
new research had now nearly brought his sya-

tem to matailiy. AfswinoaihalatflrlMve
toParia, where he read in snoeeanon before l
aoademy of inscr^tioiia a series of y^i&n c
poondinff his theory of the hieratic vrr^i
This he held to be simply an ahbrevisted i.n
of the hierogjyidufl^ while the demotic '\jtc
striking resemUanoo to oar a^babe&fr^
In this exposition, afterward pubMed hl::
4he title idLetUreiM^DaciBr^hibpLi^vn^^
of ability to read many names insenbe: ii
E^gyptian monnmentSb When snhmittfti tu '.
aoademy in its definitive fonn, Sept 17, l^i^ :
was prodiumed to be a oon^lete disooTerr
the hieroc^yphie alphabet, and Louis XVIl
sent as a reward to its author a suuff box^i
bis initiala in diamandw. The discoTerr. hoi
ever, was contested by Dr. Thomas Yvc::
who had prevional^ t^A some of the cyv-
rions characters, and the dahn of the k:
liah archsBologist was indeed not "^t^^
foundation; but after alongandthoroogb^
onsdon, it has been acknowledged bj H ^
pr^udiced minds of both nations, that Cin
poUion had greatly improved upon thepriii
pies and premises laid aown by I)r. Xom- ^^
a series of papers which he read in April, ^^5
and June, 1828, he expounded soooeasiTriT Ij:
8 concurring elements of the gr^>bic sjaicz .
the Egyptians, the figurative, the ideogr^
and the alphabetic, which papera formed u-
great work published in 1824, at the expert'*; c:
the government, under the titie of Frtcli :^

Si9thne hieroaJppMpiS de9 andffn ig^i^f^
hampoUion had, meanwhile, publisW tie -
first volumes of his PanUUon £gwatun^ whii
however, was not completed, from l^^}'
1826 he travelled in Italy, and purobssed for U:
French government a valuable coUecdu". c
Egyptian antiquities, which had been broof't ;
L^hom by the English consul, Henry Salt : a:-
visited the museums of Turin, noreiioe, F/^
and Naples, which he thoroughly ezainis^^
giving an account of his researcbes ABi-
coveries in several papers resd before tst:.-^
Italian academies, or addressed to'promiLc::
persons in France. The most remarkaUe are i:'
FtmMT0 et ueonda lettre au due de B(^ ^
which he presented several suooeasiiil apr^<^'
tions of his system. On his return to Parii, i^^
found that an Egyptian museom bad ^^
created at the Louvre by a royal deeree^^i^'^
being appointed keeper, and, at tbe ^sm t^^
professor of Egyptian arohsdology in tbe nis-
seum. He devoted hu attention to lu9 ^^
duties, and so arranged the mosemn tbS' }•
became a model for ail similar establisbn;^^'^
But hia most ardent wish was to viat^K^^'^;
this was gratified throu^ the mmufic^*^^ '^
Oharles X. At the head of a sdeatigc ^'
artistic commission, in coxgunotion viui,|
similar one sent by the duke of Tuscany, QS^»
the direction of Boselliui, ObampoUioQ "r
barked, July 81, 1828, explored i;g7pt ^^^^'t
most untiring seal during more than 18 moc^
giving inter^ting accounts of his prog^^ ^
letters to hie brotheriand letaniediniun^

ClTAlfTOUlOH VmKAJQ

OUAjrCKlXOE

' - V r I **T^ lie kwl bats ^-'' '-- '^^ * -r^^ of tbo^iJe^^-**^**^"'**'^

l..-JP* + Tli .1

'. Uwj tw erp*fc*

]0liSl||Hlf«- CflDAMtStt

iiscinp4« mill tBoli

^ tan r,*JiCli-

1% KivjiccULly ill A*4n«i« Ifltaitiei lifr fiuiit eliM ^

ff «-?*ffP */ tin

cMii 1^

I su^aioor al ib*Qfttiavlt«ML

700

OHANOEBY

fts saoli retires on a change of minifitry. This
nnion of Judicial and political functions was al-
ways an impediment to justice, and, as the pub-
lic business takes precedence, gave rise to great
inconvenience in the business of the court. By
act of parliament passed in 1851 the chan-
cellor has been relieved of a considerable part
of his judicial duties by the appointment of 2
lords justices who, togetiier widi the chancello^
constitute a court of appeals for the review ox
cases brought from the vice-chancellors and
master of the rolls, all causes being beard
in the first instance by the officers last named.
Either of the lords justices may be required by
the chancellor to sit as vice-chancellors, in
which case an appeal lies in like manner to the
appellate court. The chancellors of England
have usually been distinguished for great legal
attainments as well as political weight. Lords
EldoD, Brougham, Oottenham, and St. Leonards
have been the most distinguished of the present
century; the latter of whom (formerly known as
Sir Edward Sugden) has had an important part
in the late measures for the reform and improve-
ment of the court of chancery. — ^The Ohanoel-
ix>B OF THX ExoHEQTTXB is a member of the Brit-
ish cabinet, and upon him devolves the charge
of the public income and expenditure. Formerly
the prime minister, if a commoner, held the
office; but the increase of government re-
sponsibilities has compelled the separation of
the duties. In the present generation the office
has been in the hands of Mr. Oanning, Sir
Robert Peel, Lord Althorpe, Mr. Disraeli, Mr.
Francis Baring, Mr. Gladstone, Sir Charles Wood,
and in 1868 again of Mr. Disraeli.-— The Chak-
OELLOR OF OxFOBD or Oahbbidgs is the chief of-
ficer of those collegiate bodies. He is elected
and his office is honorary, the duties being dis-
charged by the vice-chancellor. — ^The Ohan-
GELLOR OF A BisHOP sits iu the consistorial
court, and is theoretically the bishop's assessor
and legal adviser. — In continental Europe there
are various political as well as ecclesiastical of-
ficials styled chancellors. The chancellor of
France was one of the highest officials of the
old monarchy. The office was closely analo-
gous to that of England. The chancellor was
president of the great council and of the parlia-
ments, drew up ordinances and letters patent,
and held the royal seals. It is connected with
the illustrious names of Duprat, De rH6pita],
Biragae, Maupeou, Malesherbes, and other dis-
tinguished jurists. Louis XY. held tiie seals
himself for a time, and in 1767, the censorship
having been associated with the other duties of
the office, the virtuous Malesherbes, deeming
executive and police duties incompatible with
the purity of the judicial office, resigned. It
was abolished in 1790; revived for a short
time by Napoleon, that his court might be
graced with the title, for the functions were
not restored ; revived under the restoration, it
was finally abolished in 1880.

OHANOERY. By this term is designated
the English system of equity, which, in a modi-

fied form, has been introdoced into tiie ZM
States. The name, according to OokS) ir as Cr
rived a cancellando^ because it was the offi» c
the chancellor to cancel letters patents
the king which had been improvidentlj isa^
ed. Others, as Spelman and Gowell, sQpp»«r
that it originated a eaneeUi$^ that is^ ktb
work, by which the crowd was shat c
— an etymology which would seem prefer
terous but for the analogous case of tbe tiUtrc:
the legal profession in England and this ccc-
try, which is taken from the bar or nulbg :;
which practising lawyers were endoeed ini
separated from other attendants in cooit Be
system which the name deagnates is as pecalf
as its titie. There are several theories u i
the mode in which this branch of JiuisprDik:^
has been developed. One is that it wk i
usurpation by the chancellora^ who were it ^
early period ecclesiastics, and hostile to u
spirit of the common law. This was umui-
ed bv Lord Ooke, and while chief justice of u
king's bench, he vigorously resisted the stte£r>
of tiie lord chancdlor Ellesmere to give pU
against a judgment in the king's bench, vL:c:
had been notoriously obtained by fraud. Tji

Sarties and their solicitors and counsel were i:-
icted for questioning the judgment; bet .a
matter having been brought before tlie ^
he decided in fiivor of the courts of equity. )^^
putting his decision merely upon an sr^
trary ouscretion, which he claimed as hispn-
rogative. The jurisdiction of actions by ^
court of chancery took its rise from sdtTie
of ecclesiastical chancellors to evade the r^:-
utes of mortmidn, that is to say, statue?
prohibiting the grant of lands to relkic^
houses. Instead ox a gprant of the lands dire:i;
to the parties thus disabled to take, tbe p?^
tice was introduced of making a grant to t per-
son who was under no disability, but for the ^
of religious corporations or persons; sa^j^
chancery it was held that the use was lis^
in conscience, and could be enforced. It ^
for the purpose of getting jurisdiction of ti^
class of cases that John Waltham, chsnoeCor ^
Bichard 11., adopted the suhKena, which b
ever since been the process ror conuDeociQ| ^
suit in equity. To understand tiie nature of tis
innovation, it is necessary to bear in mind vi*-
all writs for the commencement of suits in t-^
diflferent courts, though issued fit)m the o&f^'-
the chancellor, which was called offidna j^-*^
tia^were returnable, not to the office from vhif-
issued, but to the courts where such snita ves
to be prosecuted. But the chancellor cl«ip^
to have authority from somethinff contsic^^
in one of the statutes to compd partia ||^
appear in chancery and answer in re^"
to a use. So far there is some color for^
charge of usurpation of authority for eoc^^
astical advantage; but when by act of p*
ment, passed shorUy afterward, '^^/f!
made subject to the statutes of mortjimf
same as the lands themselves, the doc^i^;
of the court was found to be beaefic*

■HP

■

^BttBBrapf /^

i.-lnr n.

lu tt«c?r'J:

Yt>

rtittiri thr- ii.« tK^*l* *fi,il

rji-rti^'«»"'»-k "liv

it.UlU- ;

w ^H

^K-

^^M

^^H

^^^^^^V '-

»«■ ^^1

^^^^^K

T1|« ^H

^^^^^^K

^^^^Hu'

^■'

^^^^^^h

^^^^^^Bi

' it ^H

^^^^^^hr

^^1

HlKii}

^^1

^^Hj^

• ^H

^^HBhT

iSi H

^^^HKI r.-ti'L.

j[-rii iL'.'

iiU

^^^1

^^■pwi. Tlfo iMMjf* bftiiiMf

^^^■^..r

1, .J". . ,

-tii. Hi

^^K or,

L^ U^d l)*i

^^^1

^^^^Bk; ii 1

, 1 .-in.... .

^^^Md ^

^^^^^pr '1*

^^^HTif'

^^^H

^^^ &!r.^J^

^^^^1

^^^Bof Omm.*^

^^^1

al Urn

^^^H|pQo.f

^^^^

^K^m^ f*

^^^^M

HErnwa ow^

^V. <

■ *.*■##

t'#

•

■

702

OHAKOERT

of wituMBefl in wiiting ; 8, mode of relief; a
ooQit of eqoitf having power to decree a sped-
fic performanoe of an agreement, or to restrain
a party by injnnction from the oommiseion of an
iDjnry, whereas a ooort of law, except in the ac-
tions of replevin and ^ectment, and the proceed-
ing by mandamos, oonld give no relief bnt pecu-
niary damages. In respect to the first, the exper-
iment has been made of allowing parties to tes-
tify as witnesses in all modes of trial. Whether
it will on the whole promote Justice remains to
be seen, bat it is at least demonstrated that it
can as well be done in conmion law conrts
as in equity. So bIbo as to the mode of
relief, the present Indicial system of the state
of New York, and the English common law
procedore acts of 1852 and 1854, have
given to the conrts of law all the powers
necessary for affording a complete remedy.
As to the taking of the testimony of witnesses
in writing, it has been the subject of great com-
plaint as tending to delay and increase of ex-
pense, and among the recent reform measures
in England it has been proposed to abrogate
the practice altogether.— dt would exceed our
proper limits to go into an extended discussion
of tne principles of eouity. They are substan-
tially recognized in the Judicial systems of all
civilized nations, and hence the chancellors at
an early period derived much assistance from
the civil law, the most perfect code of law and
equity which has ever been compiled, and in
doing so did not infringe upon the common
law, for that too received large contributions
from the same source. The treatise of Braoton.
written in the reign of Henry III., a very learned
work and of great authority, was very largely
made up from the digest of Justinian, and
eminent Judges have since that time been in
the habit of referring to the same source in the
settling of new or doubtful questions, and sup-
plying deficiencies of the English law. The
great distinction between the common law of
England, and that of other countries derived
from the civil law, is mainly that in the former
equitable relief was excluded, so that another
and distinct Judicial department became neces-
sary for the administration of equity merely.
The prejudice of English lawyers asainst ec-
clesiastics, growing out oi the introduction of
the canon law by the latter, and their attempts
to acquire Jurisdiction over a large class of
cases that did not properly appertain to the ec-
clesiastical courts, extended also without just
cause to the administration of equity according
to the civil law, and they uniformly resisted all
improvement of the common law in that re-
spect which could have been derived from the
larger experience of Roman Jurists. But though
the establishment of the system of equity in
England was thus irregular, and although, for
want of as^milation between the different
courts, the earlier chancellors were chargeable
sometimes with the exercise of an arbitruy dis-
cretion without due regard to authority, yet the
system that was gradoidly formed had never-

thelenabaslsofmmiidprinc^^ ^Eqidtyhs
always had too nmch vitality within it, hm
been too conversant with action, and too in-
quisitive into motive, to become the mere eres-

tnre of artifice No equitable doctriss

which has not its root in an enlightened mo-
rality can be venerable or lasting." (*^ Papers ei
Juridical Sodety," voL i)— It remains only u
notice the various measnres for the improvcnKt:
of equity courts in England and this conntrr
within a recent period. In 1829 a eomnusai-L
conristing of the most eminent jndges cci
iurists in England, was appointed to examir?
mto the chancery syeUm, ana report what refoTL
would be expedient. They took a large amotr:
of testimony showing the existence of graX
abuses, but were deterred by timiditv fpom \h^
recommendation of any important change, h
1850 Lord Oottenham was indnoed by tL^
enormous pressure of budness, and the oppres-
sive delay and expense in which smtors ver?
involved, to adopt a summary mode of proceei-
ing, the beneficial effect of whidi led to otL-r
and more important changes by acts of parlia-
ment. This was the substitution, in a large so
ber of specified cases, in place of the c^d fonos .t
pleading and mode of taking evidence, <^ a sic:: ]i!
claim and the use of affidavits and counter &k-
davits, and the same course could in the discreckc
of the court be adopted in any other cases, b
July, 1860, an act was passed enabling partita
to agree on cases, and to take the opinion of th«
court thereon. Summary orders were autl)<r-
ized in a variety of cases. The formality of ci-
ceptions was dispensed with in taking accouDt?,
and the court itself was required to dee:>
upon objections to forms of pleadings instead - i
referring them to a master. In Jone, IS'l
another act was passed, by which mastriN'
offices were aboUshed ; chambers were proyiu^:
for the vice-chancellors, who were required to
attend to many of the duties formerly dis-
charged by masters. There waa also apror.-
sion for the reference of questions to convt^;-
ancers, accountants, and other professional |h^>
sons. Lord 8t. Leonards proposed, and stroD;:^
urged the adoption of another provision, tist
cases might be sent by the vice-ohanoellors to
courts of law for their opinion, and that a c<-^
responding power should be given to oourt< ■:
law to get opinions of courts of equity. Tu
object was to cutoff til embarrassment grovi::
out of the question of jurisdiction, and to lure
a final decision in the case in one or oth«:
court without having to commence again t:
amistake as to the proper court had been made.
The proposed amendment was not^ howevc-,
adopted. In the same year further provi«3c::s
were made for carrying out more fsl^ the d5-
charge of chamber business by the vice-clufi>
cellors, and adopting various other chsofei
Oonsentaneonsly with these reforms in chkc-
eery, proceedings have been taken for i!:^
improvement of the common law courts. A
report of the commissionerB on courts of
common law, April SO 1853, recommeiki-

I ouahdas

■

OE^AJiltLCIl

tm ^H

HI i*?** ftf.Tiiliirifl((Jt*n nf enifttr paw^n ip*t*i

fip<1 rit < r^'jTlIi

►•.Vt,\*n rif

t/li*) Fn^r.t

/1»f\ii r> iJiAjifl^ ^^M

^^^^^Vli

■
^1

1'.

r ■

^K ill

yii#s

^^^^b UM. |>M liiu IVl IJX'J lUJtMLL.%' LU i.^«'VT JJUdllp ^

^^^ liLMa iouiWJl «i « Uliil M U^lmmf *^*-,

wludili»H-i-

704

OHAN€W)HOO-rOO

GHAlOrSL I8LAin)6

lowed him an amraity of £200 Bterlinff, in ad-
dition to his salary from the yenerable soci-
ety for the propagation of the gospel, and after
his decease a pension was granted to nis widow
dnring her life. He was appointed to the bish-
opric of Nova Scotia, but declined the office in
coDseqnence of the progress of a cancerous af-
fection in his face, which finally terminated his
life. Dr. Chandler was one of the ablest writers
in the American church. He was a zealous de-
fender of Episcopacy, and in 1T67 he published
'^ An Appeal to the Public in behalf of the
Church of England in America.^' Soon after
the appearance of this work it was attacked
simidtaneously from various quarters, and
among others, by Dr. Chauncy, of Boston, who
publi&ed an answer in behalf of the non-Episco-
pal churches. In reply. Dr. Chandler published
" The Appeal Defended," to which Chauncy re-
sponded, and in 1771 " The Appeal further De-
fended^' appeared from Dr. Chandler. He also
wrote many pamphlets and fugitive pieces.

CHANG-CnOO-FOO, a city of China, in the
province of Fokien; pop. 800,000 to 1,000,000.
It is situated in a valley embosomed in hills and
intersected by a river. A wall, 4i m. in cir-
cumference, surrounds it. At each of the car-
dinal points is a gate, consisting of a canal for
boats and a door for the admission of foot pas-
sengers. The streets are from 10 to 12 feet
wide, and many of them are well paved. The
houses are usually two stories high, and shops
are numerous and well furnished. , There are
two famous temples, now in a dilapidated con-
dition, which are reputed to have attained the
good old age of 1,200 years. The town is a
busy, animated place, and is the centre of the
silk manufacture of the province. It has ex-
tensive suburbs, containing large tile and sugar
manufactories, while from an eminence near the
city as many as 80 populous agricultural villages
may be seen scattered over a plain 30 m. long
by about 20 m. broad. The port of the city,
Amoy, is about 86 m. distant. One of the most
remarkable objects to be seen at Chang-choo-
foo is a bridge across the river. It is buUt upon
25 piles of stone, about 20 feet high and 80 feet
apart. Large beams are laid from pile to pile;
these again are crossed by smaller ones, which
are covered with earth, and then paved with
enormous blocks of granite, some oi which are
45 feet long and 2i feet broad. This singular
structure is about 9 feet wide. Half its length
on both sides is occupied with shops.

CHANGARNIER, Nicolas ANNETHfionunB,
a iSrench general, born April 26, 1793, at Autun.
He was educated at the military school of St.
Cyr, enlisted in the royal body guards, then serv-
ed as a lieutenant of ^e line in the campaign of
1828 in Spain, and finally entered the 1st regi-
ment of royal guards. After the revolution of
1830, he left the service for a time ; but reenter-
ing the army, he went to Africa, where he soon
distinguished himself. His presence of mind and
dauntless intrepidity were shown conspicuously
in 1886, in the retreat from Constantine to Bona,

amid the repeatod aaBanltoof thaAnba h
was now made lieutenant-colonel; g«]iedf:>
ther promotion by his ezertiana in the Kre.*;.
oampaigDs in which he took an actiTe |«r.
became brigadier-general in 18i0, after ih^d-
pedition ajpinst Medeah ; and in 1843 was i:u J
general of division. In 1847, ^e duke of i>
male, being governor-general of Algeria, <xh<
Ohangamier to be put in ooomiand of the >>
trict of Algiers ; and on the revolution of Pcl^
ruary, the young prince remgned the gOT€n;L>
ship into his hands. Gren. Cavaignsc hrq
been appointed to this office by tiie new r^
publican government, Changamier n^
to Paris, and was appointed ambasBBdor «
Berlin, but did not leave Paris, his senl 3
being required there to protect the mtiou
assembly against insurrectionary moveDif:'^
When Cavaignao was called to Paris and Uci*
minister of war, . Changamier was apjKii:.
his successor as governor-general of Ak %
which post he held for 5 months. H.-*
ing been elected to the national asseciUy ^y
the department of the Seine, he retmnK t
Paris, and was, after the bloody days of l^^
invested by €^n. Cavaignao with the comiio:.
of the Parisian national guards. He Mi '^'
post when Louis Kapoleon came into pj^^
as president, when he was also appointed by '^
national assembly, commander of the rec-'"
troops, known as the army of Paris, theo !.'•
000 strong. With these forcea he was ec&ii--
to control at the same time the thre&tei!::
movements of the Parisian mob and the m-
tious aspirations of the president Hesacf^.-
ed in acoomplishing the former part of Ms :^>
fold mission, especially on Jan. 29 and Jooe U
1849, when his vigorous measures cnisbed ^
attempt at insurrection; but he wasiiarfri-
evincing the same boldness and foresight is 1^
dealings with Louis Napoleon. While ChaDf-s.'-
nier was openly giving the assembly ascra:^:
that he was ready to protect them agaioN l.
illegal measures, the president was actoally en-
gaged in carrying out his coup d'etat. Cb:-
gamier found himself unexpectedly arrestc^i ^^
Dec. 2, after which he was banished from Frsscc.
He has since resided chiefly in Beigiom.

OHANGEUX. PiKEBR. Jaoqum, a fe..
savant, bom at Orleans, Jan. 26, 1740, died iV.
8, 1800. . His speculations attracted thesnc:^
tion of D'Alembert, Condorcet, and Boffoaa^j
a large space in the French Encyclopflwiis ^«
given to an analysis of his most important ^^^^
entitled Traite dee extrimea. He was well too^-
for his improvement of the barometer, »na *-
the author of various writings and disco^cr^e
on this as well as on various other snbjeclN

CHAOTJEL ISLANDS, a gronp of islao--:.
the English channel, oflf the N. W. co&i -
France. The prindpal ones are Jeraey, G^^f
sey, Aldemey, Serk, and Herm. irea, U "•
m. ; pop. 76,066. They are the only po^^^
of Normandy now belonging to Great i^^^
to which they have remained attached <^
since the oonqnest. They aie, howerer, a ^«0

^^^^^ ^^^ mihKmm "

^^^^ T4»* ^B

^^^^^M

^^^^^■s> . .

« ^^1

^RP*'

^^Hn

^^H

^^^^^^B|i 'v nmtf.^lnfi W54

^^1
^^1

^^1

^^^^^■J

Mi^^ndbiMuIBi ^^B

■yT

^^^^^1

706

OHANNHTG

« HiBoella&eoiis I\»emB» (Boston, 1B61\ ''A
PhysioUn's Yaoation, or a Bummer in £ti-
rope'' (1666X and '' Etherization in OhUdbirth,"
Olnstrated hj 681 cases (1848). Of these works.
the treatise on "« Etherization in Ohildburth''
attracted great attention both in Europe and
America, and had a mariced effect on the state
of that oranoh of science. Dr. Ghanning has
been a constant student of English literatnre
and of fine art, has written many fagitive
pieces in prose and verse, and has always been
a Taloed member of the best literary and scien-
tific cirdes of Boston.

OHANNING, WiLUAM Ellbbt, D.D., an
Americsn divine, brother of the preceding, bom
at Newport, R. L, April 7, 1780, died at Ben-
nington, y t., Oct 2, 1842. The son of an emi-
nent and hospitable lawyer, having his birth
in a place already tamed and attractive to
strangers for its delightful climate and its
beauty of ocean and rural scenery, surounded
in boyhood not only by the stately courtesfy
and strict domestio and religious usages of
the descendants of the Puritans, but also by
the more unrestrained habits of visitors from
distant parts, the sphere of his youth was well
suited to awaken his mind to diversified thoughts
His physical organization was at once delicate
and vigorous; his appearance was grave and
reflective both in play and in association with
his elders; and he always regarded the tone of
ills character as due more to fsHeat thought than
any companionship. His mind was early occu-
pied by religious and poetic conceptions, by
contemplations of power and chivalrous honor,
and he sometimes startled his assodates by the
vehemence with which he would repress any
irdustice that was attempted. Washington
Ailston was one of his playmates, and mentions
as an instance of the rare uniformity of his
moral dignity that even among boys he was
always looked up to with respect. The lessons
of his mother had developed his religious sen-
sibility, and the doctrinal conversations then in
vogue had turned his attention to theology,
when at the age of 12 he was sent to Kew
London, Conn., to prepare for college under his
nnde, the Rev. Henry Ohanning. His father soon
afterward died, and to the impression of the
funeral and the influence of a revival which
then swept over Kew Endand, with which his
nnde as a moderate Oalvmist sympathized, he
attributed 1;^e commencement of his decidedly
religious life. A competency was not left to
his large family, and thus the necessity of in-
dependent energy was added to the elements
which were forming his character. Esteemed
by his friends for dUigence and scholarship, for
fine powers and pure habits, he entered the
fireshman class of Harvard college in 1794,
where he led a blameless life and achieved the
highest honors. In no single study superior to
aU of his classmates, he surpassed them all in
versatility of talent and the wide range of his
aocomi>li8hments, and especially in his power
of varied and sustained written composition.

Daring his collegiate ooorse tiie prinapb c(
the mnch revolutioB were at ^e dinuitf
their infiuence in this country, riukiogthf r^
fbundationa of religion and sodal order, and d
verting ardent young men firam sUtbetndi-
tiona of loyalty and rever^ice. As his chancy
matured under such infioenoes, he deroud Li.-
self more and more intently to aspiration ti:^
moral greatness. He stuped with delight l^
Stoics, and was profoundly moved by tksw-.
purity which they taught. In reading Botr^
son's essays on ^^ Beauty and Virtoe,"inT!i'^
the capacity of man for disinterested affectio
asserted, virtue defined as sdfHdevetioQ to::^
absolute good, and the universe deBcribedvi
system of progressive order and beauty in nh.l
nnder the will of Infinite Love, there are idvi
possibilities of spiritual destiny, he attaiDed 'j£
sublime view of the dignity of human es:t^
which was ever afterwara to ^npliold isc
cherish " him. The work of Fergnseo <£
" Civil Society*' also coeoentrated his ecer:*
on the thought of social progress; aB>! ''^
newly revived interest, in Skakespesra, to r«
study of whose writings the young ines ' •
Harvard were then paanonatdy deriCii
gave to him a powerim intelleetoal mp'
8o deep waa the impression made o& It
by the genius of Uie great dramatigt ^
through life one of his chief inteDeotiial p^^
urea was fomi^ed by redtatioas from '-'■
plays. The interest which he took ini-:^'-
alent social agitaticms appears trom the fa^-^"-
of the oration, the "Present Ago," whkL :
delivered at the graduation of bis class. 11^'
ing selected the profession of diviDity, be^^-
H years after leaving college as tutor in i T
vate family at Richmond, Va., where tis*;"^
was passed in agreeable sodal relatioii9 a: - -
study, chiefly of political and theological ^'^
jects. He read numerous works of bistort ^
speculation, seeking the principles and fcr^'-
that perfect society which was then tbeo r*^
of pursuit by the best minds in America. I^
land, France, and G^inany. His health s>:^'
ed severely from his anxious examiDati"c •<
speculative doctrines, and in 1800 be retor^-
to Newport to continue his studies. Tbe^; ^^
used to alternate between the public libnra>-
the sea-shore, on which he aftenrsrd i^'^^-
that he had passed his hardest spiritual stn&\"^>
In 1801 he removed to Cambndge, being f|^^
ed regent in the university, and hisletteR;^'
how earnestly at this time he devoted h^"^
both to theological erudition and spiritaAl^-^^
pline, equally admiring the conden^ tbcc;. ' '
Bishop Butler and the mystic piety of Vl;^-
Law. He was intimately connected vltfc a^
Bamuel Hopkins, the celebrated disciple of'*'-;
than Edwards, whom he warmly esteemed. 4^-
when in 1802 he received from the Cm-^
association the usual approbation to pn^|^
was supposed by many <k the ro"**^"/^' \
would enlist on the side of extreme ortiKxK/'
Yet, as he subsequently stated, he was it *'^'
time an Arian, though tinged withetbjctl^'*'

' €TtAK}«t^^• ^^^^^

^^1

^^Hdir|ir%«4i^

^^^1

^^HKk1i^n« «p r

^^^^^^^Hlliiit. h? Ti'

^^^^^

^^^^^^Kix

■

^^^^^^^(»^¥

iicut iJtr

sm ^^M

^^^^ Mill'.*'

'^•r liSfP

^^H

^^1

^^^^■iliA txiw£^ii Ttn^ iijt«!riij tiui '

^^^1

^^■OmfTwftUo&ftlUCA, AlUr §3

^^1

^^K^niie, ban^ - -' f^tftttm fbi

^^^^H

^^^fe ooiiljn:< OhttOiilD^

^^^^1

^^BrMe«4 liw.. ^^' — ^1 ^

,.* tM T. ^- ■

^^^^^^^1

^^■ttd tnUk$ m

^afciiiAl

^^Kgittati^im.

..^-4 t.-

t ^^^^H

^^^^^iiiiit »c^l<

'>« ,^^^H

^^^HHwvi««rr , .

rA ^^M

^^Kri'wiBi i«r lVi(s<4

-il ^H

^^^^nrln^ a tnMt!k c^ >;

^^M

^^^KmIUIuJi <«HJ«hiri'

^^^^M

'.ijp Of JU

■

^^ptedlilc

TiAjmi:f«'

^^^H

^^^Htff tlta nmn

• - -. -J r:

^^^^^^^1

^^^■^ AEllI lilll«4

^^^^Wlfiuiiiu ri'fiiTcrv

■I o r , lu Pi i'i v'uiy.iik 1'

..^^^-jijo ^H

^^Kaimt d«liiil9 )

i«v»tiii or iiin ^i>

T7|l«f^ ^H

^^^mwrni thta eoci

'L iifii i.'1jLt\iT .niifl ,V m.1

"^ ^^^^^^1

^^^U. Ja Itfl^

^^^1

^^1
^^^^1

^^Eiiu ;

"' ^^1

^m i< lu

^^^H

^^K ft^^wp^

^^^H

^^^^B0 'tl : 1 ,

^^1

^^^^V'

708

OHAISTNUTG

OHANT

Tolnable of his lectares, espeoiallT that on *' Self-
Cnlture" delivered in 1889, and tlie series on the
''Eleyation of the Laboring Classes," delivered
In 1 840. The appeal in these discourses to what-
ever of chliracter or manliness there may be in
the yonng is most tondiing and inspiring. He
was one of the earliest agitators of anti-^avery
in this country, his attention having been spe-
cially turned to the subject by a winter's resi-
dence on the isUind of Santa Cruz in 1880. His
first efforts were to arouse the moral feeling
against slavery, and it was not till 1837 that he
deemed special political action needful. In that
year, by addressing a public meeting in Faneuil
HoU, he became nearly identified before the

Eublic with the abolition movement, into which
e sought to infuse his own spirit of calmness
and candor. His work on slavery, published in
1841, had a wide circulation, and the last public
act of his life was to deliver an address at
Lenox, Mass., Aug. 1, 1842, on the anniversary of
the emancipation in the West Indies. During
the latter years of his life he resided in winter
in Boston, and in summer at Newport, and his
death was caused by an attack of typhus fever
while pursuing a mountain excursion. Dr.
Ohanning has been characterized as belonging
to the poetic order of philosophic minds, and
not only his writings but also the traditions of
his personal character are needed to adequately
estimate him. In unvarying moral dignity, and
in the wide scope and constant glow of his
moral feelings, he has perhaps never been sur-
passed. His words as well as his opinions were
usually chosen from among those which express
the sunny, hopefhl, and possible view of things,
and BO predominate in his style that it is trans-
parent with moral beauty. He should be j udged
as he is remembered, not merely as a thinker,
but as a preacher and a Ohristian. He was
buried at Mount Auburn, where a monument,
designed by his friend Washington Allston, was
dedicated to his memory. — ^The most complete
edition of his works was published in Boston, in
1848, in 6 vols. 12mo. In England appeared in
1849 a selection of hisworks by Mountford, un-
der the title, ** Beauties of Ohanning." Many of
his essays have been translated into German at
various times, and a more complete selection of
his worka was translated by Sydo w and Schulze,
and appeared in Berlin, l660-'51. His biogra-
pher was his nephew, the Rev. William Henry
Ohanning, whose work was published in 1848,
simultaneously in Boston andLondon, under the
title of " Memoirs of William Ellery Ohanning,
with Extracts from his Oorrespondence and
Manuscripts.'' An elaborate notice of Dr. Ohan-
ning, from the pen of M. £douard Laboulaye, ap-
. peared in the Journal des Dibats in 1852, and
subsequently was published CEutrea wcialea de
W. E. Channing. preeedeea d'une introductum^
by M. £douard Laboulaye, member of the in-
stitute. This work attracted much attention in
France and Belgium, and was favorably review-
ed in the Reoue des deux mondes^ B&cue de Paris,
Siede, and in Belgium in an essay vnitten by M.

ran Niemen. In 185T appeared, fivrn tbe pe-
an Euj^ish ladv, a F^nch work based vpo: t
Rev. W. H. Onanning's memoirs, and enti: .-.
Channing^ tavieetses CBuvre$^ atee vne frry-
de M, Charles de Remusat (Paris, Didier V
Oo.). M. de R^mnsat's preface is written ij .
Tery appreciative spirit, and exhibits the i:^-
interest which Dr. Ohanning begins to a^-*:
in the best minds of Europe. The aatbore<«
the work undertook it as a labor of love, l
does not disclose her name.

OHAKNING, WnxiAM Hkkbt, an Ainer •
clergyman, nephew of the preceding, kr- :
Boston, May 26, 1810. His firther, Francis Ii .
Ohanning, died when he was veiy young. I
early education was received at an 8c»!r:<
in Lancaster, Mass., and at the Boston \ix:
school. He graduated at Harvard ooDege !
1829, and at the Oambridge divinity ecbtxi
1888. He has been settled over relipioo^-
cieties in Meadville, Penn., New York r:;
Oindnnati, Nashua, Boston, Rochester, i''
Liverpool, Eng. He has edited the " W^:r
Messenger" one year, the "Present," the -H^
binger," and the " Spirit of the Age," and \'^
also contributed articles to the "Dinl/ i-
" Ohristian Examiner," and the " North An?r-
can Review." He has written and pnbiL'.'.
the "Translation of Jouffix)y'8 Ethics" (B^^-.
1840, 2 vols.), in Ripley's " Snedmens of F ^

eign Literature ;" ** Memoirs of Dr. ^'^■-
EUery Ohanning," 8 vols. (Boston, 1848); -u
and Writings of James H. Perkins," St ^
" Memoirsof Madame Osaoli (Margaret Fnlle-.
in connectaon with R. W. Emerson and J.^
Olarke; sermons, reviews, and misceDai^--
He is at present pastor of the Hope street ctt? t
(Unitarian), Liverpool, Eng., fonnerlj }'^'
the pastoral care of the Rev. James liartici:.
Mr. Ohanning has labored much in social r^
forms, and his views of the church and fc-ei •:
spring from central principles of love and ^^7
in the Ohristian faith. He belongs in «t>
licity of sympathy to the broad or ym<^
church, and he advocates his sentiments ^-
much real and eloquence. His addresses *^^
discourses are often extemporaneon^ ^ "r
livered in a style highly impassioned m --^
aginative. The vision of a more Oufi^ fi
fraternized form of human society, thekin- -
of Jesus Ohrist on earth created by ^J^\.
and inspiration of the goepd faith v^y^J^'
man, mis his horizon, and enlists hisei^ ^
Mr. Ohanning, during a considerable i^-^j
his career, has been an earnest *^^^*^^,\,
societary reform and reconstruction wider ^.«
associated plan similar to that of the rrei_ -
socialists, but of late years he has devote -
gifts of speech and pen more «itirely to i^
church as the grand lever of human elevs <
OHANT (It canto fermo; fr.pUin^^'l:
a modification of song, between air and m-
tive, such as is adapted to the psalms an^ _
anies. This apeciea of music is veiy aB<^;* ;
St. Paul exhorts the early Ohristians to ci ^
psalma and canticles. Phiay theTo«mgerc»

^^^^^ CBAKTAI. ^^^

^B|il^^^ Al^i *i... t^t^ . ..-^^f.l. l>^t ^^ v-^-^t-

'— M

^^K'

' .!►!<, U l|!u reijovc'l t-i i^« 4it- ^^^H

^^^^C'

^^H

^^P

^^^^^^U ft TOfT aiifw

■

llLB((»lMllfe«4|«|SosL>; ^^^H

^-^j^fM &pik- ^^^^M

OHAPALA

aoocmiit of ereation, that ft lias ofto been anp-
posed to be deriyed from it. — ^In netand hk«
toiy, chaos b the name givea bj LtniiAiis to
animals and plants of the lowest <vden, whioh
have imperfect parts.

' CHAPALA, a lake in Mexico, between the
states of Michoaoan and Goadalf^janL It con-
tains many islands^ and is traversed by the Bio
Grande de Lerma. Area about 1,800 sq. m.

OHAFBAUX (Fr. hats), aname applied to the
partisans of France in Sweden in the 18th cen«
torj, while those of Russia were called bonneU
(caps). Having instigated war against Russia in
1741, and again in 1766, the calamities thus in-
flicted upon Sweden impaired the popularity of
the ehapeaux. Succeeding in 1769 in regaining
their former position, the party was soon eztin-

Stished altogether by the advent of Gustarua
I. and his reforms. — ^The same names were also
formerly applied in the French academy, the
^apeaux constituting the party supported by
the philosophers and the public, and the honnet9
that upheld by the dergy and the court

OHAFEL, a place^ not a church, dedicated
td religious worship. The distinction between
a chapel and a church lay formerly in the
puUicity of the worship to be performed;
churches being for general ose, and chapelsor lit-
tle churches l^ing for the specitd use of private
individuals or particular households. From this
the use of the term has been extended so as
technically to include all religions edifices not
ef the established faith. Thus in continental
Europe Anglican places of worship are chapels,
while in England Roman Catholic and dissent-
ing places of worship are styled chapels. There
are also in the established church itself in Eng-
land chapels of ease to parish churches, buut
fbr the accommodation of worshippers in
populous or extensive parishes. In Roman Ca-
tholic churches portions of the main building
are often set aside and dedicated to particular
saints. These are called chapels, in which a ser^
▼ice is performed in honor of the saint.

CHAPEL HILL, a post village of Orange co.,
K 0. It occupies a healthy and agreeable site
on liie New Hope river, an affluent of the Cape
Fear, and is the seat of the university of North
Carolina, a flourishing institution founded in
1789. See North Cabolina, Univebsitt of.

OHAPELAIN, Jbaw, one of the earliest
members of the French academy, born in Paris
Dec. 4, 1596, died Feb. 22, 1674. Having
gained a hi^ literary reputation, more by in-
initiating himself with Richelieu and other in-
fluential persons than by his intrinsic merits, he
oonceivea the project of writins an epic, La
pueeUe^ which proved a totid foiiJure, although
ne spent over 20 years upon it. The first
12 cantos appeared in 1666 ; and to so high
a pitch had public expectation been wrought,
that, notwithstanding the adverse criticisms of
Boileau and Yoiture, 6 editions came forth
within the following 18 months. Eight new
parts appeared in 1757, and the conduding4
parts whioh never were printed, are in MS.

in the imperial library of Paria. BicMiea, tc
whom he dedioi^ed a poem and whom be ss-
nsted in ooncooting Utenry work% conlbrrBd i
jMnsion on him ; he presided over liieotigamza-
Hon of the French academy, took a oodbibcd-
OQs part in the eariy labors of that bo^, lat
as aoad^nical critic nnon CorneiUe'a Cid, aU
possessed during nearly 40 yeaiv a Htemr
prestige, which was broken l^ faia Fueeili
although he remained in fiivor with the conn.

CHAPERON, formerly in France a kind c^
cap or covering for the head, worn by men asu
women of all ranks. It was thus naod till iLh^
reign of Charles Y II., when it was apprapriatec
to b&rristers, doctors, and lieentiatea in eoDe$<BL
It afterward became the badge of politk^
parties, and the red and bine ehaperoos are dLr-
tingnished in French history like tbe red azJ
white roses in Eng^d, or like tlie adverse
ribbons of Constantinople^ The luane was scb>
seqneatly conferred upon some slight beral<I::
devices placed upon the foreheads of borMS in
pompous foneral proceteiona. The cap of ihf
knights of the garter is still called a cboperoe.—
The term is also applied to persons who accoch
pany ladies as guides or protectora at htiSh c;
other puUic occarions.

CHAPIN, Caltin, D.D., an Amerieu Con-
gregational minister, bom in ^riii^dd, Han.
in 1768, died in Wethersfield, Ct, Mardi 17.
1651. He was a prominent member of tbc
missionary, Bible, and temperance seeieti^
He was the first recording aeoretary of the
American board of commisdonera for foreica
missions, and held that office for 82 years.

CHAPIN, Enwnr Hubbxll, DJ).« an Am«^
rican clergyman, bom in Union Yilbige, lirs5b'
ington CO., N. T., Dea S9, 1814, ooiDpLetv>i
his formal education in a aeminaiy in Beuni::^
ton, Yt He commenced preaohing in the ye^-
1887, and was first settled over a tmien soGietj
of Unitarians and Univerealists in Richmocd
Ya. Thence he removed to Cbarleatown, Mass.
in 1840 ; then to Boston in 1846 ; and firom Boe>
ton to New York in 1848, to take ohai)ge(tf tl«
4th Universalist church in that city, oi whicl*
he still remains pastor. He received the de^n^
of D.D. in 1866, from Harvard nniveni^, whicL
had previously conferred on him tbe bonorarr
degree' of A.M. Dr. Chapin has alws^ beea
connected with the Univeraaliat denomiaatbn :
but his sympathies Ur ontnm tbe technie»I
boundaries of a sect His reUgioos Tiews were
originally affected powerfully by Dr. ChanniDjri
published writings, as meil as by tbe leaders V
the Universalist mith ; and he is warmly inte^
ested in all the literature and tendeades, issa-
ing from the most Aree and thonghtfol drcl«>
of Protestant Christendom, that are beghmin:
to receive the title of "• the Bread dmth
movement.^' His reputation baa long been a-
tablished as one of the most powerftil and efier:-
ive pulpit orators of America* The prorainen:
oharacteristica of his eloqnenoe^ apaort frasa th«
earnestness and pasnon with whiob it ia alwft>j»
vital) are imagination and pathos, inleiTtraLed

CRATILT

Ttl^H

r. %r 1 yfVfW ittStOO» dobHoii «f$*1 TdY^mr,

RuifdJicrf^ "Mi T»v

, W..yi<iiniV*vfTirri '^^^H

H . «i^ nvmmftf^!

IT ^. ..ifMaMoffi,

..-M- ittlKl «!)«»«'

p^. . .

k 2tf-|:r:«nil>«ti:^

■ .|ila pr«dk(bi 1

^^■^^^r^l^ "* ~^'^ ^li/1,kl|.' m^Lii^ t\..-

^^^■^ iittl^ teiAndKil,

^^^HpKi^j ^'' *^''' \k ?tnkiic?«^ '*'^

1 ^^^^H

^^^HEo'tlSflf?«lii'^U C>7U!i]"rUe? »ftii:i

^B|Kl^ii«« Q>on<if Ktf ir YmcU ui

^V tini^ ngnflifrtftf tindluttidf) ^

H iioa tQ ll»a klv^dsnuAOj^i .

,■1

■ Ik ' 'iitpb (b40 UiM fur » ifruiL uii«l aj' ta^Tiov"

llm ^itlwoMmrf

H tk^ s rf%l:rr ttufnttl tfOfOmi rnii WU^rsrT fsutj^^

*Msiie ^noJiibon^

s ^^^^H

H , .1 bdwu 0^ pi^i i'-f(i»

w«# uls^if^ pr«<i«V-rt'

^K ui ^ 'r4iliiLftflreitetr«|inn*iJU'i''

' - ' '. ^ " , ■ ' 1 '

^1 th iiyii«ll}r ItumAfilfix InAiu

( ^^^^H

K «lUi i.

iu^i^jnii^ ^

H «9li nf 1

tiUBlbQr

^H Hi ^t) v^i; . , id L'l f'Mn>L''£ULl IV'

•ikulr^ktr^lr

H %iim, itri lulli Iw li«i*iaiifi A

^H n^iti^U^f of Lii*t L^jn^Ti^MfvaMl r^ - ' \^ liil

H iiiitiT« iL}f. iL Hi aodo *4fler li« : li«fo

iwa fliiiMli4 i1ii« IV

^H Jjjt-. . .- ^....^L--.. _}*l. - .l..>r.^ t^, 1^^ jJl-^i^

•-^ - * ^n iW LktUl ■

H •i"- An4 ^niltua^j

^K M..«^ .., . .L AitMT kyivlt),^'

^^^^^1

■ Ollm* to iCUdf UiMilo^ irlJJi ilio

-•'.JM ^H

^H mikTfrh\ nuiHUL uT TrhcUm, Atl^f i

WSf f/ fPt. t^J.

.1^ _^H

H llL^^ .doB,

Vi .M S^ iii« Ii4m< uliJiA ^^H

■ 1^ CV>t|.

pv»

^^^^^1

H f** ' ^«

1 u

4niiii0t4id u» mf ^^^H

■ viu' . ^ ..^Mllf

^i ■ ■ ir«T «^^l'^'^ eA4 M-* ^^^^^|

^H fii ' A^i «i'Att joMwn

^^^^H

^M kj ! *mIv f«rijBiiii$

liubl r€ #B

^^^H

H ic> <ir9 liinft-

ll- T-

^^^^H

H ii.l ibgr cnlfv

^^^H

^^ L ^

■All > ti.-**iL* i

^n^m '^

^^^^H

h^idth* ^

he»m(

^^^H

^ fte^et'*' '

fr-"L * ,

^^^^H

■ Vmii^

^^^^H

^M ho t^ A 1

^^^^1

H ^

^^^H

■ IX'

^^^^H

■ f4>

k ^^^^^H

^M mu . .

,. !•> ^^^H

■ l^ii^^iui 4u IL. iw

IWaWj. K«^^ <^a^ ^ I77^t ai»i ^ K^i^iuUn ^^^H

GHAPMAK

tXB&nK

K.Y.,ll*v,lSil. HlflhMTtwMimlniadwitli
rdigicms feeling at a very early age. He gra-
diuSed at the college of Rhode Idaod, after-
ward Brown universi^.m 1799. After gradnar
ling he was immediately elected tutor, and re*
mained in that capacity for ahont 8 years. In
1802, he became the pastor of the Baptist ohoroh
in Danvers, Mass., which relation he sostained
nntil 1818, when he was selected to take charge
of the litwary and theological seminary then
about to be commenced in Waterville, Me. This
institution had its origin in a denre to promote
theological education among the Baptists of New
England. More comprehensive views soon pr»-
vaiTed, and the seminary was changed into a odl*
lege in 1820. In 1821 Dr. Chaplin was eleeted
its first president. He administered the ^vem-
ment of the new college with great discretion and
success for about 12 years. Aiter retiring from
the presidency of the college, be became pastor
of the Baptist church in Rowley, his native town.
Subsequently he became the pastor of the Baptist
church in WiUington, Oonn., where he remained
till near the close of his life. Few men of the
past generation were more entitied to the re-
aped and veneration of mankind than Dr.
C3hi4>liu. His own denomination, especially,
owe him a debt of gratitude for his powerful
and indefatigable efforts to promote the educa-
tion of its ministry.

OHAPMAN, Geobob, an En^^h poet, the
earliest English translator of Homer, bom prob-
ably at Hitching Hill, in Hertfordshire, in 1657,
died in London, May 12, 1684. After studying
2 years in Trinity college, Oxford, where he
was distinguished for his knowledge of the
classics, he went in 1576 to London, where he
ei\{oyed the friendship of Spenser, Shakespeare,
Marlowe, and Jonson, and the patronage of
King James and Prince Henry. He published a
translfltion of 7 books of the Hiad in 1598 ; of
12 books in 1600 ; and of the whole poem in
1608. It is in the lofty 14-syllable Engtish
verse, and of a vigorous and imaginative char-
acter more accordant with the spirit than the
letter of the original. It has retained its popu-
larity both with poets and scholars, thou^ less
foli^ed and less accurate than the version of
ope. Pope said that it was "something like
whiat one might imagine Homer himself would
have written before he arrived at years of dis-
cretion;'' Waller could not read it without
tnmsport; and Keats has expressed his admira-
tion of it in one of the most beautiftil of his son-
nets. Chapman afterward translated tiie Odys-
sey, the Homeric hymns, and portions of Ovid,
Terence, Mussbus, and Petrarch. He was also
a voluminous writer of plays, only passages of
which are now esteemea. He was associated
with Jonson, Marston, and others, in writing
the comedy of ^Eastward, Ho!" which con-
tained severe satirical reflections upon Scotch-
men, and was therefore so ungrateful to King
James, that he caused the auuiors to be for a
short time imprisoned. An imitation of Terence
entitled ^^ All Fools," was highly applauded by

his oontoiiiiiorwlM ; and porlionB of the tn^Bdf
of *" Bossy D'Ambois" were faigUy estsait;:
by Oharies Lamb. A handaoma edito d
his tranalatioDs firom Homer waa pabhabeds
London, in 6 vdSb, in 166&

CHAPMAN, John Gadsbt, aa Ameriec
artist, bom in Alaxandria, Va. Eariy iDdxr
ing his taste for design, he was enabled I?
the liberality of a Mend to visit Borne, s^i:
to study and practise his art there for seveni
Tears. After his return to the United 6tm
he removed to the city of NewTctk, wbew^b
his rare union of mechanical ingeomtj in:^
artistic taste, he nq>idly obtained ample empkir-
ment. He has executed many original 6tk^
tor the illustration of works of taste or f!c<7.
among which are Harper's BiUe, Sefanicti
'' Tales,'' and Whittier's «' Songs of Labcr.' Ee
also painted the ^^Baptasm of FocahcDtas''^
one of the panels in uie rotunda at Wsshingtue.
In 1848 he again visited Rome, whoe be Ls
^ce resided.

CHAPONE, Mrs. (HisnEB Mttxso), id l^
Hsh authoresB,born in Northamptonshireio 17^'
died at Hadley, Deo. SI, 1801. Attheaged?
years she is said to have written a maai^*
and she early studied several languages tai
treatises on morals and j^iloaophy. Ber&^
publications were the stooy of ^^lEldelia*^ intbe
^ Adventurer," and some venes prefixed to Ut
friend Mias Carter's trandalaon cf Epictets^
In 1760 she married Mr. Chapone^ wbo die^
within less than a year. la 1770 ahe accom-
panied Mrs. Montague to Beotiand, at vb(«e
request she soon after publiahed her **Letttr«
on the Improvement of the Hind." In a vu-
nme of '^ Miscellanies, " wbich aobsequeotlr if-
peared, are several letters addressed by ber ts
Bichardson. controverting some of the maxias
put forward by him in his "^ Clarissa Hsiiow&'

CHAPOO, a maritime, town in the proTi&e«
of Che-kianff, China, sitnated cm a proiDOotcfy
on the N. side of the estuary of the TaheiHsc^
(or Tsien-»tang), communicating by canal vii
Haug-chow-foo, of which placM» it is the port
Its suburbs, which are very extensive, and tb«
seat of most of the trades, extend along tiK
water's edoe. About half a mile in tbeir retf
is the walled town, 6 m. in drcomftrcooe, as-
dosed within which is the Tartar town. \^
harbor is very shallow, and the tides ara npia
but there is deep water in the roadstead, tfat
all the trade of Cliina witii Japan is carried ne
from this port. The soil of the neighbor^
country is extremely fertile and well watered.
and the surface is interqiersed with Domen^^
viUages, pagodas, temples, Ae. The adjaeeat
heights, fortified daring the late war, were a^
tured by the British, after an obstinate rts0r
ance, May 18, 1842. .

CHAPPE, CiAunx, a French enginwj f
mechanician, bom at Brulon in 1768, diedM
28, 1806. Having inv<nited an ingenioni?^
tem of signals to commnnicate at a diatanoe ^f
his friends, he presented it to tiie IV«b<^ |^
lative assembly in 1792. It was snooetftW

^r aiAifHBrcAf*«-iii

cnxM-na ris H

^H JM|g| ^l^i,..^^..... r*^»i.. _t^,.i t .M,. .^^ k ..,,.,^1. jV 1.

" * ■ ' " "H ' t

^^^^^1

^ <ypv^fX%

^^^^ •-rVII*'^, 9f>'l

^^^^H

^^^■jvcift w««

^^^^H

^^KmIi a«i^

■ •- — i-i-nBi,

iUU

^^^^1

■ :_^^ . L.i

bawiMooiin

^^^H

y € jtiijir l3i.i-. ..' .

■

^^Hj^

^^^^T •

iratkam «i*» UluMf ^^^|

■ ^

^^^M

V >^-u4,i.''..

^^^^^

■ 80, %m.

^^^^1

n ify^ |4 . ,

^^^^1

tmtmxvk

^^^^1

Y l;i

^^^^1

rb''

^^^^1

^,0Miri|Il:. ,:n.-.ur x...-*., !-'-■-*- 'f-»

■■ ■ - '". J 11 ,'■

^^^^1

HOftfen^^i Ni^t, t iirtJ'

mtam^l 1

^^^H

^liH Wkj .. .41, wit>^ -1-"^ ;..^ .--^..,.

. ;> .* .0

^^^^1

otMBaii^ w^i^ iHttr U litiii^ UiC fittt

^^^^1

1^ •llWpl*''! '^r Oiu I'lts^i A!_ . . ^* li>'. II*. »i ^;ML<i

^^^^H

B«ttttU(aa ^ jmmti

^^^1

^BigMfti**! ' '^|^ miter

^^^^H

^^HmII^ af li!it4.

^^^^1

^^^K iieijidd limt'

^^^1

^^^Bimra^l odf^t'

^^^^1

^^■ai Hi ^ III

^^^^1

^^^k^lM<r, Wa4i 11 Uiit.-

^^^^K

^^^^^

^^^^M

i f<diii« al [riUlfi^WU vm\v

^^^1

1^ l:irttn • Ui»fiU|piiirii «iid a Iim^'m

^^^^1

H «fV|J«U (^t tbfvM^ Ui^ loltnr^

^^^^1

■ Mi iJbwrmto»L Tlf<i ooiiiiiiirt4*» mi -

•"1 H'"-^-

^^^^1

■fliiMil kin. in ^iiirBv fiC lb* inmdcr «iflli iiT

ill ar tl..

714

CHAPULTEFBO

COIiBA

OHAPULTEFEO, Cabixb of, a Heidoan fbr-
tress stormed by the Americans under Oen.
Soott, Sept. 18, 1847. The Amerioan annj,
proceeding fh>m -victory to victory, had deteted
the enemy ia 5 pitched battles, beside many
skirmishes, and was nov under the walls ci
the city of Mexico. This ancient city lies in
the centre of a plain in which are nnmeroas
volcanic heights rising like ishmds lh>m a
morass. Abont 2 m. 8. W. from the city is
one of these heights, known as the rock of
Ohapnltepec. A strong castie crowns the height,
having a frontage of 900 feet, heavily armed*
The work is designed as a protection to a cause*
way which forms the approach to the city. At
the base of the hill, in front, is the wall of an
aqueduct. In the rear is the old powder null
known as Molino del Rey. Numerous old cy-
press trees surround the spot Altogether the
position is a difficult one to attack, and easy to
be defended. Gen. Bravo with a picked force
held the position. At the time of the assault
there were in it a crowd of officers of rank,
beside the military academy, with the stu-
dents. Bravo was considered one of the ablest
of the Mexican officers, to whose hands it would
have been safe to intrust any defence however
important. Santa Anna with the bulk of the ar-
my was in the city of Mexico, and in full com-
munication with the castle. Affairs were in this
position when Scott stormed and took Molino
del Rey. His next step was anxiously looked
for by the enemy. He had already advanced a
force near to the city walls, and seemed to be
making preparations for attack. Another por-
tion of his force menaced Chapultepec in a sim-
ilar manner. Blows had fallen so rapidly in
places where they were least looked for, that
oanta Anna was at a loss to divine whether the
city or the castle were the real object of attack.
Bravo sent word to Santa Anna that Scott
would certainly first assault the casde, being too
skilful a general to leave such a work in his
rear. It was not till the Americans had all
preparations ready for tiie assault — ^indeed, not
imtil the castie was taken*-that the Mexicans
discovered that the demonstration against the
city had been only a feint toprevent tiiem from
reinforcing Chapultepec. Scott from the first
had determined to carry this work. His loss
in killed and wounded at Molino indicated a
different mode of attack from that by whidi
the victory of the 8th was won. Accordingly,
on the evening of Sept. 11, he ordered Colonels
Lee and Huger to erect 4 batteries on a ridge
facing the fortress. These works were placed
under the command respectively of Gapts.
Drum, Hagner, Brooks, and Lieut. Stone. The
plan of operations was simple: after the place
should have been sufficiently battered, a column
under Gen. Pillow was to assault on its W.
side: another column under Gen. Quitman
on tne opposite, or S. E. side; while there-
serve under Gen. Worth was to gain the N.
fide, and there either to assist in the attack or
to act as circumstances might direct PfOow'a

and Qnitam^ «olinnnB w«TO «Mik lioaM bf I
storming partf of 860, detailed firooi the ks<^
lar tro(^ ; PiUow'a beiag aommartded by Cbs-i
McKenzie of the 9d artillery, and QnitBia i
by Oapt Oesey of the Sd infantry. Scilii^
ladders and all naoeisary appKanawi were h^
in raadiness. Saily on tha moraing of ik
12th the MezioaaB diaooverad 1b» Amaim
batteriea and opened fire. Firing was cuo-
tinued from both ndes all that d^. Oaiht
18th firing was resumed £ar some Imx,
About 11 o'clock the American guns &U£k-
ened, and for a fsw moments enlMy eefr«i
This was the preconcerted sigBal for the aasiolL
Having made sevenil breaches tfaroni^ thesUFac
wall behind the cyprassea, the atmk psrrie
mehed tfaron^^ the trees and stnogbt u ti
htlL The Amerioan guns reopened and hnicd
a storm of ahotandshell over thdrhesdi M
the base of the hill oonaiderable figbtisf t<M
place. Here FUlow was dittMed, and C^
wallader took command. The AmerieiDs e-
oended tiie acoUvity amid disefaaiges cf gnpe
and mosketry that thinned tbeir nnks. B^
tween them uid the caatie wasa straigndo&h:
witiiout hesitation they charged, swrnutdcnr
it, and drove the enemy from the gnna GWk
them no time either to vally or to spring tkir
mines, the assaflants drove them ii^ the castk;
In a moment the castie ditbh was cmnd, sai
the stormers planted thdr ladders on the val
Many brave mlows were fanxlBd down, bot s:
l^gth a lodgment was effected. Qoitics!
meantime was doing the same on the K ^ttt-
having beside captured 2 batterieSi and drirefi
in a strong body of the enemy. Gen. Sm.^
with the rifles and the New York, South (^
Una, and Pennsylvania volunteers, arriTfld j^^
in time to shao^ in the honors of the dsT.
After a stout resistance the enemy were dri^
from their defences, and the Amerioan fltg, ^
well as the standards of the regiments who ftf*
ticipated in the capture^ were floated from the
ramparts. The cessation of the firing and tM
cheers of the victorious Americans, vbicii
were distinctly heard in the oapital, sare nodoe
to Santa Anna that Ouqwdtepec had fiilH
Crowds of fugitives fallii^ haek upon the dtr
told the same tale, and ahowed that the v»r.»
flu* as Mexico was eonoemed, waa ended. V*
victory was gained with small nnmeriod las
to the Americans. The Mexican kw v» i^
ascertained, but must have been great ^^^
tors pressed forward, and soon teimiDatedue
war by the occupation of the tatj of Itoiw-^
CHABA, an aquatic plant found ia the ^
lakes, and in the laige fresh-watw lakei of ^^
York, frequentiy growing with sudi hmirisM^
as to render the bottom green like a gaff
meadow. It occurs in the fossil ststa,eDd]s
important to the geologist as diaiactenflof
groups of strata, as those of the ^^^
marl beds of the tertiary Ibrmatieo. ^
seed-vessel of these plants is very toogh, «»
is covered by an integument eontisting w^
^rfral valves. The stems are k^ptadistfl?

^^^^^ CTUBUkXID ^B

ml^K OHABCOAL

■

^^^Ki

^^K^

■

^^^K^ V Uui Ts^ %d hdtmi

■

^^^^HjIN' 1 > itM^ r lie ui^A'

^ a«v

^^Kfr te«iii£Ui4 MiU M^ividv

■'

^^^Bt

^^^^^^1

■V^ ]<ciipiitiim

■ 1 • t«m

IM«I>'

^H. ^ _

^^H

71«

CHARCOAL

The experiments of IL Yiolette also developed
the fdlowing results : For the mannfSBetiire of
the heat gunpowder the temperature of carbon-
ization must be at least 586"^ for the charcoal to
be sufficiently friable. At 662" it becomes
black, and at 2,000^ and upward, very compact
and but slightly inflammable. At the melting
point of platinnm it is somewhat like anthra-
cite, hard to break and to bum, and gives a
metallio sound when struck. Only 15 per cent,
is obtained at so high a temperature ; at 636^,
40 per cent. By slow charring more coal is
obtained than when the process is rapidly con-
ducted. The coal obtiuned at 662% suited for
powder for cannon, contains 77 per cent, of
carbon, 20 of water, and 2 of hydrogen. Steam
admitted into the retorts which contain the
wood, aids its conversion into coal by conveying
away the volatile products; thus, steam at 790
produced the effect of a temperature exceeding
2,000° without it. — When charcoal is saturated
with moisture and rapidly heated, this is de-
composed, and carbonic acid, carbonio oxide;
and carburetted hydrogen are evolved, com-
monly mixed with nitrogen. In contact with
water, it absorbs it by capillarity and becomes
so dense as to sink. It thns appears that the
quantity of charcoal oannot be estimated with
precision by weight, Kor is it much more ac-
curate to calculate this by measure; for when
in laige quantities it would be by mere accident
if 2 measurements gave the same rMult—Ghar-
coal possesses an extraordinary capadty of ab-
sorbing gases, some of them in very large
Quantity. Of ammoniacal gas it was found by
Saussure to take up 90 times its bulk ; of hy-
drochloric acid ^as, 85 times ; of carbonic add,
35 times ; of nitrogen, 7i ; and of hydrogen.
If. When filled with one gas and exposed to
another, a portion of the former is evolved and
its place supplied with a portion of the lat-
ter. This absorption and condensation of gas
within its pores is accompanied with an in-
crease of temperature, which is sometimes suf-
ficient to cause spontaneous combustion. This
is particularly the case with freshly charred
ooal from the pits^ and it is probable that many
of the instances, so frequent, of the heaps taking
'fire after the charcoal is drawn out, or after
being placed in the wagons, are owtn^ to this
property. Coal which is very black, without
jiaving been charred too much, and fine, is most
likely thus to take fire. Charcoal also absorbs
colors, and abstracts the smell and taste of or-
ganic substances in solution ; hence its use for
clarifying liquors. — Some interesting properties
of charooal have recently been developed by
H. Moride. He found that, while incandescent
or Just extinguished with water, if plunged into
an acid solution of sdphate of copper, it caused
the metal to be precipitated upon itsell Silver
salts in solution are iKffected like those of cop-
per, and the deposition of silver, sometimes
crystallized, presents, as does that of copper
also, the most beautifiil appearance. Zinc, mm,
platinumi lead, and merauy have beea iffiedp-

itaied in the same maimer, bnt thesr TMrnbtrt
in acid liquors ; tSlvet does not, and copper oa)y
after 24 hours. Charcoal is tma&cted by^ h3;ri
temperatores when protected fr«m the air, ai^I
also by most powerrai ehemieal agents, aa h^
already been stated of Cakboit. — ^As before ob-
served, charooal is prepared prindpoUy far thi
sake of the grsater heating power It possesses
than the same weight of wood. In thia condensed
form alarger amountof fixelcan be transported at
the same cost, and a greater condenaatioa of heal
is obtained in its combustion in the same spaa
which is filled with the wood; hence its advas-
tageons applioati<m to the smelting of ores, ^c
The subject of the greater calorific efiTect of tbd
denser combustibles is treated in theartick
Fuel. In charring wood, though the ckject is
to increase this elTect by the expulsion of the
volatile ingredients, the process must nnt be
carried so far as to weaken the texture of the
product, causing the coal to break up in hsad-
ling. The denser woods produce the most cm-
pact charcoal, and this evolves more heat ihsik
an equflJ bulk of the coal of the lighter woc<^
It moreover possesses in a higher degree tb£
tenacity so essential, which prevents its reo^H^
erumbling. In the process of charring it is
found tiiat after being sutrjected to the Iwal ks
6 hours, the wood passes through a ceru^a
stage, when it presets a reddish brown ar-
pearance. In this condition, aeoordtng to iLe
experiments of Sanvage, it contains a la]^*er pn>
portion of combustible matter to the cubic &>o>t
than at any time before or afterward, thoo3
only from 80 to 60 percent of the roladk mk-
ters are expelled. This product, called ckarh^
rovsst or red charcoal, is especiall v prepared for
the large iron establishments in the departroect
of Ardennes, in France, the eso^iie heat of ib«
ftimaces being employed to heat the cast-ins
cylinders in which the wood is charred. How-
ever prepared, there is a want of nmfiMinitT ia
the product; still there may be eeoDomyia
stopping the process at tiiia atage. — ^The idc«(
ancient method of making charooal was to
throw the wood into holes dug in the groond
and keep it partially covered with earth while
consuming. The common expressioa ** charring
in pits " has reference to this mode. A metLt«i
is practised in Austria, said to be the same is
was used by the Romans, which is reoonuneiided
for pine and well-seascmed hard wood, and kr
localities where the ordinary materials for oot*
eringare scarce. It is called charrini^ in nBOQDd5.
'Around 8 sides of an area of 40 or 50 foet io
length, and 9 in breadth, preoaredby leT^Hiri;
or sloping uniformly, and renaerin^ the grousd
hard by pounding, posts are set np 4 feet apsn
on the 2 sides, ranging from 8 foet at c»oe end
to 6 foet at the other above the sorfiaoe. To
these is fastened with wooden pins the lininjr
of slabs or split wood, the end where the sb^rt
posts are being left open. The width in tbe
clear should be double the length of the wood
and space enough beside on each nde for peck-
ing an inner lining of earth between theeatli

OBUkurnxk.

hf fV. . ^^^ I .^, -4 r.«,l 4!l.^ lU X,*» ^,w|l.l

^,.,\ ..-. J.^.^K. -. * ....I. ,J .^i

^ uttb ctil(ift will «tt«^ iki .

• ":'^t of all ^^i^

, fin i|p»f^ H C.I

j^'iif '. i'TT, iijL'c arri (-ijintu^ umi •.inw n^Ln ftro in .-.jf^i]'..

iw] noiLT Ihu t4^p au4 in ol.U<or plm^Ms^ ^u* wffffOi\t\f

llUiifm Tim liorp b 6?% 1 .
Irnlivu ftiid 1^141 Hre i^tiwJistt!;

ipol It,

iiiaailte U

m iuil caaiflii&tti Bl tSm OOllIro ffiodl to|i of »tAlJWB in thm luiiDvli

718

OEULBOOiX

in the fini d oohnmis the weighti of thmttxal
obtained from 100 ports of wo^ dried in Mr bj
Karaten; in the Bd, thoee obtained by Stoke
from wood thoronghljrdried at Atemperatnre of
212*"; and in the 4tb, those of Winkler from
wood dried in a hot room:

8p«elM of WbwL

P«o«acl

ebwrlBg.

KmtM.

KMSteO.

SkolM.

Tountf ottk

16JM
1&91
14.87
14.15
19L19
18.65
1445
15.80
18.05

li80

18.16

14.85
14.05
16.28
16.85

15.59
18.75
18.80

18!40
17.00
14.66

85.60)
85.71

85.87
86.15
95.88
86.45
85.65
85.65
85.05

8470

85.10

96.85)
86.00
27.72
8475

86.07)
85.95 f
9400

94.60
87.95

86.45

86L1
946
98.8

ii<

88.8
844

88.4
VIA

98.T

88.8

88.1
82.2

Old ao.

Toungred iKMch

Old do

YoQiif white beaeb...
Old do.
Y"uiiff alder. ,.,.....,

92.8
1T.8

Old do.

Yoangbirah

17.6

poplar....

17.T

Oldbiwh

17.6

Blrefa 100 yean old,
well preserved

Toang deal (pinus pi-
C4a)

Olddo.

Toang Ar {pinu4 abUt)

Old da

YottngpUie (j^kw9 •t^

90.6
90.1

Olddo..:

••

Uma

16.9

Aab »

19.4

Willow

Bye straw

16.0

Fern straw

Cane Stems.

Manafactnrers, who distil wood in dose iron
Vessels for the sake of all the products, obtain in
100 parts by weight:

Charcoal 88 to 80

Acidandwater 28 to 80

Tar 7 to 10

Gaeeons compounds, and aqueous yapor. 87 to 80

They consume beside about 12| parts of fuel
ontside of the retorts to produce the heat re-
quired. From these results, and from Uieoret*
ical calculations as to the qoantitj of fuel ne*
oessary to produce the heat required to unite
the oxygen and hydrogen in air-dried wood in
the form of water, and to expel this by heating
the charcoal to incandescence, it is apparent
that no greater yield of carbon can be expected
than that of 25 to 27 per cent of the weight of
the original material. — Other methods of pro-
ducing charcoal require notice, as that in large
brick oTona or kilns, and that in close retorts.
The oyena for this purpose are constructed of
Tarioua forma and sizes. A description, accom-
panied with a drawing, is giyen in the ^ Amer«
loan Journal of Science," voL zvii. (1830), of
one oonstructed by Mr. Isaac Doolittle, of B^-
nington, Yt., in 1829. It was 80 feet in
diameter, 0 feet high, and of the capacity of 60
cords of wood. The product, he states, was
uniformly from 55 to 60 bushels of coal to the
cord. Rectangular kilns of this sort, holding
80 or 40 cords each, were not long after intro-
duced at the iron works in the vicinity of Bal*
timore, upon the shores of the Chesapeake, and
have since continued in successful operation*
Pine wood is brought to them in vessels fkom the

fiiNBte«M»li]ielMiy« InmMhritaatMnifWv
are worked to great Bdvaatage; hatp«niuuiai
atmoturea of this nature are not eo weU sd^
to locaiitiea where tiie cost of tmMpertatkaii
likely to soon become a heavy item, ss the vor^
in the vicinity of the kilns is eat away. It is ol
a question whether the eharooal thus mdeB
flo dense and possesses so nrach heating pow e
as that prepared in the woods. In Berbbi't
Massachusetts, where kilns of a capaoitj of 6i
cords each have been in use, theprodaetiseth
mated at 50 bnriiels to the conl; sad tics i
sometimes exceeded^ Three weeks is the tict
allowed from the filling to the emptying of a kik
The cost of the proeees, inehimng the ^^
coaling, and discharge, is $1 per 100 bosbas
Ooaling in the woods by la:^ oontruti coita
when the wood is delivered to the pits^t^i ^
100 bushels.— Ooaling in retorts is csnied ai
upon a eompanybively small aoale. TIm Rtcrts
are heated by an external fire^ and the Tolstae
products are conveyed awar in pq)e8 and oqg-
densed to obtain the pyrougneoos acid, vo^d
naphtha, dsa Though the amoontof cfasrooslleii
in the retorts is kurger than the prodactof tk
same auantity of wood charred by the otba
methoas, the greater expense of coaductii^i^
operation prevents its being adopted wb«« ebv-
ooalistheprindpal object. Thedemindfortbe
volatile products is ^ways nncertsinf od >£
this country has never been suflkisBt to jo^
their preparation upon a lai;ge scale. If it veff
otherwise, these products could be saved, istbt?
have been in some instances, from tin large l^il^
— ^Peat charcoal is prepared very nmch is tk
same manner as wood charcoal, either in tk
covered heap of circular or lectaagolar ism
or in ovens. As the blocks padc dosel/.f
channels of the siae of a block of psatmnstbe
frequently left radiating from the eentn d t^
heap. The peat is less combustiUe than vood

and the operation therefiN^ does not req^
such close attention ; but if the peat la not ««1
dried the process will go on very irregwfi
or the fire may go ont. The dimeas^^
of a heap may be 2,600 cubic Iset, or aboti
ISi tons of neat The time of cosling ittiliij
is cooled and ready for drawing out is fronn u
to 14 days. The product is about 700 co^
feet of charcoal, weighing about 8 tons 8 cvt
The cost is estimated at about $8 ^P^^^
the raw peat being rated at 71 coofe pert^
Such is the experience at the royal iron v^
of Weierhammor in Bavaria. Variooanett^
of carbonizing peat are employed. Steam fieft»>
to 450"" F. has been applied in one prooesi: ^
in another the torrefied gases from the fiw"
of tiie Irish peat company, in which thep» ■
subjected to dry distillation, are «»«;«* »»
a second Aimaoe filled witii peat, irhicb » t^0
charred. The volatile products of dialill«5«>*J
driven into other apparatus, in ▼Wch^^J;
condensed. From well-dried peat <**"*"
small way 40 per cent of its weight m^
obtained in good charcoal ; but if W.P^ .^
of weight or 49 of bulk is obtsiaed, it ia « tf>^

^^^^^v

CEJJSSXm Tt9 ^M

^^■M|J**.J S 11**. . r.lJ .VlAtAiTLto \I1 tKll ftJI^

m^ ^^^1

^^^^1

^^H

^^^^^Kt

^^1

iii;cal«f ^^^1

^^^^HHit

■ ...

^VQQBl^Biac hiitidwiimi pftllill nJ^iniJ^ ttmti plmt^mm

|lli«, vll^ }»4«kl«^ M^ «l|4iEiiifii[if «.iU4ff^»lidik. ^^H

Xtt OHABEHIX-QirEfiBIEURE

Tnif9i80 are abandaDt, as weQ aa cheolonia.
Cattle, iniilea, and aaaes are numerous; hdrsea
oomparativelj scarce. Game, fish, poaltrj, and
bees are foond in abnndance. Beside large
iron works connected with the mines, there
are pi^ier mills, especially at Angool^me, dis-
tilleries, manufactories of earthenware, &&
The export trade is mostly in brandy, which is
forwarded to nearly all parts of the world.
The aannal average valae of raw material
employed in raanofiiotaring is abont $4,000,0001,
and of manufactured goods, $5,600,000. The
number of hands employed is about 7,600 ; the
wages are 87i cents per day^for men, 19 cents
for women, and 12 cents for children. Nearly
JMK) fairs are annually held in the Oharente.
Its annual contributions to the French revenue
amount to about $1,800,000. Francis I., Mar-
guerite de Yalois, La Bochdbucauld, and Ra-
vaillac, the murderer of Henry lY ., were bom
in this department.

CHAR£NT£-INFI:RI£UBE, a maritime de-
partment of western France, on the Atlantic
coast, deriving, like the foregoing, its name from
the river by which it is intersected ; pop. in
1866, 474,828 ; chief town, La Rochelle. Be-
side the Charente, it is watered on the N.
frontier by the Sdvre-Niortaise, and on the &
by the Gironde, which offer great facilities to
exterior commerce. There are several other
navigable streams, and a canal from La Ro-
chelle to Niort The climate is agreeable; the
surface is flat, and partly covered, especially in
the neighborhood of the sea, with marshes
yielding large quantities of salt. There are
quarries of freestone; peat, and fine sand for
the manufacture of glass, are also found. The
soil is mostly calcareous or sandy, but never-
theless yields large crops of grain and wine.
Larse quantities of brandy are exported. Oat-
tie, norsos, and sheep are raised in great num-
bers. Oysters are sent to Paris and London.
Sardines form an important branch of trade,
and vessels are fitted out for the cod fishery.
La Rochelle, Rochefort, and the other ports
have a considerable share of the colonial and
coasting trade of France. Salt is extensively
manufactured along the coast. There are man-
ufactories of coarse woollen stuffs, soap, fine
earthenware, and glass, with tanneries and sugar
refineries. Three islands, Ol^ron, R6, and Aix,
the fi^t two somewhat considerable in extent,
lie near the coast of this department, to which
they belong. The average annual value of raw
material employed in manufacturing is about
$8,200,000, and of manufactured goods $4,600,.
000. The number of bands employed is about
17,000. The wages are 48 ots. per day for
men, 20 cts. for women, and 14 cts. for children.
The contributions of Oharente-Inf^rieure to
the French revenue amount annually to about
$2,800,000. Among the eminent persons bom
in this department are Baudin the navigator,
R6aumur the naturalist, Oabanis the physician,
and Renault de S t. Jean d' Ang^y the statesman.

OHARENTON-LE-PONT, a town of France,

depMtDMnt of SefDe, on Ae kfl
Mame, near its confloenoe wilh the I
& £. of Paris; pop. 8,810. It derii
name ttoat the fine bridge wlndi, iii iwiai ::«
Mame, unites the town with tbe vill^e <tf C^
rentonSt. Maurice. Tlui bridge bas been el war>
considered as of great importaaee for tbe 6tr
fence of Pari& and is now protected by 3 fcr«
which guard the passage of the Seine.

OHABENTON ST. MAUBIGE (tte zk^
changed to St Maurice dnoe 1842X a riSage tf
France, in the vicinity of Plaiia, od the r.ri:
bank of the Mame; pop. 2,626. It coou..
an excellent lunatic aqrlom, founded in 1741. x:-:
capable of accommodating 600 putjentu I.r
Protestants formerly had here a large dmrtL i:
which several synods were held ; but it was o^
molished in 1685, aftw tbe re^ooalaott of il^
edict of Nantes.

OHARES. L An Athenian genend, tfaro^:
whose incapacity the Tfaracian ooloiiy wu 1<<
to Athens during the aocial war (As to ^«
B. O.X and who exposed his ocmntay to the :c>
signs of Peraa, by entering for maroenarT prr-
poses the service of ArtidMSQBi tbe rerou.-!
satrap of western Asia. Ahhongb reealleti i£
disgrace, he was sent in 849 to tbe aid ^rf'Obrs-
thus, and agam he returned witbovt hmrz^
achieved anything. In 840 be cnmmandw^ il^
army sent to Byzantium agabui FlAip, sr±i
gave overwhelming evidence of lus in«.>.-cr
potency, was replaced by Phooioa, but, stnc je
to say, once more invested with tbe sofireci^
command. In 888 he took part in tbe b«r.«
of OhflBronea, the fotal issoe of wlil^ scxc>
to have been mainly due to bie groea ignoniK^
The repeated appointment of a man of 1-
calibre, who, as Timotheus teDensi was only z;
to be a porter, can only be acoonnted for hjv^.
degeneracy of those iheai in power at Atbtrii,
with whom the athledc figure, tbe profl^iacT.
flatterv, and unsorapulous reokleasneaacf Char^
carried more influence than tbe solid merits c:
many well-tried, brave, and competent offie«r«.
n. A Grecian statuary in bronse^ tbe Kclpt- r
of the celebrated statue known as tbe colo»^l.'
of Rhodes, was a native of lindns, tbe fovori
pupil of Lymppus, and flourished toward U.
close of the 8d century B. O.

OHARGE, in miliUry tactica, tbe n|>id ad-
Tance of inflintry or cavalry against an op-
posing force, with the object of breaking il^
scattering the enemy's ranks by the mom^tcsi
of the attack. Oharges of infontry are ma6i
either in order of battle, in column of att^k,
or in close column in mass. In order of batii^,
the troops receiving the ohaige fire at the skt
ment preceding the shock, witb tbe view d
checking the advancing force. The troop«
charging move forward, and, at 100 to lt\*
paces, deliver their fire. Without atopping i>
reloaa, they continue to advance at quick stej*
I of the distance, when, quickening into chsit-
ing step, braced shoulder to shoulder to fonn t
solid wall, and with bayonets at chaxge^ thtj
increase th^ speed into a running et^ laii

aatam

ammoft

^4l rcpoof l\

MllltCi

V
.1

) 111 i€«U,

'■ la O.iLULDJD U '

rfl n; if lb rolrjinn p-it' vW jnt. Hm Hrk«. ivriJ.

Id ill

f|tiaUti Mj*

of ti^ oiiMklijf «i|i»juli\'Lj. th» ttnA nak
«im1 livrM lire ^Tort^miim,

retre^ ibotlkl tie tilwrn^

^n -ire i«*iliit-»«i, 0*^

i:.(i boDtnr b»wtin!

-^ - li'inii of

>• Umi gVQ^
V tba eluif|Eii

wo* '

fif rtftk, ft; '

- Ij

Tl-
f

J mliitfioit [if i

•tp>^K'<l1l I'l

'•V

If
{lIMfW II

J'T
J
-3

1 'f

72S

O^iBISTIA

vhicli was nsnally made of ivory, adorned with
the utmost skill, aad drawn by .4 white horses,
was one of the chief ornaments in the celebnip
tion of a yiotorj. The chariot was an attri-
bute of the mytboloffic divinities, especially of
Victory, Night, Apollo, and Diana.

CHABISTIA (Gr. yapi(o/uii, to pardon), an-
nual Boman festivals neld on Feb. 19, at which
none bat relatives and members of the same
family were invited, to a^Jnst aU matters of
j^erence among themselves.

OHARISTIOARIES, the name applied in
Greek ecclesiastical bistorv to functionaries
who possMsed uncontrolled power over the
revenues of hos|ntaIs and monasteries. The
practice originated in the iconodastio war in
the 8th century, and resulted from hostility to
monasticism. In after times the custom was
continued without the spirit which originated
it, and monasteries were often given to persons
of wealth and rank in order to secure their
patronage and influence. 8o universal did the
custom become, that at length all the monas-
teries had passed by donation to charisticaries,
who frequently lost sight of the beneficent pur-
pose for which they held the trust.

CHARITON, or Gbakd Ohabitoh river,
rises in Iowa, and flows S. E. through Appa-
noose CO. to the Missouri boundary. Thence it
follows a S. course to the Missouri river, which
it joins near the S. extremity of Chariton co.,
Mo. It is about 250 m. long, and is navigable
for 60 m. The £. Chariton and Middle fork
are its principal branches.

CHARITON^ a county in the N. central part
of Mo., derives its name from the Chariton river,
by which it is intersected. It is bounded W. by
Grand river, and 8. W. by the Missouri, It is
also druned oy Yellow and Wolf creeks, wluch
fhrnish water power for several mills. The soil
is fertile and adapted to pasturage. The sur&ce
is gently undulating and covered with forests
and prairies. Stone coal and limestone are
found in large quantities. In 1850 this county
produced fi,667,908 lbs. of tobacco, 877,397
DU8}iels of corn, 14,592 of wheat, and 84,170 of
oats. It contained 12 churches and 1 newspa-
per establishment There were 1,000 pupils at-
tending publie schools, and 500 attending acad-
emies or other schools. Pop. in 1856, 9,211, of
whom 2,198 were slaves. Capital, Eaytesville.

CHARITY, Bbothebs of. I, An order of
religions hospitallers founded at the end of
the 18th century, and since denominated Bille-
tins. II. A rek^^ous oxder in the Roman Ca-
tholic church, established at Granada by St.
John of God in 1540. He hired a house to
harbor poor sick persons, in which he provided
for them and served them himself with great
devotion. This pious work of charity attracted
the attention of the whole city, and (dually
persons of the same disposition as John came
to aid him in his undertaking. His institution
was approved by the archbishop, but the mem-
bers of it had neither rule nor habit, and it did
not receive the approval of the pope until after

OEABIYABI

the death of itB ibonder. Li 16)2Pni5 Y.^^

it the rule and habit of St. Augpstine. Miri
de' Medici introduced the order into France :

1601. Henry lY. granted it letters patect i

1602, audit soon numbered aeveral hoQ»&.
that kingdom. The ho^ital of ehuit; 2
Paris, and that of Charenton, were the w^
important The brothers of charity not a,
nursed the sick, but were frequentlj ski>.
surgeons. In Spain these religioiu vere c&lir.
brothers of hospitality, and in Italy faU fit-.
JrateUL In difBorent parts of £arope tk^
have borne different names. Since the KJdi-
tion, France has had few houses of the order.

CHARITY, SiBTKBs OF, a religious cm^izk-
tion founded by St. Vincent de F^ in the ricJ-
ity of Paris, about the year 1682, with the e»
operation of Madame Le Gras, a piooa and ch j>
table French lady of oonspicnoos ranL T^
object of this institntion was the care of 'jh
poor, especially of the sick, and the edoc^:
of children; and its members are everpru-^
the servants of the poor, which naine r^
.conferred on them bv the archbishop of P&v
when he gave them his formal approbstiua ^
1655. Prisons, firee schools, luiepiuk a^
alms-houses were at once placed under tit:
direction in all parts of France. The ix&ft
cation was eoon invited to take diarge of sn-
Jar institutions in other countries, and the skc-^
of charity are sow to be found in ahnost eTtn
oivUized land. Louis XIY . granted letter [^
ent to this institution in 1657, and thej ^^
Anally confirmed by the le^te of the po^*^
1660. The charity and devotion of these ti*
men had made them bo useful to all cb:^^
that even the revolution spared them. T^;
continued their work of beneficence secreth t-
without restraint One of the first acts ot u
new government was to open to them * l^^^^ ^
useftuness, and Napoleon placed themnnier.::
protection of his mother. They make s:ci •
vows, which are renewed every year, la ljc
year 1846 the number of eetabliahmeDts oi ve
sisters of charity throughout the vorH u^
United States not indoded, was over 'f^
under the charge of about 12,000 sisten. y-^
American branch of this oongregatic4i ^
established at Emmetsburg, Md., in 1^*^' *
Mrs. Eliza Seton, their first mother m'^-'^
In 1852 there were 88 houses under the o^^^
of the sisters in different parts 4^ the U-''*
States, and the number is constantly iocr^^
In the diocese of New York, there aw w--
250 sisters of charity, having under their r-r^
beside the parish schools in the citj of >i'
York, a ho^ital, a male and female a3v]:-^
and an industrial school. Their mother ho^^ ^'
at FonthUl, on the Hudson river, near Yont r^

CHARIVARI (Fr. eharwari; Ger. J^-^
Munk; Sp. caneeuada; It. aww^wa^^ *
mock serenade, which was performed iuj-
middle ages whenever an old man mtr^^
a young girl, or when a man mairied for w»
2d or «d time, or generally when IXisi^^^.
mazziageB took place. TheneighhoraasBeiD^'i^

^^^^^^^^^^^^V '''

^^1

^^^^^^^^^^■1 T

^^^1

^^^^^^Ik 1

^^^^KnP Will.

• -a

^^1

^^M

<if ili# nicii nmutkm-

^^^^^M^

lit ntltbiianiit idti£KiU
T«i ofivfif Dili r^ita-

■ . lib A'rif'iu-- WC<i

iittidij' ^H

^Kiit^

« oo» Hi* uvdif III ) tMA, ^H

^^^1

^^^^^^H 1

Ly il-^^uUi^I

^Ro. ffXA} Vic .

El 1 ^^H
IllAi IjMiX MMNT ^M

bsigUiiilngiir f ^H

^ -— ■

- - - - —

^^^^^■■^^^^^i^ss: - :^^^^^^^H

724

OHABLES L (Etolass)

•m1>a8Bador, between Charles and the in&nta
Haria, abter of Philip lY. of Spain. It was
soon rendered obvioosi howeTer, that the mar-
riage was after the heart of neither of the na-
tionsy if it was of dther of the courts. At this
jQnctnre, at the instigation, it is believed, of
Gondomar, the SraniKi ambassador at London,
and certainly of Bncldngham, who was ambi-
tions of the honor of completing a treaty whidi
had been in suspense for above 7 years, the
prince and the favorite suddenly left England
m strict dii^uise, no person but the king him-
self being privy to the scheme, and arrived
fit the house of the earl of Bristol, in Ma-
drid, on the evening of March T, under the
national alias of John and Thomas Smith.
On Sept. 0 Charles and Philip of 8pain~
tiie marriage articles, never intended to be
consummated, having been reciprocally con-
firmed by oath*-parted. never to meet again.
Buckingham and the Spanish prime minister
Olivarez took leave of each other with mu-
tual expressions of animosity, which, if they
were in any sort untrue, were so because thev
fbll short of the measure of their mutual hatred.
From this moment the &vorite unquestionably,
and the prince in all probability, were deter^
mined irrevocably against the Spanish marriage.
"From a oarefhl review," says Dr. lingard,
^of all the proceedings connected with the Span-
ish match, it may be £urly inferred : Ist, that
had the treaty been left to the address and per-
severance of the earl of Bristol, it woiold have
been brought to the oondufiion which James
so earnestly desired: 2d, that the Spanish
council had ministered ample cause of offence
to the young prince by their vexatious delays
and their attempts to take advantage of his
presence; Bd, that he, nevertheless, entered
Q>ontaneously into solenm engagements from
which he could not afterward recede without
the breach of his word ; 4th, and that, in order
to vindicate his conduct in the eyes of the Eng-
lish public, he was compelled to employ misre-
presentation and fiedsehood. But the great mis-
fortune was the baneful influence which such
proceedings had on his character. He was
tftDght to intrigue, to dissemble, to deceive.
His satjects, soon alter he mounted the throne,
discovered the insincerity of their prince ; they
lost all confidence in his professions; and to
this distrust may in a great measure be ascrib-
ed the civil war which ensued, and the evils
which befell both the nation and the sovereign."
Itis w(M:thy of remariL that when, shortly after
the abandonment of the Spanish marriage and
alliance, at a general conference between the 2
houses, before whom Charles disgraced him-
self by vouching for the truth of direct false-
hoods stated by Buckingham, James received
an address of congratulation on his having be-
come sensible of the in^inoerity of the Span-
iards, he directly disavowed his entertaining
any such opinion, and refused to express any
judgment as to the truth of Buddngham^s rela-
tiiHi. Not long afterward, when thefisvorite^

who was sow suin^me with Cfliatlea, iosb:^
on the impeachment of Cranfield, earl of IfiC*
dlesex, and was supported by the pdsee d
Wales, the king told the duke that be vm i
fool, and was making a rod for his own bre^
and the prince, that he would Hve to isTe L
belly fbll of impeachmentsL Before the hu^
death, the marriage df Charles was amc^'
with Henrietta Maria, dau^ter of Henrj IT
of France and his 2d wife, Maria de'Medi'ci: t
least as great if not greater eonoenoss \<t
ing made to the EngKah CathoBca, in order v
gratify the French king, Louis XQI^ ta^ ^
minister Bichdieu, than had been deDsr>-:
by the court of Spain, against which var«i-
simultaneously declared. James 1. died b*?-
ever, bef(»*e the marriage was even^rsti:-':
but 8 days after the accession of Gharlea. Mi* •
27, 1625, the ratification took place, and sn?
the lapse d about 8 months, during w)a& ir
lays occurred owing to the iSness of hm t-^
queen was received by Charies at Dore? . -^
mally married by him at Canterhmy, and o^-
ed at Hampton court^ the entrance of tiie r^.
party into the metropolis being prereoted by
the ravages of a terrible pestUenee, aaid to '[
the most destructive within the neiDorT n
man. The marriage itself was iosospici^'
all its influences, both social and political, ^^■
of e vH consequences to both king and idofCr :!
and the wife of Buckingham's bestovil n«
to say the least, as fatal to the prosper*
Charles as were the teachings and exaicp^
that minister, and the animosity ezdted a^^-
the crown, among the commons, by his l»-^- •
Charles I., though he had education, Rnne t
complishment, and a ^sultn^ grave demei^-'
which obtained for him the credit of &r ^'■''^
wisdom than he possessed, had neither qdcb:^
of perception nor depth of intellect He^i-
slow, formal, destitute of prevision, impcs;-
to convince, and, when he ought to hire .-^
persuaded, inaccessible to persoasioo. Ati^-
this, that long before Bnckingfaam erer ber^
to shape his Acuities, he had seoinothiof r[^'

. tised, and heard nothing praised by his ^'^''
or in his father's court, but deoeptioo, ra^^^-'
ity, the propriety of obtahiing the a»d bja-V
means however false or dis&neat,!!*^";
what James loved to call the art of kio?^:
His position, moreover, was such that vbea ^•
came to the throne, no one but a man w^^^^'
ishing fhcnlties, of the dearest compiebcc'
the soundest judgment, the most indonu^
will, the most thorough wisdom, codd btTv ^-
sibly succeeded in piloting himself and the^ :
of state through the crisis of the iw^-^
storm. Unfortunately for Charies, he h'^" *
a period of transition, which he had dc< -
perception to discover to be such ; and i^-[
very moment when it would hate rtq^^-. ;

* firmer hand than his to retain his hold od tr.
his father had left to him, in itatu ftf, « ';
termined to recover something of what h]s r ^
decessors had once held, and had h^ ^_^
him. To govern without pariiameiitBwaflBOtt

QBARLES L rfifeMMm)

■

B»-^ TTT- --- -^

m .

H--- *-^ ■^'- '

■ V- . _. , 1 ^Ah -/ 1 1- --;

T^-ii. ^,^.» ^< i 1- ..^^^.

HjHM^ym

^^1

^[^r4^ il^p^teiiliU

^^1

^^^H

^^^^^^^^H|Ij

^^^PBv. f

^^^B 0M m tUu; '

^^^H

^^^K|UrriM>

^^^^^^^^Bii

^^^^Ki

^^H

■ lie* i^''*'-

^^^^^^p ff^'

r tutnicy

^^^H

^^^^^■t i'.,

!l4{aQ« ft TT^

^^^^1

^^^^^^^^pUt ^''''

Ucjentito i*jc -

^^^1

^^^^M^Fjrfii. '

I'lllMTW-ll Fllft! .

^^Kiii*

■^

^^H

^^^H

^^■^f^ .. rr ...

-.- ,

• <'mt<< iii»:o*^[i

^^^^H

^^B '

4IIM1M| Im flUl4

liT>cw 'r^oT mg^^ti ri^ ^^^H

^^^K-

.f ••r'^y UEifiMimM^

=^ - 4 tjie i^^ofikiiir lii f«^l ^^^^|

^^^^^L- , ' . -d ill 111 tf

^Buk^v

' iwu tif ^H

v^hlfp ^^M

^^^^^^^^Ba '

^^^^^^K'

^^1

^^^^^^R^ •

«ar 1^ ^^H

7ae

OHABIBS L (BKffiLAm)

eondnct of the hoBse of oommoDfl was ob this
occasion ttrictly ooDstitational, was then, and is
atill, a matter of diapate. They had alwaya
aasOTted the right to adjourn theiii8elvee» bat
heretofore had carefully avoided coming into
collision with the crown. It cannot be denied,
however, that the coone poraned by the king,
nnadvised by any partionhir &vorite or minister,
had produced the state of things of which he
henceforth complained. For, hereafter, he
oonld be indnoed to regard every act in opposi-
tion to his will in no light but that of an act of
treasonable and preme£tated resistance to hia
Just authority, forgetting entirely that his own
was the first dearly visible and overt fake step.
One most not, however, at this stage charge
him with an intentional and deliberate breach
of parliamentaiy privilege, much less with a
deogn to establish an absolute government and
extinguish every semblance of parliaments or
parliamentary freedom, for he had in the first
instance some reasonable cause of complaint,
any more than he must accredit to the parlia-
ment the determination to make of the Jdng a
mere puppet of their wiU. Both designs arose
aoon after, and on both sides with nearly equal

austice. Thus £&r, it is nearly certain that each
e honestljr believed itself to be clearly and
indisputably in the ri^ht ; while one of them,
the king, was, though it was perhaps impossi-
ble that he should then perceive it, almost
wholly in the wrong. It was bat a ^ort time
before he made himself so entirely. Nine
members of the lower house wwe now arrested,
and being brought up by writ of habeas corpus
must, in conformity with the petition of right,
have been discharged or admitted to bail, when
Charles most unwarrantably placed them in the '
hands of the lieutenant of the tower, and for-
bade him to produce them in court. Subse-
quently, they were offered their discharge on
bail on their giving security for good behavior,
which they refused, as such a proceeding would
Imply a confession of guilt. Thereafter they
were ordered to plead to a criminal information
filed against them, to which they objected that
the court of king's bench had no authority to sit
in judgment on their conduct in parliament,
which objection was most sophistioally over-
ruled, on the ground that their behavior was
extra-parliamentary, and therefore liable to
censure extra parliamentum. Whereupon 8 of
them, the most obnoxious, Eliot, UoUes, and
Valentine, were imprisoned during the royal
pleasure, and orderea, before liberation, to make
submission and pay fines to the king, respec-
tively, of £2,000, £1,000, and £500. Eliot died
in the tower, of disease aggravated by confine-
ment, refusing to make submission, and being
refused any mitigation of his penalty until he
should do so, in 1632, after 8 years^ rigorous im-
prisonment. He was considered a martyr for the
sake of liberty and justice, and it would be hard
to say whether the conduct of Charles was more
impolitic or more unworthy. He violated not
only the established privileges of parliament,

bat violently abrcgatod the eonoanMNia madi
and sanctioned by himself, by his own asseE;
regularly given to a bill whi^ had beea re^
lany passed, after everv illegal metliod k»l
been taken to prevent it by underhanded menLi
from becoming a hiw. By this conduct, Chari^
iiilly Justified his enemies in their aaaertaon tjLs;
he was utterly untrustworthy, and that it was
dear that so long as he had power be woold i^
it at his pleasure in defiance of all law, smd to
the falsification of his own royal word, howeve'
solemnly plighted. Whatever encroachme!::^
the 2 first parliaihents, of 1625 and 1626, migLt
have made on the prerogative in refnsng tc
grant the tonnage and poundage for life, as bad
been the custom for 3 centuries, and that before
the king had shown any tyrannical dispoaitio&s ;
and in impeaching Buckingham "• on oommt^i
report,*' without hearing evidence against bin,
which was manifestly illegal ; the king had now
put himself so thoroughly in the wrong tb^
ne had silenced all his own honest apolop>:3^
and filled every person in the kingdom, but u^e
few who desired to see the establishment ui ^
absolute monarchy and a persecuting chnrcL
with the gravest and darkest apprebeiisiocN
Kor was it to be denied that if the first parLa-
ments had gone beyond the letter of the consu*
tution, the conduct of Buckingham was scd
as would Justify in our days a vote of want of
confidence, and the refusal to grant suppHt:>
until a change of ministry. Such was &.'i,
however, as yet the practice, nor was it will-
in the established privileges of parliamtDi.
Charles now, as if resolved to try his people
to the utmost, not only determined, but utr-
dared by proclamation hia detenninatioo, ^>
govern witnout parliament; and in isnct ht
did so for no less than 11 years, during whiij
he gave the church entirely into the hands ci
Laud, and the state into tbose of Sir HkooLi!!
Wentworth, created earl of Strafford, who boia
severally promised him to use aU their aidesv-
ors to render him absolute in both departmer^
of government. By the extreme high churcb
assumptions of Laud, the Puritana of Engbid
were led to believe that Charles and hia primata
were bent on reintroducing the ancitfitwOTshlp
of Borne; and although the suspidon was loi
true, yet, knowing that it existed, none are to
be blamed but they, for perristing in a course of
conduct which could but aggravate and confm
it. Irdand, in the mean time, by the op|»es^re
government of Wentworth, whoso only objec;
was to raise money in order to meet his master's
exigencies without resorting to the aid of par-
liament, was driven to the verge of rebellion.
Scotland, maddened by the king^a attempt &t
the instigation of Laud, to force Episcopacr
upon her contrary to the fundamental law of
the kingdom, actually rose in arms, invaJed
England, guned possession of Nortbumberkod
and Durham, the king having made a fruitless
attempt to raise funds to oppose her armies br
summoning a parliament, of which he asked
Buppliesy but which, as itproceeded, as Uie la.4,

r eiiARi.ss l (Emu^jnt^ m^^^l

BirH

^^^H

^^^^^1

k tU UiL Nil ^H

t ^^^H

^^H

^^^H

■ Ail.

^1 i>-

ttdtmtL Ktrm hmwmtka^tothmwtaktxy mfd ibOTikt bt AlfeA wiiii mii^pgii, nnfic ' ' ibMiijii^ ^^|

798

OHABLEBZL (S^[m.u»)

Urn* Tfoni thftt moBUAt fiio dUon of Hio ami^
■aw that the qnestioii lay between their own
HTes and hia life; and they, of oonrse, decided
that it Bhoold not be their own, if they ooold
help it. Haviog been taken on June 4 by
Oomet Joyce ont of the hands <^ the comm]»*
doners and brought to the army, then lying at
Triplow Heath, and now in open rebellion
against the parliament, he was taken on Ang. 16
to Hampton court from which he escaped Hoy.
11, eventually seeking refbge with Hammond,
the parliamentary governor of the isle of Wight
Here he was imprisoned in Oarisbrooke castle
till Nov. 80, 1648, when, by an order of the
coandl of officers in the army, he was removed
to Hnrst castle, on the opporite coast of Hamp-
shire. The now dominant army promptly snp-
pressed all risings in his &vor. A force in the
Presbyterian interest, under the duke of Hamil*
ton, was completely routed by Cromwell at
Laxigdale, near Preston, Aug. 17. On Dec.
6 the house of commons was invaded by Ool.
Pride, with a strong detachment of soldieiv, and
all members ejected except about 160, who
were in the Independent interest On Dec. 22,
Charles was brought in custody to Windsor,
and on Jan. 16, 1649, to St James's. On Jan.
20 he was brought to trial in Westminster hall,
before the so^^udled high court of justice. Sen-
tence of death was passed upon him, Jan.
27, and he was executed* by decapitation on a
scaffold erected in front of the banqueting
house at Whitehall, Jan. 80, at 2 P. M.-*
Charles I. had 8 children by Queen Henrietta,
6 of whom survived him, viz. : Charles and
James, afterward kings of England; Henry,
duke of Gloucester ; liary, the wife of WiUiam,
prince of Orange, and the mother of William,
kinff of En^and; Elizabeth, bom 1685, who
died a prisoner in Carisbrooke castle soon after
herfather's death, Sept 8, 1650 ; and Henrietta
Maria, the wife of Philip, duke of Orleans, from
whom, through a daughter, is descended the
royal family of Sardinia. Charles was an ele-
gant writer of English, and, in the early part of
bs rdgn, a zealous patron of the fine arts.— The
writings attributed to him are indicated in
Horace Walpole's ** Royal and Noble Authors,"
and have been published under the title of
BeiiquuB Saera Carolina, Among them is the
fiunous work, the Bikon Bouilihe^ or " Portrdt-
nre of his Sacred Mijesty in his Solitudes and
Sufferings ;" his daim to its authorship has been
much disputed, though advocated by the Bey.
Dr. Christopher Wordsworth, in his book enti-
tled, '' Who Wrote the Eikon BasUike r See
Clarendon's «* History of the Rebellion ;" Rush-
worth's "Historical Collections;" Whitelock's
** Memorials of English Affairs,'* &c ; and
among the more recent works, those of Brodie,
Godwin, and Disraeli.

CHARLES II., the 2d son of the preceding
(the first son, Charles James, having died on the
day of his birth, March 18, 1629), bom May 29,
1680, died Feb. 6, 1686. In 1642 he was ap-
pointed by his ftther commander of the troop of

horse whidi he ndaid nabodyguvdatTod
and 8 years afterward he was sent to sem
with the royal troops in the west widi the nss
of general. After the battle of Nasebt (im
the prince retired to ScQly, and subeeqiKstiT t?
Jersey, where he remained until Sept M
when he joined his motiier in Paris. In m^
while residing at the Hsfue, he recei?ed ik
news of the death of his fttiber, and immedattT
assumed the titie of king, but wiUi litde ^

S«t of ascending the throne. JLamz Irit
oUand to spend some time in Paris, he sot^
sequentiy repaired to Jersey, whence be sr
rived in the nortii of Scotland, June 2S, W..
irfter having agreed to become king of Scotlirg
on tiie conditions imposed by the ^eBbjtefi£&
and after having been forced to tske the «'T^
nant before landing. Proclaimed king st U
inburgh, July 15, 1650, he was crowiwis:
Boone. Jan. 1, 1651. Cromwell, however, hr
ing already conquered the greater part d
So^tiand, Charles resolved on marching to t^
south, entered Enghind Aug. 6 of the ssse
year, and took possession of the city of Csrii^>.
where he was proclaimed king. The battle • :
Worcester (Sept 8), however, in which be
was defeated by CromweU, pot an end »
this enterprise. Having escaped to thect^
tinent, the news of Cromwell's death in 1^>^
reached him in BrusselB. In order to be fible
to avafl himself of the conftision which aro«
in England after the downM of Tiklti
Cromwell's government, Charles stationed hin;-
self at Calais in Aug. 1659, but it was not t:;i
April, 1660, that he succeeded during his my
at Breda in opening a negotiation with Ga
Monk. His restoration to the throne of Be-
laud was voted by parliament on May 1 of itiJ
year, and on May 8 he was proclaimed \an J^
London, which city he entered May 29, ki^
ing departed from the Hague 6 days befoi«. bi'
Journey to London was one continned tri-
umph; and the whole of the country throczt
which it passed bore the aspect of a uniTcr
sal fair-day. 8o great was the raptnre of lor
alty with which Charles was received, that.
with his usual wit, he observed to some od« «
his company, that he could not see for the i^t
of him why he had stayed away so long, Tta
every body seemed so charmed with him f*
thathewasat length comeback. HewBsrec^i^^
with open arms, reinstated without being &'£<^
to give a guarantee, or to make a conw^*-
"It has been," says Macaulay of Obirles, -^^*
much the practice of writers, tealons for fr^
dom, to represent the restoration as • Wj*
astrous event, and to condemo the mr^
baseness of that convention whidb recalled f>^
royal family, without exacting new secnnj;?;
against maladministration. Those who i^^
this language do not comprehend the c". ;
which followed the depoation of ^f^^
CromwcD. England was in imminent m^^
of sinking under the tyranny of a «ncoessofl ^
small men, raised up and puDed down by niu^
tary ci^ce. To deUver tiie ooonUy !»"» "^

^^^^ 0D4RIiIB tL (F*^ • ^«^>

«l

^^^H|Mft ftf tklttitltdlM WM L^'' /^'^^ -T i' <

i 111 oi.'Ai-^ ^r*^^ 4^

> ft ^^^1

^^^^^Bli|eltiim«*l ^aiflot 4 l«it 1 1

1 ^^^H

^^^^^^^^nf|^|# fh^ tmtU{it\i t

^^^^^1

^^^Ki omU r

^^^^H

^^^^^^b, A f toiyu

^^^^1

^^^^^^Edtfiiij w ^tm/fnif mrmj

^^^1

:. ^H

^^^^H^ba* i^r MMteit^^

^^^^1

^^H

^^1

^^^V fcti«d*utk»ii> rAH^k*!, <i

^^^H

^^^Byiprw *i£j.^- j".--i- •

^^^^1

^^^^piilivtftriar. fOinitriii-

^^^^H

^■l^lui^ii -^. i.

^^^^1

^V lUBt |k4r iHf , kfdc .

^^^H

^■jMUDt. .1 itnlF! ':

^^^^1

^^^E^r

, ^^^H

^^pt iu

^^^1

^^^■rp«Ai«fi ti"

^^^^1

^^Kiaarl^

^^^H

^^HAm. Thfl i>uf

^^^^H

^H^PlE^l >J']t 4%!^^

^^M

■ d.

^^M

H ' .^j UrnL

^^^^M

H "O. Dmii'

^^^^1

^Lgto •^iit«>r I'l L>|0 OfonWtiUiiUi *c>jua r i

^^^H

^^BfiriiJfi Elf tbp EnjdU&fiaAaaii miift -

^^^H

'^m of til

^^^k^^. ..-. i «,r-4, of wi*^'^* "^i""^**-

■J f:» ^./,i

~ ^^^^1

iM ^H

^^^^^1

^^■^ 'M aodlbumUioQ 4wir<

^^^H

^^^■li i.'^ci^ai ftbbk^iaa r^wm^' - . .

^^^^1

^^■|iii«iHi wkt^ dl»t nmd ikm^'off^.

liii«UMlir.i

^^^^1

' '• 'fWl'i^Wl,

■ ml

■ Ni0i 'Jl . Ikifi^Cfl

^^^H

H t^»! lrKL wIM> I'll

^^^H

■ r %rtm ^wKJ'

^^^H

^1 VI ' 'T iElW^^i

^^^^1

^1 O*. ii«tltEI«|»U

^^^H

■ W :..,,-,, . ■. j>nifi ti«d«iru . .

^^^^1

^^^4^^j^^' r ■ J r J :» L [ fill T 1 1 h*r. n r n twi

^^^H

H t

^^1

■ li •

^^^^1

1^ t^J '^ ; ■ ■ ■' ■ --.. *--* »* -'►

,_ .^.^ ,,^^.,

■ b^-jT' ,«i£ ta Kfiglantlhs

tifef UimJ

^^^H

^H W'' "• Ll i'hu- a Ti'i rHT>>

./ -m!!.

^^^^H

' 'viS ^^^^1

780

OHASLES IL (Eir«jun>)|

QHABLES ICABXEL (f^itfMB)

deatli WBB denoonoed agniiitt all vho wonld
dielter him, oottagen and serving men bad Icept
Mb eeoret trulj, and had kissed bis hand under
his mean disgoises with as much reverence as if
he had been seated on his ancestral throne.
From snch a school, it might have been ex-
pected that a yonng man, who wanted neither
abilities nor amiable qnalities, would have come
forth a good and great king. Charles came
forth from that school with social habits, with
polite and engaging manners, and with some
talent for livelj conversation, fond of saunter-
ing and frivolous amusements, incapable of self-
denial and of exertion, without faith in human
virtue or in human attachment, without de-
sire of renown or sensibility to reproach. Ac-
cording to him, every person was to be bought
But some people haggled more about their
price than others ; and when this haggling was
very obstinate and very skilful, it was called by
some fine name. The chief trick by which
clever men kept up the price of their abilities
was called integrity. The chief trick by which
handsome women kept up the price of their
beauty was called modesty. The love of Grod,
the love of country, the love of family, the love
of friends, were phrases of the same sort, delicate
and convenient sjmonymes for the love of self.
Thinking thus of mankind, Charles naturally
carod very little what they thought of him.
Honor and shame were scarcely more to him
than light and darkness to the blind. His con-
tempt of flattery has been highly commended,
but seems, when viewed in connection with the
rest of his character, to deserve no commenda-
tion. It is possible to be below flattery, as well
as to be above it. One who trusts nobody will
not trust sycophants. One who does not valne

real glory, will not value its counterfeit

Tlie facility of Charles was snch as has, perhaps,
never been found in any man of equal sense.
He was a slave without being a dupe. Worth-
less men and womei/, to the very bottom of
whose hearts he saw, and whom he knew to be
destitute of affection for him, and undeserving
of his confidence, could easily wheedle him out
of titles, places, domains, state secrets, and
pardons. * He bestowed much ; yet he neither
enjoyed the pleasure nor acquired, the fame of
beneficence. He never gave spontaneously;
but it was painfhl to him to refuse. The con-
sequence was, that his bounty generally went,
not to those who deserved it, nor even to those
whom h» liked the best, but to the most shame-
less and importunate suitor who could obtain an
audience. The motives which ^verned the
political conduct of Charles II. dnrered widely
from those by which his predecessor and his
successor were actuated. He was not a man to
be imposed upon by the 'patriarchal theory of
government and the doctrine of divine right.
He was utterly without ambition. He detested
business, and would sooner have abdicated his
crown than have undergone the trouble of
really directing the administration. Such was
his aversion to toil, and audi his ignorance of

affidra, that the rtry ckrka who
when he aat in council ooold not lefirain froa
aneering at his fkivolona lemarka and duldish
impatience. Neither gratitude ncr rerenge had
any share in determining his oonraa; for never
was there a mind on which both aervioea and in-
juries left such faint and tranatory imjpmnons.
He wiahed merely to be a king auoh aa Louis XV.
afterward was ; a king who coold draw with-
out limit on the treasury for the gratifioatkB cf
his private tastes, who could hire wHh wealth
and honors persona citable of aHwiating him u>
kill time, and who, even when the atate was
brought by maladminiatration to the hnnk cf
ruin, could still exclude unweloome truth from
the purlieus of hia own seraglic^ and refoae w
see and hear whatever mi^t disturb his Inn-
rious repose. For these enda, and for these
alone, he wished to obtain arbitrary power, if
it could be obtained without risk or trouble. In
religious disputes, which divided hia Protestaal
subjects, hb conscience was not at all inur-
ested, for his opinions oadllated in & state d
contented suspense between infidelity sLd
Popery." — Charles had no children by his
queen. Among bis natural children were : L
James, duke of Monmouth, by Mrs. Lacy Wal-
ters, bom at Rotterdam in 1649, ancestor of the
dukea of Buccleugh; 2, Mary, alao by Mn.
Walters ; 8, Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Mam
Boyle (alas Fitzroy), by Elizabeth Yiaeonnie9&
Shannon; 4, Charles, aumamed Fitz-<Iharles,
by Mrs. Catharine Peg; 5, a daughter bj
Mrs. Peg, who died in infancy ; 6, Chari^
Fitzroy, duke of Bouthampton, by tho dnchte?
of Cleveland ; 7, Henry Fitzroy, duke of Graf-
ton, by the same^ anoestor of the dukes of Graf-
ton ; 8, George Fitzroy, duke of Northumber-
land, by the same ; 9, Charlotte Fitzroy, by the
same ; 10, Charles Beauderc, duke of St. Albacs,
by the famous Nell Gwynn, anoestor of th«
dukes of St Albans; 11, Charlea Lenox, dake
of Richmond, by Louise Querouaille, a French
woman, created duchess of Portsmouth, anc«^
tor of the dukes of Eichmond; and 1^ Mary
Tudor, by Mrs. Mary Davis. — See Bishop Bar-
net's "Own Time; " Evelyn's "^ Diary and Cor-
respondence ; " Samuel Pepys'a *^ Diary acd
Correspondence ; " Grammont'a "Memoirs,^* ij
Hamilton ; Jesse's " Court of the Stnartsu"

IL FSAirCB.

CHARLES MABTEL, duke of Anstrasia aad
mayor of the palace of the French kingiv bon
in 689, died in 741, waa the natml »»
of Pepin of Heristal, by hia mistress Alp*-
ida, and seemed at first doomed to an in-
ferior rank on account of hia iS^timsre
birth, as well as the dislike ahown to him
by his father and the hatred of Plectroda, hjs
lawful mother-in-law. The 2d aon of the lat-
ter, Grimoald, having been assassinated at
li^ge, Charles was chai^ged with being the
murderer and consequently thrown into a don-
geon, while Plectruda was intrusted with the
government and the guardianship of her grasd-
aon, who, although still a child, had been declared

^V cniiLBLKs Viirrei. ir^uan^

CflAEIS nt. (TiUMmi IK H

^K H^ vj ft

1' ^^^H

Cat H

^^^^§t

ill Baripu ^^H

*jil tfA nf km uOj^wIm tu» ^1

^^^^^^^^=i=L..«:..2= -i:^^^^^

~ iUUaUJ^ UL <ti£S ^mu), Oie fill&]di« ^^M

T82

OHASUEESiy. (iKuns)

of the CaiioTfaiglfln dynaBfey; bom 8«pt ITt
879, ^ed at Pfoonne, Oct 7, 920. A post-
hiunoas aon of Loins the Stammerer, he waa
ezdoded from the throne first bj his brothers,
then br Oharlea the Fat of Germany, and
finally oy the election of Endes. As soon,
however, as he became of ace, he asserted his
didms to the crown, sought mr the protection
of the Oarlovii^pan princes of Germany, and
waa in 898 reo<^^uzea as king by the migority
of the French nation. Being nnable to resist
the incessant aggressions of the Normana, he
condnded a treaty with their chief BoHo, at
8t (Mr-sar-Epte, in 912, by which he bestowed
upon hfan as a dnchy the whole N. W. pnt of
ifenstria, also giving him his sister in marriage.
For a few years Fnmce enjoyed comparative
quiet, bat in 922 the barons revolted against
the narrow-minded Oharles, and elected as king
Bobert, the brother of Endes. Charles at first
defeatM his rival, and even killed him with his
own hand ; but he was in his tarn defeated by
tiie son of Robert, Hngh the Great coant of
Paris ; and having soogfat a refage with Herbert,
count of Yermandois, he was detained by him
as prisoner nntil his death. The party which
opposed the Carlovinipans then reigned para-
mount, and it waa not nntil 986 that Louis lY.
d^Outremer, the son of Oharles, ascended the
throne of his ancestors.

OHARLES IV . (thb Faib), the last king of
the direct line of the Oapetian dynasty, bom in
1294, died at Vincennea, Jan. 81, 1828. The8d
son of Philip IV. the Fair, he succeeded his bro-
ther, Philip y. the Tall, in 1822, visited with se-
vere punisnmentthe Lombard money changers
for their many eactortions, the judges for their
prevarications, and the barons for their unlawful
encroachments upon private property. He
secretly aided hia mster Isabelle in her revolt
against her husband, King Edward H. of Eng-
land, made a futile attempt to be elected em-
peror of Germany, and died leaving his 8d wife,
Jeanne d^Evreuz. pregnant On her being de-
livered of a daugnter, the crown went to Philip
of Yalois, the cousin of Oharles, and the grand-
son of King Philip III. the Bold. The Oapetian
direct line ended by 8 brothers succeeding each
other: Louis X., Philip Y., and Oharles IV.; so did
the collateral branches of Yalois and Bourbon.
OHARLES Y. (the Wise), the 8d king of
the family of Yalois, son of King John H., bom
Jan. 21, IdSr, died at Yinoennes, Sept 16, 1880.
He was a prince of very little military genius, but
great ability, with much taste for learning. Being
m command of a body of the French army at the
battle of Poitiers, he deserted the field*at an early
period, while his fitther and younger brother
fought like heroes. On the captivity of the
former (1866), he was appointed his lientenant|
and had to contend against a formidable popular
rebellion, headed by Stephen Marcel, provost of
the merchants of Paris, and Robert Leoocq, bish-
op of Laon. At length, after having succeeded
in getting rid of the principal leader, who waa
m vdered by one of nis adnerents, he

OHMOJESVL (Kbaks)

the lifle of regent^ and condoded In 1880, with
Hie English, the traatvof Bxitigny fofr the llbe^
ration of the khig. By this treaty, SdwardllL
waa to remain in the independent pcwswnkiii c^
all the provinces of the Loire, conqwiHed unde?
the general name of Aqmtaiua, with the Fon-
Ihien and the country around Calais; hot be
waa to renounce his daima to tiie crown d
France, as well as those to Normaiidj, Too-
raine, Ai^on, Kaine, Brittany, and Flnnden; Ha
ransom of John was fixed at 8,000,000 gc«M
crowns, while 2 of his sons and asTeral gres:
lords of the kingdom were to be given as hos-
tages. John was liberated; but the terms cf
his liberation not having been complied wiih,
he returned to England, leaving for the Sd tz&d
the reeenoy in the hands of Oharlea, who rc-
ceeded him on his death in 1864^ diaries we
now at full liberty to di^lay the shrewdneasof hk
policy, and soon worsted King Edward lU^ wbo
had defeated both his father and grandlktber.
Being greatly assisted by the valor andprudesa
of his sreat constable Du Guesdin, he ^6bt>TQd
sevenu amues of the English, and wrested from
them the French provinces which they had held
for years. On the death of Edward, the oc^y
places still left in their hands were Bordeaux.
Bayonne, Oherbourg, Oalais, and a few other
fortresses. By timely asnstance to Henry Trcs-
tamara against Pedro the Omel, khig of Castik
Oharles had secured for himself an ally vb<^'
was of great service in his naval contests, aif
consequently instrumental in hia final snccc^
over England. Meanwhile, tranqniDity, order,
and prosperity had been restored to Fran:?:
while several important learned institntior$
were founded, among the number the king's li-
brary, now the bibliothique imperidls. hi Us
reign the Bastile was slso erected, mainly vitL
a view to hold the Parinans in sabmisskn.
Oharles Y. was indeed, if not one of the greater
at least one of the most nsefbl of F^endi kiss.
OHAKLES VL (trb Mad, or thx Bblot^\
the 4th king of the family of Yalois, bora in
Paris, Deo. 8, 1868, died Oct 21, 14S8. The son
of Oharles the Wise, he was but 11 years old wbec
his father died ; and hisnncles, the dukes of Ad-
jou, Berry, Burgundy, and Bourbon, nndertcok
to reign in his name. A general rebelfion brokt
out against their oppressive administratioii, a-
pecially in Paris, where the insorgents -wm
called MaiUotifiiy from tiie mallets with whirii
they were armed. Toung Oharles was taka
by the duke of Burgnndy to Flandera, and voa,
Nov. 27, 1882, the battle of Roosebeke. This
success resulted in the temporary anbmissioDaf
the great cities in France. The king's uncles
availed themselves of this opportonity to Urr
new taxes upon the people, but Charles dis-
missed them in 1890, declaring that be intemS^
to govern ibr himself; and for 2 years, a:
least, IVance enjoyed under his rule a wise and
mOd administration, whidi secured for the yocos
king a popular affection which even anbaeqwot
misfortunes failed to obliterate. In n9l
Oharies, while marching againat the dofca of

^H iMMaJ^ VU, iPiMm) flB^H

4 ^^^^^^H

ifkfUv*: VI b. ^^^^^1

^^^^^■|pr||Ma' .srwwtp*],

--r<*fld iili'; • ^^^H

^FTn-' ■ \j^u*aiir*''

'T«rlia»Uj.. ^^^H

H ar.. rjusuiifr V:

j^m^aMii ^^H

^^r

f<rVi> ^^H

r'*^ ^^B

^^^H|h»Qi

"^ ^^1

^^^^^^^^^^^^Pk ^StkMi •.- J k iiik

l.-JuM.'L.I-I.M* .JU '.. JlJ«J&«.l«^ ^^ k4>-'>«|^^^^^^^|

^^^^^w- ootDiwaod UftWMB ] tlHi

HM lu flir i«]jL luufp nu^^^H

^^^^^Kf}4ietAl f. tliA mm v.

^Hi^HDs vifi'. I- ' ' 'Mit^fuiLWl

^V |p . Ifnrp lic^

^Ui ^H

■ AL! . ■'i7r:'-T*, '1

rw^W ^^^B

H ft

' '^^^^1

■ 1^1 .

^^^H

^H lib UiJjilr^j»«, M..

* ^^^1

c ^^^1

^m if ' . <ti^iuiUi ^ Lrt'-

■ 9 -<! efaO' iomf

ofrb^iawlii' ^i^d^^^^H

■ •r-

.r. ^iH^^^^^^l

■ h.

^ti^^^^H

F »;

1 ^^H

j\.

1 ^^^^^1

1- . bui

lfiaaf|9i '« ^^^H

li. .fli«.

ft Mir * ^^^H

WM r«MaliUll«i, f'^i-.^ ^ri>i ir>ai<j' ' * ^^^H

1411) Ic. 144it| tfii ftiMAitti ibpMlm^L Vktt iil^^^H

y .HM..-.M

i» .if ibii k^i

Hf ■*<*!■ ' k' f ,i' i r

i.1

^ pat o(i 4.ti«UM ibollttiy^^^H

• HJQM C9 ' ^*i &><*t^ ^^^^1

'<-!,' MifVliftZir ^^'lifiTTi b<^ f " ^^^1

> .

tm&ic!«rr t>f Bfe^i' '^^^^^^l

Ihe v^onnrrt ^^^^' « ^^^^|

t . ■ ik, iv^k'ii^

f«o«vr»^ rB^H

lii .-l^i^l.

ihfiM 1 M. ^^^H

Vtf ^ K\,f:i. f UL iOJL& vioitiiauLig, ikm (^LLi

Esi^biL, ■.' 5i ia U4% i^*^% udL * l«r ^^H

TM OHABLKS YIIL (Fbaxcb)

monilus the foreignen wereezpdled from Hor- ^
mandjrand Goienne; tnd in 1458 the whole
of France had retomed to its native khig, ex-
cept Oalais, which alone remained for another
oentory in the hands of the English. In this
^■eat work Charles VII. had been powerfblly as-
Bisted by the popular feeling, the prominent re-
presentatiTes of which were Joan of Arc, the
heroine, and Jaoqnes Oosor, the merchant: to
both he proved ungratefal, leaving the former
at the mercy of the Ei^rlisb, without tiie
slightest attempt at her liberation: and pro-
scribing the latter, to whose financial assistance
he was especially indebted. The celebrated
pragmatic sanction, which secnred the flreedom
and privileges of the Gallican church against
the enoroadhments of the Roman see, was nego-
tiated by him in 1488. His later years were
embittered by the intrignes and rebelHons of the
daaphin; his fear of being poisoned by his
unnatural son became so overwhelming, that he
finally refused to take any food, and ^ed of
starvation.

CHARLES Ym., the 7th king of the house
of Yalois^ born at Amboise, «mne 80, 1470,
died April 7, 1498. Being only 18 years of
age on the death of his &ther, Louis aI., his
eldest sister, Anne de Beaigeu, seized thereins of
government, overpowered Louis of Orleans and
his associates, who attempted to resist her, and
gave for a few years to France a degree of
peace and prosperity, till her brother became
of age. The chivalrio romances and accounts
of Charlemagne^s heroic deeds had imbued his
rather wesk mind with the idea that it was his
mission to restore the Roman empire, and to
take Constantinople from the Turks. At the
head of a powerful armv he entered Italy in
1494^ triumphantly marched through the pen-
insula, and took possession of Naples. Satisfied
with his military exploits Charles left a part
of his anny in Naples, ana hurried home wiUi
A select body of about 9,000 soldiers^ When in
the neighborhood of Parma, he met at Fornovo
an army of 40,000 Italians, who sought to inter-
cept his return ; but in spite of their numbers Uie
young king routed them and triumphantly re-
entexvdd France. He soon learned that his
army had been defeated by the Spaniards under
Gonzalvo de Cordova, and that Naples had re-
turned to its old allegiance. He was plannintr
a new expedition when he suddenly expired
from the effects of an apparently trifling acci-
dent

CHARLES IX., the 12th king of the family
of Yalois, bom at St. Germain-en-Laye, June
27, 1550, died May 80, 1574. The 2d son of
Henry 11. and Catharine de* Medici, he succeeded
his brother, Francis IL, Deo. 5, 1560, when
only 10 years old, under the regency of his
mother. The hatred between the Catholics
and the Protestants had been growing for years
past; an attempt at conciliation tlurough the
conference of Poissy having proved a foilure,
hostilities soon broke out. The Protestants
resorted to arms, headed by the prince of Condd.

0HABLE8 X. (Fftaws)

After being sneecssftd te tiio first
they were defeated at Dreux, in 1652, by the
duke of Guise, who was aasaasinatod a few
months later while beneging Orleans. A treafy
of peace, known as the edict of Amboise, wsi
concluded (March 19, 1668) between the regent
and the leaders of the insmgenta. The war wis
renewed in 1567, when the ProteetantB wen
again defeated at St Denis by MontmoreiMsy. A
new peace intervened, which was of veiy abot
duration, the enemies beins again in the fidd tow-
ard the middle of 1668. This 8d war was aignsl-
ized by the battles of Jamac (Marcb 18, 156$)
and Moncontour (Oct. 8), won by Henry, dokecf
Anjou, the younger brother of the idxig; thm
peace, now believed to be final, retnmed agaa.
The king himself. Queen Catharine de* Medici,
and the whole court, seemed to be reooociled to
the Protestant party ; Coligni was reoeived wi;b
great honor by his young sovereign, wbo fondlj
called him " Father,'' and required his advice in
the administration of the govemmeot; \i»
king of Navarre, afterward Henry IV., mazriad
the king's sister, Margaret ; the other Ptotcs*
taut chiefs were welcomed at the court. Charki
IX, above all, tried to foster oonoord aod
friendship between the recent enemies, so thst
those uninitiated in the secret oouncile of the
court were assured that all was safe, when sud-
denly it was reported that Adndral Gidigni had
been shot by a man conunonly known as the
king's assassin. This was an awfU wamiog
but it was too late for the Protestanta to iMki
measures for their security ; they were unamed
and defenceless. On the night of Aug. 94, St
Bartholomew's day (1572), at a signal givea
from the Louvre, the Catholics of Paris rose ia
arms and roerdlessly slaughtered their oppo-
nents, who had confided in Uie word of the kiiif;
It is difficult to determine what was the part oi
Charles IX. in the fiital deed. He seems to
have acted under the pemicioua influence cf
Catharine de' MedicL This terrible woman drew
from him tiie frantic exclamation, which wss
construed as an order : " Well, then, kill tbem
all, that not a single Huguenot may live tD re-
proach me with their death 1" He fr^uently
afterward manifested signs of deep remorse, aad
breatiied his last when only 24 years of age,
amid dreadful corporal and ipiritual snfftfingsi
CHARLES X^ the 7th and last king of tb«
family of Bourbon, bom at Versailles, Oct 9,
1757, died at GOritz, in lUyria, Nov. 6, 18S6. H«
was the 4th son of the dauphin, scm of Lon
XY., and received at his birth the names of
Chsrles Philip, and the tide of count of Artok
After being very indifferently educated undtf
the superintendence of the duke of Ia Vsn-
guyon, he married, Nov. 16, 1778, Maria Theros
of Bavoy, a younger sister of the countess of
Provence, by whom he had 2 sons, the dokes
of AngouUme and Berry. Being of a very
profligate disposition, he neglected hia wile,
both for ladies at the court and common eoii>
tessns. Among the latter waa MQe. Duthi,
who eijoyed an unenviable celebiitgr. His

' 4e '

,' .1* I •i.ni

t
I].

tUl bo

' Iri^ W Mi:»Ll%. Uia tpiijr 4if l^i4i» ift||4ii^ ut>^ *l Uii^ Hki iL^^iiu

iiLsl li*-

788 CHABLEB X. (Fsahcb)

tnistod Priooo PoUgnM with the fbniuKtioa
of a new cabinet ^e prince was indeed the
troeat representatiye of that old royalist party
which had ^^ forgotten and learned nothing." His
mere name was considered as a challenge offered
by the king to ^e nation ; every one foresaw the
coming struggle. In yain the goyemment tried
to assoage public opinion by ine excitement of
military success. The expedition against Algiers
was undertaken; that stronghold of piracy
was stormed on July 6. 1880. But all to no
purpose ; the interest or the wh<de nation was
engrossed by home afEairs. On the opening of
the chambers^ March 2, the king had made use
of threatening lioiguage, and to this a midority
of 221 deputies answered by voting an address
declaring their want of confidence in the min-
istry. The king decHned to receive the address,
on which the chambers were a^oumed, and on
Kay 16 they were dissolved. New elections
took place, and resulted in a still more powerful
opposition mi\Jority. Incensed at this, and en-
couraged by the triumph of the French army
in Algeria, the king resorted to a coupcPetat.
Decrees were promulgated to suppress entirely
the freedom of the press ; to diasolve the newly
elected, but not yet opened, chamber of deputies,
and prescribe an essential modification in the
mode of election, so as to secure the triumph
of the court party. These ordinances fell like
a thunderbolt on Paris. Resistance was imme-
diately orgai^zed. Barricades were built, and
defended by bodies of workmen from the
suburbs, and by artisans and printers, under the
command of officers and young men from the
polytechnic school. The insurrection was em-
phatically popular, and not confined to any par-
ticular class. The roval troops, under Mar-
sbsl Marmonty offered but unwilling redst-
ance, and were driven from the capital in less
than 8 days. Charles X. was so little conscious
of the danger of his situation that he remained
quietly at the pslace of St Goud ; he learned
but gradually the defeat of his troops, being to
the last under the impression that he liad to
deal only with a riot. But it was a revolution,
and when he attempted to avoid itB consequences
it was too late. He recalled Uie fatal ordinanoe&
appointed a liberal ministry, and even abdicated
in favor of his grandsoiLthe dnke of Bordeaux,
the present count of Chambord, but all in
vun; the chiefs of the revolution would not
accept such proposals ; the king had no alterna-
tive but to deport. He retired first to Trianon,
then to Ramt)ouillet, under the protection of
his guards. In the latter place, he made some
show of resistance ; but on the appearance of
10,000 volunteers from Paris, he g:ave it up en-
tirely, and, accompanied by commissioners sent
by the chamber of deputies, he directed his
course toward Cherbourg. There, on Aug. 16,
he embarked for England with his family and a
few faithful servants, on board of 2 American
ships, the Great Britain and the Charles Carroll.
He landed at Cowes as a private individual,
under the name of comte de Ponthieu. He

OHARTiKB L» os OBuaMMAoa

immediaftely repaSred to fhepalaoeof HoljTVMd,
in Scotland, whidi had been assigned to bim is
a residence by the English governmeiit.. In Has
retreat he devoted his time to iidd 8poiia» of
which he was still venr fond, nofevrithstends^
his old age, and to rdugious duties. After 4
years' readence, he left Scothnd for Bolieiiua.
where he lived sacoeesively at Buschtierad a&d
the Hradsehin of Prague; ultimaMy he re-
solved to retire to GOritz in Ulyria. He arrived
there in Oct. 1886; but soon died of the chol-
era, after a uckness of 5 days.

IILOSBMAinr.

CHABLES I., CsABLXXAQBS, or Gkazle
THE Gbbat TGer. Earl d^r Oro99e\ aoperor d
the West ana king of France, bom April 8, 741
died Jan. 28, 814, and buried at Aiz la GhiqKDe.
The 2d son of Pepin, the Frankiah kingdom r^
verted to him ana hb brother Oarloman, on IJs
father's demise in 768. Oarloman dying 2 yeazs
later, Charles secured the undivided BovereSgntr.
He now found himself master of the whole d
Ghiul and western Germany; his amhitioa, how-
ever, was unsatisfied, and a suoce8si<m of forts-
nate wars in Italy. Bpain, and Germany, adctc
largely to his already extensive doamnos.
lEDs first conquest was tiiat of Lomhardy. ¥>
tives of discontent and estrangement bad fc?
seversl years existed between Mm and Dead^
rius, king of the Lombards. He bad, before bb
accession to the throne, manied Desldcmta, Hi
daughter o£ the latter, and had recently secx
her back in a scornfiil manner to her father.
Desiderius himself had granted an a^hnn to
the nephews and some of the bitterest eneiaiei
of Charles; at the same time he assmned a hos-
tile attitude toward the popes of Borne, wlxsn
Pepin had made firm allies of the Oailovingisztf
by bestowing upon them the exaxr^hate of Ra-
venna. Charles, yielding to his own anger asd
to tiie entreaties of Pope Adrian I., crossed th£
Alps in 778 at the head of a powerful srmr,
besieged Pavia for 8 months, and took -poses^
sion of it only when its defenders had been (St-
abled by pestilence and Amine. Dedderiis was
exiled to the monastery of Corbie in France.
Charles crowned himself with the anient iroa
crown of the Lombard kin^; but he hsd
scsrcely left Italy when Adelgis, son of Desde-
rius, supported by the dukes of Spoleto, JinX
and Benevento, rose in arms agamst the coo-
queror. The rebels were crushed at oiKCf
and Charles, to make the submissioQ of Loo*
dardy more sure, appointed his 8d son, Pepia.
to reign over this country (776). Meanwhile
war was actively prosecuted sgainst the Saxcxs;
this was the most important, protracted, vA
terrific of all those waged by Charles^ Com-
mencing in 772, it terminated onlj in 604,
after a duration of 82 years, with very link
interruption. On his first expedition, Cbsiks
took Eresbun, destroyed the venerated statv
Imown as '* Lrminsol,'' and penetrated Ticto-
riously as far as the Weser. Bui the 8axocs
were far from being conquered. In 775 Charies
entered their oountiy again at the head of his

GMAULKB I^ Dft CiVkMzmnjknSM (Ummi^ty

vfi H

^n ".1,.-, -,*T .^. I _...'r. . ;,^ .* f^' .^1,-, -Tl..^ -l-i.- ** ■^— 1^-*

^^M

;

^Kii

iiv.'i' ♦lit if «IJ ^

^•1^>

fiuM \h0 %i!iiiutn90T'

i>«i ^1

788

OHABLEB L, ob OHAsuocAGin (GmcAmr)

the tnanagemeiit of the emperor^ priTste
proertjT were enacted. The oolleotion of these
espknlariefl, a Dumber of which haye been pr^
eerved, is among the most raloable relios of the
middle agea, and affords striking endenoe of
rare foresighti wisdom, and pmdence in their
author. His empire forming, ethnologlcallj,
▼arioDB kingdoms, CSiaxies placed at their head
his own sons with the title of kings, but thej
were nothing mcn^ than his lieatenants, the
supreme power being concentrated in his
own hands, he alone appointing the officers in-
trosted with the administration. His whole
dominion was divided into a number of counties
governed hy earls {Gra/en)^ and these were
placed under the supervision of imp^al dele-
gates, or mim domintGi^ who 4 times ever^
jear visited the circuits asdgned to them, hold-
ing provincial meetings and courts of justice,
receiving the accounts of the collectors of
public mone;^, and a^usting the grievances of
the people. Charles was thus enabled to con-
trol every branch of administration, as well as
the proceedings of the various functionaries, who
were appointed for a term of 8 years only.
His protection extended to the clergy, increasing
their wealth by a kw upon tithes, their liber-
ty by his respect for canonical elections, and
their power by certain judicial prerogatives ; but
at the same time keeping them under his domin-
ion, submitting them to the mian dominieiy re-
stricting their rights of asylum, interfering with
questions of disdpline ana even of dogma, and
causing the monasteries to be reformed by Ben-
edict of Aniane. Trade and industry were not
less objects of his fostering care; he granted priv-
ileges to merchants, and reduced as much as
TOSsible the toUs to which they were subjected.
He established uniformity of currency, had the
coinage executed in his palace, and regulated the
value of gold and silver coin. Beggars were
not permitted to prowl about the country, but
were provided for by the lords or communities
to whidi they belonged. Charles bestowed
particular attention upon general instruction
and the revival of classic^ learning. Illus-
trious men were invited to his court from all
parts of the world, and especially from Italy, to
diffuse among his subjecte various branches ox
learning, as grammar, rhetoric, logic, arith-
metic, astronomy, history, theology, and medi-
cine. The Anglo-Saxon Alcuin, a native of
York a man of considerable information, if
not thorough learning, seems to have been the
leading spirit of this aggregation of teachers ;
he was the originator of the Palatine school, a
kind of normal institution, from which men,
thoroughly instructed, were sent into tiie prov-
inces, and constituting at the same time an aca-
demical society, which consisted of the emperor
himself, several members of his family, mostiy
females, and the most distLnguished of his
courtiers. The academicians assumed names
borrowed from antiquity; Charles himself was
styled David, while 2 of his daughters, Gisdle
and Bothmda, were called Delia and Colnmbft.

These ladies and some others were also enga^
in making copies of ancient mannserlpta, whki
tad:, however, specially devolved upon tif
monks of various monasteries. Charles gave ey
oouragement to this calling, paying lawely fLr
such copies, and establishing a library mbls oin.
palace at Aix la Ohapelle. He hims^ was esc^^
in his desire of knowledge and aeieiice, c^i<
rendng with the learned dnring Lis leis:%
hours, and having books read to tSm duiit:
his meals. During the night he would fri-
quently get up to study the oonrse oi tiie stan.
Through such diligent application he beami« a
much of a scholar as was consistent with hisp^^
fie duties ; and some literary works were due *9
his encouragement, such as a G^ennan granmar,
and a collection of the national songs of aacieis
Germany. The fine arts were ftr from beis^
neglected by him ; he had the Gregorian cLar:
adopted in the churches, and brought ssrf?)
from Italy, whose concerts be patronized
Among the many palaces constracted by Vj
order, we must mention those of Ingelbf<2,
Nimegnen, and Aix la Chapelle. The b^r vss
a masterpiece of architecture, having b«c2
ornamented with columns and soalptui^ frag-
ments brought from Italy ; it was a hr^i
and magnificent building, the spacious Kii*
and rooms of which were decorated in a splen-
did manner, and filled with most elegant si^f
costiy furniture. The basilica in the same C17,
erected also by Charles, was eqnally celebrs:t^^
and became the pattern of manj diortbri
built during the 9th centoiy. He moreoTir
encouraged civil engineeYing ; a wooden bri<!r':.
600 paces long, was constract^ at Vnu
over the Rhine ; and a gigantic canal was c.*c-
menced, but not completed, toestablidithrDzr.
this river and the Danube a water conuncm^i-
tion between the German ocean and the 6:s'*c
sea. As a man, Charles, according to I^t.>
hard, was of a tall and commanding ligc»:
either standing or sitting, he bad an air ^i
grandeur and dignity ; and notwiUistanding th»
shortness of his neck and his ob^ty, he ^u
well proportioned and remarkably active, witi
a firm step and manly appearance, bis sL-i.
voice alone being not in aocordanoe with hL<

Serson. A perfect adept In the nse of weapons.
e was also an unrivalled swimmer and a e« i:-
Bummate hunter. Although enoonragtng rue-
.nificence of attire among his oonrtiers, he v~i»
generally plainly dressed, giving preference v
the old Frankifih stylo of costume. He was fr=rJ
and temperate, and evinced great serertr
against drunkards. He had 9 more or k& > J--
timate wives, by whom he had at least 20 cb: •
ren. The only son who survived Mm was .i«
successor, Louis le D^bonnaire. Several axncc^
his many daughters led a dissolute liib and na^
ed great scandal, which their fa^er ind sittT-
ward their brother were unable to sappress. T^ «
awe with which Charles inspired bis emtetnpc'
raries increased as time rolled on; bis hi^crirsl
deeds, amplified and adorned by poetry, power
ftdly seized upon the popular imagination ; vi

1 CnAHJiEa U ^^ Cut^Mmnjkmm

^Vl?. fGnMAjnj Tfll ^^H

^^Ie ' '

- 1

^^^^^^^^'

■

^^^^Kii< d^ii or r

■

^^^^^^^^^pj

. ,,,, , ,,... ti*. 'r»JJJ *

'4 Ijiia vt'^- ^^^H

IJicriu-ia^ Iff! fumatttel l\ ^|

il'Afid llf Pi' ^^^^I

^^HK'

fU^

^^^^BmI 14 ulupi'i^

^^^Kwm. *j'b«^ r!i

^^^^H

^^ETMlii t*

hiHiitit^oii ;l^

^^^H

^^^LjtiW#hl

jMllafro wf B

^^^^^^Kb*<^ '

i <!r|Sf«#vl ^^^^H

^^^^^■b the 1^^

Ireliiir b !^, ^^^H

^^^^^^■1 Uf^Utl^^ M'.- I

^^^^^H

^^^^^H|bUvl iitj \di ii

^^^^H

^^HHIm. Th%-:0 nAi'

^^^^H

^^^B||»^ 4^Cli!pU0|r l}»f3 '

i«bK ^^H

^^^bib Ujv

rpitkDorjecvt ^^^1

^^^Hj

^^^K^

^fntf ^^^^M

^^^^p 1

):•.

^^^^H

^^^HP-/'

^^^H

^^^Kn^. ~

■

^^^^^V**'"" jjfj'vir^

10^T' -'--' ^

^^^^^H

^^^^ UorMu, C^N^

mr\

^^^H

^Hk'

i» tbft ri

■

til r

^^^^1

^^^^HBK ~ Ircm^rp r; r

i^r r

^^^H

T^ UlUIl^Il Ol X 0^^ ^•^ilLle^. ^^^H

740

CHABLE8 lY. (Qwkmamy)

ikwninc, and trencheroai dinontion, to be
edacat^ in that kingdom, and to be bioo^t
up aa mncb as posable a Frenchman. So fiur
aa bis interests led bim in that direction,
Charles of Lnxembm^ aa be was called, was
willing to be C^erman, French, or for that
matter, English. Keyerthelees, be bad not the
slightest idea of sacrificing his own life or that
of his people in behalf of a king who would
nerer adeqnatelr reward lus serrioes. There-
fore, so soon as he saw that the English archeir
bad in fact won the day, and that the Engliui
king was pressing the broken troops of France
so hard as showed that there would be no second
battle, bjr which to redeem a victory already
lost, Cliarles of Luxemburg took himself off
the field, and left his gallant father and a hand-
ful of brave countrymen to die, the former be-
cause he wouM not outliye his honor, the latter
because they would not surrive tiieir king.
By this eveat, Oharles succeeded to the throne
of Bohemia, and having been chosen emperor
by 6 electors (July 19, 1846), hoped to succeed
without opposition, when Louis died, a little
more than a year afterward. The electors of
Brandenburg and the Palatinate, the arch-
bishop of Mentz, and the duke of Saze-Lauen-
burg, assembled at Lahnstein« declared the
choice which had fdlen upon Charles lY. void,
and proceeded to elect in his place Edward UL
of England, ^e conqueror of Cr6cy, and
brother-in-law of the late emperor. But the
English parliament obliged him to decline the
proffered dignity. Eqnally fruitless was their
election«of Frederic the Severe, landgrave of
Heissen, who likewise refused the crown. Twice
disappointed, they now elected Gtlnther von
Schwarzburg, a knight distinguished by his
feats of arms, in whose favor they gamed over
the Poles, those ancient enemies of the house
of Luxemburg ; and for a time the prospects of
Charles seem^ to be at the lowest He set
himself, however, to accomplish by underhand
intrigue the same ends in secret which the fail-
ure of the Hohenstauffen, of his grandfather
Henry, and of Louis of Bavaria, clearly proved
to him the impossibility of effecting by open
violence. He was tiie first of the emperors
who introduced that foreign policy against
which his predecessors on the throne had so
manfully but unsuccessfdllv striven. The Haps-
burgs had made some weak attempts of a simi-
lar nature, but it was not until this reign that
modem, policy took deep root in Germany.
He empoisoned German policy with every hypo-
critical art, by the practice of courtly treachery
and secret murder, in which he had become an
adept in France. Primogeniture, first introduced
by him into his famUy, passed into that of the
Hapsburgs, and at all events promoted the dis-
memberment of the empire, whose external
power was thereby increased, notwithstanding
the moral paralysis of its effect. He craftilv
entered at ^is juncture into negotiation with
Edward, to whom he proved the necesaty of
an alliance between them against France; drew

the Hapsbnrg army on bfe tadm by gtrl^:
daughter Catharine In marriage to Bad'. :
son of Albert the Lame; mod winh equai .
dissolved the Wittelsbadi confederacy Iv -.
ding Anna, the dandbter of the eoont {Jj
Rupert, by ceding Brandenbnr]^ to Lc-cb: *.
Elaer, and deckring Waldemar, wbom Lc .
himself invested with the electorate, &:: .
postor. Louis the Elder, with equal p* -
sacrificed'Gimther, who was shortly aft^rv.
in 184T, poisoned by one of tlie emis^'*-
Charles. Those who sorromided the dtct.
of Gtlnther in his last moments extort««i >
him an abdication, for which tiiey were n-
ficently paid by Charies. He now tAood i
at the head of the house ci Lnxembor;. I-
dissolved the alHanoe between the po^v ::.
iVance, and prevailed upon the pope to -:
Avignon, and to cast himself again u;^: 1
protection of the Crerman empire. Eis r .^
with regard to Italy did not extend to rt^r- *
ing it to the empire, but only to procarlr; l
ceremony of his coronation at Rom& Su:. -
ing also in this, he vinted Rome in a pr
capacity ; took no heed of the Italian f^.:. .
except to foment discords between thee: -
trayed Rienri, who tmsted himnelf con^iJ ::.
in his power, and sent him in dudns t<> u
pope ; nattered Petrarch, who implored h- . .
Dante had previously implored Henry TIL *
restore Ital v to the empire, with &ir acd i^
words; and, in a word, by his conduct so \-
gusted the GhibeHines, who had hoped 1} --
means to strengthen their party, that thej -:
fire to the house which he inhabited at ?.-
and he narrowly escaped with his life, ii
Rome he was received with the greste^t L-
tinction by the p^al legate, and on the L'
after the coronation (1355) withdrew free: i
city, in obedience to secret orders reedTca '^ -
the pope, in order to avoid heang vny:-^"-
ed temporal sovereign. Ten years Ister. b
policy was completdy rewarded by his st^-^
in detaching Pope Urban Y., Uie soccer*' •
Clement, from the French alliance. Two Tt -^
later, again, when that prelate reentered r»< '^
he was visited by Charles, whom he niti v
Viterbo, and to whom he vouchsafed the b : -'
of conducting him to St Peter's, leading 'i
horse he rode by the bridle as he wafted f -
side. Next he applied himself to the reiatiri;
tion of the empire, by getting the whole ccc-
and oonstitutaon of the electoral coUe^ -'
the power of himself and of the fotnre t--
perors de facto; and this he in a r-
measure accompli^ed by the promtilgat:^.: •
the celebrated golden bnQ at the diet of >>
remberg in 1856, which continued to be » ^- -
damental law of G^ermany until the dissolc*^ :
of the empire. This was the most imp^r: '
achievement of his reign. At a later daj. t'-
oorruptions and feuds which be had di!^"^-
and enoouniged broke out on all sides tbrrc -
out the empire ; the league of the cities wt.-^ -;
war with the nobles; the countiy wasdevi?:^' -
by bands of robbers, and an seemed on the N w

■

'. <Oc&iu,«, ^^^^^

■^rt* »0l Ui pAL^^'T 1.UbA *-T-.l

Af £li^k.;n TTTt, I-.H > * ■».. *.i-% fJ* il.

.._ H

; 1

^^^^^^^^Vt>i

^^^^^H

^^Ee^4n £ff> •

1. '»....

■

, /■

ftmanci^n Ut Htm tbmii* (^

^^1
^^1

JllJ'TTl

■ V

■la trj Mt r!rli»t«lB|

Hid iHr^™ ■ K.-' 4-.

Aj^tstl > iif ifl Uii

Il7

111 ' -

^^^^^H

lid JMii, hm «lim^ Oil* v^lipiU ^

^^^^^1

^^^

_ _H

742

0HARLE8 ^r. (GnacAirT)

fliieiioeto b6 Utfown Inio the wale in frror of
fhe Spanlflh monarch. Ghariee was eyentaally
•leci^ emperor, Jnne28, 1619, and taking leave
of hiB Spanish snbjeots, whom he disliked, and
with whom he was not popnlar, proceeded to
Worms, where a great diet was convoked of all
^e estates and princes of the empire^ to receive
the emperor, regnlate the aflEairB of the empire,
and decide the LnUieran controversy. The
last was really the great and determining qnes-
taon of the aB,y. Bat Charles lacked the fore-
sight to discover its paramonnt importance. In
view of the pretensions of his rival Francis, and
hb military preparations against Italy, it ap-
peared to the emperor to be of all things the
most essential to preserve the nnity of the
German empire, f^ee from dissension. The
efforts of Charles were necessarily directed by
the oonrse of events to the repression of the
attempts of Francis I. against Italy; and he
had need of all his power and ability to
effect that end, and to prevent or fmstrate
the constant and formidable coalitions which
were made agdnst him, so often as he ap-
peared to be gaining any dedrive advantage
over his impetnons and impnlsive rival. Thns,
after the tremendous battle of Pavia, in which,
by the consummate generalship of Charles of
Bourbon, the arms of the empire triumphed
over those of France, while Francis himself
was made prisoner on the field, he was reduced
to the necessity of making peace and releasing
his captive on conditions^ to the observance of
which the latter swore on the Gospels previous
to his liberation, but which, so soon as he was
free, he repudiated, bv the union of the pope,
the king or England, the French, the Venetians,
and all the Italian princes. A second time,
when the French again invaded Italy and were
again defeated, near Pavia, the emperor again
consented to a peace, which is known as the
^Madies* peace,** having been negotiated by the
mother ai Francis and the aunt of Charles,
Margaret, the princess regent of the l^ether-
lands. Shortly after this reconciliation, the
war of the peasants and the nobility bdng sup-
pressed, ana the moderate councils and doctrines
of Luther continuing to prevail, the Catholic
princes entered into a closer league of interest
with the emperor at the diet of Spire, and en-
deavored to prevent the further progress of the
new doctrines by a decree that the church
should remain in statu quo until the convooa^
tion of a counciL This step led to the celebra-
ted protest of the Lutheran princes, whence
the name of Proteetants, April 19, 1529. The
necessity of concentrating his forces against the
Turks, who were besiec^g Vienna and had laid
waste all the country as far as Batisbon, added to
the admitted impossibility of crushing the Lu-
theran party, except by open recourse to arms,
led Charles, in accordance with the views of the
pope, to limithis efforts to the promotion of dis-
sensions among the princes. But on the retreat
of the Turks, the sublect was again taken up at
Augsburgi wnen a rell^oua war appeared inevit-

Bble,mit{l anewlnrasioiiofSolyniantheKag&is-
eent, who thought to profit hj the ^SaKDmcm^ ?:
Germany, and place himself on the tfaroDe • f
the western, as he already poasosBod itai or
the eastern empire, produced a fresh eesssiri
of strife. Scarce haa that war, however, da&cC
by a temporary and uncertain peace, before tl^
internal disMnsions and eommotio&s reenrr.
menced. ZwingU was killed at Albis, where
his party suffered a total defeat ; Geneva err .
braced tiie doctrines of Calvin ; terribb eoi>
motiona followed, the oontenticms of tike Bans^
towns after the dissolution of the uoiioD of Swe-
den, Denmark, and Norway, bemg sapenddr^i
to the persecution of the Anabaptists in tli
Ketherlands, and to their inanrreetion t:^
ultimate suppression in MOnster. The coqb^ ^
of Trent, the death of Luther, and the war t^
suiting from the confederation of tixe SmsikaM
princes, followed in quick snooeflmon ; and thea,
France being humbled in new wars, England t:>
a certain degree gained over, and the wetsr.
pacified by &e cession of ]>art of Hungary, *lt
pope and the emperor turned their nxdted foire^
aided by the new Spanish order of the Jeemts, to
the suppression of the heresy. All was, howeT^r,
ineffectnaL The warfare was condncied on tL)
Protestant side chiefly by Maurice of Sazooy tr I
Albert von Culmbach, sumamed ^ the lif fld."
At length, a ftirious battle at SieTerahansen be>
tween Maurice and Albert, the latter being nr v
under the ban of the empire, and acting asanier?
depredator, opposed to all his andeni oasnratir^
in arms, brought the contest to a dose ii'^
a while, by means of a religious peace, cottc'z-
ded at Augsburg in 1556, and Vnofwn as th^
fidse peace of Augsburg. — ChaHes now dt^
tormined to ftilfU hni long cherished purpose ^-i
abdicat^ his numerous crowns, and givug Hi
succession to his scm Philip, to whom he woTiId
also have redgned the emjnre hod not the Span-
ish education of that prinoe, and his f^oomy a&I
bigoted character, inspired tiie Germans witi
an aversion as unconquerable as that with whrh
he regarded them. At Brussels, Oet^ S5, 15^^
in a splendid assembly and with a pompom
ceremonial, he surrendered all hia territorei
and authority in the Ketherlands to his sob;
and in the succeeding month of Jannaxy (s<>
cording to the chief authorities), the tras^ of
^e crowns of Spain, with all the territories ^e-
pen^g on them, both in the old and in t^a
new world, was acoompliahed in a quiet nsss-
ner. He retired soon after to the HieronTmird
monastery of Tuste, in Spdn, where he paped
the remaining years of his life. Kot asee
Diodetian had there been a similar iosteBce o:
an imperial abdication, and the phikaopbictl
and religious solitude of Charles becasse s
favorite theme of romantic historianflL Tn^
fascinating but ftncifhl sketch of 6tn^ \^
been imitated by authors of erery coostrr.

{»rior to the recent disooveiy of the ori^inl
etters of the emperor and his household. B^
these it is proved that, fiar from being iaunerN^
in profound and pious oontemplalkBi, he vs

I^V CHABLEB T, fCmViYt]

CHAUtai VL (0Mii4Jff) 74^ ^^^1

♦Jt^ fli'ai'j'u^^h rM IU^IVjx *fcAU4oc'> tf-r- ^^^H

^^H?

^^^■liif? r!«iiiagiii9

^^^^1

^^M

^^^HiblMCl. The II'
^^^H^bf bii liifliHw Fillip

H^Bvi

744

OHABLES YI (Gsnun)

oliteia aa abler goneral, in the peraoQ of the dnlDd
of Berwick, natoral son of James IL«and nephew
on his mother's side of the great English cap-
tain, defei^ the allies in the battle of Alman-
za, which reooyered for Philip the whole of
Yaienoia, and nltimately restored to him the
crown, which he had once lost had his enemy
taken the oooasion to assame it In 1708 and
1709, the war langoished in Spain, Oharles
being shot np in Barcelona, which was gallantly
defended by a smdl garrison of 2,000 men, un-
til it was relieyed by an English fleet ; bat the
great sncceMCS of the aUies in the Netherlands
mclined the French, exhansted by continual re-
to sue for peace. Spain would haye

been abandoned, ey en, had not the German cab-
inets insisted on the expulsion of Philip by the
arms of his own uncle, Louis XIY. In conse-
quence of this, the war continued. In 1710, the
allies in Spain being reinforced, the Germans
and the English gained a si^^ yictory at Sar-
agossa; PhHip was again dnyen from Madrid,
and Oharles, when it was too late, entered it,
amid the mournful and ominous silence of the
people, who had been taught to regard him aa
the tool of the English heretics, and were ex-
ited against him by the influence of the
pope, the clergy, and the Jesuits. France sent
powerful reenforoements, and her best gen-
eral, yend6me, and the English commander
Stanhope Buffering himself to be surprised and
made prisoner at Brihuega, Oharles was once
more shut up in Barcelona^ to which thence-
forth his kingdom was limited. Joseph L, em-
peror of Germany, dying without issue in 1711,
Oharles, at the sa£»;estion of Eugene, was elected
emperoTj and recaJled to Germany, where he was
crowned at Frankfort-on-the-l6dn in Decem-
ber of the same year, and one year later king
of Hungary, at Presburg. His wife, Elizabeth
of WoUenbnttel, and Oount Stahrenberg, re-
mained two years longer in Barcelona, in a
fruitless attempt to retain the kingdom; but
they were forced to withdraw, and Oatalonia
fell a prey to a cruel yengeance. In England
the tories came into power, who had always
nded with France, on account of the suoport it
gaye the Stuarts, whom they still hoped to see
restored. Marlborough was replaced by Or-
mond, who was secretly ordered to retreat,
abandoning the Dutch under Albemarle to
defeat, and obliging Eugene to retire from
hia position at Quesnoy. This was followed
by tne peace of Utrecht, concluded in 1718. be-
tween France and England, by which Eng^d
retained Gibraltar, Hmorca, and St Ohristo-
pher^s, obtained the demolition of the fortress
of Dunkirk, and the right of free trade with
the Spanish colonies, in consequence of which
she gnaranteed to Philip the poesesdon of the
throne of Spain. HolLuid shortly afterward
acceded to the peace. The German empire,
tbouffh abandoned by England and Holland,
could still haye compelled France to listen to
reason, had it been possible for heryariousgoy-
emments to act in concert. Eagene was forced

to negotiate with YQlan; bat ao inaoleat wct9
the French in their demands, that the prin r.
left Rastadt, where the confurencea were he: ^
on his own responsibility, and Louia XIV.
yielded, fearful that permstence might awake-
eyen Germany from her stupor. The treaty o.'
Utrecht was recognized. Philip retained Spam.
England Gibraltar. Oharles VL retiuned jlI]
the Spanish poflsesdons in Italy, Kuilea, Ifikr..
Sardinia, the Netherlands, and the fortresses of
Kehl, Freiburg, and Breisach, and the territorr
west of the Rhine which had formerly belonged
to France, for which that power receiyed I^-
dau in exchange. In the following year, Sir-
dinia was giyen by Austria to the duke of 5&-
yoy, in exchange for Sicily, and that prince ten 4
the title of kin^ of Sardinia. Oharles VL,
being the last heir male of the hoose of Hsf*?-
burg, gaye his whole attention to preaerre tha
inheritance of all the crowns which he held to
his daughter Maria Theresa of Austria, whose
hand he had giyen to Frauds of Lorvaine; la
end which he hoped to attain by what is known
in history as the pragmatic aanotion, a compsc:
or guarantee, procured at immense cost, of all tha
nations. Spain's consent was pnrchaaed by thd
cession of Tuscany, Parma, andPiaoenxa; Frasoe
was conciliated by the promise of Larraise;
England and Holland by the abolition of ti-t
commeroial society of Ostend ; and Augustus, of
Saxony and Poland, by the assurance of the so
cession of the crown of Poland to bis son An>
gustus IIL The latter assurance qpeedily ic-
yolyed Europe in a fi*eBhwar. On the de&th
of Augustus II., the Poles proceeded to hold a
reflection, for which Stanislas Leszcnynski as&in
offered himself as a candidate, and, althouxb he
was not much &yored by the nobility of PcSacd,
Oharles held steadily to his engagement. Theex-
ertion of his influence, united to the actiye inter-
yention of Anne of Oourland, the niece of Pe-
ter the Great, who had goyemed Roasia sinco
1780, and who had already mooted to the em-
peror and to Prossia the scheme for the pan>
tion of Poland, secured the crown to Angii«-
tus. Anne sent Marshal Mnnnich, at tiie head
of 40,000 Bussians, into Poland, ezpelltd
Maurice the Strong (Murshal Saxe) from Cocr>
hmd, of which he had been dec^ted dnke^
and conferred that dignity on her paramoar
Biron, whom she had eleyated ntHn the
lowest position, he being in fiust only tL«
son of an ostler. Stanislas was forced to £j
from his dominion, and in conseqnenoe Frtcce,
Spun, and Sardinia dedaied war, not cc
Augustus or on Russia, but on the empire,
eyidenUy with no object but that of plunder-
ing' that power. The Busrians sent 30,(^X)
men to assist the emperor; England and Hoi-
land remained neutral; and Prinoe EoireDe,
owing to the death of his able antagonist,
the marshal duke of Berwick, waa enabkd to
maintiiin himself on the Rhine. £yery where
else, howeyer, the imperialists anffered seTc:?
losses, y illars sained a great yictory near P&>
ma, in which Mercy, the imperial general, was

ikn^lnl ' -■ ;jg"ar- If^Vg^ ^^^**^I hKl\\ ftfL-jT. *Tri tt-g

.4^

i-TT-vnTT:^ Ti'

■ <f '^r*ii.1*k* iirnT

IHy'

liiim^l^ to Lbor

. j^iiA^^jkU p't^-'f^m^ ^LiuLi ii^u tiLifiM^) tei^Mf ^yuwiiua la. ^Iwafc^i'Siritf W ju^i^ «ivv*

746 CHABLES ALBERT (Sabdikxa)

GHABLES EMANUEL (Sasdikia)

nent in 1268, at the battle ci Tagliaoozzo, and
making him his prisoner. He subsequently had
him executed on the principal square of Naples,
after going through the mockery of a trial. The
fHends and adherents of the prince were also un-
mercifully dealt with, and the unpopularity of the
conqueror was still further increased by the in-
Bolence of his French soldiery. In 1270 Charles
sailed for Tunis, to join his brother Louis IX.
in his 2d crusade. On his arrival he found
Louis dead; he succeeded, however^ in com-
pelling the bey of Tunis to acknowledge him-
self his tributary. On his return he planned
the conquest of the eastern empire, but his
schemes were baffled by the insurrection
commonly called the " Sicilian vespers." This
dreadful event, which had been brought about
by Charles's tyranny, took place March 80,
1282. Sicily placed itself under the protection
of Don Pedro of Aragon, and Charles tried in
vain to reconquer the island. He was over-
powered by the superior cunning of Pedro and
the prowess of the admiral Roger dell* Oria.
During this hard contest, it was proposed that a
duel should take place at Bordeaux between
the 2 princes, a proposal eagerly accepted by
Charles, although he was already 60 years old ;
but the offer was only made by Pedro to gain
time, and the Arap^nese did not appear on the
appointed day. Charles repaired in haste to
Italy, hoping to take revenge on the battle-
field ; but on arriving at Gaeta, ho learned that
his son had been defeated and taken prisoner
in a naval engagement with the Aragonese ad-
miral. This misfortune preyed heavily upon his
mind; the inflexible warrior now became as
wavering as he had been resolute. His death
soon followed. He was succeeded by his son,
Charles II., called the Lame, who began to reign
in 1289, after his liberation from prison. Ho
also tried in vain to reconquer Sicily. He died
in 1809.

T. SARDINIA.

CHARLES ALBERT (Carlo Alberto Ama-
DEo), king of Sardinia, born Oct. 2, 1798, died
at Oporto, July 28, 1849. The son of Charles
Emanuel of Savoy-Carignan, of a younger
branch of the roy^ family, and having conse-
quently no hope of ever obtaining the crowa
except by the extinction of the direct line, he
early adopted liberal principles, and was even
affiliated with the carbonari. Being appointed
regent, March 13, 1821, on the abdication of King
Victor Emanuel, he did not hesitate to pro-
claim in Sardinia the constitution adopted by
the cortes of Spain and to appoint a provisional
junta ; but his plans were immediately baffled
by the marching of an Austrian army into
Piedmont, and the rejection by King Charles
Felix of all his measures. He then withdrew
from Turin, resigned his office, and left the
kingdom. In 1823, he served as a volunteer in
the French army which, under the duke of An-
gouleme, invaded Spain, to crush the liberal
party; he was consequently charged with perfidy
by his old friends. In 1824, he was allowed to

return to Turin, and for a while in 1829 held
the post of viceroy of the island of Sardi£Lt&
On the death of Charles Felix, the last of xhi
elder branch, April 27, 1881, Charles AlUn
succeeded to the throne, and adopted a p<4:ct
which, however liberal in part, was far from
realizing the anticipations of the partisans of
freedom. Some reforms took place ; the leud^
system was abolished ; encouragement was giTea
to agriculture, industry, and science; civil and
criminal laws were reduced to a code, and tLe
army received an entirely new organization,
which greatly increased its efficiency ; but thcie
measures were mingled with others in opp<«i-
tion to national liberty. The popularity oi the
king was as undecided as his action. On the se-
cession of Pope Pius IX. Charles Albert seemed
to return heartily to his former opinions, granted.
a constitution to Sardinia, created a civic gusxd,
amnestied the exiles of 1821, and granted mord
liberty to the press. On the outbreak of tJa
revolution of 1848, he presented himsWas tiid
champion of Italian independence, and at c^ee
aided with his arms the insurgents in Lomb&rdj
and the duchies of Parma, Piacenza^ and Yo
dena, saying boldly to those who offered t3
help him in the good cause : V Italia fard da
se (" Italy will help herself'). He fonght s-io
ces^Uy at first, defeating the Austrians at P&s-
trengo, April 80, 1848 ; Goito, May 80 ; Rivt*:i,
June 11 ; and storming Pizzighettone and Pcs-
chiera; but ill supported by the Lombard tn>-jpi,
he was in his turn worsted at Custozza* J iilj
25, by Marshal Badetzky, who had takci:
Yicenza, Treviso, and Padua, obliged to hasriiT
retreat to and from Milan, where he ran t-.e
risk of being taken, and had to sue for an am:*
istice, through which he lost all bis former ad-
vantages. On the expiration of the truce, he
resumed hostilities; but his army, under Gen,
Chrzanowski, was completely destroyed at No
vara, March 23, 1849, and the hopes whieli lulr
had placed in him were entirely jost. He tiiea
resigned the crown to his elder son, Victor
Emanuel H., and retired to Oporto, where hd
died 4 months later. His remains were brought
back to Turin, where a statue has been erected

in his honor.

CHARLES EMANUEL I., Bumamed the
Great, duke of Savoy, born at the castle of Pwi-
voli, Jan. 12, 1562, died at Savillan July 26, 1G30.
He succeeded his father, Philibert Emanuei,
surnamed Ironhead, in 1580. His bold and en-
terprisinff spirit, instigated by boundless aad
unscrupulous ambition, soon embroiled him in
the wars of his time, and he successively entered
into alliances with Spain, France, and the em-
peror of Germany, which he broke, however,
as soon as it suited his interests. But he was
possessed of remarkable talent, even of gresi
scientific accomplishments, and distinguLb'.'d
himself by his courage in many a battle. In
1585 he married Catharine, the daughter of
Philip II. of Spain. This connecUon, and soice
pretensions to the tlirone of France after the
death of Henry lU., made him the enemy of

OEAjauea IT. {siMti

aoAKum xn. f^--

141

'1% &0*1 ; maxkf of klfl

. ItiiIt,^ pr.'

kttko*l^3

CSoi

Tt f rAor.

i ,

1 m Rcii&i^

■^ .

•J«iMilCil t

.1^^,

'. ; '.U V^IV I'lHU-.JV

}\ » ia^dxn&o

U3I* lier Itnw,

him^vihw

jFftn

^ -ttU, Oifti ** -:

ILu-l

■

f^ M0 tyru^

■

B JBaUie£:i-.

■

mL' rmiifto&jD^

m '.iiil blta irtry
v«iaiti^l^ijsml« cud

CI. .

bf-

.-^crf ildlapcirjl!cQ>

^f thl*

.'''. 1. ,

i-yk^iifii. frit^e^ettC!

4,:,.^,

■^

lii'

Ui^

liri? :i^

^ir^-Vn, b^ni 1*1

if«l>r^«ilit III I iV" u w^ujr "C I'

748

CHABLES Xn. (Bwmamf)

orduiAry hktorUn. geogrttpber, and matihemati-
dan, aad it is said that his finYorite work was
Qnintns Onrtius's aooonnt of the Tiotories o(
Alexander the Great, whose career his own
so much resembled. He was bat 15 years of
age when he was declared by the estates to
haye attained his majority, and sacoeeded to
the throne (1697). At first he showed litUe
inclination or aptitude for bntinees, devoting
himsdf wholly to violent bodily exerdses, es-
pecially the chase of the bear. But before he
had been 2 years on the throne, a leagne be-
tween Bnssia, Bemnark, Saxony, and Poland was
brought about by Patkul, a livonian noble, who
had been ill-used by Oharles XI., and flying to
the Bussians, had been condemned to deatih in
e&ntumaeiam. Peter I. of Bussia, profiting by the
occurrence, sent Pattral, who was a man of abili-
ty, as his ipibassador to Augustus of Saxony and
Poland, and taldng advantage of the quarrel of
Sweden with Livonia, occupied the shores of the
ffulf of Finland. Denmark had also been rendered
hostile by the annexation of Schleswig-Holstein
to Sweden, and the Danish troops invaded the ter-
ritories of Frederic, duke of Holstein-Gottorp,
who had married Hedwig Sophia, the sister of
Oharles. The latter at once repaired to Stock-
holm to demand the aid of his brother-in-law,
who entered fhUv into the enterprise, and
having obtained by the treaty of the Hague
the aid of England and Holland, assumed the
initiative with great energy. In May, 1700, ho
embarked at Oarlscrona for the island of Zea-
land, designing to attack Copenhagen with a
fieet of 80 ships of the line, beside transports,
assisted by a Dutch and English squadron. In
his first engagement Charles gave evidence of
the impetuous and daring courage for which he
was afterward distingnuhed; for, on nearing
the place of disembarkation, he leaped into the
aea, and was the first man on the enemy'a soil.
Copenhagen was bombarded by the fleets, and
would have been invested and closely besieged,
when further operations were terminated by
negotiations, which had for their result the
sigtdng of a separate peace at Travendahl (Aug.
& 1700), Frederic lY. of Denmark deserting
the qoaUtion, and resigning Schleswig-Holstein
to the. house of Gottorp. In the mean time, a
Polish army had overrun Swedish livonia, and
laid siege to Biga, while Peter of Bussia be-
sieged Narva, at the head of semi-barbarous
hordes, who were only driven to the assault bv
the terror of the knout The sword which
Charles now drew was never again to be
sheathed. From this time forth he affected the
habits of an old campaigner ; wine was banish-
ed from his board ; coarse bread was often his
only food, and he not unfrequently slept on ihe
ground, wrapped only in his heavy doak. His
dress, too, at a perioa when all men of gentle
birth paid the greatest attention to their appa-
rel, and especially to the hair, was affectedly
coarse and ultra-military. Menzel, the German
historian, thus describes his appearance, and
that of Augustus, at a oonferenoe held between

the 9 monarohs some yean later: ** Angostas,
gigantic in person, was magnificently but efiem-
inately attired inftlseand curling lo<to, andclotk
of gold. Charles, smaller in stature, bat a thor-
ough soldier, with a small hat on his cksdy-shsT-
en head — a style that was afterward imitttedbj
Frederic the Great and Napoleon — wws dreosed
in a coat of coarse blnedoth, with copper bnttoos,
with enormous boots and a long sword." Wiih-
out awaiting reSnforoements, or hesitating a
moment, in the depth of winter he prooeeoed,
by forced marches, across Livonia into Esthooia,
where he attacked the Busnan besieging ainiy
before Narva, with but -9,000 men against
40,000' and utterly defeated it (Nov. 80, 170C*).
Instead of following up his suooefls^ he turned
a»de to attack the Polish and Saxon aimies,
which were posted in a strong position (m
the Dtbia. On the first attack his men were
repulsed with some loss, but rallying than
in the middle of the stream, he reformed Hyem.
in the channel of the river, and led them to a
decisive victory. Shortly after this Augnstat
sent his mistress, Aurora von KOnigamark, re-
puted the most beautiful woman in £urope, in
the hope of entangling him in some intxigue;
but Charles, whose indififerenoe to woidcb
amounted almost to dislike, not only refnaed to
see her, but 6n accidentally encoontering h& m
a hollow way, where he must meet her or actu-
ally retreat, he merely bowed without uttering
a word, turned his horse^s head, and rode back
by the way he had come. Another army wm
brought against him under the 8ax<A goiersl
Biese, whose effeminaoy rendered him an ob-
ject of scorn to the gallant Poles ; but in ratn,
for Charles was everywhere ^ctorioos. At
Clissow, July 20, 1702, he guned another
victory, which would have been deciave had
not Charles been detained by a broken kg at
Cracow, which delayed the campaign so mudi,
that although he was closely pursned for 4daj9
by the Swedes under BehnskOld, Augnstoa con-
tinually escaped, and afterward foona a respite,
owing to the invasion of Finland by tlie Bsa-
sians, which required the whole attention of
Charles until 1706. Charles thus wasted time
in petty struggles with Poland and Saxony, al-
lowing the young and growing eolossns <rf the
north to recuperate itself at ita Idsnxre^ when
he might have crushed the embryo power whidi
in the end crushed himself. At this time^ hov-
ever, his thoughts seem to have been eokSf
fixed on placing another king on the tihrone d
Poland^ young Sobieski having been aorprised
by Augustus at Ohlau, in Silesia, and earned
into Saxony. Stanislas Leszoaynaki waa tber»>
fore elected king by the partisans of Sweden
and Poland, and, although BehnskOld was st
first held in chedc by the admirable ma&csuvrisg
of Yon Schulemberg, whose retreat aoroes the
Oder is famous in the annals of war, vet on his
advancing to fud the czar, whom Charles wse
driving out of Lithuania, he waa completely rout-
ed at Imustadt (Feb. 6,1706), byhisformeroppo-
nent ; in consequence of which defbat Aogii^

^^■^ CnJiSSiSB XSL ^Bwwamj flH^^I

^V^hHmk iitiA*'i Ttu'^i *p4l r^grW i^LifJiluc rm- liT^ti Pi^jr- »?ifLr, *i piiv'ijrv t^tpr. Mtil VJiiiviT a\ ^^^^^

m ^' ' ^^1

1 7 ^O)^^* Afl^ ^^H

^^^1
^^^H

■ ai ..... ... ^^H

760

GBASLE8XIL OSimn}

of mm and vamtiB, a mtptaeh artlBeryv aksrv

all a single leader, and he their osar* There
vas reaeon enoo^ why the Russian shonld
win the daj, and he did 80 completely. Charles
escaped, with extreme difficidty, with a handful
of foUowerai into Turkish territcny, old Ha*
eeppa adhering fiiithfdlly to his fiillen fortunes.
The last salyo was fired liy Prince Maximilian
Emannel of Wortemberg^ who eommanded a
Bwediidi reghnent He was taken prisoaer and
treated wiUi extreme distinction by the ezar.
The Swedish division of Lewenhanpt was over-
taken and compelled to surrender on the
Dnieper, and Charles, escaping to Bender on the
Dniester, a strong fortress which was then in
Turkish territory, where he was hospitably
received and allowed to fix his residence by the
Ottoman Porte, employed the whole power and
energy of his mind to bring about a war between
Turkey and Bussia. This he succeeded in doing,
and the grand vizier, taking the field at the hewi
of 200,000 men, shut Peter up in the Crimea,
and his afiairs seemed utterly ruined; when his
mistress^ for she had not yet become his wife,
ICartha, afterward Catharine L of Bussia. bribed
the grand vizier with all her jewels to allow the
Bussians to escape. That day was decisive of
the &11 of Charles and of the rise of Russia.
Charlesw who had been greatly lugrieved that-
to him had not been asngned the chief com-
mand of the Turkish army, galloped impa-
tiently into the camp, but too late to prevent
the escape of the czar. Frustrated as he was
and severely mortified, the king of Sweden
still continued year after year, until 171d, to
linger at Bender, incessantly employed in en-
deavoring to awaken the Turkish government
to a consdousness of the danger of lowing the
Russians to consolidate their rising power, and
constantly hoping that he had succeeded, but
ever hoping m vain. He efiected the over-
throw, by the intrigues of the agents whom
he employed at Constantinople, of 4 successive
grand viziers^ and felt justified in his long delay
by the reasonable hopes he entertained of plac-
ing himself at the head of a pow^ul Turkidi
army. In the mean time Livonia and Bsthonia
fell a prey to Bussia, immediately after the
calamity of Pnltowa. Biga surrendered. Cour-
land became the property of Peter, who caused
its duke to marry his niece Anne Petrovna,
and then designedly and deliberately drank
him to death. Pomerania was next invaded.
The Saxons seized the whole of Poland on tibe
fiigbt of Stanislas, who, deserted' by aU hSs
adherents, joined Charles in Turkey ; the allied
forces of ^ony and Bussia made themselvei
masters of all Swedish Pomeraniai with the
exception of Stralsnnd and Wismar; and BiUt
the war had been carried on with the most atro-
cious cruelty, Stade, Altona, Gars, and Wolgart
being burned to the ground in the dead of
winter, and nearly all their inhabitants perish-
ing of hunger, cold, and misery, Prusfloa waa
induced to join the aati-Swedbh league by the
promise of the fiiture posBeosioii of Stettin.

Boll about this^me, ifennge efveatetoekflaea
in Turkey, which nearly altered the whc^ etito
of afbirs in Europe. The BuasiflD ageBta hav-
ing at length penoaded the Ottamaa Pwta
that the residence of Cliariea at Bender was
dangerous to their safety, as he waa ^oCtins^
theysaid, to attack Tnrk^fixmt Poland wkoM
he succeed in es^blishing Stanialaa on ftsi
throne^ he received intimation thai he srast
leave Bender ; and on his positively refosiag to
do so, orders were jasned to the eeraakier of
tiiat place to bring him, dead or aiivs^ to
Adrianople. Still with oharactofiatie ob-
Btina<7 refiising to submit, he harrieaded kas
house, and with the 200 or 800 men who eom-
posed his personal retinue, defended it against
several thousand Turks with artiUeiy, until the
roof taking fire, he waa fwoed to aaux ool^ k3t
ing many Turks with his own hand, when his
spurs at length becoming entangled, fae feO, nd
was mastered and made prisoner (Feb. 1^ ITISX
with his eyebrows ana eyelashes burnt o€
his face, and his dothes oovered with bkiod.
Thence he was removed to Demotika^ near
Adrianople, where, obstinato as ever, ^ ^^
mained 10 months in bed, feigaimf riffkruwy
until, becoming satisfied that he eoold ex*
pect to obtain nothing fhmi the Porte, ha
sent off a parting embassy to Canatantinopia, in
order to conceal his intentions, and then takasg
horsey in disguise, by nighty travelkd dsty and
night through Hungary, Austria, BaYvia, tha
Palatinate, Westphalia, and MecUenborg^ in
order to avoid the Saxons and Pmssiansi, and
passing through Cassel incognito^ altixa^ ha
2d sister, Ulrica Elenora, had reoenliy been
married to Frederic, hereditary prinoe of Hesse^
reached Stralsnnd during a dark Hovember
night (Nov. 22, 17U). The moment it was
known that Charles was ia the oity, it was in-
vested by a combined anny of Banea, fiaxoos,
Bussians, and Prussians. It was defended by
Charles with extraordinary sldll and talent iat
nearly a year; but being desperate of reoelviBg
aid firom without, he was forced to abandon it,
Dec 15, 1715, when he retired to Lnnd ia
Scania, where he set himself to defend his
coasts. For the remainder of his reign the war
was carried on for the meet part by sea, and
generally to the prejudice of the ^edss,
tiiough not without Charles at times making
dangerous efforts agfunst Norway. At this
time his prindpal Mend and adviser was Bma
GOrtz, the minister of Holstein, who nodortook
the cause of Charles with extraordinaty eoeigy
and aMlity, and had all but aueoeededinhn^-
ing up the anti-Swedish league, which had joit
been joined bj George L of Kngland, Itwastba
policy of GOrtz'to gain over Peter the Great,
by any concession whioh might be needM, by
his aid or connivance to conquer Norway, and
thence, witii the Meconcerted aid of a Jaei^its
rising, to land in Scotland, and dethrone George
L in favor of the nretender. Atraaly had been
agreed upon, by wnioh Pet« shonidrstein his
conquests on the gulf of Flidattd,

n aSiofilil W rfKiI^u^ ^m U^ lUratiifuf Ptlim'I. m^

«>=ric*i £l Ti^vl- «ti't t«i ITTO

J^ .u«i ^

^■t;-" •

aid liM

^^^H

^^^^H

^^^H

^^^^Hp^piti ntf iici^j w-'^jnijfl !ir- jgr'

^^^^H

^^^Kof^p^ttd^fi; If hOd lijO pQ^

^^^H

^^^^M pvac A mafrl'

. r*..,., Ul -rT

^^^^1

^^^^Mvat 1A tU

^^H

nmv^^r'

r>%'|*Ui\ ^^^H

^^^E:

AC%u4t-

rtgpill^ ^^H

^^^^^^^i i.-<^

Kiii«*ii'r-

„^_i ^..,,

^^^^H

^^^^Hpi ^!

w^ilk iftt

^^^^1

^^^B^' '

-btOit^

p . ,^t V..1 .«..*,.-; ,^1-^

^^^H

^^^^H|0iif .

uhiikDvra tAmk

, ^^M

^^^E^L

iiL(l i.«r,ff^ ^oftL

Ui qM fVfDibfldoa, •-•^Ti

^^^H

^H^aftllki

■'TTIBfilTW

Birvdkh dad^ itfitl

^^^H

tijiilia^

l[i>«iit KiTftJ eaif&'ri

^^^^H

ioivwvrd Ih^

^^^^H

^^^Btrotei. HilctEy for fcktiwleft^im to fnaiwf to

was TA\rrt} tr

^^^H

^^■1: if Ul« liUfdCiOl, WAH MBtPlK^ tO

dor

^^^^H

^^^k^^_^ ^^^&

pf?ir'

^^^H

^^^^■■Up e«jdar» tfjo AcooBi^ > '^hiiirto

^^^^^H

^^^^^^n, fti %l»d criuUl H(i v^ I , > otmotfl

^^^^H

^^^^VS^lior 98iimd

IflL ■ ' ■

^^^^1

^^^K uim^m llifl cnn^l :

^^^^1

^^■iTp^-OiAr^r- -

' 1 •<*JLy,^1-U>lM*« |«r.- iTI'JQt

ai'n m ;r

^^^^1

^^■k^i<^>

l^tttJA L

^^^H

^^^^^ty«^^^<

.. (Wfv^t ^1* ^ tVw'UFiiivl«^*i 1 1 r jT,«_

rv...rJ.p.^ 1

^^H

^^^C^r:.

^^1

^^^^^M.

laU and ui iiobl4i ippoftr^

AIT

^^^H

^^^fej

'I 'tfn ti^-4i!, ^jvp^ yea ^m^

t^Vr

^^^^1

^^Kl^i'

i^dBom^ tkomt

^^^^H

^^^^^B|l4t1>

Amomthe

^^^H

l^Tff, *mt!tf*!i|

w\^

^^^RlAl'TP<

^ -" - '- T, 1T4H, akid

w/fi.njkr^i\t a-iai^u b. >

^^^K.

lioa of Ki^

Jmmi Tmi Imp afK

^^M

^^^^^^^■U^ «" ' '

iruli »rli puiirTH

^^H

I )wig^m4 iTvtm

ikAlwlul^ ftil

^^H

^^^H&b ;

..fA !ud* m)'

JiTTli Vi l£i U). r"

^^H

^^^K#f I*inn3f>«i, h«

>rv«m.j

(lit p*«r-

^^M

^HB^ uiatfa tovofd

fir«iM« 1-'

.>i>k]Bi^ I-'-

^^^^H

y^ ^m^M^ ^^ ^^^^1

752

GHABLSS (ABGHiyDxx ov AusmA)

oeiv«d Norway at the reetoration of peace as a
oompenBation for her loss of Finland. Oharles
XHL had married, so long ago as l77i, Hedwig
Elizabeth Charlotte, prinoess of Holstein-^ot-
torp, but having no heir hj her, he had adopted
Prince Ohristian of Hol8tein-Sonderbarg-AagQfr>
twborg as his successor ; and on his dying pre-
maturely, dhose Marshal Bemadotte to sac-
oeedhim.

OHARLES XIV. JOHN. See BiEBNADOTra.

OHABLES, arohdoke and generalissimo of
Austria, duke of Teschen, 8d son of the empe-
ror Leopold II., jrounger brother of Francis I.,
and uncle of Ferdinand I., emperors of Austria,
bom Sept 5, 1771, in Florence, then the resi-
dence of his father as grand duke of Tuscany,
died April 80, 1847. Of weak constitution and
sickly, he seemed to promise little, but was
soon attracted by mihtary subjects, and be-
came fond of geometry and other serious stud-
ies. He was 20 years of age at the time of the
first war of the emperor, his brother, against
France ^1792). Under Hohenlohe he took part
in the oattle of Jemmapes against Dumouriez,
and then commanded the van of the prince of
Coburg, when he distinguished himself in the
engagements of Aldenhoven and Neerwinden,
in which the French were defeated. Belgium
having been reconquered, he was appointed its
governor-general, March 25, 1798. In 1794 he
had a part of the Austrian command, in the
battles of Landrecy, Tournay, Oourtray, and
Fleurus, against the victorious army of Piche-
gru. When the Netherlands were lost, he re-
tired for some time to Vienna to restore his
Impaired health. In 1796 he took the field
again as field-marshal of the empire, and com-
mander-in-chief of the Austrian army on the
Rhine, and his victories over Jourdan, at Neu-
markt, Teining, and Amberg, soon compelled
Moreau, who had advanced as fiir as Munich,
to undertake his famous retreat; the French
were driven over the Rhme, and only main-
tained in their possession the bridges of Hn-
ningen and EehL Both these positions Charles
attacked and took in the following winter. But
while things were going on successfolly in Ger-
many under his command, the French, under
Bonaparte, were everywhere victorious in Italy,
and were rapidly advancing toward the heart
of Austria ; and when Oharles was sent there to
check their progress, the victorious young
general, imitating the words of Crasar, could say:
" Hitherto I have had to combat armies with-
out a commander ; now I have to combat a com-
mander without an army.^* Oharles was com-
pelled to conclude the preliminary treaty of
Leoben, April 18, 1797, which was soon follow-
ed by the peace of Oampo Formio. Having
lived for some time in Bohemia, as governor of
that kingdom, he was again called to arms
after the violent breaking off of the congress of
Bastadt (1799), and agahi defeated the French
under Jourdan, who had crossed the Rhine, in
the battles of Ostrach and Stockach. Dissen-
sions between him and the commanders of the

flified Russan troopa obeeiftd his waearndtA
opera^oaoBy and after the deieat of EIoanMkoff bj
MassSna at Zurich, he had again to goazd ti»
Rhine. Bad health compelled him in Martt.
1800, to resign hia command to Kiay, and to
retire to Bohemia. He was not yet nstared,
when he had to hasten agaJn to the defeoos <^
the empire of his brother, which, by the admir*
able mardies of Napoleon over the Alps, scd
of Moreau through Germany, was Immght to
the brink of ruin. The annistioe of Stevcr
concluded by him with the latter was the pre-
liminary of the peace of Luneville (1801). His
great services were now recognised bj his
appointment as president of the anlic ooimdl
of war at Vienna, as well as by a propcManos
made at the diet of the German empire to re-
ward him with a statue, and the title of sav-
iour of Germany ; which honorsi however, be
refused to accept. In 1805 he commanded tb«
Austrian army in Italy against Maaa^na, but b js
victory at Oaldiero (Oct. 80) was of little vrnA,
as Napoleon, after the surrender of Uhn. wu
rapidly advancing toward Vienna. The hisr
retreat of the ar&duke Ferdinand to Bohemia,
and the battle of Austerlitss; compelled Fnmds
to the peace of Preebni]^ (Deo. 25> Gfaariei
was now made generalissuno of aH the Anatrus
armies, and minister of war, with nnfimited
power, which he used for the reorganisation of
the forces of the empire, and the creation of t
strong reserve and militia. In 1808, after tbe
abdication of Oharles IV.« kmg of Spain, tii«
provinces of Oatalonia and Ari^n caDed bin
to tbe throne of Spain and India, and an Engli^
frigate was sent to carry him from Trieste, hsi
was sent back with his thanks. In the war of
1809 he commanded in Bavaria, while bis
brothers John and Ferdinand led the armies in
Italy and Poland ; he advanced as far aa Rat^
bon, but Napoleon's victories at Tbann (i^
19), Abensberg (20), Landshut (21% Eckmch]
(22), and Batisbon (28), compdled him to re-
treat. Having, however, received new reinforce-
ments, he defeated Napoleon, who had takes
Vienna, in the battle of Aq>em and Eaaling (¥&j
21, 22), thus shaking the l^lief in ^e invincibii-
ity of the modem Osasar. This victory brc^t
little more than glory ; the great battle of Wae-
ram (July 5, 6) dedded against Oharlea, thoodi
commenced victoriously by the Ausixiana. lio
retreated in the best order and oontinnsliy
fighting to Znaym. An armistioei howsTer^
and soon after the peace of Schdnbrnnn, put an
end to the bloody campaign. Ohaiies was
wounded, and feeling at the same time pexscR>
ally mortafied, he laid down his militaiy com*
mand, July 80, resigning all his o£Beea, and re-
tired to Teschen, whence he afterwsffti went to
Vienna. After the return of Napoleon froa
Elba, he again served for a abort tmae as gov-
ernor of Mentz ; but this waa the last act of Kb
puolio li&. He married in 1816 Henrietta,
princess of Nassau-WeUburg, and became tbe
rather of a numerous and pro^>eroiia fiymiy,
among whom he lived in quiet letirBmeat,

tlT/llR flr n« <%*lTift/i«,

ti*f «*f^

Till* n*^ — la

GHABLES EDWABD

theehivalry of England, that fortone at last de-
elived for her. Charles was killed in 1864^ and
the dnchy of Brittany was awarded to yonng
Hontfort.

CHARLES EDWABD Loins PHUjpCAaDciB,
8on of James Stoart and Clementina Sobieeki,
and grandson of James IL, king of Engjland, bom
in Rome, Deo. 81, 1720, died there Jan. 80, 1788.
His motber^s protracted labor of 6 days might
have been thought to indicate that his career
was destined to afford no exception to the
misery that aeems to have been the inheritance
of the princes of the honse of Stoart Bat the
Jacobite party saw in his birth an event that
gave them new hopes. The incapacity of the
pretender, or chevalier de St. George, as ex-
hibited in 171fr-16, and the fJEulore of Albe-
roni's plan for his restoration in 1719, had well
nigh driven them to despair. The birth of
Charles Edwiurd, and the high character of the
race to which his mother belonged, caused a
reaction in their feelings, and prolonged the
atmggle between the constitntionalists and the
divine right party for another generation, which
was marked by desperate intrigue, and was
oojicluded in wholeside slaughter. They were
not disappointed. Charles early gave indica-
tions of talent, and of a firmness of purpose
inherited from his mother, which misfortune
caused to degenerate into sheer obstinacy. He
was well educated bv Protestant tutors, ac-
quiring accurate knowledge of English, French,
and Italian, and of the hbtory of England. His
physical education was attended to, and he was
dexterous in all manly exerdses. He had some
taste for the fine arts, and skill in music. In his
14th year he made his first campaign, serving
in the Spanish army that besieged Ga^ta, in the
war between Spain and Austria. Though so
young, he bore himself bravely. In 1787 he
made the tour of Italy, and, to the annoyance of
the British government was everywhere well re-
ceived. At Yenice the honors due to a crowned
head were accorded to him, for which the
Venetian ambassador was dismissed from Eng-
land. His character at this time was that of
an amiable, accomplished youth, and his sweet-
ness of disposition is frequently mentioned.
From a very early period his mind dwelt upon
the thought of recovering the British throne ;
but if Walpole had continued to rule in Eng-
land, or if his peace policy had been pursu^
by his successors, it is obvious that Charles
must have reached middle life without an op-
portunity to make his cast for a crown or a
coffin. It was necessary that Englimd and
France should be at war to give Uie chevalier a
chance to regun the throne his ancestors had
so unworthily filled. England and France be-
came involved in that war which grew out of
the Austrian succession, and Charles was in-
vited to France to take command of an army
that was to be sent to England. He reached
that country the middle of Jan. 1744, landing
not far from the place where Napoleon landed
in 1816. He went to Paris, but Louis XY.

would not aee Uhl He made a IkraBhie

impression on all persons with wliom he caxx
in contact, and particularly upon Vurs^-'
Saxe, who was to have been the real head d
the invading army. That army was asembic*!
on the channel coast, and consisted of 15,C- 0
men. The transports were to be convoyed Ij
20 ships of the line and 6 frigates. The Eng-
lish were greatly alarmed, and the more bo tlM,
war had not been declared, though it existed
in factw Their channel fieet was smaS, meet
of their ships being in the MediterraoeaB.
where they had been sent to the assstance d
the house of Austria. The prince and tLft
marshal embarked, their preparations harii^g
been completed, at the doee of February. TLia
was the most favorable turn that the fortune
of the Stuarts ever took after the flight of
James H. There was much discontent in £LI^
land, they had a powerful party in Sootlac^
and the Irish Catholics looked upon tikem is
promised deliverers. Marshal Suce was the
ablest of living soldiers, and one of the few gece-
rals who have beaten English armies on pitdied
fields. Charles was enthusiastic and resolute,
and had he landed success would i^robably hare
beenhis. But on March 6 a great storm arose acd
raged for a week. Many vessels^ filled wi*Ji
troops, were lost, and the rest werefot^ed back
to France. Though Charles earnestly pressed
the French government to renew the attempt,
he fiedled; whereupon he directed his atteotioa
to private efforts, and with difiScolty was pre^
vented from sailing to Scotland in a fishing
boat. In 1745, having obtained some assist-
ance from inoividuals of British origin in
France, he fitted out 2 vessels — ^the Eluabetli
of 67 guns, and the Doutelle of 16 — and plac-
ing a quantity of arms and ammmution on
board of them, sailed for Scotland, accom-

Cied by a few friends. Of money, he had
than $20,000. The Elizabeth was brougLt
to action by a British cruiser, and was
compelled to fly. This was a serious loss, as
most of the stores were in her. The Doutclk
escaped, and, after some adventures, Charles
landed at Moidart, July 25, where he W2s
joined by a few persons, whose numbers were
soon increased; the most prominent of tbs
highland chiefe being Donald Cameron the
younger of LochieL The Stuart standard was
raised at Glenfinnan, Aug. 19. His anny now
rapidly increased, many dans rising in his be-
hold He bafSed Sir John Cope, the royal gen-
eral, descended upon the lowlands, entered
Perth, and took possession of Edii^borgb,
Sept. 17. The lowlanders who joined him
were not numerous, most of them, as cme of
their number pithily expressed it, having re-
solved to wait and see which ado the hang-
man should take before making np their minds.
Even of the few leading men who gave in their
adhesion, many were probably in we oonditioa
of Lord Balmerino, who said that he was so
poor he would have joined the Mogul had he
set up Ins standard in Scotland. The victory <^

^V tlUBIJ^S m^WAItD

!n ^r^llf3l (^rfirH nrtny

f iT liii* ftit/c! ftnti.

rfittT']/f

fTi*.!, i«fi^ jifbrr ft ^^H

^^^^^^^^HP^

^^H

^^H
^^1

^^^^^^^^PP *^

' ■ . ■ r V, „. .^

^^^^Bltt

" -f Witt li

^^H

^^^Hh^MTV"

,.ih^a*Mi* --

^^^^1

nuik. Thtf Ewe*

^^^H

^^^^^^^^Blv

■ ly Tilt '*'.'! iitj^nv

, fl*.* »-M'1 ill

i.. .

^^^^^k ivnirici,

ho 1o^k «tiow-

of A

^^^1

Ih^ !

^^^^^^^^|P^^

^^H

^^^^H

^^^^^^^^H ».

^^H

^^^^^R V> r

^^^^^^^B^^l

^^^^E,

■ L-aLi W4i on^i c-1

^^^H^r ^M.

" ' LtrpetL

tijf^^

^^^1

^^^P iVfij ii Urpfi

Li^^

tUT II

^^^1

^^■t^-^

'Id

JUn] till uinT^Jcv*^'

^^H

^^^^^K HT- ■ '

^^^^^^BDH'^'

^^1

lltHt-S" l*t '

0«eiiii«.-

, T ftc^^hh •

'"^inpoJuPf ^^^^1

^^^bi!

hm' ^

^^^^H^ •*«

Uln^ lij^*-! tjiUttJtl AiiI^Im

umI

^U^i».

756

CHARLES BIVEB

CHARLESTOli'

onioh ciAioQtf matter nspeotiiig the oondaot of
tbe Jaoobitea, and of the prince and lus family,
in the '^Memoirs of Sir B. Strange, and of
Andrew Lomifldeo," by Mr. Denniatoun, Mr*
Lnmiaden having been private secretary to both
Charles and hisfather. In the early years of the
19th ottitory the interest in the hi^ry of '' the
young pretender " was renewed by the writings
of Scott, who has introduced him into 2 of hia
novels, "" Waverley '' and '' BedfiaunUet" 8coU
bad known many Jacobites, and wrote of ^' the
forty-five" and subsequent crises in their
history from, positive kno wlege ; and though he
was a constitutionalist, his amiable nature
caused him to sj^pathice with the members of
afiillenparty.

CHARLES KIVEB, a windmg stream riang
in Worcester co., Mass., flowing through Nor-
folk and Middlesex. It meets the tide waters
and forms part of Boston harbor. Kovigable
to Watertown, 7 m. W. of Boston.

CHARLES'S WAIN, a name given to the
constellation Ursa Migor, or the Great Bear,
often called also the Dipper. The literal mean-
ing of the name is tiie rustic's wagon, and
some fanded resemblanoe doubtless was the
occanon of its use.

CHABLESTON, a district of South Carolina,
bordering on the Atlantic ; area 1,906 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1850, 72,806, of whom 44,376 were
slaves; in 1858, estimated at 100,000, of whom
60,000 are slaves. The Santee river bounds it
on the N. N. £., and it is drained by Ashley
and Cooper rivers, which unite to form the
harbor of Charleston. The other chief river
is the Edisto, beside which there are numerous
inlets, including Charleston harbor, N. and S.
Edisto, and S. Santee. These are generally
navigable by small craft The coast is broken
by several bays and protected by a stretch of
sandy islands. The surface is low, level, and in
fiome places exposed to inundation. The soil
embraces everv variety, from the richest allu-
vial mould to the most sterile sand. There are
large quantities of waste land, most of it re*
claunable. The famous sea island cotton is
grown along the rivers and coast. In former
periods indigo, tobacco, silk, and wine were
extensively produced. The olive, orange, and
lemon have been found to mature in the open
air, though cut down by occasional very severe
wihters. The pahnetto and the pine are among
the indigenous forest trees. The productions in
1850 were 818,737 bushels of Indian corn, 498^-
972 of sweet potatoes, 15,700,608 lbs. of rice, and
4,221 bales of cotton. There were 22 com and
flour mills, 8 saw mills, 1 cotton &ctory, 2 tan-
neries, 12 printing offtces issuing 14 periodicala,
92 churches, 8 colleges, 60 academies, and 1,196
pupils attendiuff public schools. The South
Carolina railroad, which terminates at Charles-
ton city, runs through this district; a commu-
nication between the Santee and Cooper rivers
has also been opened by a canal 22 m. long.
This is by for the most populous district of the
state. Several battles during . the revolution,

indoding those of EQta.^Br and Foi
were fought in this district. Oapit

ton.

CHABLESTON, the coital of 1
or county of the same Daxne^ in t
South Carolina, and the chief comn
of that state, stands at the eonilu^?
two rivers, Ashley and Cooper, ^
unite and form a spadoos said boa
These rivers run a paniUel course
6 m., widening as they approach
thus gradually narrowing the site c
into a complete pemnaola. Sere,
over an ample area, and blending
Atlantic, they make one of the inos>t
of harbora, landlocked on aU aidee oxc*.-
the east, ftom whence the sea poars
extent of the bay is ample ibr all tbe co
purposes of a great cif^. The eoujf d
stitntes a beautiful picture, which m\ii
pare with any in the worldl, but for th
background, and of the relief afiSbrded 1
guous eminences. The lands arouDd, ^
upon which the city is built, are all eq w
and level, rising only a few feet above
The dwellings seem to emei*ge from tiie
and at a littie distance the shore line I
indistinct The width of the inner barlnj
mouth, is something over a mile. The ]
is defended by 8 fortresses, well placed r*
the approaches of an enemy. On tbe ri^li
at the entrance, is Fort Moultrie, on »'^u]
island, occupying the site <^ that mei2
fortress, Sullivan, which, on June 28, 177<i
off the British fleet of Sir Peter Parker, i
of the most brilliant fights of the revi'j
On the left hand, raised upon a mole ii
harbor, and directly covering tbe clian:.
Fortress Sumter, a recent erection, anti <.'
the best built forts of the United States,
mediately in front of the city, and bot a
from it, is Castle Pinckney, covering the cr^
a mud shoal, and facing the entrance. T.a
proadies are thus probably as well defrrd'
they can be by such structures^ and ucdcr
present greatly advanced .mtem of oiIcl.^
warfiire. As against shippmg: before iU-
plication of steam, there conla be little dr
of the perfect efficiency of these 8 stroct z
for the defence of the harbor. The outer !
bor, lying within the bar, extends from ^
livan's island to the south channel, below ::
lighthouse, a distance of 6 m. The bar i»- :
most serious obstruction to the camxDe.\ .
proq>erity of Oharleston. This consists of <u
cessive ranges of sand banksi which suvr'
away before the entrance for several leaj'Jt^.
and as these ranges con3i6t in part of qaiok>a:...
they are liable, from storms and uodtrc..'
rents, to occasional change of locality, gn:<
increasing the difficulty of ]Nlotage. Betirni
these successive ranges of sand are fonned sc^
end channels of varying depths of water. l\:i.
recently those in use were but 3 : tbe ^: ;
channel, with 16 feet water at ebb ; tliesic^ > r
middle channel, with 14 ; and lavford'^ or u

^^^^^^^^^B cnjmxstco^ ilH^H

^^^^■t
^^^^^H^^'

^^K»^ t fill %)ii« nml

lOflrldla ill f ^^M

^^^^^k„.

TCliTli'-n. V ^^^^^1

^^^Hpji

^^^1

^^|B[j:

<«il» ^1

'" J

^^H^pri

^^■lie bail ;.iji

768

OHABLESTON

ton is alxmt 66,000, of whom probablyi are
blacks and colored. It is on the inGrease, and
the city is ip^^nally spreading oyer the whole
q>ace between the 2 rivera, its entire length
<k 8 miles, and beyond this there is a growing
snbnrb. For a long period, from 1880 to 1840,
the growth of the city was imperceptible. Since
that period, i has been added to the population.
The incoriK>ration within a few years of that
portion of the popolation which dwelt without
the corporate limits, called the Neck, has
doubled tbe number of the wards, which are
now 8, represented by 16 aldermen, and a
mayor. — ^The city institutions are numerous,
including, in addition to those which usually
belong to municipalities, seyeral charitable foun*
datioDS, such as an orphan asylum, where 200
or 800 orphans of both sexes are nurtured and
educated; poor-house, dispensaries, and hospi-
tals. The city police consists of a day and night
guard of about 100 men, i of whom are mounted.
Among the endowments of tbe municipality are
a high school and college, both of which possess
a yery high local reputation. The schools of
local or priyate endowment are seyeral, and well
conducted, and the state legislature ^>propriated
largely to the common school system, which has
recently undergone great improyements, with
an equal increase of efficiency and popular-
ity. Of the several churches of the city, there
are 10 Protestant Episcopal, 6 Presbyterian,
6 Methodist Episcoi^d, 8 Baptist, 1 French
Protestant, 8 German Lutheran, 8 Roman
Oatholic, 2 Oongregational, 2 Jewish syna-
gogues, 1 UnitariaD, 1 Methodist Protestant, 1
mariners', 1 New Jerusalem (Swedenborgian).
Some of these churches are for black and col-
ored worshippers. In all of them are galleries
or other parts of the house assigned to slayes.
The militia of Charleston constitutes the 2d di-
yision of the state military organization. It con-
sists of 2 regiments of infantry (16th and 17th),
a regiment of artillery (1st), a battalion of ri-
fles, and a squadron of horse. The fire depart-
ment is largo and efficient, consisting of 12 yol-
unteer companies, with their own engines, and
10 engines beside, belonging to the corporation,
the officers of which are appointed by the city.
The societies and clubs are yery numerous. —
Oharleston is the second congressional district
of the state, and sends one member to the federal
coii|ress. She has 2 senators and 17 representa-
tiyes in the legisUture of the state. There are
seyeral public libraries. The Charleston library
(a society of private stockholders) contains prob-
ably 26,000 yolumes, and is especially rich in
works of natural history. The college library,
the mercantile, apprentices*, and other libraries,
have each considerable and valuable collections.
There is a medical college of high reputation, and
2 preparatory seminaries or schools of medicine.
There is also an academy of art and a historical
society, which has accumulated much yaluable
material. — ^The occupations of the people of
Charleston are chiefly those of trade (including
a huge commission boainess) and the meduuuo

aits. Th«re are few maoniiietareai and those r-n
a limited scale. The South Carolina institute,
by public fairs and premiums, has been workix:^
auspiciously of late years, under tbe joint patroi. -
age of state and city, with a hope to giye an^ir
impulse to the arts, iiiduding in its olgects everT-
branch of mechanics, manumctures^ and agrici: 1-
ture. It has a fine edifice in Charleston, azj.1
there is an annual exhibition. There is soir.e
ship building carried on, and there are 2 drj-
dooks for repairs. But the capital of tbe st^:'^
is mostly employed in agrionltore, and that of
the city in trade. A huge proportion of the poj -
ulation of Charleston oonnsta of the gentry • ^r'
the contiguous parishea, who, poaaeasing larcrv
planting interests, are sufficiently opulent to
maintain abodes in the city as well as oa thc^
plantations. Here they educate their ^uldn.-::,
and hither they resort in midsummer. This is
the secret of something anomalous in the life of
Charleston. It is resorted to in aommer as a
watering place by the people of the countrr.
This practice will account for some of tL< <c
characteristics which are thought to be peculi j-
to the city. The planters bring with thciii
wealth and leisure, and these naturally be^:
luxurious tastes and habits. These ^yate u^e
tone of the society, but tend to ^e di^>ar&ce-
ment of labor and industry. Hence extrayag^L:
standards of liying, and deficient enterprise tiS
well as industry. — The dty ooyera aoonadcr-
able extent of territory, more than its num-
ber of people would seem to imply, m in other
cities, in consequence of the suburban char-
acter of so many of the residents. The dwell-
ing houses of these are generally iaolated, huv>
ing large open grounds on eyeiy s^o, whici
are used for gardens. Bare exotica, the ni.:r
fruits, the peadi, the nectarine, the orange, l J
these spaces, and, with the yine, impart a ri^b
tropical character to the aspect of the aboct-,
wmdh itself may be neither yery large n<x' Terr
magnificent. Ample piazzas and yerandiiL^
ranging fh>m 1 to 8 stories, giye coolness ariJ
shade to the dwelling. — ^The corporate limits
of Charleston extend from Battery or Whiu
point, on the extreme southern yerge of tLt:
city, to an arbitrary line on the nortii, fully
8 miles aboye. The same limits, acoording to
the usual mode of building in northern citic^
would contain 800,000 or 400,000 people. He
city is lud out with tolerable regularity. The
streets^with few exceptions, cross at right &ii-
gles. The 2 prindpaL King and Meeting, T:ui
N. and Sw, nearly parallel, ue whole length ot*
the city, but oonyeige to interaecUon at or aU>ut
the northern limits. Meeting street ia a fice,
broad ayenue of 60 feet, haying on it alaiige pro-
portion of the nublio buildings, and doing a lar^
ahare of the wholesale trade. Kinff sbreei, too
narrow for its uses, is the fashionable shopping
street. The cross streets extend from £. to W^
from Cooper to Ashley riyer,andare generallytcio
narrow for health, though the opinion 100 years
ago preferred narrow to wide streets, as afibnl*
ing flhadsi and as giving more yolome and force

^^^V niUllLISTOH

OIIAKLI15TDWII 7AD ^|

^^^^^^^^H ii .

lA« ^^1

^HhN*C^^

^^^^^■fc^

^^1

^^^^^^B^

^^^1

^^^^^^B .

^^^1

^^^^^^■toun

^^^M

^^P^^

Im Ui« ^^H

^Hf:

tiflrt^ auik in fiiift iMiUjirj »i£ |M» ii««l« ^H

^^^^^^^■h

^^^^^^H>

^^^^^V"'

^^^^^^^^BH'i "

^^^^^^BKm tf'

v^•^ liirz^v Lil! ^^^^B

^^^^^^Knt

^^^^^Ki

^^^^^^fti

^^^^Hi'

^^^^^^K|

^^^1

^^^^Hti

^^^K'

^^^1

^^^^Hii

^^^^^^^^^hii

' •* ^^^1

^^^H^'

^^Bp

^^1

{^H^

^^H

^^PHiO^ **J^ •.iul >, i t4|Vi V%J 4.i<tV«ii ^tViUfi. ^'hJi'^ f"

■'■" ■

^■_

760

0HARLE8T0WN

duoed on the nominal victors. It was in oonrse
of this battle, and as one of its incidents, that
Charlestown was destroyed. This act is often
spoken of as if it were one of pure wantonness,
but tbe English officers defended their conduct
on grounds of military necessity. Gren. Howe,
who commanded the force actively employed,
declared that he was annoyed by musketry from
Charlestown, and sent word to Clinton to fire
the place, which was done by a discharge of
shells from Copp's hill in Boston, and by men
who were landed for the purpose. The de-
struction was complete within the peninsula,
with tlic exception of a few houses. Gen. Gage
had resolved to burn the town should the Amer-
icans erect any works on the hills within its
limits. The number of buildings destroyed was
about 400, and the value of the property was
estimated at more than $500,000. Burgoyne's
rhetorical description of the event has added
much to its notoriety. In 1825 the corner stone
of Bunker hill monument was laid, which was
completed 18 years later. (See Bunker Hill.)
Charlestown appears to have recovered very
slowly from the effect of the blow it received
in 1775. In 1766, its population by census
was 2,031, but in 1790 it was only 1,583, and
in 1800 it was 2,751, which did not vary much,
we may suppose, from what it had been at the
beginning of the war. By the census of 1810
the inliabitants numbered 4,959; by that of
1820, 6,591 ; that of 1830, 8,788 ; that of 1840,
11,484. The state census of 1855 showed a
population of 21,700, of whom 5,168 were for-
eigners. The number of voters in 1857 was
8,411. Cliarles river bridge, connecting the
town with Boston, was completed in 1786, and
Warren bridge in 1828. — Charlestown is a place
of considerable business, of a various character.
The principal manufactures are chairs and cab-
inet ware, lead, soap and candles, leather, lum-
ber, upholstery, steam engines and boilers, rail-
road cars and other vehicles, boots and shoes,
tin ware, whips, stone and earthenware, casks,
pickles and preserves, bread, clothing, morocco,
gas, chemical preparations, quarried stone, brush-
es, spirits and beer, blacksmiths' work, willow
ware, cigars, snuf^ brass ware, mechanics' tools,
combs, lime, trunks, masts and spars, boats,
saddles, harness, blocks and pumps, silver ware,
&c. The commerce of Charlestown is included
in the Boston returns. The place has been con-
nected with the ice trade from an early day,
and great numbers of vessels are annually laden
with ice at its wharves. According to the of-
ficial returns of 1855, there was then $600,000
invested in the business, and the number of tons
of ice taken was 186,000. The state valuation
in 1850 showed the property of Charlestown
to be worth $8,624,690. It is now $14,043,800.
The number of dwelling houses in 1850 was
2,186, and in 1855 it was 8,126. The Boston
and Fitchburg railroad company formerly had
both their passenger and business stations for
Boston at Charlestown, but the passenger
station was removed to Boston in 1848| aod

their lands at dharlestown are turn' devoted t-
the merchandise station, and to extensive r^-
rangements for mannfaotoroe and repairs. T. . -
Massachusetts state prison, which was looctl^r .
in 1800, is in Charlestown, on a point of la:. .
pear East Cambridge. The nmnber of pri> r-
ers there on Sept 15, 1858, was 465. Iz,^
institution has been very successfQlly g-oven-
ed, and is now under the charge of jir. Gi It * z
Haynes, who was appointed warden in l>o!v
The McLean asylum for the insane, which wji
formerly in Charlestown, ia now in SomervLI.^
Iffhich was incorporated in 1842, and is c»>ci-
posed of territory which made ]Mat of Charl'.-^
town until that date. One of the best navj
yards belonging to the United States U a:
Charlestown, where it was established in 1705.
It is on the N. side of Charles river, is e- •
closed by a high wall of great strength, Lui
covers about 60 acres. The yard contains sev-
eral dwelling houses,"* numerous store hou^.^
rope walks, machine shops, ship houses «::.
The dry dock is a fine work, and cost nearlT
$700,000. Its length ia 841 feet, width &•). an'i
depth 80. Bome of the best ships belon^in^ ro
the national marine were bmlt at this vi-rd.
among them being the Independence, the 'Mi.>
rimadk:, the Jamestown, the Cumberland, and
others. Extensive repairs of vessels are th^re
made, and in the summer of 1858 there were
1,560 men employed in the yard. The navsl
hospital connected with the yard is at Chcl>ei
Charlestown has 2 banks, with capitals of ^^X'
000,1 insurance company, and 2 savings bt^nU
There are 12 churdies, belonging to Ba[»iii:e,
Methodists, Unitarians, Universalists, BoiEJin
Catholics, and Orthodox CongregatioDa]i--A
There are 89 public schools in Charlestown, at-
tended by 4,485 scholars, and having 10 m^e
and 6 1 female teachers, the city raises $:15, ^'O
annually for schools. There is an incorjMrdi.:iI
academy, with 140 pupils; and the number of
other academies and private schools is 5, witli
an average attendance of 128. The fire dei»ar:-
ment consists of 6 engine companies, 1 h.sa
company, and 1 hook and ladder company. Tbo
government is hi the hands of a board of 6 jJ-
dermen and 18 coundlmen, and a mayor. Cbar>
lestown forms a part of the first senatorinl dis-
trict of Middlesex oo., which elects 1 st£:te scii2<
tor, and is divided into 2 representative districii
the 1st (ward 1) electing 1 member, and the-d
(wards 2 and 8), 2 members of the state house
of representatives. The history of Charlestovin
down to the date of the battle of Bunker iiiii
has been well written by Mr. R. Frothin^hara,
jr., one of the editors of the " Boston Pt>5t,''

CHAELESTOWN, the capital of JetrVr^ja
CO., Va., a thriving post village on the Win-
chester and Potomac railroad; pop. about I MX
It is situated in the region called ^e vaUej of
Virginia, and is surrounded by a beautiioi acJ
fertile country. The land on which the t^-wn
is built formerly belonged to CoL Charles Wash-
ington, the brother of Gen. Washington, and
the place waa for some time his residence.

mtvnrfmr v irmoa JM^H

^^^^■RX.KTO^.TtMiMrmM , na^^^^Bl^^-

Mli^. --<JT»^ r , II ZriiU »ii ^^B

^^^^Kj '^aiii^j

. ^^H

^^M

^^^^T

^^^^K li m fLirn

^^^^^^^H

1 iiriSA G2U)aic^ ^^^|

^Ki a Ui'lm

^^1

^^Kvm>- '.'._:j_, _^4 f^ltM

^^H

^^K' rfsiJT, .i»\*^ /?25fc*iin«, ^^jrd-

' ^1

^^Bt'

^ i!-rtv{fi* ^fjwn rm ^Tr» ^^^H

^^BliMi (^

^^^H

^^^BApIH^ Wji

^^^Ul t*fini\ri^

' ^1

^^Hroil iu}tl' itibMi^fv >

^^H

^^^Kgtaniii wai iv»^r<>":

^^^^H

^^^^^mii kilt iAmm ttuTc •

^^^H

^^^1

^^^^^piMk fitic^Tjr * u^l-

^^^H

^^^^^^«i<1.>lii!LAl ^

^^H

iiba0(LLi ' ^^^H

', ^lift^f] ' ^^M

^^^K

^^H

^■T^''.-. JniiMlOAf .:ij

elunf 4Li4i£^Cu ^^^1

^■l 14 \mMlAii .Odft

Ifodn, Mill e< ^^H

^^^pi^a Mr><!^ TivQ Uwl ooitftei (n^ii^ or i^;mjj was

ehtftiiJitiplimiriri; ^^H

m ifeirllii CfliACeii'' ^^H

^^EaBLE^ ' '^' ^ nmi i^wo^m Xaitiv

^^m

^^^S fitioc.^ ^lid l»ini!llor, bcira OcC

^^H

^Bldia, 41 b. - • ' ^-'- ^--'^

^^^^H

^■(mi^ ^ruu-i'

^^^H

^^Kt«a |AiiiM.<«r

^^H

^^■^Mlii, ^kf wmM a idumber. liif>

^^^H

■^BHis^M' . ' -'iU. TT€ nK^i'a4> ^

^^^H

Hfll Itf^TLLix'.-

■^mm ^^^M

■ ilir P.l'frv

."ifv ^H

|«Ub^ 4x1' in^ tU llttsiL^ii 'TTC ^^H

f*iv^lfW- ^r*y') PnF^:*^ *^i^ ^^H

^^^^Hi^f<('if^' ro<r»V. Ui'> M'<

'''*! ^^H

^^Kbd «furt . A^rod to ttj Asiarfeia

<^ ^M

1 ^^^^^^H

^HmLABlOi'LE. fk^W. t^mntf oTNiJir Br!i&»'

^^H

^^^^^ » .r-r^i ^T jr,,>^ \iit4|>f cm tli^ W^ IIZMJ &

«a u.-. ^^1

^K ' Yif, tMm^f^ tk try iha

biat.0^ ^M

^^^^fc^ MTflirR-QcLlT }>^Y . AV\*ti

(?ti ' ^^H

763

QHAHLOTIE lOWK

CHABRAft

prodnoes the finest oysters and the greatest ta-
riety of fish, wild fowl, and deer, of any part of
the coast

CHARLOTTE TOWN, the cajpital of Prinoe
Edward island, is sitoatod in Queen's oo., at
the junction of Hillsborough river with the
York river ; pop. nearly 6,000. It has a good
faiffbor, is well bnilt, contains the so-called colo-
nial buildings, with accommodations for the
legislature and courts of law, the old court
house, an Episcopal churdi, Scotch church,
a Baptist chapel, a Methodist ohapd, a Ro-
man Ga&olio church, an asylum for lunatics
and poor, an academy, and a national schooL

OHARLOTTENBURG, a handsome town in
the Prussian province of Brandenburg, govern-
ment of Potsdam, and circle of Teltow, on the
left bank of the river Spree, connected with
Berlin by a fine promenade, which is lighted at
night, the distance being only about 4 miles;
pop. about 9,000. The place takes its name
from Sophia Charlotte, the queen of Frederio
William 1., who in 1706 caused a palace to be
built there. Frederic the Great added a new
oh&teau, and endowed it with a valuable gallery
of art, which, however, especially the part
which contained the paintix^is, was iiyured by
the Austrians in 1760.

CHARLOTTESVILLE, a town of Virginia,
capital of Albemarle co., on Moore's creek, fl
m. above its entrance into Rivanna river, and
81 m.N.W. of Richmond; pop. in 1858, 2,600.
Its chief importance is due to its being the seat
of the university of Virginia, an institution
planned by Mr. Jefferson, founded in 1819, and
whose buildings were erected at an expense of
over $200,000. (See VmomiA, Univsbsitt of.)

OHARM (Lat. ea/rmen^ a verse, a song, or a
charm), a word used in necromancy to desig-
nate a power or spell exercised in an ocoiut
manner, by which the will and action of the
charmed person are enchained. In ancient
times' charming was supposed to be effected
by tiie assistance of the devil. The Scriptures
(Dent, xviii. 11) place it in the same category
with sorcery, witchcraft, and necromancy, and
treating them all as acknowledged fiicts, forbid
them to be practised. The chatm was supposed
to be accomplished by placing words or some-
times things in a certain arrangement (hence
the name). The charming of serpents is also
mentioned in Scripture. Something of the kind
is still practised among the Jugglers of India.

CHARNEL, or Ohabnbl Housb, originally a
place for depositing flesh, a larder, but now
flenerally used to denote a receptacle for the
dead, usually near or in a church.

CHARON, in Greek mythology, son of Ere-
bus and Nox, the ferryman who transported
the souls of the dead over the river Acheron to
the infernal regions. The fee exacted for this
service from each spirit ferried over by him
was never leis than 1 obolus. nor more than 8.
The spirits of those who haa not been honored
with a funeral were not permitted to enter Cha-
ron's boat without having previously wandered

on the shore Ibr a century; nor ooiQld any fir-
ing person be admitted into it till he bad akown
its master a golden branch, the gift of the Cu*
maoan sybiL The faRymanwas once impris-
QiMd for a wh<^e year for haviog oemveyed
Hercules' across in vidation of this rule, even
though he had been oompelled by tiie h«n> to
do BO. Charon is generally represented as a
robust old man of stem coontenanoe, bis eyes
glowing like flame, his hair white and bosby,
and in his hands a pole to direct lua boat oa
her course.

CHAROST, AxMAHD Jossfh dx BtrsiTHx,
duke, a IVendi philanthropist^ a desoendant of
Sully, bom at Versailles, July 1, iTSd, died ia
Paris, Oct. 27, 1800. At a time when noUes
were generally addicted to licentious pleasures,
he devoted himself to the improvement of agri-
culture and of the condition of the laboring
dasses. The peasants on his eatatea were in-
debted to him for their emandpation, while he
was active in promoting their wd&re and edu-
cation. His influence extended over several
provincea of Francei and the profligate Louis
XV. himsdf acknowledged his servioe& 'When
France was eznosed to invasion, the duke, al-
tiiough he had littie sympathy for the new
government, contributed a large som of money
for the common defence. Nevertheless he was
arrested and his property confiscated, hot he
escaped the guillotme.

CHARRAS. Jsijr BAFran Asolphb, a
Frendi republican soldier and statesman, bom
at Pfulzbui;^ in the department of the Menrthe
(LorraineX June 7, 1810, the son of Gen. Char-
ras, took part in the revolution of 1880, was
promoted in 1888 to the rank of lieatenant,
wrote a series of able artides in the Ifkiumal
on military afbirs^ which gave nmbrage to the
government and caused him to be sent to Alge-
ria; distinguished himself there on the battles
fldd as well as in the training of native troop-
and the colonization of the conntiy ; bnt, ow-
ing to his unpopularity with Louis Philippe's
government, he was, after mndi procrastina-
tion, promoted only to the rank of lientenant-
ooloneL After the revolution <^ 1848^ he be-
came under secretary of state (April 11), and
representative for the department of Pay de
D6me (April 22). He was one of the most
sealous members of the national assonhly, one
of the chief pillars of the republican govern-
ment, and one of the victims of the eoftp d'eiai
of Dec. 2, 1861. First detained at Ham, he was
transported to Belgium in Jan. 1863, bnt ex-
pelled fit>m that country, in Kov. 1854^ at the
request of Louis Napdeon, whom Charras had
denounced on many ocoadonst bat most efiect-
ivdy in a letter of which 50,000 copies wen
printed in Bdgium alone. A pamphlet^ la
troii mariohaium de I^anee (Bnoyssebi 1858), is
also attributed to him. A remarkable wort
from his pen, Eiitovre de la campoffne de 1815,
appeared in Nov. 1867, and a second edition
soon afterward. Since Deo. 1, 1867, he has
been again permitted to rende in BnuBdsL

^^^V cmAjmoy

nEU

VB H

^H jPtlxVPTlTiV T^YZftpnr ^ Tn nt-*A rnr'iAr }yn*^i

T?t*. •! jm *1 iri r ^1 F p- , ii - .

. .r.,,! ...,r- .,..A..

^B^^p^-^

^^M

^^^Bi

^^^■7^^

^^^^■|ri4 Till

^^HL^:^ ^

^^^Hei_

^^^^E!

^^^^^1

^^H

■

^^^^K I

;s B

^^K

nr, i tmixm:

^^Ki. L.J llift

tMl&6l

fSQEIllt Of by IJIA VII

^^1
^^^1
^^1

^^H
^^H

-ml ^M

o» Oio i^^^rtiv Imb

OHABIIER

GELABTDSH

edUmmg^ eeveralliinidfl^till «fc leogdi it was
boogfat by ThomaB Sutton, who boilt a hospital
and endowed the present Ibnndation. The
maaterahip of the cWteihooae ia generallx
filed hj aome diatiDgoiahed acholar, and the
aehoolhaa the repnte of being among the first
claaaioal adioola of England. The eetabliahr
ment sopporta 42 boyaaapnpOa, and 80 penaion*
ere, who mnet be at least 60 years old. £aoh
boy is educated at a certain expense, and each
pensioner reoeiyes food, dothing, lodging, fire,
and a stipend of money. The right of presen-»
tation to the charterhooae ia vested, by rotation,
in the 16 goyemora of the hospital. Nine
ehnrch livings are also in their immediate gifL

OHABTIfiEt, AI4AIN, a French writer, bom
in Bayeuz toward the dose of the 14th oentnry^
died probably in Avignon in 1449. On leavina
the nni versity of Paris, where he had completed
his ednoation,his writings and conversation soon
gained for him a high reputation. He was in*
troated with aeveral missions daring the latter
part of the unhappy reign of Charles VI., and
aftOTward he was attadied to Charles Vn. in va-
rious capacities. Although he had not taken
holy orders, he received h prebend and ardi«
deaconship in ^e cathedral of Paris, and aerved
also as ambassador to Scotland. Among his
principal works may be mentioned: Le livre
ds$ quatre damM; Le quadrUoffw imceetify a
kind of colloquy between France, the people,
the nobility, and the clergy ; L^EkpSranee^ ou
eamolatian du trou tertuB^ written in 1428*
He was called by his contemporaries the father
of French eloquence.

CHARTISM, a political creed in England,
which takes its name from a proposed diarter
or bill of rights, the principal points of which
were universal suffrage, vote ny ballot, paid
representatives, abolition of pro2>erty qualinca-
tion for representatives, triennial parliaments,
equsl electoral districts. These were the es-
sential points, but in addition 80 or more were
added, which formed the whole political
scheme of chartism. — ^At the dose of the war
in 1816, the expenditures of England had
reached $360,000,000 yearly, while the national
debt had been augmented in the reign of George
IIL by the sums of (600,000,000 for the Amer*
loan war, and $3,045,000,000 for the French
wars between 1798 and 1816. The accumula-
tions of capital which this debt from the nation
to individuals represents had been amassed
from the operations of newly-invented ma-
chinery, ana frt>m improved processes which
enabled the profits of production to keep pace
with the public expenditures. So Ions as the
war lasted, the large smns of borrowed money,
kept moving by the demands of the war ana
of continental trade, maintained a state of ficti-
tious prosperity. With peace, however, came
a temble reaction. Thousands of skilled op-
eratives were thrown out of employment,
and reduced to starvation or parish relief.
The theories of poHtical equality broached by
the leadeea of .the Fieneh revolution of 1798,

and afterwvd loet oght of in the reaetkm of
opinion oauaed by the ezoeaaes of the French
patriots, were revived. The bordena bodi of
the government taxes and of the loeal rau^a
(eapeoially the poor latea, which were immeriBc-
ly augmented by the general dietreea), caused a
temporary unity of purpose between the mid-
dle and the working daasea. Demands for
parliamentary reform and for an extension of
political rights were put forward, and asaocia*
tions were formed for the purpose of promoting
tiiese ol^jeotSL Among the wealthy and tLa
aristocratic dasses individuals were not want*
ing to advocate these popular demands.
But such was not the general aentiment
of the upper daasea A prohibitory com
law was passed in 1815 for the protection of
the agricxutural interest; while the maaaiaetur-
ing interest, which had only lately oome to a
sense of its power, was as yet diametrically op-
posed to the working daasea. Oapital was
brought into antagonism with labor; and cap-
italists^ requiring measures of repreasioii for
their protection, united themaelvea for a time
with thoee whose only theory of home govern-
ment was the assurance of property and the
keeping down of the masaea. In the spring of
1816 the popular ferment broke oat in open
diaorder, and riots took place thron^out the
kingdom. Insurrectionary movemientB were
organized everywhere, but they were cnt o^
before they had ripened to a ^ea/L Party
politics ran high, and the general disaffc-c-
tion was so great, that the tory goFemm<ri:t
at the head of affiurs could find no better
remedy than the auspension of the habeas cof-
pua act, and the arreat and execution cMf some
parties for treason. In 1817 a «<rfanmftl petiti^Hi
Ibr redress of grievances, with a million and
a half of signatures, was g^t up mainly thioneh
the instrumentality of Major Cartwri^t. This

gmtieman was the friend and asaocaate of
ome Tooke, Thdwall, and other active spirits
of the period and had founded the ^ society for
constitutionBl information.^' The manufactur-
ing districts became the great centre of discon-
tent Birmingham, which has always been th«
seat of great nolitiosl activity, Leeds, Glas-
gow, and Manchester were eq>edally marked
in their demonstraticms. At the latter plsce
a great meeting was held for the purpose c^
discussing grievances, Aug. 10, 1819L Befors
the speaking had commenced, or any overt acs
had been performed, ih^ magistrapy called in
the aid of the yeomanry cavahj, summoned the
people to disperse, read the riot aot, and ordei^
ed the yeomanry to dear the place. This was
done; but 60 people, induding several women
and children, were killed and wounded. For a
time the discontent was smothered ; but a dis-
position was evinced in parliament to do aome-
thing toward an amendment of «Ti<d3ng abuse^
and the questions of Oatholio emancipatioa
and parliamentary refotm were agitated. A
numeroua and powerfol body of qfieakers and
writers, both in and out of the honae, lovgbt

chasthm:

^^V 1

1 ». vft nl I' A f jv iri ?* i T*i**r r\ iT il kr i i

^J^tt iiT iflll ' "MM< 1 ff»Trt itrl' of.

'~' I'r'kt.-i, t\u\ 1l.m> ^^H

bar 1^9 J

riiirT*'*'n.'jprit.

kifiiMi^ftil

toll QRHili tf fUTiMSt^

lE^

rim

tiiir

^L^^ 1^

..1' LLi ±Jl

^gA ftf y

inil lc» V

■

1 lL*>-.*^|ii

f wMdt

^^BRr^aaia«l Ci^feKloaa- fnlkf vd* dBQOttf«^d|

766

CHABTBSS

million of dgnattures, was preeented to the
honse of oommons by Feams O'Oonnor, pray-
ing for the release of the ohartist oonvicta, and
for the passage of a law embodying the ax
points. Mr. O'Connor propounded a land
scheme to enable the chartiists to become small
freeholders, and thus to increase their yotes;
bat the affiiir,from mismanagement, tamed oat
a bubble, to the great loss and di8M)pointm6nt
of the contributors. Chartism fell for some
time into neglect, and disappeared from pablic
view until 1848, when the movements oonse-
qaent on the French reyolation aroused it and an
attempt was made to bring abont a grand organ-
ized demonstration in London. Bodies of men
were to march firom the manufaotoring districts,
and from all parts of London, to hold a great meet-
ing. There they were to be addressed by Mr.
O'Connor and other important members of
their puty, and they were afterward to make
a display of their numerical strength by parad-
ing in front of the houses of parliament. The
intention was peaceable ; but the doctrines of
the nltra socialists in France, with whose
name chartism had been coupled, alarmed the
middle classes of London, and this temper com-

?l6tely neutralized the chartist programme.
*he demonstration took place in April; the
gOTemment made no display of military force,
although they took every precaation against
any rising; no less than 160,000 residents in
the metropolis came forward, and were made
special constables. A large body of London chart*
ists assembled at the place of meeting, bat the
county contingents did not come in ; and Mr.
O'Connor, fearing lest the spirit which he had
evoked might be too potent, withdrew from the
meeting. The demonstration beg^ widi a
silent meeting, and ended with a peaceable pa-
rade through the public streets. The pablic
tranquillity has not been disturbed since by ap- .
prehensions of chartism, and in 1866 Mr. John
Frost was pardoned and permitted to return
from transportation. Lord Brougham, on the
occasion of presenting a petition, in July, 1867,
declared himself in favor of an extended suf-
frage, but still on the basis settled by the re-
form of 1882, and by no means as a recognition
of democratic principles. During the very same
week a great meeting of non-electors was held
at Rochdale, in the manufacturing districts,
when the leading points of chartism were dis-
cussed and reaffirmed. One of those points,
the abolition of the property qualification of
members of parliament, was made the law of
the realm in the summer of 1858.
CHABTBES, an arrondissement and city of

France, in the department of Ear«-et-Ii(^; per.
of the former in 1866, 111,967, and of tJie lAtt'r
18,926. The arrondissfflnentcompriaeB 8 canton -.
and possesses 276,000 aoresof grain land, 3,50>^e
vineyards, 8,000 of vaiioos crops, 65,000 c
meadow, 96,000 of fallow land, and 28^000 c:
wood and forest The annaal value of t}.e
raw material employed in manaftctores is
$8,600,000, and of manufaotox^d goods $4,20 1.
000. The number of hands employed is l^l>«*.
The daily wages are for men 42 oentSi and
for women 1*H cts.— The city of Ohartres is
the chief town of the department, sitnatoi
64 m. from Paris, on the railroad from that
city to Bennes, on a slope at the bottom
of which runs the river Eore, which divided
the town into 2 part% connected by a brid^
planned by Yanban. Upon the site of the
former fortifications are fine booleviuida, ard
some of the modem buildings are w^ bull:,
but the general appearance of the dty is i^^:
prepoesessing, most of the streets being n^-
row and crooked. The great object of interest
there is the cathedral of Notre Dame, erim-
menced in the beginning of the 11th and dedi-
cated in the latter part of the IZtb. eentzny, one
of the spires not having been finished t^ tLe
16th century. The principal frt>nt preseots 2
square towers surmounted by 2 lolly octagond
pyramids. The old spire, of plain architecture,
but cased with stone carved like the scales of a
fish, is 374 feet high. The new spire is 413 iVet
high, built in the fiorid style. The rich portiil>
the painted glass windows, the beantifnl dn. ir
adorned with valuable works of art, and other
remarkable features, combine to make Hus
charch one of the most magnificent in the worl i.
It was covered with an iron roof in 1841, ti^e
old framework having been destroyed by fire
in 1836. There are several other dim^es in
Chartres, and among the public bmldings ai^l
institutions must be mentioned the residence
of the prefect, 8 hospitals, a fine botanical gar-
den, a •museum, and a library of 80,000 vol-
omes; a communal coUege and a norm^
school, a theatre, an agricultural sodety, and s
charitable institution recently established by Pr.
Aligre, whose name it bears, wi^ accommcK
dationa for 200 aged poor, and for 100 poor
children. The town carries on an active trade
in the products of the country, has an impor-
tant wool market, and manufactories of woolicc
goods^ honery, leather, and machinery. Bnt
it denves its chief commercial importance from
its com market, which is the beat regulated in
France, and the management of whose busiiMtt
18 intmsted to a oorporationof wcnnau

XND OF TOLtXME FOUBTB.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME lY.

PAOB

Pro wn.«on. OresUa Angostiu. 6

lirownsville, Pa 6

lirowngville, Tez. 6

Browusville, Tenn 6

I^rtiat, ArmandJoseph 6

I>nicc\ family of 6

Ilni.M, Kobert (three) 6

Bruce, David 8

Knioe, Edward. 8

lirucA;, James. 8

r,rnvi\ MichafiL 9

Jlnirla. 9

Jlrurk, Karl Ludwlg 9

iJrurkenaa. 9

KriK ktr. Jakob 9

]iru<-> s d'Aigalliere, Francois Paul. 9

Bnuvs, David Aaguatinde 9

Hruuva. 9

I'.-ucTiS, Henri Alpihonao 10

IJru-ea, Kogervan. 10

r.ru.'i: 10

B" .^v.raann, Karl Hclnrich 10

Kr u'mana, Sebald Justinua 10

r>r ilil, Hcinrich. 11

lU ihl, HansMoritz 11

lir ihl, Karl Friedrlch M. P. 11

];niiD, Jan van. 11

Kruix. Eustache 11

Br illuu-, Karl Paulowltch 11

i;riiiii.ure,The Eighteenth 11

Brurnath IS

BrurnmcU, Georco Brvan. 18

]>run, Friederiku Sopuio 0 14

BrmuU 14

Bruurk, Richard Frant PhlUpp.... 15
Brim-hislum, seo Brindisl

r>r<ino. Ouillaumo Marie Anne 15

Briinohaut 16

Brun.l, Sir Mark Isambart 17

B r II nol, Isarabart Kingdom 17

Brutielleschi, Filippo dl Ser Lapp! . 13

B'-uiut, Jacques Coarlet. 18

B'^unctti, Angclo 18

Briiiui 18

Bnuinvn 19

I', run now, Ernst Ocorg von 19

IJruonow, Phillpp 19

Bruno the Great 19

Brano, t?alnt (two) 10

Bruno, Giordano 19

Brunswick co., Va. 91

Br la^wick co., N. C 91

Brun-swick, Mo 91

Brunswick, Ga. 91

Brun>wick, Germany 91

lirunswick, llouMf of 89

Brunswick Lunt-burjc Emat 28

Brun'iwick Lunebur(c Chrlatlan... . 88
BruiLswick Luncburg, Ernst Aa-

cu«t 88

Bruni^wlck, Ferdinand 88

BrunAwick, Karl Wilhelm Ferdi-
nand 88

Bruufiwick, Friedrlch WUhelm .... 88

Brnnswick, Friedrlch Angost Wil-

holm Karl 88

Branswick Aoguat, Lndwlg WU-
helm M.F 28

Bmnswlck Green 88

Bninton, Mary Balfour 84

Bnisaaoivi (Domenlco Bicclo). 84

Brash. 91

Brash Turkey. 85

Braaaela 86

Brotua, Dedmos Junlua 87

Bratofl, Lucius Jani as 8T

Brutus, MarcoA Junius 88

Bruyere, Jean de la, see La Brayere

Bruyn, Cornelia de 29

Bryan oa 29

Bryan, 8lr Francis. 89

Bryan, George 89

Bryan, Michael 29

BryantfJacob 29

Bryant, 6<jlomon 89

Bryant, William Cullen 80

Bryaxls. 81

Brydges, 81r 8amael Egerton 81

Brydone, Patrick- 81

Bryenniua, Manuel 81

BrynhlldjL 88

Bryonia. 88

Brzecs LltewskL 88

Bua 88

Bnache, Philippe 88

Buache do U KeuvillOf Jean Nicolas 88

Bubastls 83

Bubble 88

Bubna and Littiz, Ferdinand 88

Bubona 83

BubulcuA, Caius Janlua. 83

Buc, Sir George 83

Buccaneers 83

Buccarl 84

Buccinnm 84

Buccleugh 84

Bucclloa. 84

Bacentaur. 84

Buc«?phalu8. 85

Bucer, Martin 85

Bach, Leopold von 85

Bnchan, David 86

Buchan, Eliiaboth. 87

Buchan, Peter 87

Buchan, William 87

Buchan, Bullcrs of 87

Buchanan oo.. Mo 87

Buchanan co., Iowa 87

Buchanan, Claudius. D. D. 87

Buchanan, George 88

Buchanan, James. 88

Bucharest. 45

Bucharia. see Bokhara.

Bucher, Anton von 46

Bttchez, Philippe Joseph B 46

Buchbom, Karl Lodwig B 46

B&chner, Oeorv 46

Buchwald, Johaon Headrik 46

PAOV

Back ....<<««« 46

BQckeburg 47

Buckeye, see Horse Chestnut

Buck i nek, Arnold 47

Buckingham co. 47

Back! ngham 48

Buckintrham, Dukes of 48

Buckingham, James Silk 51

Bucki n^hain, Joseph Tinker. 58

Buckingham<>h[re. 53

Buckland, Cvnis 58

Buckland, William, D.D 54

Buckland, FrancL* 54

Buckle, Henry Thomas 54

Buckminster, Joseph, D. D 55

Bockminster, Joseph Stevens. 56

Bucks CO 57

Bucksport 57

Buckstone, John Baldwin 67

Buckw heat 67

Bucolics. 58

Bud. 58

Buda. 59

Budayoon 60

Budde, Jobann Franz. 60

BuddccabmL 61

Buddha-Oaya 61

Buddhism 61

Budding 70

Bud6, G uillaume 79

Bade Light 79

Budgeli, Eustace 79

Budcet 73

Bu<lcott, Samuel 73

Budnaus. 78

Budos-Ucgy 78

Budun 78

Bud weis 78

Buel, Jesse 78

Buin Ayre 78

Buen Ki'tiro 78

Buena VisU 78

Buena Vista co 75

Buenaventura, Cal 75

Buenaventura, Now Grunada 75

Bn<T)o da?ylva,Bartolomcu 75

But nos Ayfos 75

Bocnos A yrca, city 76

Buff. 7S

Buff Leather 73

Buffalo 78

Buffalo, N. Y 79

Buffet 81

Buffon 81

Burton, Georges L'mis Leclerc 61

Buffon, Ilcori Loclcrc S3

Bug S3

Bucares. 63

Bu»r>'aud de la Piconncrie, Thomas

Kobort 83

Bugenhagon, Johxmn S8

BuL'k'o, Thomas 64

Bugi« 84

Buglehorn. 83

OOHTENTB.

rkQM

BQhla^ohaan OottUeb 85

Buhl-Work. 85

Bohr Stone 85

Bail, B«ni«rdo 86

Building 85

Buitenxon; 86

Bukken 86

Bukkur 86

BuUean. 87

BuUnuL 87

Bularchus 67

Bulb. 87

Bulgaria 87

Bulgarian Language and litera-
ture 83

Bulzarln, Thaddeus..^ 88

Bulkheadai 88

Bulkley, reter 89

Bull^PapaL 8»

Bull, George ^ 8»

Bull, John 8»

Bull, John 80

Bull, Ole Bomemann 89

Bull. William 90

Bull-Baiting. 90

Bull-Dog. 90

Bull-Fight 91

Bulla. 99

BuHard, Artemae, D. D 99

Bullard, Henry Adama... 99

Buller, Charles 99

Buller, Bir Francia 99

Bullet 99

BnlleUn .* 98

Bullfinch. 98

Bullhead 98

Bullinger, Uelnrich 9i

Bullitt CO 95

Bullock CO 95

Bulls, see Bears and Bulls.

Bnlmer. William 95

Bulola 95

BCJow. Fricdrlch WUhelm 95

Bulrush. 95

Bnlsar 95

Bulti. 95

Bulubgurh 95

Bui wer, Sir Heniy Lytton Earle . . 96

Bulwer, John 96

Bulwer, Bosina. 96

Bulwer Lytton, Sir Edward Qeorge

EarleLytton 97

Bunaisor. 98

Buncombe CO., N. C 98

Buncombe eo., Iowa 98

Bundclcund ; 93

Bund-Em ir 93

Bnnge, Alexander 93

Bungc, Frederic George 99

Bunion 99

BunkerHUL 99

Bunpoor 101

BuDsen, Christian Karl Josias.. . . . 101

Bunting 109

Bunting, Jabex, D. D 108

Bun tzku 108

Bnnwut 108

Banyan,John ^ 108

Bunran, Robert 104

Buof-Schauenstoin, Karl Fczxlinand 104

Buonalcntl, Bernardo 105

Buonarottl, Fllippo 105

Buonarottl, Michel Ancelo. 105

Buoninscgna, Ducdo dL 105

Buononcini, Giovanni Battlsta. ... 105

Buu3r8. 105

Bupalus. 1(XS

Buphonia 105

Burbage, Richard 105

Burbcck, Henry. 106

Burckhardt, Johann Karl 106

Burckhardt, Johann Ludwlg. 106

Burden, Henry 107

Burder, Rov. George 107

Burdott, Sir Francis 107

Burdon, WUliam 103

Burdwan 103

Bureau oo 109

Baret, £ug6ne 109

Burette 109

Btirg, Johann Tobias 109

Bvgdorf 109

9A.QM

Bnrger, Frtedrieli 109

Burger, Johann 109

Barger, Gottfried August 109

BQrger.EUae 110

Bnrgeo, Triatam 110

Burgess, George, D.D Ill

BurgesSiThomaa HI

Burgh, James Ill

Burglary Ill

Buigomaster 119

Burgonet 119

Burgos. 119

Burgos, Francisco ZsTier de. 119

Burgoj^e, John ^, 118

Burgoyne, Sir John Fox 118

Buiguete 114

Burgundiaas 114

Burgundy, The first Kinsdom of . . 114
Burgundy, CL^uxaae andTnuu^u-

rane. 114

Burgundy, Duchy ol^ 1st Ducal

House 114

Burgundy, Duchy o^ 9d Dueal

House 115

Burgundy, Phllin. Duke of 115

Burgundy, John the Fearless,Duke

or....:. .\7. 115

Burgundy, Philip the Ck>od, Duke

ot lift

Bunrundy, Charles the Bold, Duke

of:....* .7 116

Burgundy, The Proyinee oil 117

Buivundy Wines lit

Buri....: 117

Burial lit

Burying Alive....... 118

Buxias 119

Buriats. 119

Buridan-, Jean 119

Burtgny, Jean Livesqne de 119

Burke CO., N.a 190

Burke co^Ga 190

Buiice, iBdaaus 190

Burke, Edmund 120

Burke, Sir John Bernard 129

Burke, John Dely 199

Burke, WilUam. 128

Briricel, Reinrich 188

Burkitt, WnUam 128

BurlamaquL Jean Jaoques 128

Burieigh, WilUam Cecil, Lord .... 128

Burleigh, WiUUm Henry 194

Burleson ea 194

Burlington eo..« 194

Burlington, Vt 194

Bnriington,N.J. 125

Buriington, Iowa 195

Burlington, Biohard B<^le, Kail of 195

Burmatt 196

Burmann, &mlly ot 198

Burmann,Frsndscus........ 128

Burmann, Peter............ 128

Burmann, Peter. 129

Burraann, GotUob WUhelm. 129

Burmeister, Hermann 189

Burn^ Richard. 129

Buniap, Georgs Washington, D.D. 129

Bumes, Bir Afozaader 129

Burnet ca 180

Burnet, Gilbert ISO

Bumet,Jaoob 181

Burnet, James, see Monboddo

Burnet, John.. 181

Burnet Thomas.... 189

Bumet^sCreek 189

Burnett, John 189

Buraett, Waldo Irving 189

Bnmey, Dr. Charles 189

Bumey, Charles, D.D 188

Buraey, FranoeS) see Arblay, Mad-
ame d\

Burning Fluid 188

Burning Glass 184

Burnishing. 184

Bumouf, £og&ne 184

Bums, Robert (two) 186

Bums and Scalds 186

Burnt IsUmd 18T

Bumyeat, John 187

Burr, Aaron 187

Burrampoor. 188

Bnrrampooter, see Brahmapootn

Ban1I],JanMb

BurrittfEUhu

Bnrrougha, George . .
Burroughs. Bt^iMa..
Burrows, Stephen ...
Burrows, William. . .
Bursohenschafteii . . .

Buxalem.

Burton, Asa.

Burton, John HiU...

Burton, Robert.

Burton, William Eva
Burton-npon-Trent. .

Burtaeheid.

Burwh^

Bury

Bury, Henri Blaze.

Bury, Marie Paulino Sose S.

Bury St Edmunds

Bussa

Busbequins, Angerloa O.

Busbv, Bla^

Biison, Johann Geon.

Buschlng, Anton Fnedrleh.

Busenbaum, Hermann

Bush

Bush, George

BudieL

Bushire

Bushman*s River

Bushman, see Bo^lMmaaa.

Busbnell, David

BnshneU, Horace.

Buskin

Buss, Fnnz Joaeph

Bussemt-Gungaw....

Bu8sey,Be^}smin...

Bust

Bustamente, Anastaaio

Bustard

Busuagan

Butcher Bird.

Bute. --

Bute, John Stoart.

. 1-'
, 1-

. 1-

Buteniefi; ApoUSnari^
Butera, Giorgio

Buteshire.

Butler ooufPs

Butler oou, Ala

Butler ool, Ky.

Butler CO, Ohio

Butler oou. Mo.

Butler 00^ Iowa

Butler; Albui

Butler, Andrew Piekeaa.
Butler, Charles.

Butler, Cyrus ]

Butler. James, duka of Ormo&d,
seeOrmond.

Butler, James ^

Butler, John.

Bntkr, Jose^..

Butler, OoLPiet«s 11........

Butler, Riohanl

Butler, Samuel

Butler, Dr. Samuel

Butler, Simeon

Butler, William

Butler, Wllttam AU«a

Butler, WiUiasa Orlando

Butret, Cde, Baron.

Butt, Isaac

ButtaftiooOk Matieo

Butte 00

Butte River

Butter

Butter Tree

Butterfly

ButtermiUc

Butters

Bnttss ••"• ,

Battlshola ^..'!

Bnttmana, Philipp Karl

Button

Button, Thomaa

Buttonwood, see Plane l^ee

Buttresses...

Butts

Butts CO

Buttuia, Antonio ............

Butyric Add

Bttzar.

. 1*

, iN^

OONTEKT&

TAOM

odm see

QdUiui. W8

CftUao M8

CftlUwaj Qo^ Ky M9

CdlawB]r«»^Mo M9

C^coCt, 8tr Angiutiis WilL M9

Odloott» John Waa M9

OaieoCt,MarU M9

CSalle,L» ««

CftU<4K.FeUx delBef %»

Callender, Jamee Thompaon S69

CallloimtidM ta9

CallidrM, Fnmpoia do. Se9

Cdlimachas (two) 270

CaUlnger.... 2T0

Calllniu STO

Calliope, In mjUiology STO

Calliope, a mnalcal Instrument ... 870

Callipbon. «70

CalUrrhoe. 270

Calllatela. 270

CaUlathenec 270

CalUathenies 270

CallUto 271

Callistratna 271

Callon. 271

CaIlot,Jaeqaea.... 271

Callna 272

Cally, Pierre 272

Calmer 272

Calmet, Angostin 872

Calmneka 272

Calomarde 878

CalomeL 278

Calonne, Charlea Alexandre de. . . . 274

Caloria 274

Calorimeter 274

Calorimotor. 275

CaloTloa, Abraham 275

Calojera 275

Calpe 276

Calpee 275

Calpumlna. Titna Jullna 276

CeltaglTone. 270

CaltanlMtU 276

Caltrop 276

Caltara 276

Calamet 276

Calnmetoa 276

Calnmiek 276

CalTadoa 276

Calraerti DiooTBiaa 277

Calrarr. 277

CelTertoo. 27T

ChlTert, fiunlly of. 27T

Calvert, Bir George. 277

Calvert, CedlluHL 278

Calvert, Leonard 279

Calvert, George Henrj 261

Calvi, Lauarro 8S1

Calvl, Pantaleone 281

Calvin, John 8S1

CalvisiaB, Bothua 288

Calvna, Caios Liclnina Maeer 283

Calx 288

CalTmene 288

Calypeo 280

Calyx. 289

Cam, Diego 289

Camaeho 289

C^mamn 889

Camana- 289

Camanchea, see Comanchea.

Camapnan 289

Camaranca 289

Comargo 289

Camargo, Marie Ann 289

Camannie,Iia 289

Camarilla 290

Camarina 890

Camarines.... 290

Cambao6rte, Jean Jaoqnea B<&gU

de 7^, 290

Cambay. 291

Cambay, Golf of 291

Cambay Btonea. 291

CamberweU 291

Cambiaao, Lnca 29t

CamblnL, Gioaeppe 291

Cambodia, Bee Anam.

Cambodia river. 29t

Oambogin 291

CimboB,Jeieph 291

Camboorte 292

Cambonie. s92

Cambni 292

Cambria 292

Cambrian Syateni 292

Cambria 292

Cambridge, Maaa 292

Cambridge,Eng 298

Cambridge^ uSvenlty of 294

Cambridge, Adolphna Frederic 295

Cambridge, Seom William F. C. 295

Cambridgeafalre. 296

Gambronne, Pierre Jaeqnea £ti-

enne 296

Cambyaea 296

Camden oo.,N. J 296

Camden eoL, N. a 296

Camden 00., Oa..... 296

Camden oo. Mo 297

Camden, N.J 297

Camden, 8. a 297

Camden, Ala 29T

Camden, Ark...... 29T

Camden oo. New B. Wales. 297

Camden, Charles Pratt 29T

Camden, William. 298

Camel 298

CameL a machine 802

Camera Hair 802

Camel's Sump... 802

CameIHa 802

Camelopard 808

Camelopardalna 805

Camens. ^ 805

Cameo • 805

CameraiBoHa 807

CameraLucida 807

Camera Obseora 807

Camenriaa, Joachim (two). 807

Camerlingo. 808

Cameron 00 808

Cameron, John 808

Cameron. Richard 808

Gameronlana 809

Cameroona 809

Cameroon mountaina 810

Cameta. 810

Camifratn island 8tO

Camiuas, Marcos Farias. 810

Caminatcin 810

Camlsarda. 810

Camlet 811

Omimerhof, Frederio 8U

Camoena, Lois D 811

Camp 812

Campagna. 818

Omipagna di Soma. 818

Campaign 814

Campan. 814

Campan, Jeanne Loniae H. G. . . . . 814

Campana 814

Campane4a,Toouttaao 814

Campanha 815

Campaol, Matteo..... 815

Campaoi, Oinaeppe. 815

Campania. 815

Campanile 815

Campanile, a mlBsionary 816

CampanoB, Johannea. 816

CampbeU CO., Ya 816

Campbell cow, Ga 816

Campbell CO., Tenn. 816

CampbeU CO., Ky 816

Campbell, Alexander 816

CampbelL Archibald, see Argyle,

Pake oC

CampbeU, Arthur 816

Campbell, Bir Colin. 816

Campbell, George 817

CampbeU, George W... 818

CampbeU, John 818

Campbell, John, Bev 818

Campbell, John, Lord. 818

CampbeU, Bir NeU. 819

Campbell, Bamnel 819

Campbell, Thomasw 819

Campbell, Lord WUUam 880

CampbeU, WiUiam 890

CampbeUtown 820

CampCk JoMhlm Betniieh 820

CanipA, Angoft j

Oampe, Fnldrich. '\

Caa^JnUaa j

Gampeachy. j

Campeggio, Lorenzo J

Campenon, Fn&fois Nlerias T.. J

Camper, Pieter. J

Camperdnin. j

Camphanaen, LodoU J

Camphene. J

Camphor J

CamphorioAdd J

Camphnysen, Dirk Balblsk J

Camplan, Edmnnd J

Campine I

OsmpU. I

CampoBetto -J

Campo Fomlo. '•!

CampoLnga I

Campobaaso .1

Campomanea, Pedro Bodz^;aes.. J

Campos doe Oeitacaies J

CampaieFeUa --I

Campna -I

CampoB Martini I

Campos BoeleratDS -1

Camaingmeons I

Camtooe -I

Camacdni, Ticmoo -1

Camna, Charlea £. Louis j

Camwood

Cana. '■]

Canaan

fknailm,

Canada, New Mexioo

Canadian Btrer ' '

Cans|l(^ua1e ^

Canale -

Oanale, Antonio

Ctoale, Nicolo.

\ rMW fll lift •••••■•««•••■«•••*'

Canandalgaa

Canandaignn Lake. . . • ''.

Canaris^Omatantine

Canary Bird.

CanaryGraaa

Canary laUnda

Canaatra "-

Caneale

Cancan. "

CanoeUi ^'

Cancer, aign of the Zodiac

Cancer, Tropic of "

Canoer, a diaeaae ^'

Cancrin, Goorge

Candacei r.

Oandahar *

Candeish V

Candelabram

Candi.. •

Candia.....

Candiaci Jean UV.KU. de. •>-

Candido, Pietro *,

Candle?. ^^

Candlemaa. ^•

(Candlestick t-

CandUah,BobertB t.

GtodoUe, AngaatiBP.de. ^

Cane, see Bamboo and Bafv. .

Cane, artver ^,

Cane Brake. .,

Canee. l^

Canelaa * t,

Canete Jj

OaneyFoik yj

Oanfoo. ...*.»..... ■ etf

Canga-AxgneUeSk Joii m

CangaUo...».k..«

CangeDu,aeeDB0iD6«. ^^

-^ *igo,Lnca.... l^

; j^

Oanienla gy

Oaaiaa, Lnlgl » gt

Canial, Olowmd 1|^«»J|^;^

Chi^ Lnelen Jalsil*****
under Laeleik $g

OanlaU^... ^

Cania Minor jf»

Ooiiiaii relrat...M

OOmZFCEL

(Mntlilc

OulBiUt Hazen* AunUu 4M

CKlpiT. 4M

CarUbrooka. 4M

OulMtml, Qkmuml Gtaeomo 4M

CftrlM 486

CtfIen,SmilU Schmidt «6

Cu-letonco 4M

Cu-leton, Sir Gnf 487

Carleton, William 48T

Carll, Qioramil Binaldo 48T

CarlUI>e]ila 487

Ou'lln, Tbomaa. 487

OtfUM 487

Ottilno, Gario Antonio B 487

Carliato,Pa 487

CbrUBl^EBg 488

Carlisle, 8tr AnthoBT 488

Oarlisle, Frederlo Howard 488

Garllaltt, Qoorgo WUUam Fnderio

Howard 488

C^oek 488

au-loa,Do& 488

Cbrloo, ICariA Udor 489

Oarioa, Lola Hail* Foniando 489

GarloTlngiflna 489

CarloTlti. 440

Oarlow. 440

Offbbad. 440

CarUbarg 441

Carlacrona. 441

Carlahamn 441

Carlamho 441

Ckrlstad ... 441

Carlatadt, Andreas. 44S

Oarloka 44S

Carlylo, Joseph Daero 44S

Ctolyle, Thomaa. 44S

Oannagnola 444

Oannagnola, Fnmoeaoo 444

Carmagnole 445

Carmel 445

Carmelitea 445

Carmer, Jobftnn HelnHch Kaalmlr. 445

Cannlno 446

Cannoe 448

CsnnonA 448

Oamao 4i6

Canutte 448

Cameadea. 448

CameU 447

Camellan. 447

Camloobar 448

CamioU 448

OamlvaL 448

CamiTora 451

Camochan, John Mnmr 458

Camot. Laare Nicolas H. 458

Oamot, Laiare Hippolyte. 454

Camnntam 454

Caro Annibalo. 454

CkroL 454

Carolan, TnrloQgh 464

CaroUna, North 464

Carolina, South 488

Carolina, Maria. 467

Caroline oo.,Md. 467

Oarolln« oo., Va. 467

Caroline, Amelia Elixabeth 467

Caroline IsUuida 468

Caroline. lUtUda 408

Caron, Frandaeofl 469

Ckrony 469

Caroor 468

Carora 469

Caronge. 469

OaroTi, Friedrich Wilhelm 469

Carp 469

Carpca 470

Carpani, Gniseppe 470

CariMthian Moontatna 470

Carpathna 470

Carpenter, Lent, LL. D 470

Carpenter, William B 471

Carpenter, Russell Luit 478

Carpenter, Philip. 478

Carpenter, Mny 478

Carpenter, Maxgaret 479

Carpentry. 478

Carpet 475

Oarplni, Gioyannl di Piano 478

Oarpocratct 478

CkrpaoT, iBrflr«'. 618

CarpiOT, Bsnediot 478

GarpioT, Johann Benodlot 479

GarpioT, Johann OotUob 418

Cair, Dabner. 479

Oarr.SirBobMt 478

Cun, 478

Oarraeei, Lodoileo. 478

CarraecL Agoatino 478

Camod, Annibale. 480

Carraed, Franeesoo 480

Canaim 480

Carrara Marbto 480

Carrageen 481

CbRol, Nicolas Armand. 481

Garreno Miranda, Joaa de 481

Garrer.Lnigl 481

Garrera 489

CbRvra, Baihel 488

Garretto, Francesco SaTcrio. 488

Garriacon 489

Oarrlckfergna 488

Oarrlekmacross. 488

Oarrler, Jean Baptists 488

Carrier Pigeon 488

GarroL Jean de. 4 485

Carroll CO., N. H. 486

GarroUoo.,Md 486

GarroUoo.,Ta 486

Carroll COL, Oa 486

GarroU CO., Mlas 486

Oarroll co^ La. 486

GarroU COL, Ark 486

Carroll cou, Tenn 486

Carroll CO., Kj 486

GarroU CO., Ohia 486

GarroU CO., Ind. 486

GarroU CO., ni 487

GarroU CO, Mo 487

GarroU co., Iowa 487

GarroU, Gharlea. 487

GarroU, John. 488

Carron 488

Carron, Gny Tonssaint J. 489

Garronada 489

Carrot 488

Carrousel 490

Carson, Christopher 490

CarstairB, WUUam 490

CarstensiAsmns Jakob. 490

Cartago, Costa BIca. 491

Gartsgo, New Granada. 481

Carte, Thomas 491

Carte-Blanche 491

CarUl 491

Carter CO., Tenn 491

Carter CO.. Ky. 491

Garter, Elizabeth 499

Garter, James Gordon 499

Carter, Nathaniel H 499

Carteret col 499

Carteret, Philip. 499

Cartes IJes, see Deseartea.

Cartesians. 498

Carthage 498

Carthagena, New Granada 498

Carthagena, Spain 499

Carthanius 498

Carthenser, Johann Frledrich 489

Garthusiana 499

Gartier, Jacques. 499

Cartilage 600

Cartoon 609

Gartouoh 609

Cartouche, Looia Dominions. 601

Cartridge 608

Cartwright, Edmund 609

Gartwright,John 608

Cartwright, Thoraaa 608

Carupano 604

Canu, Carl GnaUT 604

CanuLMaronsAnrellus........... 604

Ganralal, Tomaa Jos6 GonxaleE.. . . 604

Ganraiho, JosAdaSilya 604

Ganralho r MeUo, see PombaL

CarTaUo.Manael 605

Carver, John 605

Carrer. Jonathan 606

Gary, Col. Arohibald. 686

Gary, Henry Frauds. 605

Gary. Her. Lott 606

Caryatidsa. 606

OsMBaato

Caaabiaaea, Looia.

CasairTTT/.

Gasal, Mjigglore.

Casal, Pnsterlengo ^ '

Caaale :■

CaaanoTa, GioTannl OUaoano di

Beingalt ^•

Casas,Baitolomed»laa^

Cases Grandes. :> i

Gasatl, Gabrlo ' i

Caaati,Paolo .'

Caaanbon, laaae ■'

Casaubon,Merla r

Casoa, PubUna SeniUoe

GascadeBange f .

OuearUla.

CaaooBay •

Case f

Case, Action on thsL :.

Case Hardening .' .

CtaeShot '

CssematesL

Ceserta .,..'.. r.i

Caserto Yecehia ' ::^

Cases, Coont de, see Laa Qaaee.

Caseyco ri

Caahan. r:

GasheL -J

Cashmere : .

Cashmere, a 9ri>rleL

Caahna. :,'

Casimir (sereral) :.'

Casino ."-

OaapianSea ' '

Gasoria :.T

Caspari, Kad Panl II*!!*. r::

GasqnsL r:T

Cassc0b,6a *:•

Ouseo.,Tez : -

Cassca,Midi r-

Cassco.,Ind. ::i

Casscok,IU. :'^

Csssoo.,Mow .*>

CssscOb,Iowa z:j

Cass eob, Minn. T.i

Cass, Lewis. I j

Gassander :.'4

Cassander, GeorgioB :a

Cassandxa :^4

Cassano *J>

Cassano Sopra Adda :J'

Cassation, Cooxt of. f.^.

Cassava :-►

Cassay :.^i

Cassel, FrancsL :.5

Cassel, Germany :;:

Cassia. ry.

Oassin, John. .\-<^

Csssinl, Jean DominlqiML :>'

Casslni, Jaoqnes :i:

Caadnl, C4sar Fraapola

Csssini, Jacques Domialqna. "sT

Gaasino r^I

Caasiodorua, Magnus AniellnaL ... .

Cassiopeia. *jT

Osssiquiara !:';

Cassis ?.:

Caasiterldes .«.-

Gasdns, Longinna CUna .V

Casdns of Parma ;.-<

Cassiust Lndoa HemlBa ^t^

Gasdus, LudoSb 'jj<

Casdust Titos Serema. !v?

Casdnst Purple of. .':^

Caasoek ^i<

Cassowary .V^

CaataUa h^

Gaatalio, Sebastian. ?A

Castaneta tJ

Caata&oa, Franceaoo Xavier de. . . . ^.i

Castberg, Peder Atka &9

Caste, see Brahma.

Castegglo S9

Outeilamare %..•• ^^

Castellsne, Esprit Yictor'Eaiaabrth

Boniihoe 5»

CteteUi, Igmaa Friedrich M'

Casti, GlambattisU N/

Ca8tigHone,Alcieraw.. %<)

C^attgitoae, Itdy i. >

■ ,BaldaiiBanL :»:

CaMUt^i<iW^f Ctmio Ottavl& ....«.., 8S9

GMtJl^Mone, Kn ftrtiftU.. ........... fiSI

€^Um;11o&v, Lak6 uf ^ ^ . > » A^l

CutiglloDflD«J)« etl¥|«ffl.. Ul

C^c^ioM Fldrentino. ........... £St

&*mft.. Wl

rmitile, S*w - 581

C43lll*,01d a»i

CkttflK BvD^'D ' ' ^^

CiillUejo, €rf*tOTiL Ml

CHtillo, J(^ Ifarb A<:i Ml

Qmin»..... 52

OMiittf ....,.,..,.....*., m

CMtle...... MS

Cuile Qmr .- MT

C&4tl(< Oonael ^T

C*Hic D«ttHoL.... B8T

Cistlfreayb. Robort Utmy Stewui MT

Cm*t!eloii, Vl ...... . , , 534

rAjtlclon, Eag; ,.- &3!i

CMtU-tuwu ft3^

Ca*lar, t^i

C-istorOIl 633

<\tnor and Pollux 68»

Cistor Klrer 640

Ci^trcn, Mattheir Al«xaDder. 640

Cxstres. 640

Cjiairo, Inezde 640

C-vstro del Rio 641

Cistro Urdialea. 641

C.i*tro Vlreyna 641

Cv«tro(fiovanni 641

Casirum Doloris 641

Cisvcen 641

Caswell CO 54S

Caawcll, Richard 648

(at 64S

CatHcaufltIc, see Caostlo.

CaUchresls. 648

C-il.icombs 644

rat:iroiistie, 8ce Aooostlca.

Caufalco 646

Cata-oijla 64«

Chta^rapha. 646

Catahoula 646

Caulnni, Angelica 647

r;iUlepsy 647

Cdtalogae 648

Catalonia. 649

CaUlpa. 650

Catalysis ^^0

Citainaran 650

Catamarca 650

CaUinonia 650

Catamount, seo Cougar.

Calanduanes 661

Catania. 651

Catanwro 661

Cat.aphract 651

Cataplasm. 653

Citapult 552

Cataract, a «li«eas« 65:i

Cataract, a fall of water 554

Catarrh 654

Catasaaqna 655

Catastrophe 655

Catawba co. 655

CaUwba, a river. 655

Catawba Wine. 655

Catbird, 656

Catch. 657

C'tt.'au, le 657

Cat«;'chism. 657

Calochu. 657

Catcch amen 658

CatoTOry. 658

CattI, Charlea Bimon 660

CatelFranx. 660

Caunary 660

Cntorplllar 660

Catosby,Mark. 669

Catn^h 662

Cal>:nt 663

Citharine 1 668

Catharine H 664

Catharine, 8alnt 566

Catharine of ArafTon. 6€6

Catharine of Bra^anza 668

Catnnrine of France 568

Ca'harlne de* Mcdld 669

Cathahiie of Sienna 670

ooxrEtrm

CatliariiiA FlNcbt Addrs«. ........ 670

Cmtharl&e Pwtt. ........... 6T0

Citharlno Paaiowua 6T1

OatbAriata ...... 671

Ott^ia^plnCT . , 67f

Catbaf t, Waiiaio filiaw..... 6TJ

Cathcart,Blr GflOTfa.............. 673

CiUi*dr»] 678

Cathollaeao, Jaeqnai. ............... &7G

CaUwUiwt......... 6T9

Gktlwdv. 616

OiU^iiUa GhoTth, ho Eoiaaa Catb'

dUaCburcK

CWUinft fiTS

Oallnat de la FiwcemaeHei. ,.....,. 6T6

C&tliieaai^LArocbe, Flem U. B 6T6

tlatioM 6n

CatUn, GeorgSL... flTT

CatitiaQiloo.. ..... w ............. . 6TT

Catnip H... . ._ 6T7

Cftto, ih* Cjfiwor. 6TT

r,».. ^ c <.....* ptjrthii (tliree) ..... OTT

<'v . ' ,. ^oalM...... 673

Cato, Utlcensla 619

Cato, Valorlns 6S0

Cato, Dionysiua 680

Catoptrics. 680

Catoptromaney. 680

CatralL 660

Catron, FranpoU 680

Cats, Jacob. 631

Cat's Eye 681

Catsklll 681

CatsklU Mountains 681

Catsup 682

Cattaraugus oo 682

Cattaro 6S3

Cattegat 688

Cattermole, Oeorga. 668

Catti 688

Cattle. 684

Catty war. 687

CatuUus, Caloa Valerius 687

Caub 683

Cauca. 683

Caucasian Baco. 688

Caucasus 688

Caucasus, Indian, a«o Hlndoo-

KoosU.

Cauchy, Aognstlii Lonli 690

Caucus. 6y0

Caadebee. 502

Caul »2

Caulabagh 692

Caulaincourt, Armand A. Louis. . . 692
Caulnincourt, August Jean OabrieL 592

Cauliflower 692

Caura. 698

Caursincs 693

Caus, Salomon de. 693

Cause 693

Causewar 696

Caussln de Perceval, Jean J. A . . . 696
Cauftsin de Perceval, Armand P... 697

Cauitlc 697

Cauterets 697

Cautery 697

Cava. 697

Cavalgnac, Jean Baptlste 597

Cavaignac, Al<k)noro Louis 0 697

Cavaifirnac, Louis £ugi^ne 697

Cavaillon 598

CavalcantL Guldo 699

Cavalier, Jean. 599

Cavalier. 699

Cavalierl, Bonaventora 699

CavaJllnL Pietro. 699

Cavallo, Tiberius 699

Cavalry. 600

Cavan oa «U

Cavanaa. 611

Cavanlllea, Antonio Joa6 611

Cavatlna 611

Cave, Edward 611

Cava, WUliani. 611

Cave 611

Caveat 613

Cavedone, Jaoopo 618

Cavendish, Henry 613

Carendish, Thomas 613

Cavery 618

CATarypaok €14

OUTl

GaTlaas .
Oavlara. ,

OaTolliil,FlUpfi««.,

Cbry ..., .**

Cawdor......

Oawnpot*.

Gaweor. ..^,.^..,.,
Caxamarea. , . , . « i, • .

C-lUStUDlMl. ,,«,

C«xla«,.

:n::::-g

:§

I ttl

Ca:ct0D. WlUlaiD.... W

CsyaiEibe.......,.4^<.p.,«....«.,«. m

Cay COS, ae* dku,

Caycttme, .....,......,.......,,, C19

r«y«aDe Pepper, sea Gipsleum.
Cajcs. . ... ^ ....,♦...,...,.,.,... . 61t

Cayloy. ArUiw fli

C^vt^ir. Sit OeM^...., ....,,.., tli
(> 1' " AnjiB C^ude FblUp^ da

CajTnan, see Alligator.

Caymans 890

Cayoliomano 620

Cayor tiO

Cayuga CO. <^

Cayuxa Lake. 620

Cazal^s, Jean Antolne Marie de.. . 620

Cazalla de la Sierra 620

Cazembe 020

Cazenovia « 621

Cazorla 621

Cazotte, Jacqaea. 021

Cazwyny, Zacharla ben Moham-
med ben Mahmoud. 021

Cean-Bermudez, Juan AugusUn. . . 021

Ceara 621

Cebes 081

Cebu...... 022

Cecil CO 029

CeclUEobert 62S

CeciL William, see Burleigh, Lord.

Cecilia, Saint 028

Cecrops 028

Cedar 624

Cedar CO., Mo 624

Cedar CO., Iowa. 624

Cedar Moo nUina 624

Cedar Springs 624

Cefalu. 624

Cehc(?in 624

Celakowsky, Frantisek Ladialaw.. &£5

Celbridge 625

Celebes. 625

Celeres. 627

Celery 027

Celcstine, popes 627

Celestine, St 627

Cele*tine, Guido dl Castelia 627

Celcstine, Giacente OrainL 627

CelMtlne IV 627

Celcstine, Pietro Angelorier 628

Celibacy 628

Cell 629

Cellamaro, Antonio Gludice. 6S8

Cellarer 638

Cellariua, Christoph 688

CcUe. 6.38

Cellini, Benvenuto 688

Cellular Tissue 684

Celsus, an Epicurean philtisopber. 635

Celsus, Aulus Cornelius. 685

Celt» 685

CelUberiana. 639

Cementation 639

Cements 689

Cemetery 642

Cenci, Beatrice 648

Ceneda 648

Cenls, Mount. 648

Cenoblte 644

C-enutapn 644

Cenncr 644

Censor 644

Censorinns 644

CensoraLip of the Press. 644

Census 640

Cent 649

CenUnrs 649

Cantaorua 160

iSH

ooxenons.

Ontmje. «..•• 6W

OsntanadDA. 6N

Oeatfan. W

Ontifndei
Gwttloqiiiu

Centipede ^

Cent Joan CM

OentUTie,8iieinne£'reeaMn ttl

Cento »1

Centre! Americe» eee Ametiee.

Centiml Foroee ttO

CentimlHeet 608

Centre.....'. 6M

Centre of GrKilty 6BS

Centreeo ttS

Centriftafsl Force 668

Centripetal Foroe 658

Centomvlrl 658

CentarleeorjCegdelrarg 658

Centurion 658

Centorj. 668

Ceoe. 664

CephelenU 664

Cepbelopode 654

Cephalae 654

CephiMta.. 655

CepbiMla,eriTer 655

CepUasas 655

Ceraeehl, Oloaeppe 606

Ceram 605

Ceraain. 655

Cerate 605

Cerbeme 650

Ceroado 665

CerdottlanSk ......•...•.*......■.■ 666

C«r«, Jean Nicolaa. 666

C6r6,HortenM 656

Cereel OraMea. 656

CereaUn 656

Cerea. 656

C6ret 65T

CerooflL 657

Cerignola 667

C«rigo 657

Cerlnthua 608

Cerito, Franceaca 658

Cerium 658

Cemay. 658

Cerreto 608

CerroQordo. 668

CerroOordocow 661

Certiorari 661

Cemae 661

CervanteBi Baavedra Mi^el de.. . . 661

Cenretri 668

Cervla 668

Cenrin,Mont. 668

Cesare, Oinseppe 668

Coaarotti, Melchiore 668

Ceieaa. 664

Cespodea, Pablo de 664

Ceeaion 664

Ceetot. 664

CetU 664

CetU, Giovanni. 664

CetUgoe 664

Cetna 665

CeuU 665

Ceva 665

Ceva. Toounaao 665

Cevalloa, Pedro 665

C^vennea 665

Ceylon. 666

Chabert, J. XaTier 669

Cbabert, Joeeph Bernard 668

Cbablaia. 668

Chablla 669

Cbabot, Francis 668

Chabot, Pbllippe de 670

Chabriaa 670

Chaohapoyaa 670

Chaco, £1 Gran. 670

Chadda. 671

Charonea 671

Cbaff 671

Cbafflnoh 671

Cbafrei 671

Chairrea Siver. 671

ChJllut 8T1

Chain 671

Chain Shot 678

Chalnfinake 6»

<3Mlns.«.... • .«

Chain Platea .,. 6Ji

CbaUd*£ptiJi|«. Yiotor Chavlea. 871

Chaloedon.. * ITS

Chaloedonj* » CB

ChalchihaTtL m

Chalcldius 8ia

Cbalda. 878

Chalden 674

Chaldee Lugaage • 877

Chaldron 878

ChAlet 678

Chaleor Bay 678

Chalfont St. Gilea. 678

Chalgrore Field 678

Chaliee. 678

Chalk 678

Chalkley, Thomaa 679

Challenge 679

Chalmers, Alexander „.... 679

Chalmere, Geoige 679

Chalmer*, liond 679

Chalmeri, Thomaa, D.D 679

ChAlon-Sar-Sa6neL 688

ChAlona-Sur-Mame ...^ 688

ChaIotala» Looia Ben4 de Caradeno

dela 689

Chains 688

Chalybftoa, Heiniieh Moriti. 688

Chalybeate 688

Cham 689

Chama 688

Chamberlain 688

Chamberlayne, Edward... 688

Chamberlen, Hugh 688

Chambemeo 688

ChamberSi £phnlm« 688

Chambera, George. 688

Chambera, Sir William 688

Chambera, Montagu 684

Chambers. William and Bobert. . . 684

ChambeiBDorg 684

Chambertin 684

Chamb6ry. 665

Chamblyoo 685

Chambord 685

Chambord, Henri Charlea Ferdi-
nand Mvle Diendonn^ d^Artola. 685

Chambray. Georgea de. 687

Chambre Ardente 667

Chameleon 688

Chamier, Frederic 639

ChamiMo, Adelbert Ton 689

Chamois. 689

Chamomile. 689

Chamorro, Fmto 689

Chamoani 600

Champ deMars 681

Champagne , 691

Champagne, Philippe de. 698

Champagny, Jean Baptist 27om>

pdrede 698

Champaign co^ Ohia 698

Champaign COL, 111 698

Champe,John. 698

Champerty. 698

Champion 694

Champlain 694

Champlain CO 684

Champlain lake 694

Champlain, Samuel 696

Champlain Canal 697

Champmesld, Mario Deamaree de. 697

Champollion, Jean Francois 698

ChampolUon Figeao, Jean Jacques 699

Chance 699

Chancel 699

Chancellor 699

Chancery. 700

Chandah 708

Chandelenr lalands 706

Chandernagore 708

ChandlerTlbiel 708

Chandler, Blchard. 708

Chandler, Samuel 708

Chandler, Thomas Bradbury 708

Chaag-Choo-Foo 704

Changamier, Kieholas Anne Thto-

dnle 704

Changenx, Pierre Jacques 704

Channel Islands 704

Ohannlng, Edirwd Tjml 706

Channtii£ WSJamMJUHir/pJS!*' T
Channlng, ^*"^<*— « Henrx -•••»--. "

Chant IIV.I'.V T.>

Ghantd, Jeann* Fniiifolwi Framiot

de T

Chantibun. -

ChantlUy t

Chantrey, Sir Fnnclib

Chantiy :

Chaos T

Ch^Mla ..rimil* :

Chapeanz r

Chapel :

Chapel HUl 7

Chapelain, Jean

Chaperon. T

Chapin, Calrin T

Chapin, Edwin Habbdl, DJ>

Chapin, Stephen. :::

ChapiiL William. :::

Ch^lain 711

Chaplet, see Beada.

Chaplin, Jeremiah 7!!

Chapman, George 7:j

Chapman, John Gadaby. T.j

Chapone, Hester r:j

Chapoo T'.i

Chappe, Claude T.^

Chappe d^Auteroche, Jesn 7 .

ChsptsJ, Jean Antolne Clniid« T: %

Chapter. Ti"

ChspultopecL 7:;

Chara Z'.i

Charade ::*

Charbar. T .^

Charcoal T.'

Chard. 7 3

Chardak 7. J

Chardln,Jean 73

Charente. T:3

Charente-Inftrioure 7.3

Charenton-le-PonL 7.D

Charenton St Maoxloe.

Charee(two) 7.*^

Charge. 7-j

Cbarg4 d'AAdrea 7jI

Charftar 7x1

Chariot 7;:

Charistia 7."^

Charisticaries 7.j

Chariton 7:J

Chariton CO :^j

Charity, Brothers of. 7.'J

Charity, Sisters of. 7.'j

Charivari :j3

Charisi, Judah 7iS

Charlemagne, see Charles L, Ger-
many.

Charlemagne, Jean Armaad 723

Charlemont, see GireL

Charleroi 7^

CharlescOb 7ii

Charles 7-3

Charlea I~ England 7i;

Charlea 11^ England 7.S

Charies Martel, France 7.^

Charles L, see Cfanries iJ, of Ger-
many.

Charlea IL, France m

Charles III., France 7;\

Charlee lY., France. 7a

Charles Ym France ?a

Charlea YI., France :m

Charles YIt, Franoe 7^

Charles YIIL. France 7*4

Charles IZ., Franoe 734

Charlea Zn France 7:^

Charlea L, Germany 7^

Charles the Fat, Germany 75^

Charies lY., Germany 7 J

Charies Y. Ckrmany 741

ChailM YI. Germany 74$

Charlea YIt, Germany 74^

Charles d^Ai^ou-NuIea :ii

Chariea Albert, Sardinin 74S

Charlea Emanuel L, Sardinia 74$

Charlea lY.. Spain. 747

Charlea Xtt, Sweden. 747

Charies XIIlL Sweden. TSl

Chariea XlYn John, Ma

OOliTENTS.

ClUflA*, Jneqacs AJexi]idr« Cu^f . T5S

QbtflM AnCDAtm. Jg

CbvlM Cll|_av*"'> **-- *S

CbwtM di moll J^

ClurtM Efti««til ' •' *^

t.Ti*rtMKlTW...... .....<. TM

Clutrles'i Wiln ..........*....... TM

CTiifl«tan dUtriet.. ..*. TB*

Ok&rtHtoo, ..„.,.<,...... TS«

CliarrMtavti, Mu<^ >........ T50

(m»tk#towii, Vb... ..» TW

diuisU^ Bob«rt M >....... lei

Ch«rlevll1ft* »„,,,♦,,, ............ tfl

CliitleTOlz v>..... , Tfil

Clurlottooch, K. B lei

Cbirbtia «n, Vft ** i«

Chii-ltttta, H. C ,***^^.,,*** T«

CliATlotle AuffHita,, „.* — ..♦,***. T^l

Cl»rlf>tt*TOTfti....... ...*. T64

CharlMteabnrg; .„♦„*.,*-,....,> TW
ChjiTlattft«Tlllo.. .-..-. Tfll

chinn , - "* tea

Clunid, ,„.., « im

ChMivn tm

Cluuitot, Arauud JotopJl do E4^

CluurMf Jtma Baptlita Ajl4l[ili«^ . . lit
ChArma^PltrpB,*, *,,*,*. *.*,.„,* W
Cbwt.....,.., tm

CbttrtorFwtj, ««,.,. T«i

CtiirLerboii4Ct *•■■« *^^ 701

CJutnlcr, Aliin IW

cbMrtiffio, fei

Cbwtm ti*

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The New American cyclopaedia : a popular dictionary of general knowledge"

See other formats